University of Mines and Technology, UMaT

Department of Mining Engineering

Materials Handling
MN578

Chapter 2
Truck Haulage

Course Lecturer
Dr Clara Akalanya Abuntori
2023
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 Truck Haulage
Outline Objectives
➢Material Haulage ➢Ability to identify and describe material
haulage systems.
➢Truck Descriptions
➢Know the role of resistance and traction
in truck haulage.
➢Resistance

➢Traction ➢Ability to determine the performance of

trucks in material haulage and their
selection.
➢Performance
➢Appreciate the components of truck cycle
➢Retarding time.

➢Truck Cycle Time ➢Know how to compute production and

determine fleet.
➢Truck Production and Fleet Requirement
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 Material Haulage
➢ Off-highway trucks are the
principal equipment for material
haulage in open pit mines
➢ Truck capacities are up to 363t
(400ton) for handling ore or
waste.
➢ Off-highway trucks can be
classified into three main types:
▪ Conventional rear dump;
▪ Tractor-trailer, bottom, side and
rear dump; and
▪ Integral bottom dump.

3
 Truck Descriptions
Conventional Rear Dump
➢The conventional rear dump trucks (Fig.
2.1) is mainly used in surface mines.
➢They have heavy duty dump body and rigid
frame and are suitable for almost all types
of material.
➢The dump body is raised by an integrally
mounted hydraulic hoist system.
Integral Bottom Dump
➢Integral bottom dump trucks (Fig. 2.2) with Fig. 2.1 Conventional Rear Dump Truck
rigid frame and large volumetric capacity and
are mainly for hauling coal.
➢The dump doors are opened from the bottom
and require free flowing material and is not
suitable for severe loading impact.

Fig. 2.2 Integral Bottom Dump Truck 4

 Truck Descriptions
Tractor-Trailer Dump Truck
➢Rear dump tractor-trailer (Fig. 2.3) units are
used for hauling ore or rock and coal. They
have integral hydraulic hoist system which
collapse the wheelbase for dumping.

Fig. 2.3 Rear Dump Tractor-Trailer

➢Side dump tractor-trailer (Fig. 2.4) units are

used for hauling ore or rock. The dump
body is raised by either an integral hoist
system or a skyhook at the dump location.

Fig. 2.4 Side Dump Tractor-Trailer 5

 Truck Descriptions
Tractor-Trailer Dump Truck
➢Bottom dump tractor-trailer (Fig. 2.5) units are the more common and are limited to
free-flowing material (alluvial material or coal). Material is dumped through
hydraulically operated doors.

Fig. 2.5 Bottom Dump Tractor-Trailer 6

 Truck Descriptions
Trolley Truck Assist
➢Trolley assist (for electric wheel drive) truck (Fig. 2.4) uses an
overhead electric power source to supply electric power for electric
wheel motors.

➢Trolley assist is most applicable at mines with high cost and limited
availability of diesel fuel and with low cost and abundant electric
energy. At these mines, lower cost commercial electric power can
replace high cost diesel fuel.

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 Resistance
➢Conditions such as haul road profile, haul road condition and vehicle
weight determine the resistance to the movement of truck, and the trucks
ability to use delivered power.

➢The total resistance to the movement of truck comprises grade resistance

and rolling resistance.

Grade Resistance
➢Grade resistance is the force due to gravity that must be overcome by a
vehicle as it moves up an incline.
➢When the vehicle moves down an incline, the force of gravity assisting the
vehicle motion is known as grade assistance.

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 Grade Resistance
➢Grades are generally measured in percent slope or the ratio between the rise and the
horizontal length. A road that rises 6m over a length of 100m has a 6% grade. Grade
resistance is expressed as grade resistance factor (GRF).
GRF = 10kg/t x % grade

Where 1% of vehicle weight is equivalent to 10kg/t

➢Grade resistance, GR, is calculated by:

GR = 10kg/t x vehicle weight (t) x % grade, or

GR = GRF x Vehicle weight (t).

➢A truck weighing 136078kg travelling down a road of -8% grade has a grade resistance
factor of -80kg/t and a grade resistance of -10886kg. This implies that the truck moving
down an 8% grade will be assisted by 10886kg force or 106685N.

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 Rolling Resistance
➢ Rolling resistance is a measure of the force required to overcome internal resistance of
wheel bearing, resistance due to the penetration of tyre into ground and flexing of tyre
under load.

➢ Rolling resistance is usually expressed as kilograms per tonne of vehicle weight, but may
be expressed as a percent of vehicle weight, where 10 kg/t equals 1%.

➢ Rolling resistance factor, RRF, in kilograms per tonne is calculated by:

RRF = Rf + RsP

Where,
Rf is the resistance due to tire flexing and wheel bearing friction, commonly 15kg/t
for radial tyres and 20kg/t for bias ply tyres;
Rs is the resistance per centimetre of tyre penetration, 5.9kg/t.cm, and
P is tyre penetration, cm.

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 Rolling Resistance
➢ Resistance due to tyre flexing and wheel
bearing friction is affected by tyre type, tyre
inflation pressure, and wheel bearing design.

➢ Tyre penetration is affected by haulage road

surface and construction, tyre type and treads
pattern and tyre inflation pressure.

➢ Table 2.1 presents typical rolling resistance

factors for bias ply tyres, for radial tyres these
factors should be reduced by 5 kg/t.

➢ Rolling resistance (RR)

RR= RRF x Vehicle weight in tonnes

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 Rolling Resistance

➢A 136078kg truck with radial tyres and 3.81cm tyre penetration has a
rolling resistance factor, RRF of 37.48 kg/t and a rolling resistance RR,
of 5100 kg.

➢A 136078 kg truck with bias ply tyres moving on a road with crushed
rock surface has a rolling resistance factor of 30 kg/t (from Table 2.1)
and a rolling resistance of 4082kg.

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 Total Resistance
➢Total Resistance is the sum of grade and rolling resistance.

➢It is the total resistance force to vehicle motion and is usually expressed as
effective grade or percent of vehicle weight.

➢A truck weighing 136078 kg travelling down a -8% grade with rolling resistance
factor of 37.48 kg/t is equivalent to (37.48 kg/t)/(10 kg/t) = 3.75%.

➢ Total resistance, TR, is calculated by

TR = GR + RR = -10886 kg + 5100kg = -5786 kg Or

Effective grade, EG, is EG (%) = GR(%) + RR(%)

= -8% + 3.75% = -4.25%

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 Traction
➢Traction is the usable driving force developed by the truck tyre on the road
surface.

➢A spinning wheel does not deliver useful power to the ground.

➢The factors that keep a wheel or track from spinning are the weight it carries
and the traction available from the ground condition.

➢The degree of traction between the tire and ground is the coefficient of traction.

➢ The maximum force, Fm

Fm =  = Wcos

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 Traction
➢ The maximum force, Fm

Fm =  = Wcos
➢Fm which can be transferred from tire to road surface is a function of the
coefficient of traction between tyre and road-surface, , and the normal force at
the road surface, N.

➢Where W is weight on the drive tyres and  is grade angle.

➢However,  for haul roads is very small, therefore Cos   1

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 Traction
➢Consider a 77 t conventional rear dump truck travelling loaded up a 10% grade on a loose
gravel haulage road with a rolling resistance factor of 100 kg/t and coefficient of traction 0.35.
Assume the gross vehicle weight (GVW) is 136 078 kg.
The resistance to movement = (10% + 10%) x GVW = 20% x 136 078kg = 27 215.6kg.

➢Assuming the weight on drive tyres is 90 718 kg

The maximum force that can be transferred from drive tyres to road = 90 718 kg x 0.35 = 31 751 kg.
Since the maximum force transferred to the road is greater than the rimpull required to overcome
resistance, truck can move upgrade.

➢Assuming the empty truck has a weight of 31 751 kg on drive tyres.

The driving force will be 0.35 x 31 751 kg = 11 112.8 kg.
Net Vehicle weight = 136 078 kg – 77 000 kg = 59 078 kg.
The total resistance force = 20% 59 078 = 11 815.6 kg.

➢Since the total resistance force is greater than useable driving force, empty truck cannot move
up the road.

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 Performance
➢Performance is determined by the interaction between the truck and
haulage environment.

➢The factors that affect a truck’s performance are the truck weight and its
distribution, engine, retarding and braking systems and the tyres.

➢The haulage conditions affecting performance are haulage road distance,

grades, construction and maintenance.

Horsepower Utilisation

➢The performance curve or rimpull verses velocity curve characterizes the

engine performance when the truck is operating against positive resistance
to movement.
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 Performance
➢Typical performance curves for mechanical and electric wheel drive trucks
are presented below (Figs. 2.6a & 2.6b and 2.7).

➢The charts show the maximum rimpull the engine-transmission system

can provide when truck is travelling at a specified velocity.

➢The performance curve for mechanical drive truck (Fig. 2.6a) has a series
of discontinuities representing gear changes.

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 Performance

Fig. 2.6a Performance Chart for Mechanical Drive Trucks 19

 Retarding
➢When a truck is operating with negative resistance to movement,
retarding capabilities of the truck’s engine - transmission system is
represented by a retarder curve.

➢Figs. 2.6b and 2.7 are typical retarder curves for mechanical and electric
drive trucks, respectively.

➢The vertical axis is the retarding or rimpull force resisting movement at the
drive tyres-ground contact. Horizontal axis is truck velocity.

➢Retarder curve and performance curve are similar except that the rimpull
on the retarder chart is negative - a force resisting movement.

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 Retarder

21
Fig. 2.6b Retarder Chart for Mechanical Drive Trucks
Performance/Retarder Chart

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Fig. 2.7 Performance/Retarder Chart for Electric Drive Truck
 Rimpull
➢Rimpull is the force delivered by the drive wheels to the ground;

flywheel kilowatt x efficiency

➢Available rimpull =
speed

➢Usable rimpull = force that must be used to move the vehicle when the
tyre road contact will not allow the use of all vehicle’s power.

➢Usable rimpull = weight on drive tyres x coefficient of traction.

➢Required rimpull = Vehicle weight x Total resistance.

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 Rimpull
Example

A 36.3 t (40 ton) truck with 312.9 kW (420 hp) flywheel kilowatt and engine
efficiency of 85% is travelling at 2.25 m/s on a road with 6% grade, and
rolling resistance 2%. If coefficient of traction is 0.35 and the weight on drives
is 27.2 t (30 tons), determine the following:

a) available rimpull
b) the rimpull truck must develop to overcome gradeability (required rimpull)
c) the usable rimpull

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 Rimpull
Solution: b) The rimpull the truck must develop to overcome
gradeability is the required rimpull.
a) Available rimpull
Required rimpull = (Total resistance)(Vehicle weight)
Total resistance = rolling resistance + grade resistance
312.9  0.85 = 2% + 6% = 8%
= 118.207 kN
2.25
Required rimpull = 0.0836 300 kg = 2 904 kg

c) Usable rimpull=(weight on drives)(coefficient of

traction)
=118207/9.8 = 12 061.94 kg
=272000.35 = 9 520 kg

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 Speed Factors
➢The rimpull curve gives the maximum speed that can be attained on a road
segment.

➢Average speed = Maximum Speed x Speed Factor.

➢The speed factor (Table 2.2) is a factor for converting maximum speed to
average speed. Travel time for a particular haul segment is given by:

length of Haul road segment (m)

➢Travel time =
Average speed (m / s)

➢Various vehicle manufacturers have computer simulation programs to

facilitate determination of truck performance.

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Table 2.2 Speed Factors
Speed Factors
Under 182 kg/kW
Haul Road Level Haul Unit Unit in Motion When Entering Haul Road Section
Length in metres Starting from 0 kmph Level Downhill Uphill Grade Factor
0 - 61 0 - .40 0 - .65 0 - .67 1.00
61 - 122 .40 - .51 .65 - .70 .67 - .72
122 - 183 .51 - .56 .70 - .75 72 - .77 Entrance speed
153 - 305 .56 - .67 .75 - .81 .77 - .83 greater than
.81 - .88 maximum attainable
305 - 457 .67 - .75 .83 - .90
speed
457 - 610 .75 - .80 .88 - .91 .90 - .93
610 - 762 .80 - .84 .91 - .93 .93 - .95
762 - 1067 .84 - .87 .93 - .95 .95 - .97
1067 - up .87 - .94 0.95 0.97
182-231 kg/kW
Unit in Motion When Entering Haul Road Section
Haul Road Level Haul Unit
Length in metres Starting from 0 kmph
Level Downhill Uphill Grade Factor
0 - 61 0 - .39 0 - .62 0 - .64 1.00
61 - 122 .39 - .48 .62 - .67 .64 - .68
122 - 183 .48 - .54 .67 - .70 .68 - .74 Entrance speed
153 - 305 .54 - .61 .70 - .75 .74 - .83 greater than
305 - 457 .61 - .68 .75 - .79 .83 - .88 maximum attainable
457 - 610 .68 - .74 .79 - .84 .88 - .91 speed
610 - 762 .74- .78 .84 - .87 .91 - .93
762 - 1067 .78 - .84 .87 - .90 .93 - .95
1067 - up .84 - .92 .90 - .93 .95 - .97
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 Speed Factors
Example

A rear dump off-highway truck with a net vehicle weight of 42286.7 kg

(93200 lbs) has been chosen to haul blasted rock from an open pit mine to a
dumpsite through the road sections given below. Using the performance and
retarder charts (Terex 3309 hauler) in Fig. 2.6a & b determine the truck total
travel and return times if its payload is 49.9 t (55 tons).

Road Section Length (m) Rolling Resistance (%) Grade Resistance (%)
a 610 5 0
b 183 3 1
c 305 3 0
d 122 3 8
e 91 5 0

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 Speed Factors
Solution
Travelling Loaded
Road Length Rolling Grade Total Max. Speed Mean Time
section (m) Res. % Res. % Res. % Vel. km/h factor vel, km/h sec.
a 610 5 0 5 30 0.74 22.2 98.92
b 183 3 1 4 36.8 1.0 36.8 17.89
c 305 3 0 3 50 0.75 37.5 29.27
d 122 3 8 11 14 1.0 14.0 31.36
e 91 5 0 5 30 0.435 13.05 25.09
Total 202.53
Travelling Empty
Road Length Rolling Grade Total Max. Speed Mean Time
section (m) Res. % Res. % Res. % Vel km/h factor Vel, km/h sec.
e 91 5 0 5 57.5 0.455 26.16 12.53
d 122 3 -8 -5 60 0.72 43.2 10.15
c 305 3 0 3 60 0.81 48.6 22.61
b 183 3 -1 2 60 0.77 46.2 14.26
a 610 5 0 5 57.5 0.80 46 47.74
Total 107.29
Total travel time = 202.53 + 107.29 = 309.82 s = 5.16 minutes 29
 Truck Cycle Time
➢The truck cycle time includes spot and load, haul loaded, turn and dump, return
empty, wait and delays.
Spot and Load Time
➢Spot time is the time needed for the truck to manoeuvre into position for loading.
➢Load time is the time required for loading machine to make the number of passes to
load truck.
➢Load time depends on the number of passes required to load the truck and the loader
cycle time.
Ct
➢Number of passes is calculated by: N p =
Ff
Cl  
Fs
➢where: Ct is truck capacity, tonne; Cl is loader rated capacity, m3; Ff is loader fill factor,
Fs is material swell factor; and  is bank density of material, t/m3.
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 Truck Cycle Time
➢If spot time is less than the loader cycle time, combined spot and load time, tsl
in minutes can be calculated by:

tsl = Np tlc

where tlc is the loader cycle time in minutes.

➢If the spot time is greater than the loader cycle time, combined spot and load
time, tsl can be calculated by:

tsl =(Np – 1)tlc + ts = Nptlc + ts –tlc

➢Travel time includes time to haul loaded to the dump point and return empty
to the loading equipment.

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 Truck Cycle Time
➢Turn and dump time depends on truck type and size, material characteristics,
dump arrangements, space available, ground conditions and operating
practices.

➢Truck wait time occurs when truck must wait to be loaded or to dump.

➢Operational delays that reduce production can be classified as fixed or

variable.

▪ Variable delays that include delays for haulage road maintenance, loading area
clean up, driver relief stop, loading oversize rock etc are considered in truck cycle
time.

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Truck Production and Fleet Requirement
➢To determine the productive capability of a fleet of trucks, one has to know the
productivity of one truck (assuming trucks are of the same type and capacity).

➢Assuming 100% availability the production of one truck is given by

60 L t
Pt=
t tc

➢Where Pt is the truck production rate t/hr; Lt is the truck actual payload,
tonnes and tlc is the truck total cycle time (minutes).

➢T, the number of trips per hour made by a truck, can be calculated by T = 60
ttc
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Truck Production and Fleet Requirement
➢Pt = TLt
➢Truck fleet production, Pf, at a specific time is calculated by Pf = k x Pt

Where k is the available trucks in the fleet at a specific time.

➢To estimate the truck fleet requirement the productive capability of one truck is
used as follows
Trh
N0 =
Pt

Where No is the number of operating trucks, Trh is the hourly tonnage required.
The truck fleet requirement, Nf is given by
No
Nf =
A
➢Where; A is the availability factor.
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Truck Production and Fleet Requirement
➢If truck cycle time is defined as just the summation of spot and load time, travel
loaded time travel empty time, turn and dump time (without waiting and delay time)
then productivity factor should be employed as follows:
60 x productivity factor
Pt= xLt
truck cycle time

➢Productivity factor is a factor that accounts for the causes of waiting and delay time as
previously explained.

➢Productivity factor is expressed as the number of working minutes per hour.

➢When expressed as a percentage of 60minutes per hour, 83%, which is equivalent to

50 minutes per hour, is normally taken as the average.

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Truck Production and Fleet Requirement
➢The number of trucks required to match a given loading equipment is based
on the truck cycle time and spot and load time, and is given by
t tc
N t=
t sl

where Nt is the number of trucks required to match a loader; ttc, truck cycle time
does not include waiting and delays.

➢If the number of trucks is less than Nt then loader is under-trucked, on the
other hand if the number of trucks is greater than Nt then loader is over-
trucked.
•
• The number of loaders required, NL is calculated by:
Trh  tsl
NL =
60Lt  productivity factor
36
Truck Production and Fleet Requirement
Example:
➢Assume that the 49.9 t (55 ton) truck used for the previous example is being
considered for selection in a mine that employs the same haul route as
previously used. Trucks will be served by 6 m3 power shovels of dipper fill factor
0.9. The loose density of blasted rock is 1.9 t/m3 and shovel cycle time per pass
is 35 seconds. Truck manufacturer recommends that truck should not be loaded
beyond 5% of its design payload of 49.9 t. It is anticipated that a truck will have
an average spotting time of 0.5 minutes and turning and dumping time of 1.2
minutes. Job operating conditions dictate a productivity factor of 0.83. The pit is
required to produce 4000 t of broken rock per hour.

➢a) Determine the required truck fleet if truck availability is expected to be 90%.
➢b) Determine shovel fleet required.

37
Truck Production and Fleet Requirement
Solution
a) Determine cycle time of truck:
Cycle time = spot and load + travel + turn and dump time
With a truck payload of 49.9 t, the number of passes to fill truck, Pt, is given by:
Payload (t )
Pt =
tonnage / pass
Tonnage/pass = dipper volumeloose densityfill factor
= 61.90.9 = 10.26 t

49.9
Pt = = 4.86  5
10.26
If 5 passes are used, the actual load to fill truck = 10.265 = 51.3 t
38
Truck Production and Fleet Requirement
513
.
➢Based on manufacturer’s recommendation,  100% is 102.8%, i.e. 2.8% overload.
49.9
Therefore, manufacturer’s overload recommendation is not violated. Use 5 passes to fill a
truck.

➢Loading time = loading time/passnumber of passes

= 35 secs.5 = 175 secs. = 2.92 minutes

Since spot time (0.5 min) is less than loader cycle time (35 s/60 s = 0.583 min);
Spot and load time = 2.92
 Truck cycle time = 2.92 + 5.16 + 1.2 = 9.28 minutes

60(min/ h)  actual load(t)  productivity factor

➢Production per one truck hour = cycle time (min) 39
Truck Production and Fleet Requirement
60  51.3  0.83 = 275.3 t/hr
9.28

Number of operating trucks =

= 4000 t/275.3 t = 14.53

Number of operating trucks

Truck fleet =
Availability

= 14.53 =16.14
0.9
40
Truck Production and Fleet Requirement
b) Number of shovels required, NL, is given by:
Required tonnage / h  spot and load time
Nl =
truck actual load  60  productivity factor
4000  2.92
= 4.57
51.3  60  0.83
The maximum number of trucks to match shovel is given as:
truck cycle time = 9.28 = 3.18
spot and load time 2.92
3.184.57 = 14.53

14.53 trucks checks very well with the number of operating trucks (14.53).

Assuming shovel availability of 0.95, number of shovels =4.57/0.95 = 4.81  5 shovels

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