CE F244

Highway Engineering

Dr. Nishant Bhargava

Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Module 2
Geometric Design
Horizontal Alignment
Why do we need horizontal curves in alignment ???
• Avoid restrictions due to
 Topography
 Obligatory points
 Land availability
• Fulfill requirements of good alignment
Short, Easy, Safe and Economical

3
Types of Horizontal Curves

Simple curves Compound curves

Curves having a single arc with a constant Curve having two or more arcs with
radius connecting the two tangents different radii

4
Types of Horizontal Curves

Reverse curves Broken-back curves

Curves having two arcs bending in Curves in the same direction
opposite directions separated by short tangents

5
Elements of ∆

Horizontal
Curve

6
Some Terminologies …
Apex of curve (Vertex, H.I.P.)
Horizontal intersection point, i.e., point of
intersection of 2 straights connected by curve.
Tangent Point (T.P. or P.T.)
Point of reversal of curvature. Point where
straight alignment ceases and curvature begins.
Total Deviation angle (∆)
External angle at the intersection between the
tangents at the end of the curve (central angle
of complete curve)

7
Some Terminologies …
Apex distance (Es)
The shortest distance from apex to the curve
Length of transition (Ls)
Full length of transition curve connecting
straight length of road with a curve

Tangent distance (Ts)

Length of straight between apex (P.I.) and the
tangent point of the curve (P.T. or T.P.)
Radius of curve (Rc)
Minimum radius of the center line of a curve
8
Some Terminologies …
Shift (S)
Displacement of a circular curve from the
straight to provide room to introduce transition
curve between it and straight
Deviation angle (∆c)
Central angle of circular part of curve with
transition at either end

Spiral angle (θs)

External angle between straight and tangent to
the curve at the end of its transition

9
Some Practical Considerations …
• AVOID sharp horizontal curves at or near apex of vertical curve
 Potential safety hazard
• Proper balance between degree of curvature and gradients
o AVOID
 Straight alignment on steep grades
 Excessive curvature on flat grades

10
Some Practical Considerations …
• DO coordinate alignment with longitudinal profile
 Avoid distortion in appearance

11
Some Practical Considerations …
• AVOID straight section exceeding 3 km length
 Alternate – Curvilinear alignment with long curve
o Safety
o Aesthetic
• DO NOT introduce sharp curves at the end of long tangents
 Potential safety hazard !!!
• AVOID short curves
 Sufficiently long (At least 150 m for 5° deflection angle)
 Suitable transition curves at either end

12
Some Practical Considerations …
• Reverse curves in difficult terrain
 Sufficient length between two curves
o Introduction of transition curve and superelevation
• AVOID broken-back curves
 If provided, tangent length = 10 sec travel time
• Compound curve
 Only when single circular curve is impossible
 Radius of flatter curve ≤ 1.5 × Radius of sharper curve

13
Dynamics of Vehicle Motion on Curve

14
Dynamics of Vehicle Motion on Curve
Centrifugal force
• Acts horizontally outwards through Inner side Outer side
center of gravity of vehicle of curve of curve
• Enables vehicle to change direction C.G.
𝑷
along curve
• Depends on
 Radius of horizontal curve
 Speed of vehicle
• Counteracted by transverse frictional force 𝑾
developed between tyres and pavement
15
Dynamics of Vehicle Motion on Curve
𝑷 = Centrifugal force, kg
𝑾 = Weight of vehicle, kg Inner side Outer side
𝑹 = Radius of circular curve, m of curve of curve
𝒗 = Speed of vehicle, m/sec C.G.
𝒈 = Acceleration due to gravity, m/sec2 𝑷

𝑊 𝑣2
Centrifugal force 𝑃=
𝑔𝑅

Centrifugal ratio 𝑃 𝑣2
= 𝑾
or Impact factor 𝑊 𝑔𝑅

16
Dynamics of Vehicle Motion on Curve
Overturning effect
Tendency to overturn the vehicle
outwards about the outer wheels
Effects of
centrifugal force
Transverse skidding effect
Tendency to skid the vehicle
laterally, outwards

17
Overturning Effect
• Overturning moment due to Inner side Outer side
of curve C.G.
centrifugal force = 𝑃 . ℎ 𝑷
• Resisted by restoring moment due to 𝒉
weight = 𝑊 . 𝑏/2 A B
Equilibrium condition 𝒃/𝟐 𝒃/𝟐
𝑏 𝑃 𝑣2 𝑏
𝑃. ℎ=𝑊. ⇒ = = 𝑾
2 𝑊 𝑔𝑅 2ℎ
𝑷 = Centrifugal force, kg
𝒉 = Height of centre of gravity of
Centrifugal ratio vehicle above road surface, m
𝒃 = Width of wheel base, m
18
Transverse Skidding Effect
Inner side Outer side
• Transverse friction force of curve C.G.
𝑷
𝐹𝐴 + 𝐹𝐵 = 𝑓 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 = 𝑓. 𝑊

Equilibrium condition 𝑭𝑨 = 𝒇. 𝑹𝑨 A B 𝑭𝑩 = 𝒇. 𝑹𝑩
𝑃 𝑣2
𝑃 = 𝑓. 𝑊 ⇒ = =𝑓
𝑊 𝑔𝑅
𝑾
𝑹𝑨 𝑹𝑩
Centrifugal ratio
𝑷 = Centrifugal force, kg
𝒇 = Coefficient of lateral friction
19
Coefficient of Lateral Friction
Factors
• Vehicle speed
• Type and condition of road surface
• Type and condition of tyres
• Weather condition
IRC recommendation for design
Coefficient of lateral friction = 0.15

20
Components of Horizontal Alignment
• Superelevation
• Radius of Horizontal Curve
• Extra Widening on Curves
• Transition curve
• Setback Distance on Curves

21
Superelevation
• Outer edge of pavement raised with
respect to inner edge
• Transverse inclination to the
pavement surface
Functions
• Counteract the effect of centrifugal
force
• Reduce tendency of vehicle to skid
or overturn

22
Rate of Superelevation
𝑁𝐿
𝑒= = tan 𝜃
𝑀𝐿

𝜃 = Very small
N
𝐸 E
tan 𝜃 ≈ sin 𝜃 = M
𝐵 𝜃
L
𝐸 Relative elevation of outer edge
𝑒 = ⇒ Superelvation rate =
𝐵 Width of pavement

23
Analysis of Superelevation
Forces acting on vehicle while
moving in circular curve C.G.
𝑷
• Centrifugal force 𝜃

• Weight of vehicle
• Frictional force 𝜃

Equilibrium condition
𝑾
𝑃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑊 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝐹𝐴 + 𝐹𝐵
𝑃 sin 𝜃 + 𝑊 cos 𝜃
𝑓 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵
𝑓 𝑃 sin 𝜃 + 𝑊 cos 𝜃
24
 Analysis of Superelevation
Equilibrium condition
𝑃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑊 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑓 𝑃 sin 𝜃 + 𝑊 cos 𝜃 C.G.
𝑷
𝑃 cos 𝜃 − 𝑓 sin 𝜃 = 𝑊 sin 𝜃 + 𝑓 cos 𝜃 𝜃

Divide by W cos 𝜃
𝑃 tan 𝜃 + 𝑓 𝑒 𝜃
=
𝑊 1 − 𝑓 tan 𝜃
Very small value 𝑾
𝑣2 𝑃 sin 𝜃 + 𝑊 cos 𝜃
𝑔𝑅 𝒗𝟐
𝒆+𝒇=
𝒈𝑹
25
Limits of Superelevation
Maximum Superelevation

Max. 𝒆
2/4/6/8 lane
Radius of curve < Desirable minimum radius 7%
highways Radius of curve ≥ Desirable minimum radius 5%

Nature of terrain Max. 𝒆

Plain and rolling terrain 7%
MDR / ODR / VR
Snow bound areas 7%
Hilly areas not bound by snow 10%

26
Limits of Superelevation
Minimum Superelevation
𝑽𝟐
Calculated superelevation ≤ Camber of the road surface 𝒆=
𝟐𝟐𝟓 𝑹

Design Speed Radius (m) for Camber of

(km/h) 4% 3% 2.5% 2.0% 1.7%
20 50 60 70 90 100
30 100 130 160 200 240
50 280 370 450 560 650
80 710 950 1140 1420 1670
100 1110 1480 1780 2220 2610

27
Design of Superelevation
Assumption
Superelevation balances centrifugal force corresponding 𝑣2
𝑒+𝑓 =
to 3/4th of design speed 𝑔𝑅

Steps for design 𝟐

𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 × 𝒗
Step 1. Assume 𝑓 = 0 and 𝑣 = 0.75 𝑣 𝒆=
𝒈𝑹
Step 2. If 𝑒 ≤ 0.07 ⇒ Provide calculated 𝑒
If 𝑒 > 0.07 ⇒ Provide 𝑒 = 0.07 and proceed to Step 3 and 4.

28
Design of Superelevation
Assumption
Superelevation balances centrifugal force corresponding 𝑣2
𝑒+𝑓 =
to 3/4th of design speed 𝑔𝑅

Steps for design

𝒗𝟐
Step 3. Check coefficient of friction 𝑓 for 𝑒 = 0.07 𝒇= − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕
𝒈𝑹
If 𝑓 ≤ 0.15 ⇒ Provide calculated 𝑓
If 𝑓 > 0.15 ⇒ Provide 𝑓 = 0.15 and increase radius or restrict speed
Step 4. Determine allowable speed, 𝑒 = 0.07, 𝑓 = 0.15
𝒗𝒂 𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐 𝒈 𝑹
29
Problem
Design the superelevation for a highway having the radius of curve of 200 m and
design speed of 80 km/h.

30
Solution
Step 1. Assume 𝑓 = 0 and 𝑣 = 0.75 𝑣
𝟐
𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 × 𝒗
𝒆=
𝒈𝑹

0.75 × 80 × 5/18 2
𝑒= = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟐
9.81 × 200
𝒆 > 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕

31
Solution
Step 2. 𝑒 > 0.07 ⇒ Provide 𝑒 = 0.07

Step 3. Check coefficient of friction 𝑓 for 𝑒 = 0.07

𝒗𝟐
𝒇= − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕
𝒈𝑹

80 × 5/18 2
𝑓= − 0.07 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖
9.81 × 200
𝒇 > 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓

32
Solution
Step 4. Determine allowable speed, 𝑒 = 0.07, 𝑓 = 0.15
𝒗𝒂 𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐 𝒈 𝑹

𝑣𝑎 = 0.22 × 9.81 × 200 = 20.8 mΤs = 𝟕𝟒. 𝟖 𝐤𝐦Τ𝐡

Speed at this curve should be restricted to less than 74 or say 70 kmph

33
How to Attain the Superelevation ??
Stage 1 : Removal of adverse camber in

Inside of
curve
outer half of pavement
Normal Camber

Stage 2: Superelevation gradually built over

Inside of
full width of carriageway

curve
Outer half raised level

Inside of
curve
Super-elevation = Camber

34
Methods of Attaining Superelevation
A B C D
Inside of curve

Normal Transition Fully Super-elevated

A Camber Curve Circular Curve

Outer Edge of Pavement

Centre Line of Pavement

Rotation about center line Inner Edge of Pavement

• Lower inner edge and raise
Centre Line
outer edge Level
• Least distortion: Level of centre A B C D
line practically unchanged

35
Methods of Attaining Superelevation
A B C D Fully Super-elevated
Normal Transition
Inside of curve

Circular Curve
Camber Curve
Outer Edge of Pavement

Centre Line of Pavement

Rotation about inner edge Inner Edge of Pavement

• Raise center and outer edge
simultaneously
Inner Edge Level
• Used when rotation about
center line cause a valley on A B C D
inner edge ⇒ Difficult to drain
36
Methods of Attaining Superelevation
A B C D Fully Super-elevated
Normal Transition
Inside of curve

Camber Curve Circular Curve

Outer Edge of Pavement

Centre Line of Pavement

Inner Edge of Pavement

Rotation about outer edge
• Keep level of outer edge constant Outer Edge Level
• Outer edge (visible to drivers)
not distorted A B C D

37
Methods of Attaining Superelevation
Rate of change of super-elevation
• Longitudinal slope of edge compared to centreline
 Plain and rolling terrain: Min. 1 in 150
 Mountainous and steep terrain: Min. 1 in 60
• Rate used will determine distances AB, BC and CD

38
Radius of Horizontal Curve
Factors governing curve radii
• Design speed, allowable super-elevation and friction
• Minimum turning radii of design vehicle

Ruling minimum radius of curve

𝑣 = 𝑣𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 , 𝑒 = 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥. , 𝑓 = 0.15
𝑣2 𝑣2
𝑒+𝑓 = ⇒ 𝑅=
𝑔𝑅 𝑒+𝑓 𝑔
Absolute minimum radius of curve
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 , 𝑒 = 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥. , 𝑓 = 0.15

39
Radius of Horizontal Curve
Revisions by IRC as per IRC 73 (2023)

Radii of horizontal curves for EW/NH/SH

Desirable Absolute
Nature of Terrain
Min. Radius Min. Radius
Plain & Rolling (EW) 1000 m 650 m
Plain & Rolling (NH / SH ) 400 m 250 m
Mountainous & Steep (NH/SH) 150 m 75 m

40
Radius of Horizontal Curve
Revisions by IRC as per IRC 73 (2023)
Radii of horizontal curves for MDR/ODR/VR
Mountainous Terrain Steep Terrain
Plain Rolling
Terrain Terrain Not affected Affected by Not affected Affected by
by snow snow by snow snow
Road
Absolute Min.

Absolute Min.

Absolute Min.

Absolute Min.

Absolute Min.

Absolute Min.
Ruling Min.

Ruling Min.

Ruling Min.

Ruling Min.

Ruling Min.

Ruling Min.
Category

MDR 230 155 155 90 50 30 60 33 30 14 33 15

ODR / VR 90 60 90 60 30 13 33 15 30 13 33 15
41
Transition
Curve

42
Functions of Transition Curve
• Gradual introduction of centrifugal force between tangent point and beginning of
circular curve – Avoids sudden jerks
• Gradual steering for comfort and safety
• Gradual introduction of superelevation and extra widening
• Improve aesthetics

43
Types of Transition Curve

• Spiral
• Lemniscate
• Parabola

44
Which Transition Curve is Preferred ??
Design purpose – Spiral is preferred

• Satisfies requirements of a transition

 Radius of curvature inversely proportional to length of travel
 Rate of change of acceleration is uniform throughout transition length
 Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration can be regulated to be within the
limits of comfort by choosing a suitable length of transition
• Easy to set-out in field

45
Length of Transition curve
1. Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
 Gradual development – 0 to 𝑣 2 Τ𝑅
Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, 𝑪

𝒗𝟐 𝑳𝒔
𝑪= 𝒗 𝑳𝒔 = Length of transition, m
𝑹𝒕
𝑽 = Speed, km/h
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟓 𝑽𝟑 𝟖𝟎
𝑳𝒔 = ; 𝑪= 𝑹 = Radius of circular curve, m
𝑪𝑹 𝟕𝟓 + 𝑽
Range of values of 𝑪 = 0.5 to 0.8

46
Length of Transition curve
2. Rate of change of superelevation 𝑳𝒔 = Length of transition, m
o Should not be steeper than 𝒆 = Rate of super-elevation
𝑵 = Rate of introduction of 𝒆
 1 in 150 for plain and rolling terrain
𝑾 = Width of pavement, m
 1 in 60 for mountainous/steep terrain 𝑾𝒆 = Extra widening, m

Rotation about center line Rotation about inner edge

𝒆𝑵 𝑳𝒔 = 𝒆 𝑵 𝑾 + 𝑾𝒆
𝑳𝒔 = 𝑾 + 𝑾𝒆
𝟐

47
Length of Transition curve
3. Empirical formula (Not considered in IRC 73, 2023)
Min recommended value for length of transition curve

Plain and rolling terrain Mountainous and steep terrain

𝟐. 𝟕 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝑳𝒔 = 𝑳𝒔 =
𝑹 𝑹

48
Length of Transition curve
Larger of the three values
1. Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
2. Rate of change of superelevation
3. Empirical formula (Not considered in IRC 73, 2023)

49
Setting Out Transition curve

Shift, 𝑺

𝐿𝑠 2
𝑆=
24 𝑅

50
Problem
Calculate (a) the length of transition curve and (b) the shift of the transition curve
using the following data:
• Design speed = 65 kmph
• Radius of circular curve = 220 m
• Pavement width including extra widening = 7.5 m
• Allowable rate of introduction of superelevation = 1 in 150
Assumptions
• Pavement rotated about the centre line
• Rolling terrain

51
Solution
Design speed 𝑽 = 65 km/h
Radius of circular curve 𝑹 = 220 m
Pavement width including extra widening 𝑾 + 𝑾𝒆 = 7.5 m
Rate of introduction of superelevation 1 in 𝑵 = 1 in 150
Pavement rotated about the center line

Larger of the three values

1. Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
2. Rate of change of superelevation
3. Empirical formula
52
Solution
1. Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration

𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟓 𝑽𝟑 𝟖𝟎
𝑳𝒔 = ; 𝑪=
𝑪𝑹 𝟕𝟓 + 𝑽

80
𝐶= = 0.57 𝑚Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 ⇒ 𝑊𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 0.5 𝑡𝑜 0.8 ⇒ 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑑
75 + 65

0.0215 × 653
𝐿𝑠 = = 𝟒𝟕. 𝟏 𝐦
0.57 × 220

53
Solution
2. Rate of change of superelevation
Rotation about center line
𝒆𝑵
𝑳𝒔 = 𝑾 + 𝑾𝒆
𝟐

Superelevation

𝟐 2
𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 × 𝒗 0.75 × 65 × 5/18
𝒆= = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟓 > 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕
𝒈𝑹 9.81 × 220 𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕
𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟓
𝒗𝟐 65 × 5Τ18 2
𝒇= − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕 = − 0.07 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟏 < 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓
𝒈𝑹 9.81 × 220
54
Solution
2. Rate of change of superelevation
Rotation about center line
𝒆𝑵
𝑳𝒔 = 𝑾 + 𝑾𝒆
𝟐

0.07 × 150
𝑳𝒔 = × 7.5 = 𝟑𝟗. 𝟒 𝐦
2

55
Solution
3. Empirical formula

𝟐. 𝟕 𝑽𝟐
𝑳𝒔 =
𝑹

2.7 × 652
𝐿𝑠 = = 𝟓𝟏. 𝟗 𝐦
220

Length of transition curve = max. (47.1, 39.4, 51.9) = 51.9 m ≈ 52 m

56
Solution
Shift

𝑳𝒔 𝟐
𝑺=
𝟐𝟒 𝑹

522
𝑺= = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟏 𝐦
24 × 220

57
Extra Widening on Curves
• Rear wheels do not
follow same track as
front wheels
• Higher speeds
More prominent effect

Extra widening required

• Mechanical widening
• Psychological widening

58
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vOyk-tugW3k&ab_channel=JeffSpaulding
Mechanical Widening
Widening required to account for off-tracking
phenomena of the rear wheel
B
Derivation
𝑊𝑚 = 𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑅2 − 𝑅1
𝑹𝟏 = 𝑹𝟐 − 𝑾𝒎
C O
𝟐
From Δ𝑂𝐴𝐵, 𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝒍 𝟐 𝟐 A R1
2 Wm
2
𝑅2 = 𝑅2 − 𝑊𝑚 + 𝑙2
R1 = Radius of path traversed by the outer rear wheel, m
𝑙2 = 𝑊𝑚 2𝑅2 − 𝑊𝑚 R2 = Radius of path traversed by the outer front wheel, m
Wm = Off-tracking or mechanical widening, m
𝑙2 𝑙2 𝒍𝟐 𝒍 = Length of wheel base, m
𝑾𝒎 = = ≈
2𝑅2 − 𝑊𝑚 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝟐𝑹
59
Mechanical Widening
Widening required to account for off-tracking
phenomena of the rear wheel
B
Derivation
𝒍𝟐
𝑾𝒎 =
𝟐𝑹
C O
A R1
For 𝒏 traffic lanes
Wm
𝒏 𝒍𝟐 R = Mean radius of the curve, m
𝑾𝒎 =
𝟐𝑹 Wm = Off-tracking or mechanical widening, m
𝒍 = Length of wheel base, m

60
Psychological Widening
Functions
• Provide greater maneuverability of steering at higher speeds
• Allow for extra space requirements for the overhangs of vehicles
• Provide greater clearance for crossing and overtaking vehicles on curve

Equation

𝑽 𝑽 = Design speed, km/h

𝑾𝒑𝒔 =
𝟗. 𝟓 𝑹 𝑹 = Radius of horizontal curve, m

Note: Psychological widening NOT provided for single-lane roads

61
Total Widening on a Horizontal Curve
𝑾𝒆 = 𝑾𝒎 + 𝑾𝒑𝒔

𝒏 𝒍𝟐 𝑽
𝑾𝒆 = +
𝟐𝑹 𝟗. 𝟓 𝑹

𝒏 = No. of traffic lanes

𝒍 = Length of wheel base of longest vehicle, m (6.0-6.1 m)
𝑽 = Design speed, km/h
𝑹 = Radius of horizontal curve, m

62
Widening – Recommended Values
IRC 73 (2023)
Extra Width of pavement Radius of Curve Extra Width
at horizontal curves for 75-100 m 0.9 m
2/4/6/8 Lane highways 101-300 m 0.6 m

Extra Width of pavement at horizontal curves for MDR/ODR/VR

Radius of Curve (m) Up to 20 21-40 41-60 61-100 101-300
Two – lane pavement 1.5 1.5 1.2 0.9 0.6
Single lane pavement 0.9 0.6 0.6 Nil Nil

63
Problem
Calculate the extra widening required for a pavement of width 7.0 m on a
horizontal curve of radius 200 m if the longest wheel base of vehicle expected on
the road is 6.5 m. Design speed is 65 kmph.

64
Solution
Pavement width 𝑾 = 7m
Radius of horizontal curve 𝑹 = 200 m
Length of wheel base of longest vehicle 𝒍 = 6.5 m
Design speed 𝑽 = 65 km/h

Number of lanes, 𝒏 = 2

𝑛 𝑙2 𝑉 2 × 6.52 65
𝑊𝑒 = + ⇒ + = 0.21 + 0.48 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗 𝐦
2𝑅 9.5 𝑅 2 × 200 9.5 × 200

Provide an extra widening of 0.69 m

65
How to Introduce Extra Widening ??
• Introduced gradually at a uniform rate
 Start of widening ⇒ Start of curve (T.P.)
 Designed value of widening ⇒ End of transition curve
• Continued over full length of circular curve

Equally distributed on both sides

Preferred
Methods of
widening
Entire widening on one side
Hill roads – Widening on hill side

66
Methods of Extra Widening

Widening equally distributed on both sides on central line

67
Methods of Extra Widening

Widening entirely on inside of central line

68
Setback Distance on Curves
Distance from the road center-line within which the obstructions should be cleared
to ensure the needed visibility

• Measurement of sight distance

 Multi-lane = Middle of the inner lane
 Single lane = Center line of carriageway
• Factors
 Required sight distance, 𝑺
 Radius of horizontal curve, 𝑹
 Length of horizontal curve, 𝑳𝒄
69
Setback Distance on Curves
Case 1 – 𝑳𝒄 > 𝑺
Length of curve more
than Sight Distance

𝑺
𝟐𝜽= radians
𝑹−𝒏
𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝑺
𝜽= × degrees
𝟐𝝅 𝑹−𝒏

𝒎 = 𝑹 − 𝑹 − 𝒏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽

70
Setback Distance on Curves
𝑺 𝑿 = 𝑺 − 𝑳𝒄 /𝟐
Case 2 – 𝑳𝒄 < 𝑺
𝑳𝒄
Length of curve less
than Sight Distance
𝜽
𝑳𝒄
𝟐𝜽= radians
𝑹−𝒏
𝜽
𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝑳𝒄
𝜽= × degrees 2𝜃
𝟐𝝅 𝑹−𝒏

𝑺 − 𝑳𝒄
𝒎 = 𝑹 − 𝑹 − 𝒏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝟐
71
Setback Distance on Curves
• Set-back distance corresponding to OSD or ISD
 Clearance required is usually too large
 Economically not feasible
• Hill slope on the inner side of the horizontal curve
 Average height of sight line for SSD = 0.7 m
 Cut slope = Lower than height of sight line

72
Problem
A two-lane highway has a horizontal curve of radius 200 m and total length of the
curve is 240 m. The distance between the center line of the highway and the center of
the inner lane is 1.95 m at the curve. If desired sight distance is 340 m, determine the
set-back distance up to which all the obstructions should be removed.

73
Solution
Radius of horizontal curve 𝑹 = 200 m
Total length of the curve 𝑳𝒄 = 240 m
Distance between the center line of the
𝒏 = 1.95 m
highway and the center of the inner lane
Desired sight distance 𝑺 = 340 m 𝑺 𝑿 = 𝑺 − 𝑳𝒄 /𝟐
𝑳𝒄

𝑳𝒄 < 𝑺
𝜽

𝜽
2𝜃
Solution 𝑺
𝑳𝒄
𝑿 = 𝑺 − 𝑳𝒄 /𝟐

𝑳𝒄 < 𝑺
𝜽
𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝑳𝒄
𝜽= × degrees
𝟐𝝅 𝑹−𝒏
𝜽
180 240 2𝜃
𝜽= × = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟕°
2𝜋 200 − 1.95

𝑺 − 𝑳𝒄
𝒎 = 𝑹 − 𝑹 − 𝒏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝟐

340 − 240
𝑚 = 200 − 200 − 1.95 cos 34.7° + sin 34.7° = 65.6 𝑚 ≈ 𝟔𝟔 𝐦
2
75
Vertical Alignment

(W Hare et al., 2014)

theconstructor.org

76
Deviation Angle and Gradients
Gradient
Rate of rise or fall along the longitudinal profile of the road

Vertical
Rise

Horizontal Length

77
Deviation Angle and Gradients
Deviation angle
Angle between the two intersecting grade lines
𝑵
Slope of grade line = 𝒏𝟏 %, 𝒏𝟐 %
𝑵 = 𝒏𝟏 − −𝒏𝟐 = 𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐 %

Slope of grade line = 1 in 𝒏𝟏 , 1 in 𝒏𝟐

𝟏 𝟏
𝑵= +
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐

78
Gradients
Selection criteria
• Design speed
• Terrain conditions
• Nature of traffic expected

Affects
• Vehicle operation cost
• Speed of vehicle
• Capacity of highway

79
Types of Gradients
Ruling gradient Limiting Gradient Exceptional gradient

Design purpose Topography/cost restriction Exceptional topography

Performance issue – NO Performance issue – Maybe Performance issues – YES

Exception (2% gradient) – Length: As short as possible Short length < 100 m stretch
Isolated over-bridges in flat
Successive stretches:
country or large volume of
Separated by min. 100 m
slow moving traffic
length of gentler gradient

80
 Recommended Gradients (IRC 73, 2023)
2/4/6/8 Lane Highways MDR / ODR / VR
Ruling Limiting Ruling Limiting Exceptional
Terrain Terrain
gradient gradient gradient gradient gradient
Plain or rolling 3.3% 5% Plain or rolling 3.3% 5% 6%
Mountainous & steep
Mountainous 5% 7% 5% 7% 10%
(elevation > 3,000 m)
Steep
Steep 6% 8% 6% 8% 10%
(elevation ≤ 3,000 m)

Note – Rise in elevation over a length of 2 km shall not exceed

 100 m in mountainous terrain
 120 m in steep terrain
81
Minimum Gradient
Based on drainage conditions

Unkerbed pavements
• In embankment, near-level grades are not objectionable when the pavement has
sufficient camber to drain the storm water laterally

Cut sections or pavement with kerbs

• Desirable minimum gradient
 Lined side drains = 0.5%
 Unlined side drains = 1.0%

82
Grade Compensation
Ease of gradient at horizontal curves on hill roads
• Offset extra tractive effort involved at curves
30 + 𝑅
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, % = 𝑹 = Radius of curve, m
𝑅
75
Subject to a maximum of
𝑅
• Gradient < 4% – No grade compensation
• Application of grade compensation correction
 Gradients need not be eased beyond 4%

83
Some Practical Considerations …
• Smooth longitudinal profile
 Consistent with category of road and terrain
 Grade changes – Not frequent
o Avoid kinks and visual discontinuities
o No grade change within 150 m distance – Desirable

• AVOID short valley curve within a continuous profile

• AVOID broken-back grade lines

 Replace by single long curve

84
Some Practical Considerations …
• Decks of small cross-drainage structures
 Follow same profile as flanking road section

• Choice of grade
 Economic aspect of vehicle operation

• Plan and profile – Designed in unison

• Proper balance between gradients and degree of curvature
• Superimpose vertical curvature upon horizontal curvature
• AVOID sharp horizontal curves at or near the apex of vertical curves

85
What is a Vertical Curve ??
A curve applied to make a smooth and safe transition between 2 grades on a roadway

86
Types of Vertical Curves

Summit Curve
Convex shape
Based on Shape
of the Curve
Valley Curve
Concave shape

87
Summit Curves
Design
Square parabola
• Centrifugal force
 Opposite direction of gravity
 Relieves pressure on tyre
• Shock or jerks
 Small deviation angles
 Not substantial
Transition not required

88
Summit Curves
Design
Square parabola
• Circular arc ≡ Simple parabolic curve
 Small deviation angle
 Long length of curve
• Parabola = Easy to compute ordinates

89
Summit Curves E

Derivation 𝒚 = 𝒂 𝒙𝟐 𝑳
𝒏𝟏
𝟐
𝐿 𝐿
𝐸𝐹 = 𝑛1 ; 𝐹𝐶 = 𝑛2
2 2 D 𝒏𝟏 𝑵
𝒏𝟐 F
𝐿 𝑁𝐿
𝐸𝐶 = 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 = 𝑳
2 2 𝒏𝟐
𝒚 𝟐
B C
Length of the curve
𝑨𝑩𝑪 ≈ 𝑨𝑪 ≈ 𝑨𝑴 = 𝑳
A M
𝒙
𝑳

90
Summit Curves E

Derivation 𝒚 = 𝒂 𝒙𝟐 𝑳
𝒏𝟏
𝟐
At point C,
𝑁𝐿 D 𝒏𝟏 𝑵
𝑥 = 𝐿 ; 𝑦 = 𝐸𝐶 = 𝒏𝟐 F
2
𝑳
𝒏𝟐
𝑁𝐿 2
𝑁 𝒚 𝟐
=𝑎𝐿 ⇒𝑎= B C
2 2𝐿
Curvature A M
𝒙
𝐝𝟐𝒚 𝑁 1 𝐿 𝑳
𝟐
= 𝟐𝒂 = = ⇒ 𝑅 =
𝐝𝒙 𝐿 𝑅 𝑁

91
Length of Summit Curve
L > OSD
OSD / ISD
L < OSD
Length of
Summit Curve
L > SSD
SSD
L < SSD

92
Length of Summit Curve E

Case 1 : L > OSD 𝑁𝐿 𝑳

𝐸𝐶 = 𝒏𝟏
𝐵𝐺 𝑃𝑄2 2 𝟐
=
𝐵𝐽 𝐴𝐶 2 D 𝒏𝟏 𝑵
𝒏𝟐 F
𝐵𝐺 = 𝐻 ; 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑆 ; 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐿 𝑳
E2 𝒏𝟐
B 𝟐
𝐷𝐽 𝐸𝐶/2 𝑁𝐿 E1 Q C
𝐵𝐽 = = = G
2 2 8 P
J
A M
𝐻 𝑆2 𝑁𝑆 2 𝑁𝑆 2 K
= ⇒𝐿= = 𝑳/𝟐 𝑳/𝟐
𝑁𝐿/8 𝐿2 8𝐻 9.6
E1P = E2Q = Height of object, H
E1E2 = PQ = Sight distance, S
93
Length of Summit Curve E
K

𝑁𝐿 𝑁𝑆
Case 2 : L < OSD 𝐸𝐶 = 𝐾𝑄 =
2 2
𝐷𝐽 𝐸𝐶/2 𝑁𝐿
𝐷𝐵 = = =
2 2 8
D 𝒏𝟏 𝑵 F
𝒏𝟐
𝑁𝐿
𝐵𝑍 = 𝐻 ; 𝐷𝑍 = 𝐷𝐵 + 𝐵𝑍 = +𝐻
8
E1 B E2
𝐾𝑄 𝑁 𝑆 Τ 2 𝑁 𝑆
𝐷𝑍 = = =
2 2 4 𝑯 A J
C 𝑯
𝑁𝐿 𝑁𝑆 9.6 𝑳 Z Q
+𝐻 = ⇒𝐿 =2𝑆−
8 4 𝑁 𝑺

E1P = E2Q = Height of object, H

94
E1E2 = PQ = Sight distance, S
Length of Summit Curve
For ISD or OSD For SSD
Case 1: Length of curve > Sight distance Case 1: Length of curve > Sight distance
𝑵 𝑺𝟐 𝑵 𝑺𝟐
𝑳= 𝑳=
𝟗. 𝟔 𝟒. 𝟒
Case 2: Length of curve < Sight distance Case 2: Length of curve < Sight distance
𝟗. 𝟔 𝟒. 𝟒
𝑳=𝟐𝑺− 𝑳=𝟐𝑺−
𝑵 𝑵

𝑵 = Deviation angle = 𝒏𝟏 − −𝒏𝟐 = 𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐

𝑳 = Length of parabolic vertical curve, m
𝑺 = Sight distance, m
95
Problem
An ascending gradient of 1 in 100 meets a descending gradient of 1 in 120. A
summit curve is to be designed for a speed of 80 km/h so as to have an overtaking
sight distance of 470 m.

1 1 11
𝑁= − − =
100 120 600

96
Solution
Case 1: Length of curve > Sight distance

𝑵 𝑺𝟐
𝑳=
𝟗. 𝟔

11 × 4702
𝐿= = 422 m
600 × 9.6

𝑳 < 𝑶𝑺𝑫 ⇒ Check for Case 2

97
Solution
Case 2: Length of curve < Sight distance

𝟗. 𝟔
𝑳=𝟐𝑺−
𝑵

9.6
𝐿 = 2 × 470 − = 417 m
11/600

𝑳 < 𝑶𝑺𝑫 ⇒ Assumption is correct

Provide length of summit curve of 420 m

98
Problem
Calculate the length of summit curve for a stopping sight distance of 180 m on a
National Highway at the junction of an upward gradient of 1 in 200 and downward
gradient of 1 in 200.

99
Solution
Case – 1 : Length of curve > Sight distance

𝑵 𝑺𝟐
𝑳=
𝟒. 𝟒

1 1
+ × 1802
200 200
𝑳= = 𝟕𝟑. 𝟔 𝐦
4.4

𝑳 ≯ 𝑺 ⇒ Check for Case 2

100
Solution
Case – 2 : Length of curve < Sight distance
𝟒. 𝟒
𝑳=𝟐𝑺−
𝑵
4.4
𝑳 = 2 × 180 − = − 𝟖𝟎
1 1
+
200 200
This condition is also not fulfilled.

Grade change is too small and does not need a vertical curve for stopping sight
distance. However, for aesthetic purpose, provide vertical curve with minimum
length as per IRC 73.
101
Valley Curves
Design
Square parabola
• Comfort condition
 Centrifugal force act downward
 Excess pressure on tyre
• Headlight sight distance
 Visibility during night

102
Length of Valley Curve
L > SSD
Headlight
Sight Distance
L < SSD
Length of
Valley Curve

Rider Comfort

103
Length of Valley Curve – HSD
Assumptions
• Height of headlight above road surface = 0.75 m
• Useful beam of headlight = 1° upwards from grade of road
• Height of object = Nil

104
Length of Valley Curve – HSD
L > SSD
Lowest point of valley curve
𝑆
𝑁 𝑆 2 𝑆 tan 𝛼
ℎ1 + 𝑆 tan 𝛼 = 𝑎 𝑆 2 = 𝛼
2𝐿
ℎ1 ℎ1
ℎ1 = 0.75 m ; 𝛼 = 1°

𝑵 𝑺𝟐
𝑳= 𝑳 = Total length of valley curve, m
𝟏. 𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟓 𝑺 𝑺 = Stopping sight distance, m
𝑵 = Deviation angle
𝒉𝟏 = Height of the head light, m
105
Length of Valley Curve – HSD
L < SSD
𝑆
𝐿
ℎ1 + 𝑆 tan 𝛼 = 𝑆 − 𝑁 𝛼
PT 𝑆 tan 𝛼
2 ℎ1

ℎ1 = 0.75 m ; 𝛼 = 1° TP 𝑁 ℎ1
𝐿/2 𝐿/2
𝟏. 𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟓 𝑺
𝑳 = 𝟐𝑺 −
𝑵
𝑳 = Total length of valley curve, m
𝑺 = Stopping sight distance, m
𝑵 = Deviation angle
𝒉𝟏 = Height of the head light, m
106
Length of Valley Curve – Comfort
Comfort condition
Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, 𝑪
𝑣3 𝑳𝒔 𝑳𝒔 = Length of transition curve, m
𝐿𝑠 = 𝑵
𝐶𝑅 𝑳 = Total length of valley curve, m
𝑺 = Stopping sight distance, m
𝑵 = Deviation angle
𝑁 𝑣3
𝐿 = 2 𝐿𝑠 = 2 𝒉𝟏 = Height of the head light, m
𝐶

Assuming, 𝐶 = 0.6 m/sec3 & 𝒗 (m/sec) to 𝑽 (km/h)

𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖 𝑵 𝑽𝟑
107
Length of Valley Curve – Comfort
Comfort condition – IRC 73 (2023) recommendation
Allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, 𝑪 = 0.3 m/sec3

Length of vertical curve

• Comfort condition = 0.75 times HSD
• Design as per headlight sight distance only

108
Lowest Point of Valley Curve

𝒏𝟏
𝑿𝟎 = 𝑳
𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐 Located for
providing cross
drainage facility

109
Problem
Design a valley curve at the junction of a downward gradient of 1 in 30 and a level
stretch from head light consideration. The stopping sight distance is 180 m.

110
Solution
Case – 1 : Length of curve > Sight distance (L > S)

𝑵 𝑺𝟐
𝑳=
𝟏. 𝟓𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟓 𝑺

1
× 1802
30
𝑳= = 𝟏𝟑𝟕. 𝟏 𝐦
1.50 + 0.035 × 180

𝑳 ≯ 𝑺 ⇒ Check for Case 2

111
Solution
Case – 2 : Length of curve < Sight distance (L < S)

𝟏. 𝟓𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟓 𝑺
𝑳=𝟐𝑺−
𝑵

1.50 + 0.035 × 180

𝑳 = 2 × 180 − = 𝟏𝟐𝟑. 𝟔 𝐦
1
30

Provide length of valley curve of 125 m

112
Problem
Derive the length of summit curve considering sight distance to be equal to safe
stopping sight distance. Assume
i. Length of curve > SSD
ii. Length of curve < SSD

113
Solution
Case 1 – L > SSD

𝐵𝐵1 𝐵𝐶 2 𝐻 𝐵𝐶 2
= 2
⇒ =
𝐷𝐷1 𝐶𝐷 ℎ 𝐶𝐷2 𝒏𝟏 𝑵
𝒏𝟐
𝐻
𝐵𝐶 = 𝐶𝐷
ℎ B C D
𝒉
𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷 = 𝑆 𝑯
D1
B1 J
A E
𝑯 𝑳
𝑩𝑪 = 𝑺
𝒉+ 𝑯

114
Solution
Case 1 – L > SSD

𝐵𝐵1 𝐵𝐶 2 𝐻 𝐵𝐶 2
= 2 ⇒ =
𝐶𝐽 𝐴𝐽 𝐿𝑁/8 𝐿/2 2 𝒏𝟏 𝑵
𝒏𝟐

𝟐𝑯𝑳
𝑩𝑪 = B C D
𝑵
𝒉
𝑯
D1
B1 J
A E
𝑳

115
Solution 𝑩𝑪 = 𝑺
𝑯
𝑩𝑪 =
𝟐𝑯𝑳
𝒉+ 𝑯 𝑵
Case 1 – L > SSD

2𝐻𝐿 𝐻
=𝑆 𝒏𝟏 𝑵
𝑁 ℎ+ 𝐻 𝒏𝟐

𝑵 𝑺𝟐
𝑳= B C D
𝟐 𝒉
𝟐 𝒉+ 𝑯 𝑯
D1
B1 J
𝐻 = 1.2 m ; ℎ = 0.15 m A E
𝑳
𝑵 𝑺𝟐
𝑳=
𝟒. 𝟒
116
Solution E

Case 2 – L < SSD

𝟗. 𝟔
𝑳=𝟐𝑺−
𝑵
D 𝒏𝟏 𝑵 F
𝒏𝟐

E1 B E2

𝑯 A J 𝒉
C
𝑳 Q
Z
𝑺

117