UNIT III

Elements of Electrical Engineering

By: Dr Siddharth Joshi AP EED SoET PDEU
Non executive consultant APA Group UK
 UNIT III: Transformers and
Induction Machines
Magnetic material and its B-H characteristic, 02
Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction
Transformers: ideal transformer, EMF equation for 03
transformer, working of a practical transformer on
no-load and load
Induction Machine: Types of induction motors, 03
production of rotating magnetic field from a 3-phase
supply, operation of a 3-phase phase induction
motor
Torque-slip characteristics of induction motor, 03
Starting and running torques, Power Stages in an
induction motor
Magnetic material and
its B-H characteristic,
Faraday’s Law of
Electromagnetic
Induction
Magnetic flux density

• Magnetic flux density is defined as the magnetic flux per unit area of cross-
section at the right angle to the flux. It is denoted by a symbol B.
 Magnetomotive force
• Magnetomotive force (m.m.f.) is the cause for producing magnetic flux in a
magnetic circuit.
• The magnetomotive force (m.m.f.) of a coil is equal to the product of the
number of turns of the coil and the current flowing through the coil. It is
denoted by a symbol F. Its unit is ampere turns (AT). or simply ampere since
N is dimensionless.
 Magnetic field intensity
• The magnetic flux which can be set up in a magnetic circuit depends on the m.m.f, and
the length of the magnetic circuit.
• If the length is large, the m.m.f. has to act over a longer distance and the resulting
magnetic flux is small.
• The magnetic field intensity is defined as,
“ the m.m.f. per unit length of the magnetic circuit. It is also called as magnetic field
strength.”
• It is denoted by it symbol H. Mathematically,
 Reluctance
• The reluctance of a magnetic circuit is a measure of the opposition offered
by a magnetic circuit to the establishment of magnetic flux. It is defined as
the ratio of magneto motive force to flux.
Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic
induction
Φ
Statically induced EMF

Self induced EMF

Mutually induced EMF
Statically induced EMF

Self induced EMF

Statically induced EMF

Mutually induced EMF

Statically induced EMF

Mutually induced EMF

The force on a current-carrying conductor
in a magnetic field
• When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, there
is an interaction between the magnetic field produced by the current
and the permanent field, which leads to a force being experienced by
the conductor.
• The magnitude of the force on the conductor depends on the magnitude of
the current which it carries. The force is a maximum when the current
flows perpendicular to the field (as shown in diagram A on the left
below), and it is zero when it flows parallel to the field (as in diagram B,
on the right):
 Force acting on a Conductor
A current carrying conductor, placed in a magnetic field, produces a force.

This force can be increased,

When the current in the conductor is increased
When length of conductor is increased
When the magnetic field is made stronger

Force on the conductor =

f lux density  length of conductor  current
or f = B I l Newton

Note: considering single conductor

 Direction of Force: Fleming’s left hand rule

Mechanical force exerted on the conductor always acts in a direction perpendicular to

the plane of the conductor and the magnetic field
thumb
(Mechanical force)

(First finger)
Field

(Second finger)

Current

This is the principle of electric motor

Fleming’s left hand rule for motors

Motor
Fleming's right hand rule
Right hand rule: If the first finger of Motion
the right hand is pointed in the direction
Field (thumb)
of the magnetic flux, and if the thumb
(First finger)
is pointed in the direction of motion of
Emf
the conductor relative to the magnetic (second finger)

field, then the second finger, held at

right angles to both the thumb and the
first finger represents the direction of
emf.
Fleming’s right hand rule for generators
Magnetic Hysteresis
Hysteresis Loop
&
B-H curve

Steps to perform to plot the graph

If H is now decreased gradually, B will not decreased as AO but as
AC. When H is 0 B is not 0. In a B-H curve the value of the flux
density at H = 0 is known as the remanent or residual flux
density Br.
To demagnetize the iron bar the force is applied into the
reverse direction. When H is reversed B=o @ D. The value of
H to reduce Br to zero is called the coercive force Hc.
During reverse direction of the current…. The magnetisation is reduced to
0, H increase further in negative way and corresponding negative
saturation is obtained at point L.
The maximum possible value of Br corresponding to deep saturation is
know is as retentivity. The maximum value of H0 is the coercivity.
In a B-H curve the value of the
flux density at H = 0 is known
as the residual flux density Br.
The value of H to reduce Br to
zero is called the coercive
force Hc.
The maximum possible value
of Br corresponding to deep
saturation is know is as
retentivity and
the maximum value of H0 is
the coercivity.
 Transformers: ideal
transformer, EMF
equation for
transformer, working of
a practical transformer
on no-load and load
Power Generation And Transmission

400/132 KV POWER STATION

132/11 KV
SMALL INDUSTRY
132/33 KV

LARGE INDUSTRY

11 KV/240 V
RESIDENTIAL
Reference : http://www.nationalgrid.com/uk/img/im_generation.gif
 Generation &
Distribution
Power plant Transmission system Distribution system

Generator
GT
220 KV
Distribution

Step down transformer

11 KV
 About transformer
 Transformer is an important link in power system between generating
station and transmission sub station, between transmission sub
transmission and sub transmission sub station, between sub
transmission sub station and primary distribution sub station, finally
between primary distribution and the consumers.
 Capacity few KVA to hundreds of MVA.
 Variety of constructional and operating features.
• Transformers are ordered, designed (as per I.S. 2026 & I.S. 1180),
manufactured, tested, transported, installed, commissioned, operated &
maintained. The various activities are inter-related and demand expertise
about different aspects of power transformers. The knowledge about the
electrical power systems and associated phenomena is useful.
 Definition
• A transformer is a static (or stationary) piece of apparatus by means of
which electric power in one circuit is transformed into electric power
of the same frequency in another circuit. It can raise or lower the
voltage in a circuit but with a correspond-ing decrease or increase in
current.
• The physical basis of a transformer is
mutual induction between two circuits
linked by a common magnetic flux; its
simplest form, it consists of two inductive
coils which are electrically separated but
magnetically linked through a path of low
reluctance as shown in Fig.
• The two coils possess high mutual
inductance. If one coil is connected to a
source of alternating voltage, an
alternating flux is set up in the laminated
core, most of which is linked with the
other coil in which it produces mutually-
induced e.m.f.
 In short…

In brief, a transformer is a device that;

1. transfers electric power from one circuit to another
2. it does so without a change of frequency
3. it accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction and
4. where the two electric circuits are in mutual inductive
influence of each other.
 Transformer Construction

• The simple elements of a transformer consist of

two coils having mutual inductance and a
laminated steel core.
• The two coils are insulated from each other and
the steel core. Other necessary parts are : some
suitable container for assembled core and
windings ; a suitable medium for insulating the
core and its windings from its container ;
suitable bushings (either of porcelain, oil-filled
or capacitor-type) for insulating and bringing
out the terminals of windings from the tank.
Construction of Transformer
Core is made up of laminations to reduce the eddy current
losses.
The thickness of laminations for single phase is usually
0.4mm.
• In all types of transformers the core is constructed of transformer sheet
steel laminations assembled to provide a continuous magnetic path with
a minimum of air-gap included. The steel used is of high silicon
content, sometimes heat treated to produce a high permeability.
Bushings of 66kV Power X’mer
Breather in transformer

In the case of large-sized transformers

where complete air-tight construction is
impossible, chambers known as
breathers are provided to permit the oil
inside the tank to expand and contract as
its temperature increases or decreases.
The atmospheric moisture is entrapped
in these breathers and is not allowed to
pass on to the oil.
 Types and construction
Power transformers used in power distribution systems are sometimes
referred as follows:
• A power transformer connected to the output of a generator and used to
step its voltage up to the transmission level (110 kV and higher) is called
a unit transformer.
• A transformer used at a substation to step the voltage from the
transmission level down to the distribution level is called a
substation transformer.
• A transformer converting the distribution voltage down to the final
level (110 V, 220 V, etc.) is called a distribution transformer.
 Transformer
• No other feature in the construction of a transformer is given more attention and care than
the insulating materials, because the life on the unit almost solely depends on the quality,
durability and handling of these materials. All the insulating materials are selected on the
basis of their high quality and ability to preserve high quality even after many years of
normal use.
• Another means of classifying the transformers is according to the type of cooling
employed. The following types are in common use :
• (a) oil-filled self-cooled
• (b) oil-filled water-cooled
• (c) air-blast type
 Transformer what it is in general
Basically the transformer consists of Magnetic Circuit (core),
Electric Circuit (winding), Dielectric Circuit (Insulation) and
Cooling circuit.
• Core-type transformer: A transformer in which the windings
surround the limbs of the core.
• Shell-type transformer: A transformer in which the core
surrounds the major portion of the windings.
• Auto-transformer: A transformer in which the primary and
the secondary windings have a common portion.
•Oil-immersed type transformer: A transformer which has
the core and windings immersed in oil (or synthetic insulating
liquid).
• Dry type transformer: The transformer which has no oil
or dielectric liquid.
• Single-phase transformer: It has a single phase
primary winding and a single phase secondary winding (and
may have a single phase third winding).
• Three-phase Transformer: It has a set of three phase
primary winding and a three phase secondary winding (and
may have a three phase third winding).
 Types
• Construction ally, the transformers are of two general types, distinguished from each other
merely by the manner in which the primary and secondary coils are placed around the
laminated core.
• The two types are known as (i) core-type and (ii) shell- type.
• In the so-called core type transformers, the windings surround a considerable part of the core
whereas in shell-type transformers, the core surrounds a considerable portion of the
windings as shown schematically .
 Core type cont…
• The circular cylindrical coils are used in most of the core-type transformers
because of their mechanical strength.
 TRANSFORMER - BASICS AND GENERAL INFORMATION

Construction of Transformer

PROF. V. G. PATEL
 TRANSFORMER - BASICS AND GENERAL INFORMATION

Construction of Transformer
(I) Core Type Transformer
In core type transformer, windings are cylindrical former wound,
mounted on the core limbs as shown in the figure above. The
cylindrical coils have different layers and each layer is insulated from
each other. Materials like paper, cloth or mica can be used for
insulation. Low voltage windings are placed nearer to the core, as
they are easier to insulate.
(II) Shell Type Transformer
The coils are former wound and mounted in layers stacked with
insulation between them. A shell type transformer may have simple
rectangular form (as shown in above fig), or it may have a distributed
form.
 Types and construction
Power transformers
Core form Shell form

Windings are wrapped around two Windings are wrapped around the
sides of a laminated square core. center leg of a laminated core.

In the so-called core type transformers, the windings surround a considerable part of the
core whereas in shell-type transformers, the core surrounds a considerable portion of the
windings as shown schematically.
 TRANSFORMER - BASICS AND GENERAL INFORMATION

Construction of Transformer

Core - type construction

Shell - type construction

 TRANSFORMER - BASICS AND GENERAL INFORMATION

Construction of Transformer
Constructional Details
EMF equation
Transformer on No-load
• We assumed an ideal transformer i.e. one in which there were no core losses
and copper losses. But practical conditions require that certain
modifications be made in the foregoing theory.
• When an actual transformer is put on load, there is iron loss in the core and
copper loss in the windings (both primary and secondary) and these losses
are not entirely negligible.
 Significance
• Even when the transformer is on no-load, the primary input current is not wholly
reactive (due to windings only). The primary input current under no-load conditions
has to supply
(i) iron losses in the core i.e. hysteresis loss and eddy current loss and
(ii) a very small amount of copper loss in primary (there being no Cu loss in secondary
as it is open). Hence, the no-load primary input current I0 is not at 90° behind V1 but
lags it by an angle q0 < 90°. No-load input power
 When transformer is on No load, the
no load current I0 supplies the iron
losses in the core and small amount
of copper loss in the primary
winding due to winding resistance.

What is no load pf?

The magnetizing component of no load current is used to set up flux in the core
of the transformer. Im is in phase with flux, so lags applied voltage by 90°.
Note down the points….

The following points should be noted carefully :

1. The no-load primary current I0 is very small as compared to the full-load

primary current. It is about 1 per cent of the full-load current.

2. As I0 is very small, the no-load primary Cu loss is negligibly small which means
that no-load primary input is practically equal to the iron loss in the
transformer.
 Transformer ON load
• When the secondary is loaded, the secondary current I2is set up. The
magnitude and phase of I2 with respect to V2 is determined by the
characteristics of the load. Current I2 is in phase with V2 if load is non-
inductive, it lags if load is inductive and it leads if load is capacitive.
• The secondary current sets up its own m.m.f. (=N2I2) and hence its own flux
f2which is in opposition to the main primary flux f which is due to I0. The
secondary ampere-turns N2I2 are known as demagnetizing amp-turns.
• The opposing secondary flux f2 weakens the primary flux f momentarily, hence primary
back e.m.f. E1 tends to be reduced. For a moment V1 gains the upper hand over E1 and
hence causes more current to flow in primary.
• Let the additional primary current be I2′. It is known as load component of primary
current. This current is antiphase with I2′.
• The additional primary m.m.f. N1I2 sets up its own flux f2′ which is in opposition to f2
(but is in the same direction as f) and is equal to it in magnitude. Hence, the two cancel
each other out. So, we find that the magnetic effects of secondary current I2 are
immediately neutralized by the additional primary current I2′ which is brought into
existence exactly at the same instant as I2.
c
 V1

I2’
I1

I0

Transformer vector I2
diagram on Load
For ‘R’ type of load E2=E1 for K=1 and i.e. = V2
at k=1 E2
 V1

I1

I2 '
F1

F0 I0

I
I2
F2
Transformer vector Transformer vector
diagram on Load diagram on Load
For ‘R-L’ type of For ‘R-C’ type of
load at k=1 load at k=1
E2
Concept of Voltage Regulation
Induction Machine: Types
of induction motors,
production of rotating
magnetic field from a 3-
phase supply, operation of
a 3-phase phase induction
motor
 Induction Motor: General Principle
• Conversion of electrical power into mechanical power takes place in the rotating part
of an electric motor.
• However, in a.c. motors, the rotor does not receive electric power by conduction but by
induction in exactly the same way as the secondary of a 2-winding transformer receives
its power from the primary .
• That is why such motors are known as induction motors. In fact, an induction motor
can be treated as a rotating transformer i.e. one in which primary winding is stationary
but the secondary is free to rotate.
• Also known as asynchronous motor as it does not run on synchronous speed. It is
always run slightly less than synchronous speed.
 Some applications of an Induction motor

• Application wise induction motor find in different industrial sectors such as food,
chemical, textile, metallurgical and paper industries.
• These motors are widely used for most of the industrial applications such as centrifugal
pumps, conveyers, compressors, crushers, punch presses etc.
• Applications everywhere from a small workshop to large industry.
• Three-phase induction motors are the most common and frequently
encountered(used /seen) machines in industry
• Reasons are …
• simple design, rugged (strong or tough) , low-price, easy maintenance
• Good power factor and high efficiency.
• Low maintenance as there is no commutator.
• Low cost
• Very efficient, robust, reliable
• wide range of power ratings: fractional horsepower to 10 MW
• run essentially as constant speed from no-load to full load
• Singly excited machine
• Self starting
• Its speed depends on the frequency of the power source.
 Demerits:-
Not easy to have variable speed control
Requires a variable-frequency power-
electronic drive for optimal speed control.
Practical Cut out - Construction
Cutaway in a typical wound-rotor IM. Notice the brushes and the slip rings
4 Lifting lug 5 Air fan/fins
1.Slip rings 3 Rotor winding
6 Shaft

2 Brushes 7 Terminal Box

8 stator winding
1. Frame. Made of close-grained alloy cast iron.
2. Stator and Rotor Core. Built from high-quality low-loss silicon steel
laminations and flash-enamelled on both sides.
3. Stator and Rotor Windings. Have moisture proof tropical insulation
embodying mica and high quality varnishes. Are carefully spaced for most
effective air circulation and are rigidly braced to withstand centrifugal forces
and any short-circuit stresses.
4. Air-gap. The stator rabbets and bore are machined carefully to ensure
uniformity of air-gap.
5. Shafts and Bearings. Ball and roller bearings are used to suit heavy duty,
toruble-free running and for enhanced service life.
6. Fans. Light aluminium fans are used for adequate circulation of cooling air and
are securely keyed onto the rotor shaft.
7. Slip-rings and Slip-ring Enclosures. Slip-rings are made of high quality
phosphor-bronze and are of moulded construction.
3 phase 4 pole construction of the motor
Three phase IM construction:

• Two main parts:

Stator : Stationary part
Rotor : Rotating part
 The Stator
• It is made up of a number of stampings, which are slotted to receive the windings (a).
The stator carries a 3-phase winding (b) and is fed from a 3-phase supply. It is wound
for a definite number of poles, the exact number of poles being determined by the
requirements of speed. Greater the number of poles, lesser the speed and vice versa.
• The stator windings, when supplied with 3-phase currents, produce a magnetic flux,
which is of constant magnitude but which revolves (or rotates) at synchronous speed
(given by Ns = 120 f/P). This revolving magnetic flux induces an e.m.f. in the rotor by
mutual induction.
 Rotor:
• A revolving rotor
• Composed of punched laminations, stacked (usually neatly shaped) to create a series
of rotor slots, providing space for the rotor winding
• Two basic design types depending on the rotor design:
• Squirrel-cage: conducting bars laid into slots and shorted at both ends by shorting rings.
• Wound-rotor: complete set of three-phase windings exactly as the stator. Usually Y-
connected, the ends of the three rotor wires are connected to 3 slip rings on the rotor
shaft. In this way, the rotor circuit is accessible.
Constructional difference

Squirrel cage rotor

Wound rotor

Notice the
slip rings
 Squirrel ROTOR. . . .

• It should be noted that the rotor bars are permanently short-circuited on

themselves, hence it is not possible to add any external resistance in series with
the rotor circuit for starting purposes.
• The rotor slots are usually not quite parallel to the shaft but are purposely given a
slight skew (Fig.) This is useful in two ways :
1. it helps to make the motor run quietly by reducing the magnetic hum and
2. it helps in reducing the locking tendency of the rotor i.e. the tendency of the
rotor teeth to remain under the stator teeth due to direct magnetic attraction
between the two.
Slip ring rotor

• The other three winding terminals are brought out and connected to
three insulated slip-rings mounted on the shaft with brushes resting on
them [Fig.(b)].
• These three brushes are further externally connected to a 3-phase star-
connected rheostat [Fig.(c)].
• This makes possible the introduction of additional resistance in the
rotor circuit during the starting period for increasing the starting
torque of the motor.
• Starting torque is the maximum torque that can be produced by
a motor in order to start rotational movement of the load.
Slip ring rotor cont…
• When running under normal conditions, the slip-rings are
automatically short-circuited by means of a metal collar, which is
pushed along the shaft and connects all the rings together.
• Next, the brushes are automatically lifted from the slip-rings to reduce
the frictional losses and the wear and tear. Hence, it is seen that under
normal running conditions, the wound rotor is short-circuited on itself
just like the squirrel-cage rotor.
Define R.M.F.

• The rotating magnetic field defined as the field or flux having

constant amplitude but whose axis is continuously rotating in a
plane with a certain speed.
 Production of rotating magnetic field:
• Two phase supply and
• Three phase supply
Two phase supply

• The principle of a 2-phase, 2-pole stator having two identical

windings, 90 space degrees apart, is illustrated in Fig.
 Concluding lines……….

1. That the magnitude of the resultant flux is constant and is equal to fm

— the maximum flux due to either phase.
2. That the resultant flux rotates at synchronous speed given by Ns = 120
f/P rpm.
3. However, it should be clearly understood that in this revolving field,
there is no actual revolution of the flux.
4. The flux due to each phase change periodically, according to the
changes in the phase current, but the magnetic flux itself does not move
around the stator. It is only the seat of the resultant flux which keeps on
shifting synchronously around the stator.
Three phase supply (RMF):

• It will now be shown that when three-phase windings displaced in space by 120º,
are fed by three-phase currents, displaced in time by 120º, they produce a
resultant magnetic flux, which rotates in space as if actual magnetic poles were
being rotated mechanically.
SynchronouS Speed
P 50 Hz 60 Hz
2 3000 3600
4 1500 1800
6 1000 1200
8 750 900
10 600 720
12 500 600
Rotating Magnetic Field
Rotating Magnetic Field
Rotating
Magnetic Field
Conclusion

• Hence, we conclude that:

1. The resultant flux is of constant value = 3/2 fm i.e. 1.5 times the
maximum value of the flux due to any phase.
2. The resultant flux rotates around the stator at synchronous speed
given by Ns = 120 f/P.
 Starting and running
torques, Torque-slip
characteristics of induction
motor, Power Stages in an
induction motor
Why does the rotor rotates?
• The reason why the rotor of an induction motor is set into rotation is as follow:
When the 3-phase stator windings, are fed by a 3-phase supply then, as seen from
above, a magnetic flux of constant magnitude, but rotating at synchronous speed,
is set up.
The flux passes through the air-gap, sweeps past the rotor surface and so cuts the
rotor conductors which, as yet, are stationary. Due to the relative speed between
the rotating flux and the stationary conductors, an e.m.f. is induced in the latter,
according to Faraday’s laws of electro-magnetic induction.
The frequency of the induced e.m.f. is the same as the supply frequency.
• In Fig (a) is shown the stator field which is
assumed to be rotating clockwise. The
relative motion of the rotor with respect to the
stator is anticlockwise.
• By applying Right-hand rule, the direction of
the induced e.m.f. in the rotor is found to be
outwards. Hence, the direction of the flux due
to rotor current alone, is as shown in Fig. (b).
Now, by applying the Left-hand rule, or by
the effect of combined field [Fig.(c)] it is
clear that the rotor conductors experience a
force tending to rotate them in clockwise
direction.
• Hence, the rotor is set into rotation in the
same direction as that of the stator flux (or
field).
The Slip

Where s is the slip

Notice that : if the rotor runs at synchronous speed
s=0
if the rotor is stationary
s=1
Slip may be expressed as a percentage by multiplying the above
eq. by 100, notice that the slip is a ratio and doesn’t have units
Frequency of rotor current
Problem 1
• A slip-ring induction motor runs at 290 r.p.m. at full load and its
synchronous speed is 300 r.p.m., when connected to 50-Hz supply.
Determine the number of poles and slip.
Problem 2
• The stator of a 3-f induction motor has 3 slots per pole per phase. If
supply frequency is 50 Hz, calculate
• (i) number of stator poles produced and total number of slots on the
stator
• (ii) speed of the rotating stator flux (or magnetic field).
Problem 3
• A 4-pole, 3-phase induction motor operates from a supply whose
frequency is 50 Hz. Calculate :
• (i) the speed at which the magnetic field of the stator is rotating.
• (ii) the speed of the rotor when the slip is 0.04.
• (iii) the frequency of the rotor currents when the slip is 0.03.
• (iv) the frequency of the rotor currents at standstill.
Starting torque

Torque depends on…….

Condition for maximum starting torque
Torque Under Running Conditions

• E2= standstill rotor induced e.m.f./phase

• X2=standstill rotor reactance/phase
• f2 = rotor current frequency at standstill
• Therefore, under running conditions Er = sE2
• The frequency of the induced e.m.f. will likewise become fr = sf2 and
Xr = sX2 ;where Er and Xr are rotor e.m.f. and reactance under
running conditions.
Condition of Condition or Maximum Torque Under Running
Conditions
Torque Slip Characteristics
 Main points to be discussed

N=Ns, slip = 0;
Torque = 0 curve
will start from origin

When speed nearly equals to Ns,

sX2 is very small compared
to R2, straight line

As slip increases speed drops

with increase in load,
torque increases, reaches up to maximum
torque, breakdown torque; s=R2/X2.
 Cont…

Further increase in slip,

drop in speed due to increase in load,
beyond the point of maximum torque,
torque begins to decrease.
Motor operates between
zero to breakdown torque.

Higher values of slip R2

is negligible compared to X2
and T is inversely proportional to s.
Remarks
Power losses in Induction machines
Power losses in Induction machines

• Copper losses
• Copper loss in the stator (PSCL) = I12R1
• Copper loss in the rotor (PRCL) = I22R2
• Core loss (Pcore)
• Mechanical power loss due to friction and windage
• How this power flow in the motor?
A three-phase induction motor is supplied from a 50 Hz supply and runs
at 1200 rev/min when the slip is 4%. Determine the synchronous speed.
A 3-phase, 60Hz induction motor has 2 poles. If the slip is 2% at
a certain load, determine (a) the synchronous speed, (b) the speed
of the rotor and (c) the frequency of the induced e.m.f.’s in the
rotor.