IB SL AA Syllabus

Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide
Syllabus
Syllabus outline
Syllabus component Suggested teaching hours
SL HL
Topic 1—Number and algebra 19 39
Topic 2—Functions 21 32
Topic 3— Geometry and 25 51

trigonometry
Topic 4—Statistics and 27 33

probability
Topic 5 —Calculus 28 55
The toolkit and the 30 30

mathematical exploration
Investigative, problem-
solving and modelling skills
development leading to
an individual exploration.
The exploration is a piece of
written work that involves
investigating an area of
mathematics.
Total teaching hours 150 240
1
All topics are compulsory. Students must study all the sub-topics in each of the topics in the syllabus
as listed in this guide. Students are also required to be familiar with the topics listed as prior learning.
Prior learning topics

Prior to starting a DP mathematics course students have extensive previous mathematical
experiences, but these will vary. It is expected that mathematics students will be familiar with the
following topics before they take the examinations because questions assume knowledge of them.
Teachers must therefore ensure that any topics listed here that are unknown to their students at the
start of the course are included at an early stage. Teachers should also take into account the existing
mathematical knowledge of their students to design an appropriate course of study for mathematics.
This table lists the knowledge, together with the syllabus content, that is essential for successful
completion of the mathematics course.
Number and algebra

• Number systems: natural numbers ; integers, ; rationals, , and irrationals; real numbers,
• SI (Système International) units for mass, time, length and their derived units, eg. speed, area and
volume
• Rounding, decimal approximations and significant figures, including appreciation of errors
• Definition and elementary treatment of absolute value (modulus),
• Use of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division using integers, decimals and fractions,
including order of operations
• Prime numbers, factors (divisors) and multiples
• Greatest common factor (divisor) and least common multiples (HL only)
• Simple applications of ratio, percentage and proportion
• Manipulation of algebraic expressions, including factorization and expansion
• Rearranging formulae
• Calculating the numerical value of expressions by substitution
• Evaluating exponential expressions with simple positive exponents
2
• Evaluating exponential expressions with rational exponents (HL only)

• Use of inequalities, , intervals on the real number line
• Simplification of simple expressions involving roots (surds or radicals)
• Rationalising the denominator (HL only)
• Expression of numbers in the form , ,
• Familiarity with commonly accepted world currencies
• Solution of linear equations and inequalities
• Solution of quadratic equations and inequalities with rational coefficients (HL only)
• Solving systems of linear equations in two variables
• Concept and basic notation of sets. Operations on sets: union and intersection
• Addition and subtraction of algebraic fractions (HL only).
Functions
• Graphing linear and quadratic functions using technology
• Mappings of the elements of one set to another. Illustration by means of sets of ordered pairs,
tables, diagrams and graphs.
Geometry and trigonometry
• Pythagoras’ theorem and its converse
• Mid-point of a line segment and the distance between two points in the Cartesian plane
• Geometric concepts: point, line, plane, angle
• Angle measurement in degrees, compass directions
• The triangle sum theorem
• Right-angle trigonometry, including simple applications for solving triangles
• Three-figure bearings
• Simple geometric transformations: translation, reflection, rotation, enlargement
• The circle, its centre and radius, area and circumference. The terms diameter, arc, sector, chord,
tangent and segment
3
• Perimeter and area of plane figures. Properties of triangles and quadrilaterals, including
parallelograms, rhombuses, rectangles, squares, kites and trapezoids; compound shapes
• Familiarity with three-dimensional shapes (prisms, pyramids, spheres, cylinders and cones)
• Volumes and surface areas of cuboids, prisms, cylinders, and compound three-dimensional shapes
Statistics and probability

• The collection of data and its representation in bar charts, pie charts, pictograms, and line graphs
• Obtaining simple statistics from discrete data, including mean, median, mode, range
• Calculating probabilities of simple events
• Venn diagrams for sorting data
• Tree diagrams
Calculus
Syllabus content
Topic 1: Number and algebra
Concepts
Essential understandings:
Number and algebra allow us to represent patterns, show equivalencies and make generalizations
which enable us to model real-world situations. Algebra is an abstraction of numerical concepts and
employs variables which allow us to solve mathematical problems.
Suggested concepts embedded in this topic:
Generalization, representation, modelling, equivalence, patterns, quantity
AHL: Validity, systems.
Content-specific conceptual understandings:

• Modelling real-life situations with the structure of arithmetic and geometric sequences and series
allows for prediction, analysis and interpretation.
4
• Different representations of numbers enable equivalent quantities to be compared and used in

calculations with ease to an appropriate degree of accuracy.
• Numbers and formulae can appear in different, but equivalent, forms, or representations, which
can help us to establish identities.
• Formulae are a generalization made on the basis of specific examples, which can then be extended
to new examples.
• Logarithm laws provide the means to find inverses of exponential functions which model real-life
situations.
• Patterns in numbers inform the development of algebraic tools that can be applied to find
unknowns.
• The binomial theorem is a generalization which provides an efficient method for expanding
binomial expressions.
AHL
• Proof serves to validate mathematical formulae and the equivalence of identities.
• Representing partial fractions and complex numbers in different forms allows us to easily carry out
seemingly difficult calculations.
• The solution for systems of equations can be carried out by a variety of equivalent algebraic and
graphical methods.
SL content
Recommended teaching hours: 19
The aim of the SL content of the number and algebra topic is to introduce students to numerical
concepts and techniques which, combined with an introduction to arithmetic and geometric
sequences and series, can be used for financial and other applications. Students will also be
introduced to the formal concept of proof.
Sections SL1.1 to SL1.5 are content common to Mathematics: analysis and approaches and
Mathematics: applications and interpretation.
5
SL 1.1
Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links
Operations with numbers in the form where Calculator or computer notation is not
and is an integer. acceptable. For example, 5.2E30 is not
acceptable and should be written as .
Connections
Other contexts: Very large and very small numbers, for example astronomical distances, sub-atomic
particles in physics, global financial figures
Links to other subjects: Chemistry (Avogadro’s number); physics (order of magnitude); biology
(microscopic measurements); sciences group subjects (uncertainty and precision of measurement)
International-mindedness: The history of number from Sumerians and its development to the
present Arabic system
TOK: Do the names that we give things impact how we understand them? For instance, what is the
impact of the fact that some large numbers are named, such as the googol and the googolplex, while
others are represented in this form?
Download connections template
6
SL 1.2
Arithmetic sequences and series. Spreadsheets, GDCs and graphing software may
be used to generate and display sequences in
Use of the formulae for the term and the sum of several ways.
the first terms of the sequence.
If technology is used in examinations, students
Use of sigma notation for sums of arithmetic will be expected to identify the first term and
sequences. the common difference.
Applications. Examples include simple interest over a number

of years.
Analysis, interpretation and prediction where a Students will need to approximate common
model is not perfectly arithmetic in real life. differences.
Connections
International-mindedness: Aryabhatta is sometimes considered the “father of algebra”–compare

with alKhawarizmi; the use of several alphabets in mathematical notation (for example the use of
capital sigma for the sum).
TOK: Is all knowledge concerned with identification and use of patterns? Consider Fibonacci numbers
and connections with the golden ratio.
7
SL 1.3
Geometric sequences and series. Spreadsheets, GDCs and graphing software may
be used to generate and display sequences in
Use of the formulae for the n th term and the several ways.
sum of the first n terms of the sequence.
If technology is used in examinations, students
Use of sigma notation for the sums of geometric will be expected to identify the first term and
sequences. the ratio.
Link to: models/functions in topic 2 and

regression in topic 4.
Applications. Examples include the spread of disease, salary

increase and decrease and population growth.
Connections
Links to other subjects: Radioactive decay, nuclear physics, charging and discharging capacitors
(physics).
International-mindedness: The chess legend (Sissa ibn Dahir).
TOK: How do mathematicians reconcile the fact that some conclusions seem to conflict with our
intuitions? Consider for instance that a finite area can be bounded by an infinite perimeter.
8
SL 1.4
Financial applications of geometric sequences Examination questions may require the use
and series: of technology, including built-in financial
packages.
• compound interest
• annual depreciation. The concept of simple interest may be used as
an introduction to compound interest.
Calculate the real value of an investment with an

interest rate and an inflation rate.
In examinations, questions that ask students to

derive the formula will not be set.
Compound interest can be calculated yearly,

half-yearly, quarterly or monthly.
Link to: exponential models/functions in topic

2.
Connections
Other contexts: Loans.
Links to other subjects: Loans and repayments (economics and business management).
Aim 8: Ethical perceptions of borrowing and lending money.
International-mindedness: Do all societies view investment and interest in the same way?
TOK: How have technological advances affected the nature and practice of mathematics? Consider
the use of financial packages for instance.
9
Enrichment: The concept of e can be introduced through continuous compounding, , as , however

this will not be examined.
SL 1.5
Laws of exponents with integer exponents. Examples:
,,,,.
Introduction to logarithms with base 10 and e. Awareness that is equivalent to , that , and .
Numerical evaluation of logarithms using

technology.
Connections
Other contexts: Richter scale and decibel scale.
Links to other subjects: Calculation of pH and buffer solutions (chemistry)
TOK: Is mathematics invented or discovered? For instance, consider the number e or logarithms–did
they already exist before man defined them? (This topic is an opportunity for teachers to generate
reflection on “the nature of mathematics”).
10
SL 1.6
Simple deductive proof, numerical and Example: Show that . Show that the algebraic
algebraic; how to lay out a left-hand side to generalisation of this is
right-hand side (LHS to RHS) proof.
LHS to RHS proofs require students to begin
The symbols and notation for equality and with the left-hand side expression and transform
identity. this using known algebraic steps into the
expression on the right-hand side (or vice versa).
Example: Show that .
Students will be expected to show how they

can check a result including a check of their own
results.
Connections
TOK: Is mathematical reasoning different from scientific reasoning, or reasoning in other Areas of
Knowledge?
11
SL 1.7
Laws of exponents with rational exponents. , if is even this refers to the positive root. For
example: .
Laws of logarithms. ;,,
Link to: introduction to logarithms (SL1.5)
Examples: ,
for Link to: logarithmic and exponential graphs

(SL2.9)
Change of base of a logarithm. Examples:
, for
Solving exponential equations, including using Examples: , .

logarithms.
Link to: using logarithmic and exponential
graphs (SL2.9).
Connections
Links to other subjects: pH, buffer calculations and finding activation energy from experimental data
(chemistry).
TOK: How have seminal advances, such as the development of logarithms, changed the way in which
mathematicians understand the world and the nature of mathematics?
12
SL 1.8
Sum of infinite convergent geometric Use of and modulus notation.

sequences.
Link to: geometric sequences and series (SL1.3).
Connections
TOK: Is it possible to know about things of which we can have no experience, such as infinity?
SL 1.9
The binomial theorem: Counting principles may be used in the

development of the theorem.
expansion of .
Use of Pascal’s triangle and . should be found using both the formula and
technology.
Example: Find when , using a table of values

generated with technology.
Connections
Aim 8: Ethics in mathematics–Pascal’s triangle. Attributing the origin of a mathematical discovery to

the wrong mathematician.
International-mindedness: The properties of “Pascal’s triangle” have been known in a number of

different cultures long before Pascal. (for example the Chinese mathematician Yang Hui).
TOK: How have notable individuals shaped the development of mathematics as an area of
knowledge? Consider Pascal and “his” triangle.
13
AHL content
The aim of the AHL content in the number and algebra topic is to extend and build upon the aims,
concepts and skills from the SL content. It introduces students to some important techniques
for expansion, simplification and solution of equations. Complex numbers are introduced and
students will extend their knowledge of formal proof to proof by mathematical induction, proof by
contradiction and proof by counterexample.
AHL 1.10
Counting principles, including permutations Not required: Permutations where some

and combinations. objects are identical. Circular arrangements.
Extension of the binomial theorem to fractional ,

and negative indices, ie .
Link to: power series expansions (AHL5.19)
Not required: Proof of binomial theorem.

Connections
Other contexts: Finding approximations to
Aim 8: How many different tickets are possible in a lottery? What does this tell us about the ethics of
selling lottery tickets to those who do not understand the implications of these large numbers?
International-mindedness: The properties of “Pascal’s triangle” have been known in a number of

different cultures long before Pascal (for example the Chinese mathematician Yang Hui).
TOK: What counts as understanding in mathematics? Is it more than just getting the right answer?
14
AHL 1.11
Partial fractions. Maximum of two distinct linear terms in the

denominator, with degree of numerator less
than the degree of the denominator.
Example: .
Link to: use of partial fractions to rearrange the

integrand (AHL5.15).
Connections
AHL 1.12
Complex numbers: the number , where .
Cartesian form ; the terms real part, imaginary

part, conjugate, modulus and argument.
The complex plane. The complex plane is also known as the Argand
diagram.
Link to: vectors (AHL3.12).

Connections
15
Other contexts: Concepts in electrical engineering—impedance as a combination of resistance and

reactance, also apparent power as a combination of real and reactive powers. These combinations
take the form .
TOK: How does language shape knowledge? For example, do the words “imaginary” and “complex”
make the concepts more difficult than if they had different names?
AHL 1.13
Modulus–argument (polar) form: The ability to convert between Cartesian,

modulus-argument (polar) and Euler form is
. expected.
Euler form:
Sums, products and quotients in Cartesian,

polar or Euler forms and their geometric
interpretation.
Connections
Other contexts: Concepts in electrical engineering–phase angle/shift, power factor and apparent
power as a complex quantity in polar form.
TOK: Why might it be said that is beautiful? What is the place of beauty and elegance in mathematics?
What about the place of creativity?
16
AHL 1.14
Complex conjugate roots of quadratic and Complex roots occur in conjugate pairs.
polynomial equations with real coefficients.
De Moivre’s theorem and its extension to Includes proof by induction for the case where .
rational exponents.
Link to: sum and product of roots of polynomial
Powers and roots of complex numbers. equations (AHL 2.12), compound angle
identities (AHL 3.10).
Connections
TOK: Could we ever reach a point where everything important in a mathematical sense is known?
Reflect on the creation of complex numbers before their applications were known.
Enrichment: Can De Moivre’s theorem be extended to all ?
17
AHL 1.15
Proof by mathematical induction. Proof should be incorporated throughout the

course where appropriate.
Mathematical induction links specifically to a

wide variety of topics, for example complex
numbers, differentiation, sums of sequences and
divisibility.
Proof by contradiction. Examples: Irrationality of ; irrationality of the

cube root of 5; Euclid’s proof of an infinite
number of prime numbers; if is a rational
number and is an irrational number, then is an
irrational number.
Use of a counterexample to show that a Example: Consider the set of numbers of the
statement is not always true. form , show that not all elements of are prime.
Example: Show that the following statement

is not always true: there are no positive integer
solutions to the equation .
It is not sufficient to state the counterexample

alone. Students must explain why their example
is a counterexample.
Connections
Other contexts: The Four-colour theorem
International-mindedness: How did the Pythagoreans find out that is irrational?
18
TOK: What is the role of the mathematical community in determining the validity of a mathematical
proof? Do proofs provide us with completely certain knowledge? What is the difference between the
inductive method in science and proof by induction in mathematics?
AHL 1.16
Solutions of systems of linear equations These systems should be solved using both
(a maximum of three equations in three algebraic and technological methods, for
unknowns), including cases where there is a example row reduction or matrices.
unique solution, an infinite number of solutions
or no solution. Systems which have no solution(s) are
inconsistent.
Finding a general solution for a system with an

infinite number of solutions.
Link to: intersection of lines and planes (AHL

3.18).
Connections
TOK: Mathematics, Sense, Perception and Reason: If we can find solutions in higher dimensions can
we reason that these spaces exist beyond our sense perception?
Topic 2: Functions
Concepts
Essential understandings
Models are depictions of real-life events using expressions, equations or graphs while a function is
defined as a relation or expression involving one or more variables. Creating different representations
19
of functions to model the relationships between variables, visually and symbolically as graphs,
equations and tables represents different ways to communicate mathematical ideas.
Representation, relationships, space, quantity, equivalence.
AHL: Systems, patterns.

• Different representations of functions, symbolically and visually as graphs, equations and tables
provide different ways to communicate mathematical relationships.
• The parameters in a function or equation correspond to geometrical features of a graph and can
represent physical quantities in spatial dimensions.
• Moving between different forms to represent functions allows for deeper understanding and
provides different approaches to problem solving.
• Our spatial frame of reference affects the visible part of a function and by changing this “window”
can show more or less of the function to best suit our needs.
• Equivalent representations of quadratic functions can reveal different characteristics of the same
relationship.
• Functions represent mappings that assign to each value of the independent variable (input) one
and only one dependent variable (output).
AHL
• Extending results from a specific case to a general form can allow us to apply them to a larger
system.
• Patterns can be identified in behaviours which can give us insight into appropriate strategies to
model or solve them.
• The intersection of a system of equations may be represented graphically and algebraically and
represents the solution that satisfies the equations.
SL content
20
The aim of the SL content in the functions topic is to introduce students to the important unifying
theme of a function in mathematics and to apply functional methods to a variety of mathematical
situations.
Throughout this topic students should be given the opportunity to use technology, such as graphing
packages and graphing calculators to develop and apply their knowledge of functions, rather than
using elaborate analytic techniques.
On examination papers:
• questions may be set requiring the graphing of functions that do not explicitly appear on the
syllabus
• the domain will be the largest possible domain for which a function is defined unless otherwise
stated; this will usually be the real numbers
Sections SL2.1 to SL2.4 are content common to both Mathematics: analysis and approaches and
SL 2.1
Different forms of the equation of a straight line. (gradient-intercept form).
Gradient; intercepts. (general form).
Lines with gradients and (point-gradient form).
Parallel lines . Calculate gradients of inclines such as mountain

roads, bridges, etc.
Perpendicular lines .
Connections
Other contexts: Gradients of mountain roads, gradients of access ramps.
21
Links to other subjects: Exchange rates and price and income elasticity, demand and supply curves
(economics); graphical analysis in experimental work (sciences group subjects).
TOK: Descartes showed that geometric problems could be solved algebraically and vice versa. What
does this tell us about mathematical representation and mathematical knowledge?
SL 2.2
Concept of a function, domain, range and graph. Example: , the domain is , range is .
Function notation, for example . A graph is helpful in visualizing the range.
The concept of a function as a mathematical

model.
Informal concept that an inverse function Example: Solving is equivalent to finding .

reverses or undoes the effect of a function.
Students should be aware that inverse functions
Inverse function as a reflection in the line , and exist for one to one functions; the domain of is
the notation . equal to the range of .
Connections
Other contexts: Temperature and currency conversions.
Links to other subjects: Currency conversions and cost functions (economics and business
management); projectile motion (physics).
Aim 8: What is the relationship between real-world problems and mathematical models?
International-mindedness: The development of functions by Rene Descartes (France), Gottfried

Wilhelm Leibnitz (Germany) and Leonhard Euler (Switzerland); the notation for functions was
22
developed by a number of different mathematicians in the 17th and 18th centuries–how did the
notation we use today become internationally accepted?
TOK: Do you think mathematics or logic should be classified as a language?
SL 2.3
The graph of a function; its equation . Students should be aware of the difference
between the command terms “draw” and
“sketch”.
Creating a sketch from information given or a All axes and key features should be labelled.
context, including transferring a graph from
screen to paper. This may include functions not specifically
mentioned in topic 2.
Using technology to graph functions including
their sums and differences.
Connections
Links to other subjects: Sketching and interpreting graphs (sciences group subjects, geography,
economics).
TOK: Does studying the graph of a function contain the same level of mathematical rigour as studying
the function algebraically? What are the advantages and disadvantages of having different forms and
symbolic language in mathematics?
23
SL 2.4
Determine key features of graphs. Maximum and minimum values; intercepts;

symmetry; vertex; zeros of functions or roots of
equations; vertical and horizontal asymptotes
using graphing technology.
Finding the point of intersection of two curves

or lines using technology.
Connections
Links to other subjects: Identification and interpretation of key features of graphs (sciences
group subjects, geography, economics); production possibilities curve model, market equilibrium
(economics).
International-mindedness: Bourbaki group analytical approach versus the Mandelbrot visual

approach.
Use of technology: Graphing technology with sliders to determine the effects of altering parameters
and variables.
24
SL 2.5
Composite functions.
Identity function. Finding the inverse function .
The existence of an inverse for one-to-one

functions.
Link to: concept of inverse function as a

reflection in the line (SL 2.2).
Connections
TOK: Do you think mathematics or logic should be classified as a language?
SL 2.6
The quadratic function : its graph, -intercept . A quadratic graph is also called a parabola.
Axis of symmetry.
Link to: transformations (SL 2.11).
The form ,
Candidates are expected to be able to change
- intercepts and . from one form to another.
The form , vertex .

Connections
Links to other subjects: Kinematics, projectile motion and simple harmonic motion (physics).
25
TOK: Are there fundamental differences between mathematics and other areas of knowledge? If so,
are these differences more than just methodological differences?
SL 2.7
Solution of quadratic equations and inequalities. Using factorization, completing the square
(vertex form), and the quadratic formula.
The quadratic formula.
Solutions may be referred to as roots or zeros.
The discriminant and the nature of the roots, Example: For the equation , find the possible
that is, two distinct real roots, two equal real values of , which will give two distinct real roots,
roots, no real roots. two equal real roots or no real roots.
Connections
Links to other subjects: Projectile motion and energy changes in simple harmonic motion (physics);
equilibrium equations (chemistry).
International-mindedness: The Babylonian method of multiplication: . Sulba Sutras in ancient India

and the Bakhshali Manuscript contained an algebraic formula for solving quadratic equations.
TOK: What are the key concepts that provide the building blocks for mathematical knowledge?
Use of technology: Dynamic graphing software with a slider.
Enrichment: Deriving the quadratic formula by completing the square.
26
SL 2.8
The reciprocal function : its graph and self-

inverse nature.
Rational functions of the form and their graphs. Sketches should include all horizontal and
vertical asymptotes and any intercepts with the
Equations of vertical and horizontal asymptotes. axes.
Link to: transformations (SL2.11).
Vertical asymptote: ;
Horizontal asymptote: .
Connections
International-mindedness: The development of functions, Rene Descartes (France), Gottfried

Wilhelm Leibniz (Germany) and Leonhard Euler (Switzerland).
TOK: What are the implications of accepting that mathematical knowledge changes over time?
27
SL 2.9
Exponential functions and their graphs: Link to: financial applications of geometric
sequences and series (SL 1.4).
,,
Relationships between these functions:
Logarithmic functions and their graphs:
;,
,,,.
Exponential and logarithmic functions as
inverses of each other.
Connections
Links to other subjects: Radioactive decay, charging and discharging capacitors (physics); first order
reactions and activation energy (chemistry); growth curves (biology).
Aim 8: The phrase “exponential growth” is used popularly to describe a number of phenomena. Is ths
a misleading use of a mathematical term?
TOK: What role do “models” play in mathematics? Do they play a different role in mathematics
compared to their role in other areas of knowledge?
28
SL 2.10
Solving equations, both graphically and Example: .

analytically.
Link to: function graphing skills (SL 2.3).
Use of technology to solve a variety of Examples:

equations, including those where there is no
appropriate analytic approach.
Applications of graphing skills and solving Link to: exponential growth (SL 2.9)
equations that relate to real-life situations.
Connections
Other contexts: Radioactive decay and population growth and decay, compound interest, projectile
motion, braking distances.
Links to other subjects: Radioactive decay (physics); modelling (sciences group subjects); production
possibilities curve model (economics).
TOK: What assumptions do mathematicians make when they apply mathematics to real-life
situations?
29
SL 2.11
Transformations of graphs. Students should be aware of the relevance

of the order in which transformations are
Translations: . performed.
Reflections (in both axes): . Dynamic graphing packages could be used to

investigate these transformations.
Vertical stretch with scale factor : .
Horizontal stretch with scale factor : .
Composite transformations. Example: Using to sketch
Link to: composite functions (SL2.5).
Not required at SL: transformations of the form

.
Connections
Links to other subjects: Shift in supply and demand curves (Economics); induced emf and simple
harmonic motion (physics).
AHL content
The aim of the AHL functions topic is to extend and build upon the aims, concepts and skills from the
SL content. It introduces students to useful techniques for finding and using roots of polynomials,
graphing and interpreting rational functions, additional ways to classify functions, solving inequations
and solving equations involving modulus notation.
30
HL students may be required to use technology to solve equations where there is no appropriate
analytic approach.
AHL 2.12
Polynomial functions, their graphs and

equations; zeros, roots and factors.
The factor and remainder theorems.
Sum and product of the roots of polynomial For the polynomial equation: ,
equations.
the sum is
the product is
Link to: complex roots of quadratic and

polynomial equations (AHL 1.14).
Connections
Links to other subjects: Modelling (sciences group subjects)
TOK: Is it an oversimplification to say that some areas of knowledge give us facts whereas other areas
of knowledge give us interpretations?
Enrichment: Viete’s theorem in full, “The equation that couldn’t be solved” quadratic formula
reducing a quadratic to a linear, Cardano and Bombelli.
31
AHL 2.13
Rational functions of the form The reciprocal function is a particular case.
, and Graphs should include all asymptotes

(horizontal, vertical and oblique) and any
intercepts with axes.
Dynamic graphing packages could be used to

investigate these functions.
Link to: rational functions (SL 2.8).

Connections
International mindedness: Bourbaki group analytical approach versus Mandelbrot visual approach.
TOK: Does studying the graph of a function contain the same level of mathematical rigour as studying
the function algebraically? What are the advantages and disadvantages of having different forms and
symbolic language in mathematics?
32
AHL 2.14
Odd and even functions. Even:
Odd:
Includes periodic functions.
Finding the inverse function, ,
including domain restriction.
Self-inverse functions.
Connections
International-mindedness: The notation for functions was developed by a number of different

mathematicians in the 17th and 18th centuries. How did the notation we use today become
internationally accepted?
TOK: If systems of notation and measurement are culturally and historically situated, does this mean
mathematics cannot be seen as independent of culture?
AHL 2.15
Solutions of , both graphically and analytically. Graphical or algebraic methods for simple
polynomials up to degree 3. Use of technology
for these and other functions.
Connections
33
TOK: Are there differences in terms of value that different cultures ascribe to mathematics, or to the
relative value that they ascribe to different areas of knowledge?
AHL 2.16
The graphs of the functions, Dynamic graphing packages could be used to

investigate these transformations.
and .
Solution of modulus equations and inequalities. Example:

Connections
International-mindedness: The Bourbaki group analytic approach versus Mandlebrot visual

approach.
Topic 3: Geometry and trigonometry

Concepts
Geometry and trigonometry allows us to quantify the physical world, enhancing our spatial awareness
in two and three dimensions. This topic provides us with the tools for analysis, measurement and
transformation of quantities, movements and relationships.
Generalization, space, relationships, equivalence, representation,
AHL: Quantity, Modelling.
34

• The properties of shapes depend on the dimension they occupy in space.
• Volume and surface area of shapes are determined by formulae, or general mathematical
relationships or rules expressed using symbols or variables.
• The relationships between the length of the sides and the size of the angles in a triangle can be
used to solve many problems involving position, distance, angles and area.
• Equivalent measurement systems, such as degrees and radians, can be used for angles to facilitate
ease of calculation.
• Different representations of the values of trigonometric relationships, such as exact or
approximate, may not be equivalent to one another.
• The trigonometric functions of angles may be defined on the unit circle, which can visually and
algebraically represent the periodic or symmetric nature of their values.
AHL
• Position and movement can be modelled in three-dimensional space using vectors.
• The relationships between algebraic, geometric and vector methods can help us to solve problems
and quantify those positions and movements.
SL content
The aim of the SL content of the geometry and trigonometry topic is to introduce students to
geometry in three dimensions and to non right-angled trigonometry. Students will explore the
circular functions and use properties and identities to solve problems in abstract and real-life contexts.
Throughout this topic students should be given the opportunity to use technology such as graphing
packages, graphing calculators and dynamic geometry software to develop and apply their
knowledge of geometry and trigonometry.
On examination papers, radian measure should be assumed unless otherwise indicated.
35
SL 3.1
The distance between two points in three- In SL examinations, only right-angled

dimensional space, and their midpoint. trigonometry questions will be set in reference
to three-dimensional shapes.
Volume and surface area of three-dimensional
solids including right-pyramid, right cone, In problems related to these topics, students
sphere, hemisphere and combinations of these should be able to identify relevant right-angled
solids. triangles in three-dimensional objects and use
them to find unknown lengths and angles.
The size of an angle between two intersecting
lines or between a line and a plane.
Connections
Other contexts: Architecture and design.
Links to other subjects: Design technology; volumes of stars and inverse square law (physics).
TOK: What is an axiomatic system? Are axioms self evident to everybody?
36
SL 3.2
Use of sine, cosine and tangent ratios to find the In all areas of this topic, students should be
sides and angles of right-angled triangles. encouraged to sketch well-labelled diagrams to
support their solutions.
Link to: inverse functions (SL2.2) when finding

angles.
The sine rule: . This section does not include the ambiguous
case of the sine rule.
The cosine rule:
Area of a triangle as .
Connections
Other contexts: Triangulation, map-making.
Links to other subjects: Vectors (physics).
International-mindedness: Diagrams of Pythagoras’ theorem occur in early Chinese and Indian

manuscripts. The earliest references to trigonometry are in Indian mathematics; the use of
triangulation to find the curvature of the Earth in order to settle a dispute between England and
France over Newton’s gravity.
TOK: Is it ethical that Pythagoras gave his name to a theorem that may not have been his own
creation? What criteria might we use to make such a judgment?
37
SL 3.3
Applications of right and non-right angled Contexts may include use of bearings.
trigonometry, including Pythagoras’s theorem.
Angles of elevation and depression.
Construction of labelled diagrams from written

statements.
Connections
Other contexts: Triangulation, map-making, navigation and radio transmissions. Use of parallax for
navigation.
Links to other subjects: Vectors, scalars, forces and dynamics (physics); field studies (sciences group
subjects)
Aim 8: Who really invented Pythagoras’s theorem?
Aim 9: In how many ways can you prove Pythagoras’s theorem?
International-mindedness: The use of triangulation to find the curvature of the Earth in order to
settle a dispute between England and France over Newton’s gravity.
TOK: If the angles of a triangle can add up to less than 180°, 180° or more than 180°, what does this tell
us about the nature of mathematical knowledge?
38
SL 3.4
The circle: radian measure of angles; length of Radian measure may be expressed as exact
an arc; area of a sector. multiples of , or decimals.
Connections
Links to other subjects: Diffraction patterns and circular motion (physics).
International-mindedness: Seki Takakazu calculating to ten decimal places; Hipparchus, Menelaus

and Ptolemy; Why are there 360 degrees in a complete turn? Links to Babylonian mathematics.
TOK: Which is a better measure of angle: radian or degree? What criteria can/do/should
mathematicians use to make such decisions?
SL 3.5
Definition of , in terms of the unit circle. Includes the relationship between angles in
different quadrants.
Examples:
Definition of as . The equation of a straight line through the

origin is , where is the angle formed between
the line and positive -axis.
Exact values of trigonometric ratios of 0, , , , and ,,

their multiples.
Extension of the sine rule to the ambiguous

case.
39
Connections
International-mindedness: The first work to refer explicitly to the sine as a function of an angle is the
Aryabhatiya of Aryabhata (ca 510).
TOK: Trigonometry was developed by successive civilizations and cultures. To what extent is
mathematical knowledge embedded in particular traditions or bound to particular cultures? How
have key events in the history of mathematics shaped its current form and methods?
Enrichment: The proof of Pythagoras’ theorem in three dimensions.
SL 3.6
The Pythagorean identity . Simple geometrical diagrams and dynamic

graphing packages may be used to illustrate the
Double angle identities for sine and cosine. double angle identities (and other trigonometric
identities).
The relationship between trigonometric ratios. Examples:
Given , find possible values of , (without finding

).
Given and is acute, find , (without finding ).

Connections
40
SL 3.7
The circular functions , , and ; amplitude, their Trigonometric functions may have domains
periodic nature, and their graphs given in degrees or radians.
Composite functions of the form Examples: ,
. .
Transformations. Example: used to obtain by a stretch

of scale factor 3 in the direction and a stretch of
scale factor in the direction.
Link to: transformations of graphs (SL2.11).
Real-life contexts. Examples: height of tide, motion of a Ferris

wheel.
Students should be aware that not all regression

technology produces trigonometric functions in
the form .
Connections
Links to other subjects: Simple harmonic motion (physics).
TOK: Music can be expressed using mathematics. What does this tell us about the relationship
between music and mathematics?
41
SL 3.8
Solving trigonometric equations in a finite Examples:

interval, both graphically and analytically.
Equations leading to quadratic equations in or . Examples: for ,
Not required: The general solution of

trigonometric equations.
Connections
AHL content
The aim of the AHL content in the geometry and trigonometry topic is to extend and build upon the
aims, concepts and skills from the SL content. It further explores the circular functions, introduces
some important trigonometric identities, and introduces vectors in two and three dimensions. This
will facilitate problem-solving involving points, lines and planes.
On examination papers radian measure should be assumed unless otherwise indicated.
42
AHL 3.9
Definition of the reciprocal trigonometric ratios ,

and .
Pythagorean identities:
The inverse functions ; their domains and

ranges; their graphs.
Connections
International-mindedness: The origin of degrees in the mathematics of Mesopotamia and why we

use minutes and seconds for time; the origin of the word sine.
TOK: What is the relationship between concepts and facts? To what extent do the concepts that we
use shape the conclusions that we reach?
AHL 3.10
Compound angle identities. Derivation of double angle identities from

compound angle identities.
Double angle identity for tan.
Link to: De Moivre’s theorem (AHL1.14).
Connections
Other contexts: Triangulation used by GPSs (global positioning systems); concepts in electrical
engineering including generation of sinusoidal voltage.
43
AHL 3.11
Relationships between trigonometric functions

and the symmetry properties of their graphs.
Link to: the unit circle (SL3.5), odd and even
functions (AHL2.14), compound angles
(AHL3.10).
Connections
Links to other subjects: Simple harmonic motion graphs (physics)
TOK: Mathematics and knowledge claims: how can there be an infinite number of discrete solutions to
an equation?
44
AHL 3.12
Concept of a vector; position vectors;

displacement vectors.
Representation of vectors using directed line

segments.
Base vectors .
Components of a vector:
Algebraic and geometric approaches to the Distance between points and is the magnitude
following: of
• the sum and difference of two vectors

• the zero vector , the vector
• multiplication by a scalar, , parallel vectors
• magnitude of a vector, ; unit vectors,
• position vectors
• displacement vector
Proofs of geometrical properties using vectors.

Connections
Links to other subjects: Vectors, scalars, forces and dynamics (physics).
Aim 8: Vectors are used to solve many problems in position location. This can be used to save a lost
sailor or destroy a building with a laser-guided bomb.
45
TOK: Vectors are used to solve many problems in position location. This can be used to save a lost
sailor or destroy a building with a laser-guided bomb. To what extent does possession of knowledge
carry with it an ethical obligation?
AHL 3.13
The definition of the scalar product of two Applications of the properties of the scalar
vectors. product
The angle between two vectors. ;
Perpendicular vectors; parallel vectors. ;
, where is the angle between and .
For non-zero vectors is equivalent to the vectors

being perpendicular; for parallel vectors .
Connections
Links to other subjects: Forces and dynamics (physics).
TOK: The nature of mathematics: why this definition of scalar product?
Enrichment: Proof of the cosine rule using the dot product.
46
AHL 3.14
Vector equation of a line in two and three Relevance of (position) and (direction).
dimensions:
Knowledge of the following forms for equations
. of lines:
Parametric form:
,,.
Cartesian form:
The angle between two lines. Using the scalar product of the two direction
vectors.
Simple applications to kinematics. Interpretation of as time and as velocity, with

representing speed.
Connections
Other contexts: Modelling linear motion in three dimensions; navigational devices, for example GPS.
TOK: Why might it be argued that one form of representation is superior to another? What criteria
might a mathematician use in making such an argument?
47
AHL 3.15
Coincident, parallel, intersecting and skew lines, Skew lines are non-parallel lines that do not
distinguishing between these cases. intersect in three-dimensional space.
Points of intersection.
Connections
TOK: How can there be an infinite number of discrete solutions to an equation? What does this
suggest about the nature of mathematical knowledge and how it compares to knowledge in other
disciplines?
48
AHL 3.16
The definition of the vector product of two The vector product is also known as the “cross
vectors. product”.
, where
is the angle between and , and is the unit

normal vector whose direction is given by the
right-hand screw rule.
Properties of the vector product. ;
For non-zero vectors is equivalent to the vectors

being parallel.
Geometric interpretation of Use of to find the area of a parallelogram (and

hence a triangle).
Connections
Links to other subjects: Magnetic forces and fields (physics).
TOK: To what extent is certainty attainable in mathematics? Is certainty attainable, or desirable, in

other areas of knowledge?
49
AHL 3.17
Vector equations of a plane:
, where and are non-parallel vectors within the

plane.
, where is a normal to the plane and is the

position vector of a point on the plane.
Cartesian equation of a plane .

Connections
AHL 3.18
Intersections of: a line with a plane; two planes; Finding intersections by solving equations;
three planes. geometrical interpretation of solutions.
Angle between: a line and a plane; two planes. Link to: solutions of systems of linear equations
(AHL 1.16).
Connections
TOK: Mathematics and the knower: are symbolic representations of three-dimensional objects easier
to deal with than visual representations? What does this tell us about our knowledge of mathematics
in other dimensions?
50
Topic 4: Statistics and probability

Concepts
Statistics is concerned with the collection, analysis and interpretation of data and the theory of
probability can be used to estimate parameters, discover empirical laws, test hypotheses and predict
the occurrence of events. Statistical representations and measures allow us to represent data in many
different forms to aid interpretation.
Probability enables us to quantify the likelihood of events occurring and so evaluate risk. Both
statistics and probability provide important representations which enable us to make predictions,
valid comparisons and informed decisions. These fields have power and limitations and should be
applied with care and critically questioned to differentiate between the theoretical and the empirical/
observed. Probability theory allows us to make informed choices, to evaluate risk, and to make
predictions about seemingly random events.
Quantity, validity, approximation, generalization.
AHL: Change, systems.

• Organizing, representing, analysing and interpreting data and utilizing different statistical tools
facilitates prediction and drawing of conclusions.
• Different statistical techniques require justification and the identification of their limitations and
validity.
• Approximation in data can approach the truth but may not always achieve it.
• Some techniques of statistical analysis, such as regression, standardization or formulae, can be
applied in a practical context to apply to general cases.
• Modelling through statistics can be reliable, but may have limitations.
AHL
51
• Properties of probability density functions can be used to identify measure of central tendency
such as mean, mode and median.
• Probability methods such as Bayes theorem can be applied to real-world systems, such as medical
studies or economics, to inform decisions and to better understand outcomes.
SL content
The aim of the SL content in the statistics and probability topic is to introduce students to the
important concepts, techniques and representations used in statistics and probability. Students
should be given the opportunity to approach this topic in a practical way, to understand why
certain techniques are used and to interpret the results. The use of technology such as simulations,
spreadsheets, statistics software and statistics apps can greatly enhance this topic.
It is expected that most of the calculations required will be carried out using technology, but
explanations of calculations by hand may enhance understanding. The emphasis is on understanding
and interpreting the results obtained, in context.
In examinations students should be familiar with how to use the statistics functionality of allowed
technology.
At SL the data set will be considered to be the population unless otherwise stated.
52
SL 4.1
Concepts of population, sample, random This is designed to cover the key questions that
sample, discrete and continuous data. students should ask when they see a data set/
analysis.
Reliability of data sources and bias in sampling. Dealing with missing data, errors in the
recording of data.
Interpretation of outliers. Outlier is defined as a data item which is more

than 1.5 × interquartile range (IQR) from the
nearest quartile.
Awareness that, in context, some outliers are a

valid part of the sample but some outlying data
items may be an error in the sample.
Link to: box and whisker diagrams (SL4.2) and

measures of dispersion (SL4.3).
Sampling techniques and their effectiveness. Simple random, convenience, systematic, quota
and stratified sampling methods.
Connections
Links to other subjects: Descriptive statistics and random samples (biology, psychology, sports
exercise and health science, environmental systems and societies, geography, economics; business
management); research methodologies (psychology).
Aim 8: Misleading statistics; examples of problems caused by absence of representative samples,

for example Google flu predictor, US presidential elections in 1936, Literary Digest v George Gallup,
Boston “pot-hole” app.
International-mindedness: The Kinsey report–famous sampling techniques.
53
TOK: Why have mathematics and statistics sometimes been treated as separate subjects? How easy is
it to be misled by statistics? Is it ever justifiable to purposely use statistics to mislead others?
SL 4.2
Presentation of data (discrete and continuous): Class intervals will be given as inequalities,
frequency distributions (tables). without gaps.
Histograms. Frequency histograms with equal class intervals.
Cumulative frequency; cumulative frequency Not required: Frequency density histograms.

graphs; use to find median, quartiles,
percentiles, range and interquartile range (IQR).
Production and understanding of box and Use of box and whisker diagrams to compare
whisker diagrams. two distributions, using symmetry, median,
interquartile range or range. Outliers should be
indicated with a cross.
Determining whether the data may be normally

distributed by consideration of the symmetry of
the box and whiskers.
Connections
Links to other subjects: Presentation of data (sciences, individuals and societies).
International-mindedness: Discussion of the different formulae for the same statistical measure (for
example, variance).
TOK: What is the difference between information and data? Does “data” mean the same thing in
different areas of knowledge?
54
SL 4.3
Measures of central tendency (mean, median Calculation of mean using formula and
and mode). technology.
Estimation of mean from grouped data. Students should use mid-interval values to
estimate the mean of grouped data.
Modal class. For equal class intervals only.
Measures of dispersion (interquartile range, Calculation of standard deviation and variance

standard deviation and variance). of the sample using only technology, however
hand calculations may enhance understanding.
Variance is the square of the standard deviation.
Effect of constant changes on the original data. Examples: If three is subtracted from the data
items, then the mean is decreased by three, but
the standard deviation is unchanged.
If all the data items are doubled, the mean is

doubled and the standard deviation is also
doubled.
Quartiles of discrete data. Using technology. Awareness that different

methods for finding quartiles exist and therefore
the values obtained using technology and by
hand may differ.
Connections
Other contexts: Comparing variation and spread in populations, human or natural, for example
agricultural crop data, social indicators, reliability and maintenance.
55
Links to other subjects: Descriptive statistics (sciences and individuals and societies); consumer price
index (economics).
International-mindedness: The benefits of sharing and analysing data from different countries;
discussion of the different formulae for variance.
TOK: Could mathematics make alternative, equally true, formulae? What does this tell us about
mathematical truths? Does the use of statistics lead to an over-emphasis on attributes that can be
easily measured over those that cannot?
56
SL 4.4
Linear correlation of bivariate data. Technology should be used to calculate r.

However, hand calculations of r may enhance
Pearson’s product-moment correlation understanding.
coefficient, r.
Critical values of r will be given where
appropriate.
Students should be aware that Pearson’s

product moment correlation coefficient (r) is
only meaningful for linear relationships.
Scatter diagrams; lines of best fit, by eye, passing Positive, zero, negative; strong, weak, no
through the mean point. correlation.
Students should be able to make the distinction

between correlation and causation and know
that correlation does not imply causation.
Equation of the regression line of on . Technology should be used to find the equation.
Use of the equation of the regression line for Students should be aware:
prediction purposes.
• of the dangers of extrapolation
Interpret the meaning of the parameters, and , • that they cannot always reliably make a
in a linear regression . prediction of from a value of , when using a
on line.
Connections
Other contexts: Linear regressions where correlation exists between two variables. Exploring cause
and dependence for categorical variables, for example, on what factors might political persuasion
depend?
57
Links to other subjects: Curves of best fit, correlation and causation (sciences group subjects); scatter
graphs (geography).
Aim 8: The correlation between smoking and lung cancer was “discovered” using mathematics.
Science had to justify the cause.
TOK: Correlation and causation–can we have knowledge of cause and effect relationships given
that we can only observe correlation? What factors affect the reliability and validity of mathematical
models in describing real-life phenomena?
SL 4.5
Concepts of trial, outcome, equally likely Sample spaces can be represented in many
outcomes, relative frequency, sample space () ways, for example as a table or a list.
and event.
Experiments using coins, dice, cards and so on,
The probability of an event is . can enhance understanding of the distinction
between experimental (relative frequency) and
The complementary events and theoretical probability.
(not ). Simulations may be used to enhance this topic.
Expected number of occurrences. Example: If there are 128 students in a class

and the probability of being absent is 0.1, the
expected number of absent students is 12.8.
Connections
Other contexts: Actuarial studies and the link between probability of life spans and insurance
premiums, government planning based on likely projected figures, Monte Carlo methods.
58
Links to other subjects: Theoretical genetics and Punnett squares (biology); the position of a particle
(physics).
Aim 8: The ethics of gambling.
International-mindedness: The St Petersburg paradox; Chebyshev and Pavlovsky (Russian).
TOK: To what extent are theoretical and experimental probabilities linked? What is the role of
emotion in our perception of risk, for example in business, medicine and travel safety?
Use of technology: Computer simulations may be useful to enhance this topic.
59
SL 4.6
Use of Venn diagrams, tree diagrams, sample

space diagrams and tables of outcomes to
calculate probabilities.
Combined events: . The non-exclusivity of “or”.
Mutually exclusive events: .
Conditional probability: . An alternate form of this is:
Problems can be solved with the aid of a Venn

diagram, tree diagram, sample space diagram
or table of outcomes without explicit use of
formulae.
Probabilities with and without replacement.
Independent events: .
Connections
Aim 8: The gambling issue: use of probability in casinos. Could or should mathematics help increase
incomes in gambling?
TOK: Can calculation of gambling probabilities be considered an ethical application of mathematics?

Should mathematicians be held responsible for unethical applications of their work?
60
SL 4.7
Concept of discrete random variables and their Probability distributions will be given in the
probability distributions. following ways:
Expected value (mean), for discrete data.
for
Applications.
indicates a fair game where represents the gain

of a player.
Connections
Other contexts: Games of chance.
Aim 8: Why has it been argued that theories based on the calculable probabilities found in casinos are
pernicious when applied to everyday life (for example, economics)?
TOK: What do we mean by a “fair” game? Is it fair that casinos should make a profit?
61
SL 4.8
Binomial distribution. Situations where the binomial distribution is an

appropriate model.
Mean and variance of the binomial distribution.
In examinations, binomial probabilities should
be found using available technology.
Not required: Formal proof of mean and

variance.
Link to: expected number of occurrences

(SL4.5).
Connections
Aim 8: Pascal’s triangle, attributing the origin of a mathematical discovery to the wrong
mathematician.
International-mindedness: The so-called “Pascal’s triangle” was known to the Chinese

mathematician Yang Hui much earlier than Pascal.
TOK: What criteria can we use to decide between different models?
Enrichment: Hypothesis testing using the binomial distribution.
62
SL 4.9
The normal distribution and curve. Awareness of the natural occurrence of the
normal distribution.
Properties of the normal distribution.
Students should be aware that approximately
Diagrammatic representation. 68% of the data lies between , 95% lies between
and 99.7% of the data lies between .
Normal probability calculations. Probabilities and values of the variable must be

found using technology.
Inverse normal calculations For inverse normal calculations mean and

standard deviation will be given.
This does not involve transformation to the

standardized normal variable z.
Connections
Links to other subjects: Normally distributed real-life measurements and descriptive statistics
(sciences group subjects, psychology, environmental systems and societies)
Aim 8: Why might the misuse of the normal distribution lead to dangerous inferences and
conclusions?
International-mindedness: De Moivre’s derivation of the normal distribution and Quetelet’s use of it

to describe l’homme moyen.
TOK: To what extent can we trust mathematical models such as the normal distribution? How can we
know what to include, and what to exclude, in a model?
63
SL 4.10
Equation of the regression line of on .
Use of the equation for prediction purposes. Students should be aware that they cannot
always reliably make a prediction of from a
value of , when using an on line.
Connections
TOK: Is it possible to have knowledge of the future?
SL 4.11
Formal definition and use of the formulae: An alternate form of this is: .
for conditional probabilities, and Testing for independence.
for independent events.

Connections
Other contexts: Use of probability methods in medical studies to assess risk factors for certain
diseases.
TOK: Given the interdisciplinary nature of many real-world applications of probability, is the division
of knowledge into discrete disciplines or areas of knowledge artificial and/or useful?
64
SL 4.12
Standardization of normal variables (- values). Probabilities and values of the variable must be
The standardized value () gives the number of

standard deviations from the mean.
Inverse normal calculations where mean and Use of -values to calculate unknown means and
standard deviation are unknown. standard deviations.
Connections
Links to other subjects: The normal distribution (biology); descriptive statistics (psychology).
AHL content
The aim of the AHL content in the statistics and probability topic is to extend and build upon the aims,
concepts and skills from the SL content. Students are introduced to further conditional probability
theory in the form of Bayes Theorem and properties of discrete and continuous random variables are
further explored.
AHL 4.13
Use of Bayes’ theorem for a maximum of three Link to: independent events (SL4.6).
events.
Connections
65
Other contexts: Use of probability methods in medical studies to assess risk factors for certain
diseases.
TOK: Does the applicability of knowledge vary across the different areas of knowledge? What would
the implications be if the value of all knowledge was measured solely in terms of its applicability?
AHL 4.14
Variance of a discrete random variable. Link to: discrete random variables (SL 4.7)
Continuous random variables and their including piecewise functions.

probability density functions.
Mode and median of continuous random For a continuous random variable, a value at
variables. which the probability density function has a
maximum value is called a mode and for the
median: .
Mean, variance and standard deviation of both Use of the notation ,

discrete and continuous random variables.
where
and related formulae.
Use of for “fair” games.
The effect of linear transformations of .

Connections
Other contexts: Other discrete distributions, for example Poisson, may be appropriate for IA/toolkit
and further investigation; expected value used in decision making in business, economics and life in
general; expected gain to insurance companies.
66
TOK: Is mathematics more or less useful than other areas of knowledge for solving problems?
Enrichment: Is there a relationship between the interquartile range and the standard deviation for a
normally distributed data set?
Topic 5: Calculus
Concepts
Calculus describes rates of change between two variables and the accumulation of limiting areas.
Understanding these rates of change and accumulations allow us to model, interpret and analyze real-
world problems and situations. Calculus helps us to understand the behaviour of functions and allows
us to interpret the features of their graphs.
Change, patterns, relationships, approximation, generalization, space, modelling.
AHL: Systems, quantity.

• The derivative may be represented physically as a rate of change and geometrically as the gradient
or slope function.
• Areas under curves can be can be approximated by the sum of the areas of rectangles which may
be calculated even more accurately using integration.
• Examining rates of change close to turning points helps to identify intervals where the function
increases/decreases, and identify the concavity of the function.
• Numerical integration can be used to approximate areas in the physical world.
• Mathematical modelling can provide effective solutions to real-life problems in optimization by
maximizing or minimizing a quantity, such as cost or profit.
67
• Derivatives and integrals describe real-world kinematics problems in two and three-dimensional
space by examining displacement, velocity and acceleration.
AHL
• Some functions may be continuous everywhere but not differentiable everywhere.
• A finite number of terms of an infinite series can be a general approximation of a function over a
limited domain.
• Limits describe the output of a function as the input approaches a certain value and can represent
convergence and divergence.
• Examining limits of functions at a point can help determine continuity and differentiability at a
point.
SL content
The aim of the SL content in the calculus topic is to introduce students to the concepts and
techniques of differential and integral calculus and their applications.
Throughout this topic students should be given the opportunity to use technology such as graphing
packages and graphing calculators to develop and apply their knowledge of calculus.
68
SL 5.1
Introduction to the concept of a limit. Estimation of the value of a limit from a table or
graph.
Not required: Formal analytic methods of

calculating limits.
Derivative interpreted as gradient function and Forms of notation: , , or for the first derivative.
as rate of change.
Informal understanding of the gradient of a
curve as a limit.
Connections
Links to other subjects: Marginal cost, marginal revenue, marginal profit, market structures
(economics); kinematics, induced emf and simple harmonic motion (physics); interpreting the
gradient of a curve (chemistry)
Aim 8: The debate over whether Newton or Leibnitz discovered certain calculus concepts; how the
Greeks’ distrust of zero meant that Archimedes’ work did not lead to calculus.
International-mindedness: Attempts by Indian mathematicians (500-1000 CE) to explain division by

zero.
TOK: What value does the knowledge of limits have? Is infinitesimal behaviour applicable to real life?
Is intuition a valid way of knowing in mathematics?
Use of technology: Spreadsheets, dynamic graphing software and GDC should be used to explore
ideas of limits, numerically and graphically. Hypotheses can be formed and then tested using
technology.
69
SL 5.2
Increasing and decreasing functions. Identifying intervals on which functions are

increasing or decreasing .
Graphical interpretation of
Connections
SL 5.3
Derivative of is ,
The derivative of functions of the form
where all exponents are integers.

Connections
TOK: The seemingly abstract concept of calculus allows us to create mathematical models that permit
human feats such as getting a man on the Moon. What does this tell us about the links between
mathematical models and reality?
70
SL 5.4
Tangents and normals at a given point, and their Use of both analytic approaches and
equations. technology.
Connections
Links to other subjects: Instantaneous velocity and optics, equipotential surfaces (physics); price
elasticity (economics).
TOK: In what ways has technology impacted how knowledge is produced and shared in mathematics?
Does technology simply allow us to arrange existing knowledge in new and different ways, or should
this arrangement itself be considered knowledge?
71
SL 5.5
Introduction to integration as anti- Students should be aware of the link between

differentiation of functions of the form anti-derivatives, definite integrals and area.
where
Anti-differentiation with a boundary condition Example: If and

to determine the constant term.
when , then .
Definite integrals using technology. Students are expected to first write a correct
expression before calculating the area, for
Area of a region enclosed by a curve example .
and the -axis, where . The use of dynamic geometry or graphing

software is encouraged in the development of
this concept.
Connections
Other contexts: Velocity-time graphs
Links to other subjects: Velocity-time and acceleration-time graphs (physics and sports exercise and
health science)
TOK: Is it possible for an area of knowledge to describe the world without transforming it?
72
SL 5.6
Derivative of , , , and .
Differentiation of a sum and a multiple of these

functions.
The chain rule for composite functions. Example:
The product and quotient rules. Link to: composite functions (SL2.5).
Connections
Links to other subjects: Uniform circular motion and induced emf (physics).
TOK: What is the role of convention in mathematics? Is this similar or different to the role of
convention in other areas of knowledge?
SL 5.7
The second derivative. Use of both forms of notation, and .
Graphical behaviour of functions, including the Technology can be used to explore graphs and
relationship between the graphs of and . calculate the derivatives of functions.
Link to: function graphing skills (SL2.3).

Connections
Links to other subjects: Simple harmonic motion (physics).
73
SL 5.8
Local maximum and minimum points. Using change of sign of the first derivative or
using sign of the second derivative where
Testing for maximum and minimum. implies a minimum and implies a maximum.
Optimization. Examples of optimization may include profit,

area and volume.
Points of inflexion with zero and non-zero At a point of inflexion, and changes sign
gradients. (concavity change), for example is not a
sufficient condition for a point of inflexion for
at .
Use of the terms “concave-up” for , and

“concave-down” for .
Connections
Other contexts: Profit, area, volume.
Links to other subjects: Velocity-time graphs, simple harmonic motion graphs and kinematics
(physics); allocative efficiency (economics).
TOK: When mathematicians and historians say that they have explained something, are they using
the word “explain” in the same way?
74
SL 5.9
Kinematic problems involving displacement ,

velocity , acceleration and total distance
travelled. Displacement from to is given by .
Distance between to is given by .
Speed is the magnitude of velocity.

Connections
Links to other subjects: Kinematics (physics).
International-mindedness: Does the inclusion of kinematics as core mathematics reflect a particular

cultural heritage? Who decides what is mathematics?
TOK: Is mathematics independent of culture? To what extent are we people aware of the impact of
culture on what we they believe or know?
75
SL 5.10
Indefinite integral of and .
The composites of any of these with the linear Example:

function .
Integration by inspection (reverse chain rule) or Examples:

by substitution for expressions of the form:
,,.
.
Connections
SL 5.11
Definite integrals, including analytical approach. .
The value of some definite integrals can only be

Link to: definite integrals using technology

(SL5.5).
Areas of a region enclosed by a curve and the - Students are expected to first write a correct
axis, where can be positive or negative, without expression before calculating the area.
the use of technology.
Technology may be used to enhance
Areas between curves. understanding of the relationship between
integrals and areas.
Connections
76
International-mindedness: Accurate calculation of the volume of a cylinder by Chinese

mathematician Liu Hui; Ibn Al Haytham: first mathematician to calculate the integral of a function, in
order to find the volume of a paraboloid.
TOK: Consider . An infinite area sweeps out a finite volume. Can this be reconciled with our intuition?
Do emotion and intuition have a role in mathematics?
Enrichment: Exploring numerical integration techniques such as Simpson’s rule or the trapezoidal
rule.
AHL content
The aim of the AHL content in the calculus topic is to extend and build upon the aims, concepts and
skills from the SL content. Further powerful techniques and useful applications of differential and
integral calculus are introduced.
77
AHL 5.12
Informal understanding of continuity and In examinations, students will not be asked to

differentiability of a function at a point. test for continuity and differentiability.
Understanding of limits (convergence and Link to: infinite geometric sequences (SL1.8).
divergence).
Use of this definition for polynomials only.
Definition of derivative from first principles .
Higher derivatives. Familiarity with the notations .
Link to: proof by mathematical induction (AHL

1.15).
Connections
Links to other subjects: Theory of the firm (economics).
International-mindedness: How the Greeks’ distrust of zero meant that Archimedes’ work did not
lead to the Calculus; investigate attempts by Indian mathematicians (500-1000AD) to explain division
by zero.
TOK: Does the fact that Leibniz and Newton came across the Calculus at similar times support the
argument of Platonists over Constructivists?
Enrichment: Fundamental theorem of calculus.
78
AHL 5.13
The evaluation of limits of the form and using The indeterminate forms and .
l’Hôpital’s rule or the Maclaurin series.
For example: .
Link to: horizontal asymptotes (SL2.8) .
Repeated use of l’Hôpital’s rule.

Connections
AHL 5.14
Implicit differentiation. Appropriate use of the chain rule or implicit

differentiation, including cases where the
Related rates of change. optimum solution is at the end point.
Optimisation problems.
Connections
Other contexts: Links between mathematical and physical models.
TOK: Euler was able to make important advances in mathematical analysis before calculus had been
put on a solid theoretical foundation by Cauchy and others. However, some work was not possible
until after Cauchy’s work. What does this suggest about the nature of progress and development in
mathematics? How might this be similar/different to the nature of progress and development in other
areas of knowledge?
79
AHL 5.15
Derivatives of
Indefinite integrals of the derivatives of any of Indefinite integral interpreted as a family of

the above functions. curves.
The composites of any of these with a linear Examples:

function.
Use of partial fractions to rearrange the

integrand.
Link to: partial fractions (AHL1.11)
Connections
TOK: Can a mathematical statement be true before it has been proven?
AHL 5.16
Integration by substitution. On examination papers, substitutions will be

provided if the integral is not of the form .
Link to: integration by substitution (SL5.10).
Integration by parts. Examples:
Repeated integration by parts. Examples: and .

Connections
80
AHL 5.17
Area of the region enclosed by a curve and the -

axis in a given interval.
Volumes of revolution about the -axis or -axis.

Connections
Other contexts: Industrial design.
AHL 5.18
First order differential equations. , where is a constant.
Numerical solution of
using Euler’s method.
Variables separable. Example: the logistic equation
Link to: partial fractions (AHL1.11) and use of

partial fractions to rearrange the integrand
(AHL5.15).
Homogeneous differential equation using the

substitution .
Solution of , using the integrating factor.
81
Connections
Other contexts: Newton’s law of cooling, population growth, carbon dating.
Links to other subjects: Decay curves (physics); first order reactions (chemistry)
TOK: Does personal experience play a role in the formation of knowledge claims in mathematics?
Does it play a different role in mathematics compared to other areas of knowledge?
AHL 5.19
Maclaurin series to obtain expansions for ,
Use of simple substitution, products, integration Example: for substitution: replace with to
and differentiation to obtain other series. define the Maclaurin series for .
Example: the expansion of .
Maclaurin series developed from differential

equations.
Connections
International-mindedness: Comparison of the Bourbaki to the Kerala School.
TOK: Is there always a trade-off between accuracy and simplicity?
82
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Mathematics: analysis and approaches guide

Topic 1—Number and algebra 19 39

Topic 3— Geometry and 25 51

Topic 4—Statistics and 27 33

The toolkit and the 30 30

Total teaching hours 150 240

Prior learning topics

Number and algebra

• Evaluating exponential expressions with rational exponents (HL only)

Statistics and probability

Suggested concepts embedded in this topic:

Generalization, representation, modelling, equivalence, patterns, quantity

AHL: Validity, systems.

Content-specific conceptual understandings:

• Different representations of numbers enable equivalent quantities to be compared and used in

Recommended teaching hours: 19

Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

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Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Applications. Examples include simple interest over a number

International-mindedness: Aryabhatta is sometimes considered the “father of algebra”–compare

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Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Link to: models/functions in topic 2 and

Applications. Examples include the spread of disease, salary

International-mindedness: The chess legend (Sissa ibn Dahir).

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Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Calculate the real value of an investment with an

In examinations, questions that ask students to

Compound interest can be calculated yearly,

Link to: exponential models/functions in topic

Other contexts: Loans.

Aim 8: Ethical perceptions of borrowing and lending money.

Enrichment: The concept of e can be introduced through continuous compounding, , as , however

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Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Laws of exponents with integer exponents. Examples:

Numerical evaluation of logarithms using

Other contexts: Richter scale and decibel scale.

Links to other subjects: Calculation of pH and buffer solutions (chemistry)

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Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Example: Show that .

Students will be expected to show how they

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Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Laws of logarithms. ;,,

Link to: introduction to logarithms (SL1.5)

for Link to: logarithmic and exponential graphs

Change of base of a logarithm. Examples:

Solving exponential equations, including using Examples: , .

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Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

Sum of infinite convergent geometric Use of and modulus notation.

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Content Guidance, clarification and syllabus links

The binomial theorem: Counting principles may be used in the

Example: Find when , using a table of values