40 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION

If the instrument is used strictly for measurement and is not part of

a feedback-control system, then some time delay is usually acceptable.
The transfer function for undistorted signal reproduction with time
delay becomes Y(jω)/X(jω) = K ∠ (− ωτd). Our previous study of
time-delay elements shows that the output magnitude is K times the
input magnitude for all frequencies and that the phase lag increases lin-
early with frequency.
The transfer-function requirements concern the overall instrument
transfer function. The overall transfer function of linear elements connected
in series is the product of the transfer functions for the individual elements.
Many combinations of nonlinear elements can produce the overall linear
transfer function required. Various forms of modulation and demodulation
are used, and unavoidable sensor nonlinearities can sometimes be compen-
sated for by other instrument elements.

1.11 AMPLIFIERS AND SIGNAL PROCESSING

Most bioelectric signals are small and require amplification. Amplifiers are
also used for interfacing sensors that sense body motions, temperature, and
chemical concentrations. In addition to simple amplification, the amplifier
may also modify the signal to produce frequency filtering or nonlinear
effects. This section emphasizes the operational amplifier (op amp), which
has revolutionized electronic circuit design. Most circuit design was formerly
performed with discrete components, requiring laborious calculations, many
components, and large expense. Now a 20-cent op amp, a few resistors, and a
knowledge of Ohm’s law are all that is needed.

IDEAL OP AMPS
An op amp is a high-gain dc differential amplifier. It is normally used in cir-
cuits that have characteristics determined by external negative-feedback
networks.
The best way to approach the design of a circuit that uses op amps is first
to assume that the op amp is ideal. After the initial design, the circuit is
checked to determine whether the nonideal characteristics of the op amp
are important. If they are not, the design is complete; if they are, another
design check is made, which may require additional components.
 1.11 AMPLIFIERS AND SIGNAL PROCESSING 41

IDEAL CHARACTERISTICS
Figure 1.8 shows the equivalent circuit for a nonideal op amp. It is a dc dif-
ferential amplifier, which means that any differential voltage, vd = (v2 − v1),
is multiplied by the very high gain A to produce the output voltage vo.
To simplify calculations, we assume the following characteristics for an
ideal op-amp:
1. A = ∞ (gain is infinity)
2. vo = 0, when v1 = v2 (no offset voltage)
3. Rd = 0 (input impedance is infinity)
4. Ro = 0 (output impedance is zero)
5. Bandwidth = ∞ (no frequency-response limitations) and no phase shift

Later in the chapter we shall examine the effect on the circuit of char-
acteristics that are not ideal.
Figure 1.9 shows the op-amp circuit symbol, which includes two differ-
ential input terminals and one output terminal. All these voltages are

Ro
v1 vo

Rd + A(v2 – v1)
–

v2

Figure 1.8 Op-amp equivalent circuit The two inputs are vl and v2.
A differential voltage between them causes current flow through the
differential resistance Rd. The differential voltage is multiplied by A, the
gain of the op amp, to generate the output-voltage source. Any current
flowing to the output terminal vo must pass through the output resistance Ro.

v1 –
A vo
v2 +

Figure 1.9 A voltage at v1, the inverting input, is

Op-amp circuit symbol
greatly amplified and inverted to yield vo. A voltage at v2, the
noninverting input, is greatly amplified to yield an in-phase output at vo.
42 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION

measured with respect to the ground shown. Power supplies, usually ±15 V,
must be connected to terminals indicated on the manufacturer’s specification
sheet (Horowitz and Hill, 1989; Jung, 1986).

TWO BASIC RULES

Throughout this chapter we shall use two basic rules (or input terminal
restrictions) that are very helpful in designing op-amp circuits.

RULE 1 When the op-amp output is in its linear range, the two input
terminals are at the same voltage.
This is true because if the two input terminals were not at the same voltage,
the differential input voltage would be multiplied by the infinite gain to yield
an infinite output voltage. This is absurd; most op amps use a power supply
of ±15 V, so vo is restricted to this range. Actually the op-amp specifications
guarantee a linear output range of only ±10 V, although some saturate at
about ±13 V. A single supply is adequate with some op amps, such as the
LM358 (Horowitz and Hill, 1989).

RULE 2 No current flows into either input terminal of the op amp.

This is true because we assume that the input impedance is infinity, and no
current flows into an infinite impedance. Even if the input impedance were
finite, Rule 1 tells us that there is no voltage drop across Rd, so therefore no
current flows.

1.12 INVERTING AMPLIFIERS

CIRCUIT
Figure 1.10(a) shows the basic inverting-amplifier circuit, widely used in
instrumentation, using, for example, a TL032 op amp. Note that a portion
of vo is fed back via Rf to the negative input of the op amp. This provides
the inverting amplifier with the many advantages associated with the use
of negative feedback—increased bandwidth, lower output impedance, and
so forth. If v0 is ever fed back to the positive input of the op amp, examine
the circuit carefully. Either there is a mistake or the circuit is one of the rare
ones in which a regenerative action is desired.
 1.12 INVERTING AMPLIFIERS 43

i Ri
Rf
vi
i
Ri Rf
vi – vo
vo
+
(a) (b)

vo

10 V

–10 V 10 V
vi

Slope = –Rf/Ri

–10 V
(c)
Figure 1.10 (a) An inverting amplifier. Current flowing through the input
resistor Ri also flows through the feedback resistor Rf. (b) A lever with
arm lengths proportional to resistance values enables the viewer to
visualize the input–output characteristics easily. (c) The input–output plot
shows a slope of −Rf/Ri in the central portion, but the output saturates at
about ±13 V.

EQUATION
Note that the positive input of the op amp is at 0 V. Therefore, by Rule 1, the
negative input of the op amp is also at 0 V. Thus, no matter what happens to
the rest of the circuit, the negative input of the op amp remains at 0 V, a con-
dition known as a virtual ground.
Because the right side of Ri is at 0 V and the left side is vi, by Ohm’s law
the current i through Ri is i = vi/Ri. By Rule 2, no current can enter the op
amp; therefore, i must also flow through Rf. This produces a voltage drop
across Rf of iRf. Because the left end of Rf is at 0 V, the right end must be

Rf vo − Rf
vo = − iRf = − vi or = (1.41)
Ri vi Ri
44 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION

Thus, the circuit inverts, and the inverting-amplifier gain (not the op-amp
gain) is given by the ratio of Rf to Ri.

LEVER ANALOGY
Figure 1.10(b) shows an easy way to visualize the circuit’s behavior. A lever
is formed with arm lengths proportional to resistance values. Because the
negative input is at 0 V, the fulcrum is placed at 0 V, as shown. If Rf is three
times Ri, as shown, any variation of vi results in a three-times-bigger varia-
tion of v0. The circuit in Figure 1.10(a) is a voltage-controlled-current-source
(VCCS) for any load Rf (Jung, 1986). The current i through Rf is vi/Ri so vi
controls i. Current sources are useful in electrical impedance plethysmogra-
phy for passing a fixed current through the body (Section 8.7).

INPUT–OUTPUT CHARACTERISTIC
Figure 1.10(c) shows that the circuit is linear only over a limited range of vi.
When vo exceeds about ±13 V, it saturates (limits), and further increases in vi
produce no change in the output. The linear swing of vo is about 4 V less than
the difference in power-supply voltages. Although op amps usually have
power-supply voltages set at ±15 V, reduced power-supply voltages may
be used, with a corresponding reduction in the saturation voltages and the
linear swing of vo.

SUMMING AMPLIFIER
The inverting amplifier may be extended to form a circuit that yields the
weighted sum of several input voltages. Each input voltage vi1, vi2, …, vik
is connected to the negative input of the op amp by an individual resistor,
the conductance of which (1/Rik) is proportional to the desired weighting.

EXAMPLE 1.8 The output of a biopotential preamplifier that measures the

electro-oculogram (Section 4.7) is an undesired dc voltage of ±5 V due to
electrode half-cell potentials (Section 5.1), with a desired signal of ±1 V
superimposed. Design a circuit that will balance the dc voltage to zero
and provide a gain of −10 for the desired signal without saturating the
op amp.

ANSWER Figure E1.8(a) shows the design. We assume that vb, the balan-
cing voltage available from the 5 kΩ potentiometer, is ±10 V. The undesired
voltage at vi = 5 V. For va = 0, the current through Rf is zero. Therefore, the
sum of the currents through Ri and Rb is zero.
 1.13 NONINVERTING AMPLIFIERS 45

+10
Ri Rf
vi
10 kΩ 100 kΩ
vi
–

Voltage (V)
vi + vb/2
+15 V Rb
vo 0
20 kΩ Time
5 kΩ +
vb
–15 V
–10 vo
(a) (b)
Figure E1.8 (a) This circuit sums the input voltage υi plus one-half of the
balancing voltage vb. Thus, the output voltage vo can be set to zero even
when vi has a nonzero dc component. (b) The three waveforms show vi,
the input voltage; (vi + vb/2), the balanced-out voltage; and vo, the amplified
output voltage. If vi were directly amplified, the op amp would saturate.

vi vb
+ =0
Ri Rb
− Ri v b − 104 − 10
Rb = = = 2 × 104 Ω
v 5

For a gain of −10, (1.41) requires Rf/Ri, =10, or Rf, =100 kΩ. The circuit equa-
tion is
vi vb
v o = − Rf +
Ri Rb
vi vb
vo = − 105 +
104 2 × 104
vb
vo = − 10 v +
2

The potentiometer can balance out any undesired voltage in the range
±5 V, as shown by Figure E1.8(b).

1.13 NONINVERTING AMPLIFIERS

FOLLOWER
Figure 1.11(a) shows the circuit for a unity-gain follower. Because vi exists at
the positive input of the op amp, by Rule 1, vi must also exist at the negative
input. But v0 is also connected to the negative input. Therefore, vo = vi, or the
46 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION

i i
Ri Rf

– –
vo vo
vi vi
+ +

(a) (b)

vo

10 V
Slope = (Rf +Ri)/Ri
Rf
–10 V 10 V
vo vi
Ri
vi
–10 V

(c) (d)
Figure 1.11 (a) A follower, vo = vi. (b) A noninverting amplifier, vi, appears
across Ri, producing a current through Ri that also flows through Rf. (c)
A lever with arm lengths proportional to resistance values makes possible
an easy visualization of input–output characteristics. (d) The input–output
plot shows a positive slope of (Rf + Ri)/Ri in the central portion, but the
output saturates at about ±13 V.

output voltage follows the input voltage. At first glance it seems nothing is
gained by using this circuit; the output is the same as the input. However, the
circuit is very useful as a buffer, to prevent a high source resistance from
being loaded down by a low-resistance load. By Rule 2, no current flows into
the positive input, and therefore the source resistance in the external circuit
is not loaded at all.

NONINVERTING AMPLIFIER
Figure 1.11(b) shows how the follower circuit can be modified to produce
gain. By Rule 1, vi appears at the negative input of the op amp. This causes
current i = vi/Ri to flow to ground. By Rule 2, none of i can come from the
negative input; therefore, all must flow through Rf. We can then calculate
vo = i(Rf + Ri) and solve for the gain.
 1.14 DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS 47

vo i Rf + Ri Rf + Ri
= = (1.42)
vi iRi Ri

We note that the circuit gain (not the op-amp gain) is positive, always greater
than or equal to 1; and that if Ri = ∞ (open circuit), the circuit reduces to
Figure 1.11(a).
Figure 1.11(c) shows how a lever makes possible an easy visualization of
the input–output characteristics. The fulcrum is placed at the left end,
because Ri is grounded at the left end. vi appears between the two resistors,
so it provides an input at the central part of the diagram. vo travels through
an output excursion determined by the lever arms.
Figure 1.11(d), the input–output characteristic, shows that a one-op-amp
circuit can have a positive amplifier gain. Again saturation is evident.

1.14 DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS

ONE-OP-AMP DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

The right side of Figure 1.12(a) shows a simple one-op-amp differential
amplifier. Current flows from v4 through R3 and R4 to ground. By Rule 2,
no current flows into the positive input of the op amp. Hence, R3 and R4
act as a simple voltage-divider attenuator, which is unaffected by having
the op amp attached or by any other changes in the circuit. The voltages
in this part of the circuit are visualized in Figure 1.12(b) by the single lever
that is attached to the fulcrum (ground).
By Rule 1, whatever voltage appears at the positive input also appears at
the negative input. Once this voltage is fixed, the top half of the circuit
behaves like an inverting amplifier. For example, if v4 is 0 V, the positive
input of the op amp is 0 V and the v3 − vo circuit behaves exactly like an
inverting amplifier. For other values of v4, an inverting relation is obtained
about some voltage intermediate between v4 and 0 V. The relationship can
be visualized in Figure 1.12(b) by noting that the two levers behave like a
pair of scissors. The thumb and finger holes are v4 and v3, and the points
are at vo and 0 V.
We solve for the gain by finding v5.

v 4 R4
v5 = (1.43)
R3 + R4

Then, solving for the current in the top half, we get

48 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION

v1
+ R2 R3 R4
v3
–
R1 v R3
4 vo
v5 +
R4
R2
–

v2
+

(a)

R4

R3
vo
R3
v4 R4

v3

(b)
Figure 1.12 (a) The right side shows a one-op-amp differential amplifier,
but it has low input impedance. The left side shows how two additional
op amps can provide high input impedance and gain. (b) For the one-op-
amp differential amplifier, two levers with arm lengths proportional to
resistance values make possible an easy visualization of input–output
characteristics.

v3 − v5 v5 − vo
i= = (1.44)
R3 R4

Substituting (1.43) into (1.44) yields

v4 − v3 R4
vo = (1.45)
R3
 1.14 DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS 49

This is the equation for a differential amplifier. If the two inputs are hooked
together and driven by a common source, with respect to ground, then the
common-mode voltage vc is v3 = v4. Equation (1.45) shows that the ideal out-
put is 0. The differential amplifier-circuit (not op-amp) common-mode gain
Gc is 0. In Figure 1.12(b), imagine the scissors to be closed. No matter how
the inputs are varied, vo = 0.
If on the other hand v3 v4, then the differential voltage (v4 − v3) pro-
duces an amplifier-circuit (not op-amp) differential gain Gd that from (1.45)
is equal to R4/R3. This result can be visualized in Figure 1.12(b) by noting
that as the scissors open, vo is geometrically related to (v4 − v3) in the same
ratio as the lever arms, R4/R3.
No differential amplifier perfectly rejects the common-mode voltage. To
quantify this imperfection, we use the term common-mode rejection ratio
(CMRR), which is defined as

Gd
CMRR = (1.46)
Gc

This factor may be lower than 100 for some oscilloscope differential ampli-
fiers and higher than 10,000 for a high-quality biopotential amplifier.

EXAMPLE 1.9 A blood pressure sensor uses a four-active-arm Wheatstone

strain-gage bridge excited with 5 V dc. At full scale, each arm changes resist-
ance by ±0.3%. Design an amplifier that will provide a full-scale output over
the op amp’s full range of linear operation. Use the minimal number of
components.

ANSWER From (2.6), Δvo = viΔR/R = 5 V (0.003) = 0.015 V. Gain = 20/

0.015 = 1333. Assume R = 120 Ω. Then the Thevenin source impedance = 60 Ω.
Use this to replace R3 of Figure 1.12(a) right side. Then, R4 = R3 × gain = 60 Ω ×
1333 = 80 kΩ.

EXAMPLE 1.10 Derive the expression of differential mode gain (Gd) and
common-mode gain (Gc) for one-op-amp differential amplifier with
unmatched resistors.

ANSWER Figure E1.10 shows the one-amp differential amplifier with dif-
ferential signal (Vdm) and common-mode signal (Vcm) such that the output
voltage (Vout) is given as

V out = Gd × V dm + Gc × V cm
50 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION

R1 R2
V1

– +U1 Vout
R3
V2 + – LT1632
+ +
–Vdm/2 +Vdm/2
– –

R4
+
Vcm
–

The differential signal given as Vdm = (V2 − V1) and the

Figure E1.10
common-mode signal given as Vcm = (V2 + V1)/2.

V dm = V 2 – V 1 (E1.4)

V cm = V 2 + V 1 2 (E1.5)

V 2 = V cm + V dm 2 (E1.6)

V 1 = V cm – V dm 2 (E1.7)

R2 R4 R2
V out = 1+ V2 − V1 (E1.8)
R1 R3 + R4 R1

Substituting Eqs. (E1.6) and (E1.7) in (E1.8) we get

R1 R4 + R2 R3 + 2R2 R4 R1 R4 − R2 R3
V out = V dm + V cm (E1.9)
2R1 R3 + R4 R1 R3 + R4

From (E1.9) we have

R1 R4 + R2 R3 + 2R2 R4
Differential gain Gd =
2R1 R3 + R4
R1 R4 − R2 R3
Common mode gain Gc =
R1 R3 + R4
 1.14 DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS 51

EXAMPLE 1.11 You have a physiological signal (represented as a sinusoid

signal) with amplitude of 100 mV, frequency of 10 Hz, and a dc offset of 1 V.
Design a one-op-amp differential amplifier with gain of 5 to amplify the sig-
nal and remove the dc offset. Use LTspice simulation to determine the com-
mon-mode gain if the value of resistor R2 in Figure E1.11(a) changes by 1%.

ANSWER One-op-amp differential amplifier with gain of 5 is shown in

Figure E1.11(a). The offset to the signal is represented as a common-mode
voltage VCM = 1 V.

R1 R2 + VCC
10
–
VIN + 1k 5k
– +
U1 Vout
SINE(0 0.1 10) –
R3 + – LT1632

1k R4
VEE
VCM + 5k + –10
1 – –
.tran 0 1 0 0.1
(a)

1.2 V Vin
1.0 V

0.8 V
Vout
0.6 V
Amplitude

0.4 V

0.2 V

0.0 V

–0.2 V

–0.4 V

–0.6 V
0.0 s 0.1 s 0.2 s 0.3 s 0.4 s 0.5 s 0.6 s 0.7 s 0.8s 0.9 s 1.0 s
(b) Time
Figure E1.11 (a) One-op-amp differential amplifier with gain of 5. (b) Input
signal (100 mV with 1 V offset) and amplified output signal with no offset.
52 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION

Since R2 changes by 1%, we have the new R2 = 5.05 kΩ. For the LTspice
simulation, set amplitude for VIN = 0 V using statement SINE(0 0 10),
VCM = 1 V, and LTspice directive as .tran 0 1 0 0.1. Run the simulation
and observe the VOUT on the graph as shown in Figure E1.11(b), which is
about −8.33 mV. Thus, the common-mode gain Gc = 8.33 mV/1 V.

THREE-OP-AMP DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

The one-op-amp differential amplifier is quite satisfactory for low-resistance
sources, such as strain-gage Wheatstone bridges (Section 2.3). But the input
resistance is too low for high-resistance sources. Our first recourse is to add
the simple follower shown in Figure 1.11(a) to each input. This provides the
required buffering. Because this solution uses two additional op amps, we
can also obtain gain from these buffering amplifiers by using a noninverting
amplifier, as shown in Figure 1.11(b). However, this solution amplifies the
common-mode voltage, as well as the differential voltage, so there is no
improvement in CMRR.
A superior solution is achieved by hooking together the two Ri’s of the
noninverting amplifiers and eliminating the connection to ground. The result
is shown on the left side of Figure 1.12(a). To examine the effects of com-
mon-mode voltage, assume that v1 = v2. By Rule 1, v1 appears at both neg-
ative inputs to the op amps. This places the same voltage at both ends of R1.
Hence, current through R1 is 0. By Rule 2, no current can flow from the op-
amp inputs. Hence, the current through both R2’s is 0, so v1 appears at both
op-amp outputs and the Gc is 1.
To examine the effects when v1 v2, we note that v1 − v2 appears across
R1. This causes a current to flow through R1 that also flows through the resis-
tor string R2, R1, R2. Hence, the output voltage

v3 − v4 = i R2 + R1 + R2

whereas the input

v1 − v2 = iR1
The differential gain is then

v3 − v4 2R2 + R1
Gd = = (1.47)
v1 − v2 R1

Since the Gc is 1, the CMRR is equal to the Gd, which is usually much greater
than 1. When the left and right halves of Figure 1.12(a) are combined, the re-
sulting three-op-amp amplifier circuit is frequently called an instrumentation
 1.15 COMPARATORS 53

amplifier. It has high input impedance, a high CMRR, and a gain that can be
changed by adjusting R1. This circuit finds wide use in measuring biopoten-
tials (Section 6.7), because it rejects the large 60 Hz common-mode voltage
that exists on the body.
Instrumentation amplifier (for example, LT1920) combines the three op
amps of Figure 1.12 into a single package where gain can be adjusted by a
single external resistor.

1.15 COMPARATORS

SIMPLE
A comparator is a circuit that compares the input voltage with some refer-
ence voltage. The comparator’s output flips from one saturation limit to the
other, as the negative input of the op amp passes through 0 V. For vi greater
than the comparison level, vo = −13 V. For vi less than the comparison level,
vo = +13 V. Thus, this circuit performs the same function as a Schmitt trig-
ger, which detects an analog voltage level and yields a logic level output.
The simplest comparator is the op amp itself, as shown in Figure 1.9. If a
reference voltage is connected to the positive input and vi is connected
to the negative input, the circuit is complete. The inputs may be inter-
changed to invert the output. The input circuit may be expanded by adding
the two R1 resistors shown in Figure 1.13(a). This provides a known input
resistance for the circuit and minimizes overdriving the op-amp input.
Figure 1.13(b) shows that the comparator flips when vi = −vref. To avoid

vo
R1
vi 10 V With hysteresis
(R3 > 0)
–

R1 vo –10 V 10 V
vref + –vref vi
R2π
Without hysteresis
(R3 = 0)
R3 –10 V
(a) (b)
Figure 1.13 (a) Comparator. When R3 = 0, vo indicates whether (vI + vref) is
greater or less than 0 V. When R3 is larger, the comparator has hysteresis, as
shown in (b), the input–output characteristic.
54 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION

building a separate power supply for vref, we can connect vref to the −15 V
power supply and adjust the values of the input resistors so that the
negative input of the op amp is at 0 V when vi is at the desired positive
comparison level. When negative comparison levels are desired, vref is
connected to the +15 V power supply.

WITH HYSTERESIS
For a simple comparator, if vi is at the comparison level and there is noise
on vi, then vo fluctuates wildly. To prevent this, we can add hysteresis to the
comparator by adding R2 and R3, as shown in Figure 1.13(a). The effec-
t of this positive feedback is illustrated by the input–output characteristics
shown in Figure 1.13(b). To analyze this circuit, first assume that vref = −5 V
and vi = +10 V. Then, because the op amp inverts and saturates, v0 = −13 V.
Divide vo by R2 and R3 so that the positive input is at, say, −1 V. As vi is
lowered, the comparator does not flip until vi reaches +3 V, which makes
the negative input equal to the positive input, −1 V. At this point, v0 flips to
+13 V, causing the positive input to change to +1 V. Noise on vi cannot
cause v0 to flip back, because the negative input must be raised to +1 V
to cause the next flip. This requires vi to be raised to +7 V, at which level
the circuit can flip back to its original state. From this example, we see that
the width of the hysteresis is four times as great as the magnitude of the
voltage across R3. The width of the hysteresis loop can be varied by repla-
cing R3 by a potentiometer.

EXAMPLE 1.12 A physiological signal (represented by a sinusoidal signal

of 10 Hz) is amplified such that it has a voltage swing from −1 V to +10 V.
However, along with signal, the noise overriding the signal gets amplified
too. Design a comparator with hysteresis of window of 4 V, such that the
comparator flips to VOH = +12 V when the input is 0 V and VOL = −12 V
when the input is 4 V. Provide LTspice simulation results for the comparator
(Figure E1.12).

ANSWER For Figure 1.13(a) shown:

The voltage at the + terminal of the op-amp V+ = [R3/(R2 + R3)] × Vo

The voltage at the − terminal of the op-amp V− = (Vi + Vref)/2
The differential voltage Vd = V+ − V− = [R3/(R2 + R3)] × Vo − (Vi +
Vref)/2
 1.16 RECTIFIERS 55

12 V
Vi Vo
10 V
8V
6V
4V
2V
Amplitude

0V
–2 V
–4 V
–6 V
–8 V
–10 V
–12 V
0 ms 100 ms 200 ms 300 ms
Time
Figure E1.12 LTspice simulation for the comparator with hysteresis design.

The threshold voltage at Vd = 0 is given as VT = [R3/(R2 + R3)] × Vo

The upper threshold is given as VTU = [R3/(R2 + R3)] × (12) = (Vi + Vref)/
2; when Vi = 4 V
The lower threshold is given as VTL = [R3/(R2 + R3)] × (−12) = (Vi +
Vref)/2; when Vi = 0 V
Solving the above two equations, we have Vref = −2 V. Select R3 = 1 kΩ
and R2 = 11 kΩ

1.16 RECTIFIERS

Simple resistor–diode rectifiers do not work well for voltages below 0.7 V,
because the voltage is not sufficient to overcome the forward voltage drop
of the diode. This problem can be overcome by placing the diode within the
feedback loop of an op amp, thus reducing the voltage limitation by a factor
equal to the gain of the op amp.
56 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION

R
D1 D2
xR (1–x)R vo
– 10 V

vi
+
R –10 V 10 V

D4 v vi
vo = xi
D3
–
–10 V
+
(a) (b)

Ri = 2 kΩ Rf = 1 kΩ
vi vo

– D
RL = 3 kΩ
+
(c)
Figure 1.14 (a) Full-wave precision rectifier. For vi > 0, the noninverting
amplifier at the top is active, making vo > 0. For vi < 0, the inverting
amplifier at the bottom is active, making vo > 0. Circuit gain may be
adjusted with a single pot. (b) Input–output characteristics show
saturation when vo > +13 V. (Reprinted with permission from Electronics
Magazine, copyright December 12, 1974; Penton Publishing, Inc.) (c)
One-op-amp full-wave rectifier. For vi < 0, the circuit behaves like the
inverting amplifier rectifier with a gain of +0.5. For vi > 0, the op amp
disconnects and the passive resistor chain yields a gain of +0.5.

Figure 1.14(a) shows the circuit for a full-wave precision rectifier

(Graeme, 1974b). For vi > 0, D2 and D3 conduct, whereas Di and D4 are
reverse biased. The top op amp is a noninverting amplifier with a gain of
1/x, where x is a fraction corresponding to the potentiometer setting.
Because D4 is not conducting, the lower op amp does not contribute to
the output.
For vi < 0, D1 and D4 conduct, while D2 and D3 are reverse biased. At the
potentiometer wiper vi serves as the input to the lower op-amp inverting
amplifier, which has a gain of −1/x. Because D2 is not conducting, the upper
 1.16 RECTIFIERS 57

op amp does not contribute to the output. And because the polarity of the
gain switches with the polarity of vi, vo = |vi/x|.
The advantage of this circuit over other full-wave rectifier circuits (Wait
et al., 1975, p. 173) is that the gain can be varied with a single potentiometer
and the input resistance is very high. If only a half-wave rectifier is needed,
either the noninverting amplifier or the inverting amplifier can be used
separately, thus requiring only one op amp. The perfect rectifier is
frequently used with an integrator to quantify the amplitude of electromyo-
graphic signals (Section 6.8).
Figure 1.14(c) shows a one-op-amp full-wave rectifier (Tompkins and
Webster, 1988). Unlike other full-wave rectifiers, it requires the load to
remain constant, because the gain is a function of load.

EXAMPLE 1.13 For the circuit shown in Figure E1.13(a), determine the
relation between Vin and VOUT.

ANSWER During the −ve half of Vin diode D1 is reversed biased and diode
D2 is forward biased as shown in Figure E1.13(b).
Step I: Applying KCL at node Z (current entering the node = current
leaving the node), we have
(Vin − 0)/R1 = (0 − V )/(R2 + R4) + (0 − V )/R3
Vin = −3/2V
Step II: Applying KCL at node C, we have
(0 − V /(R2 + R4) = (V − Vout)/R5
Vout = 3/2 V
From Steps I and II, we have during the −ve half of Vin, Vout = −Vin
During the +ve half of Vin, we have diodes D2 is reversed biased and D1
is forward biased as shown in the Figure E1.13(c).
Step III: Applying KCL at node Z (current entering the node = current
leaving the node), we have
(Vin − 0)/R1 = (0 − V )/(R2)
Vin = −3/2V
Step IV: Applying KCL at node C, we have
(0 − V )/(R2) = (0 − Vout)/R5
Vout = −V
From Steps III and IV, we have during the +ve half of Vin, Vout = +Vin.
The circuit behaves as a full-wave rectifier.
The Vin and Vout waveforms using LTspice simulation are shown in
Figure E1.13(d) and (e), respectively.
 VCC

VEE
VEE 1k 1k 1k
+ VCC + –3.3 R2 R4 R5
3.3 A C
– –
D1

VCC

VCC
R1 1N4148
Z + U1
+U2
–
Vin + D – Vout
1k + –
+ –
– LT1632
SINE(0 1 1 0 0 0 1) LT1632
D2

VEE

VEE
1N4148

B
R3
.tran 0 1s 0
(a) 1k
VCC

VEE

VEE 1k 1k 1k
+ VCC + –3.3 R2 R4 R5
3.3 C
– –
Vʹ
VCC

VCC
R1
Z + U1
– D – +U2 Vout
Vin + +
1k –
+ –
– LT1632
SINE(0 1 1 0 0 0 1) LT1632
VEE

VEE

Vʹ
R3 B
.tran 0 1s 0
(b) 1k
VCC

VEE

VEE 1k 1k 1k
+ VCC + –3.3 R2 R4 R5
3.3 A C
– –
VCC

VCC

R1
Z + U1
+U2
–
Vin + – Vout
1k + – D
+ –
– LT1632
SINE(0 1 1 0 0 0 1) LT1632
VEE

VEE

R3
.tran 0 1s 0
(c) 1k

Figure E1.13 (a) The input Vin is sinusoidal signal with Vp = 1 V centered at
ground. The diodes D1 and D2 are forward and reversed biased depending
on the polarity of Vin signal. (b) Equivalent circuit during the –ve half of Vin.
(c) Equivalent circuit during the +ve half of Vin. (d) Vin and (e) Vout for the
full-wave rectified circuit.
 1.16 RECTIFIERS 59

1.0 V
0.8 V
0.6 V
0.4 V
0.2 V
Amplitude

0.0 V
–0.2 V
–0.4 V
–0.6 V
–0.8 V
–1.0 V
0.0 s 0.1 s 0.2 s 0.3 s 0.4 s 0.5 s 0.6 s 0.7 s 0.8 s 0.9 s 1.0 s
(d) Time

1.0 V
0.9 V
0.8 V
0.7 V
0.6 V
Amplitude

0.5 V
0.4 V
0.3 V
0.2 V
0.1 V
0.0 V
0.0 s 0.1 s 0.2 s 0.3 s 0.4 s 0.5 s 0.6 s 0.7 s 0.8 s 0.9 s 1.0 s
(e) Time

Figure E1.13 (Continued)

60 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION

1.17 LOGARITHMIC AMPLIFIERS

The logarithmic amplifier makes use of the nonlinear volt–ampere relation

of the silicon planar transistor (Jung, 1986).

IC
V BE = 0 060 log (1.48)
IS

where

V BE = base – emitter voltage

I C = collector current
I S = reverse saturation current, 10 − 13 A at 27 C

The transistor is placed in the transdiode configuration shown in

Figure 1.15(a), in which IC = vi/Ri. Then, the output vo = VBE is logarithmi-
cally related to vi as given by (1.48) over the approximate range 10−7 A < IC
< 10−2 A. The approximate range of vo is −0.36 to −0.66 V, so larger ranges of
vo are sometimes obtained by the alternate switch position shown in
Figure 1.15(a). The resistor network feeds back only a fraction of vo in order
to boost vo and uses the same principle as that used in the noninverting
amplifier. Figure 1.15(b) shows the input–output characteristics for each
of these circuits.

Ic Rf /9 vo
10 V

Rf –10 V 10 V
Ri
vi – ×1 vi
vo
+
–10 V × 10
(a) (b)
Figure 1.15 (a) A logarithmic amplifier makes use of the fact that a
transistor’s VBE is related to the logarithm of its collector current. With
the switch thrown in the alternate position, the circuit gain is increased by
10. (b) Input–output characteristics show that the logarithmic relation is
obtained for only one polarity; ×1 and ×10 gains are indicated.
 1.18 INTEGRATORS 61

Because semiconductors are temperature-sensitive, accurate circuits

require temperature compensation. Antilog (exponential) circuits are made
by interchanging the resistor and semiconductor. These log and antilog cir-
cuits are used to multiply a variable, divide it, or raise it to a power; to com-
press large dynamic ranges into small ones; and to linearize the output of
devices with logarithmic or exponential input–output relations. In the spec-
trophotometer (Section 11.1), the logarithmic converter can be used to con-
vert transmittance to absorbance.

1.18 INTEGRATORS

So far in this chapter, we have considered only circuits with a flat gain-versus-
frequency characteristic. Now let us consider circuits that have a deliberate
change in gain with frequency. The first such circuit is the integrator.
Figure 1.16 shows the circuit for an integrator, which is obtained by closing
switch Si. The voltage across an initially uncharged capacitor is given by
t1
1
v= idt (1.49)
C 0

where i is the current through C and t1 is the integration time. For the inte-
grator, for vi positive, the input current i = vi/R flows through C in a direction
to cause vo to move in a negative direction. Thus,

Ric Ric
–vic

S2
i

i C
R S1 –
vi

vo
+

Figure 1.16 A three-mode integrator With S1 open and S2 closed, the dc

circuit behaves as an inverting amplifier. Thus, vo = vic and vo can be set
to any desired initial condition. With Si closed and S2 open, the circuit
integrates. With both switches open, the circuit holds vo constant, making
possible a leisurely readout.
62 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION

t1
1
vo = − vi dt + vic (1.50)
RC 0

This shows that vo is equal to the negative integral of vi, scaled by the
factor 1/RC and added to vic, the voltage due to the initial condition. For vo = 0
and vi = constant, vo = −vi after an integration time equal to RC. Because any
real integrator eventually drifts into saturation, a means must be provided to
restore vo to any desired initial condition. If an initial condition of vo = 0 V is
desired, a simple switch to short out C is sufficient. For more versatility, S1 is
opened and S2 closed. This dc circuit then acts as an inverting amplifier,
which makes vo = vic. During integration, S1 is closed and S2 open. After
the integration, both switches may be opened to hold the output at the final
calculated value, thus permitting time for readout. The circuit is useful for
computing the area under a curve, as technicians do when they calculate car-
diac output (Section 8.2).
The frequency response of an integrator is easily analyzed because the
formula for the inverting amplifier gain (1.41) can be generalized to any
input and feedback impedances. Thus, for Figure 1.16, with S1 closed,

V o jω Zf 1 jωC
= − = −
V i jω Zi R
(1.51)
1 1
= − = −
jωRC jωτ

where τ = RC, ω = 2πf, and f = frequency. Equation (1.51) shows that the
circuit gain decreases as R increases, Figure 1.17 shows the frequency
response, and Eq. (1.51) shows that the circuit gain is 1 when ωτ = 1.

1.19 DIFFERENTIATORS

Interchanging the integrator’s R and C yields the differentiator shown in

Figure 1.18.
The current through a capacitor is given by

dv
i=C (1.52)
dt

If dvi/dt is positive, i flows through R in a direction such that it yields a neg-

ative v0. Thus,
 1.19 DIFFERENTIATORS 63

HP
100
I

BP
10

LP
1

0.1 3 2 1
1 10 100 1k
fc fc
Frequency, Hz
Figure 1.17 Bode plot (gain versus frequency) for various filters Integrator
(I); differentiator (D); low pass (LP), 1, 2, 3 section (pole); high pass
(HP); bandpass (BP). Corner frequencies fc for high-pass, low-pass, and
bandpass filters.

R
i
–
vi
C vo
+

Figure 1.18 A differentiator The dashed lines indicate that a small capacitor
must usually be added across the feedback resistor to prevent oscillation.

dvi
vo = − RC (1.53)
dt

The frequency response of a differentiator is given by the ratio of feed-

back to input impedance.
64 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION

V o jω Zf R
= − = −
V i jω Zi 1 jωC (1.54)
= − jωRC = − jωτ

Equation (1.54) shows that the circuit gain increases as f increases and that it
is equal to unity when ωτ = 1. Figure 1.17 shows the frequency response.
Unless specific preventive steps are taken, the circuit tends to oscillate.
The output also tends to be noisy, because the circuit emphasizes high fre-
quencies. A differentiator followed by a comparator is useful for detecting
an event, the slope of which exceeds a given value—for example, detection
of the R wave in an electrocardiogram.

1.20 ACTIVE FILTERS

LOW-PASS FILTER
Figure 1.6(a) shows a low-pass filter that is useful for attenuating high-
frequency noise. A low-pass active filter can be obtained by using the
one-op-amp circuit shown in Figure 1.19(a). The advantages of this circuit
are that it is capable of gain and that it has very low output impedance.
The frequency response is given by the ratio of feedback to input impedance.

Rf jωCf
V o jω Zf 1 jωCf + Rf
= − = −
V i jω Zi Ri (1.55)
Rf Rf 1
= − = −
1 + jωRf Cf Ri Ri 1 + jωτ

where τ = RfCf. Note that (1.55) has the same form as (1.23). Figure 1.17
shows the frequency response, which is similar to that shown in Figure 1.6
(d). For ω 1/τ, the circuit behaves as an inverting amplifier
(Figure 1.10), because the impedance of Cf is large compared with Rf. For
ω 1/τ, the circuit behaves as an integrator (Figure 1.16), because Cf is
the dominant feedback impedance. The corner frequency fc, which is defined
by the intersection of the two asymptotes shown, is given by the relation ωτ =
2πfcτ = 1. When a designer wishes to limit the frequency of a wide-band
amplifier, it is not necessary to add a separate stage, as shown in
Figure 1.19(a), but only to add the correct size Cf to the existing wide-band
amplifier.