M02 Perform Measurement

Electrical/Electronic Equipment
Servicing Level-II
Based on April, 2022 Curriculum Version I
Module Title: - Perform Electrical/Electronic

Measurement and Calculation
Module code: EIS EEES2 01 0322
Nominal duration: 90 Hour
Prepared by: Ministry of Labor and Skill
August, 2022
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Table of contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 3
INTRODUCTION TO THE UNIT 5
UNIT ONE PLAN AND PREPARE TASKS 7
1. Plan and prepare tasks 8
1.1 Identify object or component to be measured 8
1.2 Obtain correct specification 8
1.3 Select Measuring instruments 9
1.4 Making Work Station ready with job specification 91
Self-Check 1 135
Unit two Measurement Instruments 156
2. Select measuring instruments 16
2.1 Select suitable measuring instrument 167
2.2 Obtain accurate measurments 33
2.3 perform calculation using the four basic process of addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division 49
2.4 Calculation involving fractions, percentages and mixed numbers 55
2.5 Checking Numerical computation 61
2.6 Reading of Instruments to the limit of accuracy . 79
Self-Check 2 80
OPERATION SHEET 2 81
UNIT THREE CARRY OUT MEASUREMENT AND CALCULATION 83
3.Carry out Measurement and Calculation 84
3.1 Handle measuring instruments. 84
3.2 Clean measuring instruments 55
3.3 Proper storage of measuring instruments 90
SELF-CHECK 3 84
UNIT FOUR MAINTAIN MEASURING INSTRUMENTS 93
4. Maintain Measuring instruments 94
4.1. Identify object component 94
4.2. Proper storage of instrument: 95
Self-Check 4 99
References 100
Page 2 of 92 Ministry of Labor and Skills Measurement and Quantity estimation Version -1
Author/Copyright In irrigation project
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Acknowledgement
Ministry of Labor and Skills wish to extend thanks and appreciation to the many representatives of TVT
instructors and respective industry experts who donated their time and expertise to the development of
this Teaching, Training and Learning Materials (TTLM).
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Acronym
LAP ------------------------------------------------------ Laboratory Activity performance
Si---------------------------------------------------------- System of International
LCD------------------------------------------------------ Liquid Crystal Display
Dc-------------------------------------------------------- Direct Current
AC------------------------------------------------------- Alternating Current
KWh ---------------------------------------------------- Killo Watt hour
Hz------------------------------------------------------- Hertz
AG------------------------------------------------------ Automotive Glass
RCM --------------------------------------------------- Reliability and centered Maintenance
SOP----------------------------------------------------- Standard Operation Procedure
FMECA------------------------------------------------ Failure Mode Effects and Critically analysis
HSE----------------------------------------------------- Health and safety environment
MRO---------------------------------------------------- Maintenance repair and Operation
OD------------------------------------------------------ Outside Diameter
ID------------------------------------------------------- Inside Diameter
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Introduction to the unit
In Electrical/electronic equipment servicing filed; the performing Electrical/Electronic measurement
and calculation; helps to know ; identify object or component according to procedures to be measured ,
Obtain Correct specifications from relevant source, Select Measuring tools in line with job
requirements, Obtain accurate measurements for job, Perform Calculation needed to complete work
tasks using the four basic process of addition (+), subtraction (-), multiplication (x), and division (/),
Check and correct Numerical computation for accuracy, handle Measuring instruments without
damage according to procedures,.
This module is designed to meet the industry requirement under the performing of Electrical/Electron
measurement and calculation.
This unit covers the topics :
 Plan and prepare tasks
 Select measuring instruments
 Carry out measurements and calculation
 Maintain measuring instruments
Learning Objective of the unit
 Identify Object or component according to procedures to be measured
 Select Measuring tools in line with job requirements
 Obtain accurate measurements for job
 Perform Calculation needed to complete work tasks using the four basic process of addition
(+), subtraction (-), multiplication (x), and division (/)
 Check and correct Numerical computation for accuracy
 Undertake Proper storage of instruments according to manufacturer’s specifications and
standard operating procedures.
unit Instruction
For effective use this unit trainees are expected to follow the following unit instruction:
1. Read the specific objectives of this unit.
2. Follow the instructions described below
3. Read the information written in the “unit”. Try to understand what are being discussed.
Ask you teacher for assistance if you have hard time understanding them.
4. Accomplish the “Self-checks” in each units.
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5. Ask from your teacher the key to correction (key answers) or you can request your teacher to
correct your work. (You are to get the key answer only after you finished answering the Self-
checks).
6. If you earned a satisfactory evaluation proceed to “Operation sheets and LAP Tests if
any”. However, if your rating is unsatisfactory, see your teacher for further instructions
or go back to Learning Activity.
7. After you accomplish Operation sheets and LAP Tests, ensure you have a formative
assessment and get a satisfactory result
8.Then proceed to the next unit.
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unit one Plan and prepare tasks
This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following content
coverage and topics:
 Identifying component or object to be measured
 Obtaining correct specifications
 Selecting Measuring instruments with job requirements
 Making workstation ready with job specifications.
This unit will also assist you to attain the units stated in the cover page. Specifically, upon
completion of this unit, you will be able to:
 Identify Object or component according to procedures to be measured
 Obtain Correct specifications from relevant source
 Select Measuring tools in line with job requirements
 Make ready Workstation in accordance with job specifications
 Obtain accurate measurements for job
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1. Plan and prepare tasks
1.1Identify object or component to be measured
Measuring is the science of finding size or amount of something by comparing it with a standard unit.
Knowledge of measuring and its practice is of ever-increasing importance in industry. The development
of engineering production in the past has been inseparable from that of measurement. It is certain that
the more exacting demands of industry of mechanisms and assemblies, which must meet stringent
design requirements, have resulted in even closer attention being paid to the science of Measurement.
Highly accurate and standard measurement systems are very important for interchangeable
manufacture, world trade, and the need for high precision.
1.2 Obtain correct Specification

Presently there are two major systems of measurement used in the world. These are the inch systems
often called the English system of measurement and the metric system. The metric system of
measurement is being utilized by about 90percent of the world’s Populations these days because of its
ease of use and better accuracy over the inch system. In the metric system of measurement, the amount
of measurement (measured value) of certain property is related to the basic unit of measurement by
factors of 10.
If for instance, length with the basic unit meter is taken, all length measurement values are expressed as
multiples of 10 as mm (10 -3 m), cm (10-2 m), Km (103 m) etc.
This in other words means that all measuring tools of the metric system come with graduations that are
positive or negative powers of 10. And this makes conversion of the measured value to the base unit
very easy.
On the contrary, measured values (amount of measurement) in the inch system are related to the basic
unit of measure by unusual factors. For example, the unit of length inch is divided in to 2, 4,
8,16,32,64 and some other fractions that are of no regular pattern when compared to the metric system.
Besides this inch system uses more than one unit for same property unlike the metric system. For
instance, foot, yard, and Mile are other units for length measurement and this could be some good
reason to create confusion.
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Considering all this irregularity in the English systems, the metric system of measurement is the one
which all countries are likely to adopt in time. The basic units of measurement of the metric system are
standardized by the international system of units (SI).Due to this they interchangeably are called SI unit.
1.3 Select measuring instruments

Electrical measurements are the methods, devices and calculations used to measure electrical quantities.
Measurement of electrical quantities may be done to measure electrical parameters of a system. Using
transducers, physical properties such as temperature, pressure, flow, force, and many others can be
converted into electrical signals, which can then be conveniently measured and recorded. Electrical
measurements are a branch of the science of metrology.
Measurable independent and semi-independent electrical quantities comprise:
 Voltage by the means of voltmeter

 Electric current by the means of Ammeter
 Electrical resistance by the means of Ohmmeter
 Electrical charge by the means of electrometer
 Electrical power by the means of watt meter
Measurable dependent electrical quantities comprise:
 Inductance by the means of Inductance meter

 Capacitance by the means of Capacitance meter
 Electrical impedance defined as vector sum of electrical resistance and electrical reactance
by the means of Ohmmeter
 Frequency by the means of Frequency meter
1.4 Making workstation ready with job specification

Electrical Units of Measure
The standard SI units used for the measurement of voltage, current and resistance are the Volt [V],
Ampere [ A] and Ohms [ Ω] respectively. Sometimes in electrical or electronic circuits and systems it is
necessary to use multiples or sub-multiples (fractions) of these standard units when the quantities being
measured are very large or very small. The following table gives a list of some of the standard units used
in electrical formulas and component values.
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Standard Electrical Units
Parameter Symbol Measuring Unit Description
Voltage V or E Volt Unit of Electrical Potential V=I×R
Current I or i Ampere Unit of Electrical Current I=V÷R
Resistance R Ohm Unit of DC Resistance R=V÷I
Conductance G Siemen Reciprocal of Resistance G=1÷R
Capacitance C Farad Unit of Capacitance C=Q÷V
Charge Q Coulomb Unit of Electrical Charge Q=C×V
Inductance L Henry Unit of Inductance VL = -L(di/dt)
Power P Watts Unit of Power P = V × I or I2 × R
Impedance Z Ohm Unit of AC Resistance Z2 = R2 + X2
Frequency F Hertz Unit of Frequency ƒ=1÷T
Multiples and Sub-multiples

There is a huge range of values encountered in electrical and electronic engineering between a
maximum value and a minimum value of a standard electrical unit. For example, resistance can be lower
than 0.01Ω's or higher than 1,000,000Ω's. By using multiples and sub-multiples of the standard unit we
can avoid having to write too many zero's to define the position of the decimal point. The table below
gives their names and abbreviations
. Symbol Multiplier Power of Ten
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Prefix
Terra T 1,000,000,000,000 1012
Giga G 1,000,000,000 109
Mega M 1,000,000 106
Kilo K 1,000 103
None None 1 100
Centi C 1/100 10-2
Milli M 1/1,000 10-3
Micro µ 1/1,000,000 10-6
Nano N 1/1,000,000,000 10-9
Pico P 1/1,000,000,000,000 10-12
example:
 1kV = 1 kilo-volt - which is equal to 1,000 Volts.
 47kΩ = 47 kilo-ohms - which is equal to 47 thousand Ohms.
 1kW = 1 kilo-watt - which is equal to 1,000 Watts.
 1MHz = 1 mega-hertz - which is equal to one million Hertz.
 1mA = 1 milli-amp - which is equal to one thousandths (1/1000) of an Ampere.
 100uF = 100 micro-farads - which is equal to 100 millionths (1/1,000,000) of a Farad.
To convert from one prefix to another it is necessary to either multiply or divide by the difference
between the two values. For example, convert 1MHz into kHz.
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Well we know from above that 1MHz is equal to one million (1,000,000) hertz and that 1kHz is equal
to one thousand (1,000) hertz, so one 1MHz is one thousand times bigger than 1kHz. Then to convert
Mega-hertz into Kilo-hertz we need to multiply kilo-hertz by
one thousand, as 1MHz is equal to 1000 kHz. Likewise, if we needed to convert kilohertz into mega-
hertz we would need to divide by one thousand. A much simpler and quicker method would be to move
the decimal point either left or right depending upon whether you need to multiply or divide.
Calculation
A calculation is a deliberate process that transforms one or more inputs into one or more results, with
variable change. The term is used in a variety of senses, from the very definite arithmetical calculation
of using an algorithm, to the vague heuristics of calculating a strategy in a competition, or calculating
the chance of a successful relationship between two people.
For example, multiplying 7 by 6 is a simple algorithmic calculation. Statistical estimations of the likely
election results from opinion polls also involve algorithmic calculations, but produces ranges of
possibilities rather than exact answers. Some other examples of calculation in a sentence:
i. According to experts' calculations, that star will explode within two billion years.
ii. The computer can do millions of calculations each second.
iii. Careful calculation is required to determine the required amount of fuel.
iv. His positions are based on political calculation of what voters want to hear.
DIMENSION:
Dimension can have different meaning based on the context as follows;
 measurement of size of something: a measurement of something in one or more directions
such as length, width, or height
example the dimensions of the room
 size: the size or extent of something (usually used in the plural)

example: discussed the dimensions of the problem
 coordinate for space and time (mathematics) : a coordinate used with others to locate a
point in space and time
 property defining physical quantity (physics): one of a group of properties or

magnitudes such as mass or time that collectively define a physical quantity
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Written Test
Self-Check 1
I. Say true or false for the following questions
1. The two types of measurement systems are inch system and metric system
2. Electrical measurements are the methods, devices and calculations used to measure
electrical quantities
3 .Electric current is measured by the means of Ammeter
II. Choose the correct answer
1. The measuring unit of capacitance is;
A. Siemen B. watt C. Ohm D. Farad
2. Electrical power is measured by means of
A. Watt meter B. Ammeter C. Volt meter D. Inductance mete

III. Give the necessary answers for the following questions
1. What is measurement? (3 points)
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2. Convert the following prefixes into its power of ten.
A. Terra B. Giga C. Mega D. Pico E. Micro F. Micro
Unit two Measurement Instruments

This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following content
coverage and topics:
 Selecting suitable measuring instrument
 Obtaining accurate measurements.
 Performing four basic process of mathematical calculation
 Performing mathematical calculations of parallel circuit, series circuit and series
parallel circuit.
 Checking and correcting numerical computation
 Reading the limitation of accuracy of instruments tool
This unit will also assist you to attain the units stated in the cover page. Specifically, upon
completion of this unit, you will be able to:
 Selecting suitable measuring instrument
 Obtaining accurate measurements.
 Performing four basic process of mathematical calculation
 Performing mathematical calculations of parallel circuit, series circuit and series
parallel circuit.
 Checking and correcting numerical computation
 Reading the limitation of accuracy of instruments tool
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2. Select measuring instruments
2.1 Select suitable measuring instrument

Measuring instruments are of two types .These are mechanical and Electrical measuring instruments
Mechanical measuring instruments are designed either for line measurements (for measuring distance
between two edges, like steel rule), or end measurement (for measuring distance between two surfaces
like micrometer, Screw gauges, etc). It is Very difficult that instruments designed for one system to be
used for other system. The Measuring instruments may be classified depends up on the accuracy that can
be attained. The two categories are non- precision instruments and precision instruments. Electrical
measuring instruments are designed to measure voltage, resistance and current in electronics & electrical
equipment
A. Mechanical measuring Instruments
I. The Steel Rule

Steel rules are the most common linear measuring tools and are available in the metric or inch system.
Metric rules are graduated in both millimeters and half-millimeters. Some rules are available with both
inch and millimeter graduation.
It is the simplest and most common measuring instruments used in inspection. Scale is available in
different Sizes, Styles and accuracy. Scale is graduated either on both edges or on only one side. Metric
steel rules can be 150 mm long, 300mm, 600 mm or 1000mm long with Accuracy of 1mm and 1/2 mm.
Certain rules have some attachments and special features with them to make use more versatile e.g.,
Very small rules may be providing a handle to use it easily. They may be made in folder form so that
they can be kept in pocket, also certain rule take in to accounts the shrinkage of-materials after cooling
and are called shrink rules.
fig. 2.1 Graduations of steel, rule
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Graduations rule accessories.
For direct line measurement, the reliability of measurement is directly related with the proper
positioning of the rule in relations to the work piece. To improve the accuracy of the rule positioning
several accessories are used.
i. Hooks: Used to provide good alignment of the zero point on the borderline of an object surface
and keep the rule in a position substantially normal to the edge of that surface. These may be
fixed length or extendable type.
ii. Clamping shafts: used to hold short rule sections to permit direct measurement in cramped
locations since, confined spaces does not provide access for regular steel rules.
iii. Parallel clamps: used for aligning steel rules with the axis of cylindrical shafts.
iv. Square heads and center finder: used in layout work. Center finders are used on steel rule to
permit scribing centerline on the face of round objects. Square heads aligns rule normal to the
edge of straight sided object.
Fig.2.2 A. Graduation rule accessories (b. Clamping shaft, c. Hook
How to Use Rules
Using a steel rules requires three important considerations.
 First, which particular style of rule will best do the Job?
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 Second, which scale should be used?
 Third, What Method of holding the rule and the part provides the most reliable measurement.
The purpose of all three is to establish the most precise relationship between the reference point
and measured point on the part with the scale graduations of the
rules.
To get good results, certain techniques must be followed in the use of scale.
Fig.2.3 Parallax error
1. The rule is worn at ends; therefore, the end of the rule must never be set of the edge of the part to be
measured. Not only is the end of the rule worn out but also it difficult to line up accurately the end of
rule to the edge of the part to be measured.
2. The Scale should never be laid flat on the part to be measured. Because by doing so the graduations
of the scale are not direct contact with the surface of the part and it is difficult to read the correct
dimension.
 The degree of accuracy, when measurements are made by a steel rule of depends up on the
quality of the rule, and the skill of the user in estimating part of a millimeter.
 The engineers rule used for making direct measurements depends up on visual alignments of a
mark or surface on the work to be measured against the nearest division on its scale.
 Various errors in measurements can be minimized by using a rule whose thickness is as small as
possible.
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 It is important when making measurement to have the eye directly opposite and at 90 to the
work. Otherwise there will be ‘parallax’ error, (which is the result of any sideways positioning of
the direction of sighting.
II. Gauging Tools
Gauging Tools, special devices used for making accurate measurements. Gauging tools include calipers,
depth gauges, taper and thickness gauges, dial and surface gauges, spirit levels and plumb bobs, and
straightedges and squares.
i. Straightedges and squares: measure dimensions and check angles. They are used in such tasks
as marking and making a straight cut across a board. Straightedges are basically heavy-duty
rules, usually made of metal, while squares consist of two arms that are at right angles, or 90°, to
each other. Miter squares have 45° angles. A combination square is shaped so that it can check
both inside and outside 90° and 45° angles; it usually includes a small bubble level for quickly
checking level and plumb positions as well. Bevels or bevel protractors are used to measure other
angles; in these devices, the angle of the square is adjustable.
ii. Try Square: a wood working tool used to test and mark out right angles, consisting of a
rectangular handle with a thin flat rectangular metal blade fitted perpendicular to it
fig 2.4 Angle Measuring

Instruments
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With a simple Protractor the measuring arm can be set against a circular degree scale from 0 degree to
180 degree. The measuring error is around 1 degree. With a more precise Universal Bevel Protractor
angular measurements can be carried out with an accuracy of 5 minutes.
fig. 2.5 types of protractor
iii. Indirect Reading Instruments

Inside and Outside Calipers are comparison tools used to make approximate measurements of the
outside diameter of round work pieces. The caliper cannot be read directly and its setting must be
checked with a rule or a vernier caliper.
fig.2.6 Calipers (A . inside caliper B. outside caliper)
IV. Vernier Calipers
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Vernier calipers are precision measuring instruments used to make internal, exter al and depth
measurements. Both systems metric and inch are available, and some styles of vernier caliper provide
metric readings on one side and inch readings on the other side. The common ssize of verniers for
machine shops are 200 mm, 250 mm and 300 mm. The precision depends on the vernier scale. Common
types provid an accuracy of either 0.05 mm or 0.02 mm. The example below shows an accuracy of0.05
mm.
Fig.2.7 vernier caliper
V. Torque gauge: Torque gauges are used to measure turning force and twisting force (torsion).(A
torque sensor or torque transducer or torquemeter) is a device for measuring and recording the torque on
a rotating system, such as an engine, crankshaft, gearbox, transmission, rotor, a bicyclecrank or Cap
Torque Tester. Static torque is relatively easy to measure. Dynamic torque, on the other hand, is not easy
to measure, since it generally requires transfer of some effect (electric or magnetic) from the shaft being
measured to a static system.
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fig.2.8 torque gauge
V. Taper and thickness gauges

To measure very small distances—such as the depth of a screw hole or the thickness of a few sheets of
paper—taper and thickness gauges are often used. The taper gauge is a tapered metal rod with a
measurement scale marked on it. It is slipped into the gap to be measured. The depth of the opening may
be determined by reading the number on the taper gauge at the point where it just enters the gap.
VI. Micrometers
A micrometer is a specialized instrument used to take very accurate measurements. The thimble, which
rotates as the micrometer is tightened, has 50 equal divisions around its diameter, giving an accuracy of
0.01 mm. A reading is taken by adding all the visible whole numbers to the nearest 0.5 mm. The reading
from the thimble, which will be between 0 and 0.49 mm, is added to the main reading to get the exact
measurement.
There are four types of micrometer calipers, each designed for a specific use: outside micrometer, inside
micrometer, depth micrometer, and thread micrometer. It may be used to measure the outside
dimensions of shafts, thickness of sheet metal stock, the diameter of drills, and for many other
applications.
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Fig. 2.9 Parts of outside micrometer
B. Electrical Measuring Instruments

Electrical Measuring instruments are used to measure voltage, resistance and current in electronics &
electrical equipment. It is also used to test continuity b/n two points to verify if there is any break in
circuit or line. There are two types of multi meter: analogue and digital ..Analogue style gauge Digital
has LCD display
Test equipment is necessary for determining proper set-up, adjustment, operation, and maintenance of
electrical systems and control panels.
I. Voltmeter
For measuring differences of potential (voltage) between two points in an electrical circuit. The
instrument is connected in parallel with the circuit being measured. Ranges vary from a few tenths volt
to a few thousand volts. Instruments are capable of measuring both A.C. and DC voltage.
Volt meters can be classified into two . these are analog and digital volt meters. Analog
voltmeters measure voltage or voltage drop in a circuit. They display readings using a needle rather than
a digital display.
Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a scale in proportion to the voltage measured and can be built
from a galvanometer and series resistor. Meters using amplifiers can measure tiny voltages of micro
volts or less. Digital voltmeters give a numerical display of voltage by use of an analog-to-digital
converter
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fig.2.10 analog voltmeter fig. 2.11 digital volt meter
. II. OHMETERS:
For measuring the electrical D.C. and AC ohm resistance of a circuit, circuit part, or component.
Calibrated from zero ohms to infinite. Measures either series or parallel resistance.
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fig.2.12 analog and digital ohm meter
III. AMMETERS
Measure magnitude of electrical current flow in an electrical circuit. When measuring DC. currents,
some types must be inserted in series with the circuit. A.C. ammeters are of two types. One requires that
it be connected in series with the circuit; the other needs only to be clamped around the current carrying
conductor. There are two types of ammeters. these are:
i. A digital ammeter is an instrument that measures the flow of an electrical current in a circuit. The
measurements are given in amperes, the unit for measuring electrical current. Power Distribution Units
(PDUs) distribute power to multiple devices through a single electrical source.
ii. Analog ammeters, also known as current meters, are metered instruments that measure current flow in
amperes. Current levels are displayed on a dial, usually with a moving pointer or needle made of a soft
What is analog ammeter?
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(A) (B)
fig. 2.13 A. analog ammeter and B. Digital ammeter
IV. Wattmeter:
Is used for measuring powers in AC circuits. For DC circuits, powers can be found simply from
multiplying voltage by current.
fig. 2.14 connection of watt meter
A wattmeter consists of a current coil, connected in series with the line like an ammeter, and a potential
coil, connected in parallel with the line like a voltmeter. The connection is shown in the Figure 2.14.
There is a shunt switch for the current coil similar to an ammeter, while the potential coil has no shunt
switch.
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fig.2.15 Watt meter
V. KWh meter
KWh meter is the electric meter that measures the amount of electrical energy in kWh that was
consumed in the house. The kWh meter has a counter display that counts units of kilowatt-hour (kWh).
The energy consumption is calculated by calculating the difference of the counter's reading in the
specified period. The most common unit of measurement on the electricity measurement is the kilowatt
hour [kWh], which is equal to the amount of energy used by a load of one kilowatt hour over a period of
one hour. equal to the amount of energy used by a load of one kilowatt hour over a period of one hour.
Major applications
The vast application of energy meters can be categorized into four major parts of the power system
network: Generation, transmission, distribution, and utilization
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fig. 2.16 energy meter
fig. 2.17 the symbol of energy meter

VI. Frequency meter
A frequency meter is an instrument that displays the frequency of a periodic electrical signal. Various
types of frequency meters are used. Many are instruments of the deflection type, ordinarily used for
measuring low frequencies but capable of being used for frequencies as high as 900 Hz. These operate
by balancing two opposing forces. Changes in the frequency to be measured cause a change in this
balance that
can be measured by the deflection of a pointer on a scale. Deflection-type meters are of two types,
electrically resonant circuits and radiometers.
An example of a simple electrically resonant circuit is a moving-coil meter. In one version, this device
has two coils tuned to different frequencies and connected at right angles to one another in such a way
that the
whole element, with attached pointer, can move. Frequencies in the middle of the meter’s range cause
the currents in the two coils to be approximately equal and the pointer to indicate the midpoint of a
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scale. Changes in frequency cause an imbalance in the currents in the two coils, causing them, and the
pointer, to move.
fig. 2.18 frequency counter

VII. OSCILOSCOPE
The oscilloscope is basically a graph-displaying device - it draws a graph of an electrical signal. in most
applications the graph shows how signals change over time; the vertical (y) axis represents voltage and
the horizontal (x) axis represents time. the intensity of brightness of the display is sometimes called the
z-axis. this simple graph can tell you many things about the signal. here are a few;
i. you can determine the time and voltage values of a signal.
ii. you can calculate the frequency of an oscillating signal
iii. you can see the moving parts of a circuit represented by the signal
iv. you can tell if a malfunctioning component is distorting the signal.
v. you can find out how much of a signal is direct current (dc) or alternating current(ac).
vi. you can tell how much of the signal is noise and whether the noise is changing with time.
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fig. 2.19 block diagram of an oscilloscope
fig.2.20 Oscilloscope
VIII. Function generator
The Function Generator outputs waveforms that include DC (direct current) as well as sine, square,
triangle, positive ramp, and negative ramp with a frequency range of 0.001 Hz (hertz) to 100 kHz
(kilohertz). The sine wave worm retains its form up to a frequency of 150 kHz, but the other waveforms
will show some distortion above 100 kHz. Its 10 watt power output (up to 10 volts and up to 1 amp)
makes it useful for driving speakers, string vibrators, and circuits.
Features ;
i. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD):
ii. Frequency/Range Selection:
iii. Output Standby:
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iv. Output Current/Voltage Maximum:
v. Offset Voltage: .
vi. Frequency Sweep:
fig.2.21 Function generator
2.2 Obtain Accurate measurements
Simple Electric Circuit

An Electric Circuit: A fundamental relationship exists between current, voltage, and resistance. A
simple electric circuit consists of a voltage source, some type of load, and a conductor to allow
electrons to flow between the voltage source and the load. In the following circuit a battery provides the
voltage source, electrical wire is used for the conductor, and a light provides the resistance. An
additional component has been added to this circuit, a switch. There must be a complete path for current
to flow. If the switch is open, the path is incomplete and the light will not illuminate. Closing the switch
completes the path, allowing electrons to leave the negative terminal and flow through the light to the
positive terminal.
fig. 2.22 An electric circuit

The following schematic diagram is a representation of an electrical circuit, consisting of a battery, a
resistor, a voltmeter and an ammeter. The ammeter, connected in series with the circuit, will show how
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much current flow in the circuit. The voltmeter, connected across the voltage source, will show the value
of voltage supplied from the battery. Before an analysis can be made of a circuit, we need to understand
Ohm’s Law
fig. 2.23 schematic diagram of an electric circuit

A Simple circuit contains the minimum things needed to have a functioning electric circuit. A simple
circuit requires the following:
 AC/DC source
 Equipment that will operate on either an AC or DC power source
 Battery: A dc voltage source containing two or more cells that convert chemical energy to
electrical energy.
 Cell- Single unit used to convert chemical energy into a DC electrical voltage.
FUSE
Once you design a simple circuit on electronics, it is important to include a fuse in the primary or
secondary of a transformer.
fig.2.24 fuse
 Fuse is a safety device used to protect an electrical circuit from the effect of excessive current
It’s essential component is usually a strip of metal that will melt at a given temperature. A fuse is so
designed that the strip of metal can easily be placed in the electric circuit. If the current in the circuit
exceed a predetermined value, the fusible metal will melt and thus break, or open the circuit.
 A fuse is usually rated in Amperes, which represent the maximum continuous current it could
handle without blowing.
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 The most popular type of fuse in Electronics is 3AG type. This code describes the case size and
material where “G” indicates a glass materials and “A” indicates that intended for automotive
application. A 3AG fuse measures approximately 32mm x 6mm.
Switch and its function
fig 2.25types of switches

 Switch is a device used to break an electric current or transfer it to another conductor.
Switches are commonly used to open or close a circuit. Closed is the ON position,
while open is OFF position. Normally, switch is installed in series with the line
carrying current from the power source to the load.
 A switch is a mechanical device used to connect and disconnect a circuit. Switches
cover a wide range of types, from subminiature up to industrial plant switching
megawatts of power on high voltage distribution lines.
 When the switch is closed, the electron finds uninterrupted path in the circuit.
 Open is the OFF position of the switch, while closed is the ON position.
 When the switch is opened, the current delivered by the power supply is normally
insufficient to jump the switch gap in the form of an arc and the electron flow in the
circuit is blocked.
Load
a source drives a load. Whatever component or piece of equipment is connected to a
source and draws current from a source is a load on that source. The following are
examples:
 Bulb
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 Appliances (i.e: washing machine, stove, fridge…)
 Motors
 Any electrical or electronic devices
Direct Current and Alternating Current circuits
Direct Current or DC:

Direct current is the first type of current because it was easy to produce. This type of current always
flows in one direction. One of the disadvantages of using DC is the excessive voltage drop and power
loss in the power lines in a long distance. transmission. Batteries are common sources of direct current.
Alternating Current or AC:

Is the solution to the problem of DC. AC allows the flow of current in two directions. Today, it is
possible to step‐up electricity, a power station, transmit it to any distant place and step it down to for
consumption. A transformer is the device used for stepping‐up or stepping‐down AC voltage. Common
sources of AC are found in our AC outlet (Typically, 220 volts, in our country Ethiopia).
Fig: 2.26 AC and DC Wave Form
Ohm’s Law and Power Law

Ohm’s law states that, for a constant resistance, the current in a circuit is directly proportional to the
total voltage acting in the circuit and for a constant voltage the current in the circuit is inversely
proportional to the total resistance of the circuit. law may be expressed by the following equation if the
current I is in amperes, EMF E is in volts, and the resistance R is in ohms. The relationship of the
foregoing three variables was discovered by Georg Simon Ohm, who theorized that current is in direct
proportion to resistance. The relationship
is explained algebraically, using this formula:
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Dc circuit
There are basically three types of electrical circuits. They are:
 Series circuits
 Parallel circuits
 Combinational circuit
DC Series Circuit
Resistance in a series circuit: A series circuit is formed when any numbers of resistors are connected
end-to-end so that there is only one path for current to flow. The resistors can be actual resistors or
other devices that have resistance. The following illustration shows four resistors connected end-to-end.
There is one path of current flow from the negative terminal of the battery through R4, R3, R2, R1
returning to the positive terminal.
fig. 2.27 DC series circuit

Formula for Series Resistance
The total resistance or equivalent resistance of resistors connected in series is calculated using the
following mathematical formula:
Current in a Series Circuit
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The equation for total resistance in a series circuit allows us to simplify a circuit. Using Ohm’s
Law, the value of current can be calculated. Current is the same anywhere when we measured in
a series circuit.
Voltage in a Series Circuit

Voltage can be measured across each of the resistors in a circuit. The voltage across a resistor is
referred to as a voltage drop. A German physicist, Gustav Kirchhoff, formulated a law which
states the sum of the voltage drops across the resistances of a closed circuit equals the total
voltage applied to the circuit. The highest resistance value will have the highest voltage drop and
the smallest resistance value will have small voltage
Voltage Division in a Series Circuit
The battery represents Ein which in this case is 50 volts. The desired voltage is represented by Eout,
which mathematically works out to be 40 volts. To calculate this voltage, first solve for total resistance.
DC Parallel Circuit
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A parallel circuit is formed when two or more resistances are placed in a circuit side-by-side so that
current can flow through more than one path. The illustration shows two resistors placed side-by-side.
There are two paths of current flow. One path is from the negative terminal of the battery through R1
returning to the positive terminal. The second path is from the negative terminal of the battery through
R2 returning to the positive terminal of the battery.
fig. 2.28 DC parallel circuit
Formula for Equal Value Resistors in a Parallel Circuit

To determine the total resistance when resistors are of equal value in a parallel circuit, use the following
formula:
Example:
Formula for Unequal Resistors in a Parallel Circuit
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There are two formulas to determine total resistance for resistors of any value in a parallel circuit. The
first formula is used when there are any numbers of resistors.
The second formula is used when there are only two resistors.
Voltage in a Parallel Circuit

When resistors are placed in parallel across a voltage source, the voltage is the same across each resistor.
In the above illustration three resistors are placed in parallel across a 12 volt battery. Each resistor has
12 volts available to it.
Current Division in a Parallel Circuit
The current in a parallel circuit is divided among the loads connected to the source voltage. The largest
load (resistance value) has small current passing through it as compared to the load (resistance) which
has smaller value connected to the same voltage source.
Combination Circuits
A combination circuit is a circuit which has both series and parallel circuits in one circuit. It means
some of the circuit components are connected in series and others are connected in parallel. In this case
we apply both the principles of series circuits and parallel circuits.
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Fig: 2.29 Combination Circuit
AC Circuits
Alternating current
Direct current (DC) circuits involve current flowing in one direction. In alternating current (AC) circuits,
instead of a constant voltage supplied by a battery, the voltage oscillates in a sine wave pattern, varying
with time as:
In a household circuit, the frequency is 60 Hz. The angular frequency is related to the frequency, f, by:
Vo represents the maximum voltage, which in a household circuit in North America is about 170 volts.
We talk of a household voltage of 220 volts, though; this number is a kind of average value of the
voltage. The particular averaging method used is something called root mean square (square the voltage
to make everything positive, find the average, take the square root), or rms. Voltages and currents for
AC circuits are generally expressed as rms values. For a sine wave, the relationship between the peak
and the rms average is:rms value = 0.707 peak value
Resistance in an AC circuit
Fig. 2.30. Resistance in an AC circuit

The relationship V = IR applies for resistors in an AC circuit, so
In AC circuits we'll talk a lot about the phase of the current relative to the voltage. In a circuit which
only involves resistors, the current and voltage are in phase with each other, which means that the peak
voltage is reached at the same instant as peak current. In circuits which have capacitors and inductors
(coils) the phase relationships will be quite different.
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Capacitance in an AC circuit
FIG.2.31 Capacitance in an AC circuit
Consider now a circuit which has only a capacitor and an AC power source (such as a wall outlet). A
capacitor is a device for storing charging. It turns out that there is a 90° phase difference between the
current and voltage, with the current reaching its peak 90° (1/4 cycle) before the voltage reaches its
peak. Put another way, the current leads the voltage by 90° in a purely capacitive circuit.
To understand why this is, we should review some of the relevant equations, including: relationship
between voltage and charge for a capacitor: CV = Q
The AC power supply produces an oscillating voltage. We should follow the circuit through one cycle of
the voltage to figure out what happens to the current.
Step 1 - At point a (see diagram) the voltage is zero and the capacitor is uncharged. Initially, the voltage
increases quickly. The voltage across the capacitor matches the power supply voltage, so the current is
large to build up charge on the capacitor plates. The closer the voltage gets to its peak, the slower it
changes, meaningless current has to flow. When the voltage reaches a peak at point b, the capacitor is
fully charged and the current is momentarily zero.
Step 2 - After reaching a peak, the voltage starts dropping. The capacitor must discharge now, so the
current reverses direction. When the voltage passes through zero at point c, it's changing quite rapidly; to
match this voltage the current must be large and negative.
Step 3 - Between point’s c and d, the voltage is negative. Charge builds up again on the capacitor plates,
but the polarity is opposite to what it was in step one. Again the current is negative, and as the voltage
reachesits negative peak at point d the current drops to zero.
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Step 4 - After point d, the voltage heads toward zero and the capacitor must discharge. When the voltage
reaches zero it's gone through a full cycle so it's back to point a again to repeat the cycle.The larger the
capacitance of the capacitor, the more charge has to flow to build up a particular voltage on the plates,
and the higher the current will be. The higher the frequency of the voltage, the shorter the time available
to change the voltage, so the larger the current has to be. The current, then, increases as the capacitance
increases and as the frequency increases.
Usually this is thought of in terms of the effective resistance of the capacitor, which is known as the
capacitive reactance, measured in ohms. There is an inverse relationship between current and resistance,
so the capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the capacitance and the frequency:
A capacitor in an AC circuit exhibits a kind of resistance called capacitive reactance, measured in ohms.
This depends on the frequency of the AC voltage, and is given by:
We can use this like a resistance (because, really, it is a resistance) in an equation of the form V = IR to
get the voltage across the capacitor:
Note that V and I are generally the rms values of the voltage and current.
Inductance in an AC circuit
Fig2.32. Inductance in an AC circuit
An inductor is simply a coil of wire (often wrapped around a piece of ferromagnet). If we now look at a
circuit composed only of an inductor and an AC power source, we will again find that there is a 90°
phase difference between the voltage and the current in the inductor. This time; however, the current
lags the voltage by 90°, so it reaches its peak 1/4 cycle after the voltage peaks.
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The reason for this has to do with the law of induction:
Applying Kirchoff's loop rule to the circuit above gives:
As the voltage from the power source increases from zero, the voltage on the inductor matches it. With
the capacitor, the voltage came from the charge stored on the capacitor plates (or, equivalently, from the
electric field between the plates). With the inductor, the voltage comes from changing the flux through
the coil, or, equivalently, changing the current through the coil, which changes the magnetic field in the
coil.To produce a large positive voltage, a large increase in current is required. When the voltage passes
through zero, the current should stop changing just for an instant. When the voltage is large and
negative, the current should be decreasing quickly. These conditions can all be satisfied by having the
current vary like a negative cosine wave, when the voltage follows a sine wave.
How does the current through the inductor depend on the frequency and the inductance? If the frequency
is raised, there is less time to change the voltage. If the time interval is reduced, the change in current is
also reduced, so the current is lower. The current is also reduced if the inductance is increased.
As with the capacitor, this is usually put in terms of the effective resistance of the inductor. This
effective resistance is known as the inductive reactance. This is given by:
Where L is the inductance of the coil (this depends on the geometry of the coil and whether it’s got a
ferromagnetic core). The unit of inductance is the henry.
As with capacitive reactance, the voltage across the inductor is given by:
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Fig.2.33 RLC circuit
Consider what happens when resistors, capacitors, and inductors are combined in one circuit. If all three
components are present, the circuit is known as an RLC circuit (or LRC). If only two components are
present, it's either an RC circuit, an RL circuit, or an LC circuit. The overall resistance to the flow of
current in an RLC circuit is known as the impedance, symbolized by Z The impedance is found by
combining the resistance, the capacitive reactance, and the inductive reactance.
Unlike a simple series circuit with resistors, however, where the resistances are directly added, in an
RLC circuit the resistance and reactance are added as vectors. This is because of the phase relationships.
In a circuit with just a resistor, voltage and current are in phase. With only a capacitor, current is 90°
ahead of the voltage and with just an inductor the reverse is true, the voltage leads the current by 90°.
When all three components are combined into one circuit, there has to be some compromise.
To figure out the overall effective resistance, as well as to determine the phase between the voltage and
current, the impedance is calculated like this. The resistance R is drawn along the +x-axis of an x-y
coordinate system. The inductive reactance is at 90° to this, and is drawn along the +y-axis. The
capacitive reactance is also at 90° to the resistance, and is 180° different from the inductive reactance, so
it's drawn along the -y axis. The impedance, Z, is the sum of these vectors, and is given by:
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The current and voltage in an RLC circuit are related by V = IZ. The phase relationship between the
current and voltage can be found from the vector diagram: its the angle between the impedance, Z, and
the resistance, R. The angle can be found from:
If the angle is positive, the voltage leads the current by that angle. If the angle is negative, the voltage
lags the currents.
The power dissipated in an RLC circuit is given by:
Note that all of this power is lost in the resistor; the capacitor and inductor alternately store energy in
electric and magnetic fields and then give that energy back to the circuit.
The importance of accurate and precise measurements in the physical sciences cannot be
overstated. Often times, even minute errors can render data unusable. For this reason, scientists must
learn to use measuring devices in a manner that results in maximum accuracy and precision. The two most
common sources of error include measurement errors and experimental technique. One of the basic skills
that all scientists must possess is the ability to take accurate and detailed measurements. The
cornerstone of making proper measurements is based on the idea that scientists want to collect as much
meaningful and accurate data as possible.
2.3 Perform Calculation using the four basic process of addition (+), subtraction (-),
multiplication (x), and division (/)
Perform calculation.
Arithmetic: refers to the simpler properties when using the traditional operations of addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division with smaller values of numbers. Professional mathematicians
sometimes use the term (higher) arithmetic when referring to more advanced results related to number
theory, but this should not be confused with elementary arithmetic.
Arithmetic operations
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The basic arithmetic operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, although this
subject also includes more advanced operations, such as manipulations of percentages, square roots,
exponentiation, and logarithmic functions. Arithmetic is performed according to an order of operations.
Any set of objects upon which all four arithmetic operations (except division by zero) can be performed,
and where these four operations obey the usual laws, is called a field.
a) Addition (+)
Addition is the basic operation of arithmetic. In its simplest form, addition combines two numbers, the
addends or terms, into a single number, the sum of the numbers.
Adding more than two numbers can be viewed as repeated addition; this procedure is known as
summation and includes ways to add infinitely many numbers in an infinite series; repeated addition of
the number one is the most basic form of counting. If a&b are the lengths of two sticks, then if we
place the sticks one after the other, the length of the stick thus formed is a + b.
b) Subtraction (−)
Subtraction is the opposite of addition. Subtraction finds the difference between two numbers, the
minuend minus the subtrahend. If the minuend is larger than the subtrahend, the difference is positive; if
the minuend is smaller than the subtrahend, the difference is negative; if they are equal, the difference is
zero.
Subtraction is neither commutative nor associative. For that reason, it is often helpful to look at
subtraction as addition of the minuend and the opposite of the subtrahend, that is a − b = a + (−b). When
written as a sum, all the properties of addition hold.
c) Multiplication (×, ·)
Multiplication is the second basic operation of arithmetic. Multiplication also combines two numbers
into a single number, the product. The two original numbers are called the multiplier and the
multiplicand, sometimes both simply called factors.
Multiplication is best viewed as a scaling operation. If the real numbers are imagined as lying in a line,
multiplication by a number, say x, greater than 1 is the same as stretching everything away from zero
uniformly, in such a way that the number 1 itself is stretched to where x was. Similarly, multiplying by a
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number less than 1 can be imagined as squeezing towards zero. (Again, in such a way that 1 goes to the
multiplicand.)
D) Division (÷ or /)
Division is essentially the opposite of multiplication. Division finds the quotient of two numbers, the
dividend divided by the divisor. Any dividend divided by zero is undefined. For positive numbers, if the
dividend is larger than the divisor, the quotient is greater than one, otherwise it is less than one (a similar
rule applies for negative numbers). The quotient multiplied by the divisor always yields the dividend.
Division is neither commutative nor associative. As it is helpful to look at subtraction as addition, it is

helpful to look at division as multiplication of the dividend times the reciprocal of the divisor, that is
a ÷ b = a × 1/b. When written as a product, it obeys all the properties of multiplication.
Addition and subtraction are opposite operations. You can use related facts to help you add or subtract.
Use addition to find how many in all. Use subtraction to find how many more or how many less. 9 +8
=17 i.e. 17 - 8 =9
Multiplication and division are opposite operations. You can use related facts to help you multiply or
divide. Use multiplication to find the total in a number of equal groups. Use division to find how many
in each group or the number of equal groups.
6 × 5 =30 i.e.30 ÷6 = 5
i. Properties of operations
A, Commutative: -
Addition and multiplication are commutative; switching the order of two numbers being added or
multiplied does not change the result.
Example: - 100+8=8+100
- 100×8=8×100
B, Associative: -
Addition and multiplication are Associative, the order that numbers are grouped in addition and
multiplication does not affect the result.
Example: - (a+b)+c=a+(b+c)
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(a×b)×c=a×(b×c)
C, Distributive: -
The distributive property of multiplication over addition, multiplication may be distributed over
addition. Example: - a× (b+c) = (a×b) + (a×c)
D, The zero property of addition: -
Adding zero to any number the result leaves it unchanged. We call it zero is the additive identity
Example: - a+0=a
E, The zero property of multiplication: -
Multiply any number by zero gives zero. Example: -a×0=0
F, The multiplicative identity: -
Multiplying any number by one leaves the number unchanged. Example: - a×1=1
ii. Order of operations (Order of precedence and brackets)

When a particular arithmetic operation is to be performed ﬁrst the numbers and the operator(s) are
placed in brackets. Thus 3 times the result of 6 minus 2 is written as 3 × (6 − 2). In arithmetic
operations, the order in which operations are performed are:-
(i) To determine the values of operations contained in brackets;
(ii) Multiplication and division (the word ‘of ’ also means multiply); and
(iii) Addition and subtraction.
This order of precedence can be remembered by the word BODMAS, standing for Brackets, Of,
Division, Multiplication, Addition and Subtraction, taken in that order. The basic laws governing the use
of brackets and operators are shown by the following examples:
(i) 2 + 3 = 3 + 2, i.e. the order of numbers when adding does not matter;
(ii) 2 × 3 = 3 ×2, i.e. the order of numbers when multiplying does not matter;
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(iii) 2 + (3 + 4) = (2 + 3) + 4, i.e. the use of brackets when adding does not affect the result;
(iv) 2 × (3 × 4) = (2 × 3) × 4, i.e. the use of brackets when multiplying does not affect the result;
(v) 2 × (3 + 4) = 2(3 + 4) = 2 × 3 + 2 × 4, i.e. a number placed outside of a bracket indicates that the
whole contents of the bracket must be multiplied by that number;
(vi) (2 + 3)(4 + 5) = (5)(9) = 45, i.e. adjacent brackets indicate multiplication;
(vii) 2[3 + (4 × 5)] =2[3 + 20] =2 × 23 =46, i.e. when an expression contains inner and outer brackets,
the inner brackets are removed ﬁrst.
iii. Whole Numbers

The whole numbers are the counting numbers and zero. i.e. 0, 1, 2…When writing large numbers it is
common practices to separate them into groups of three using commas as the separator. When separating
it into groups of three, start from the right and count towards the left.23,921,754
The following is a chart showing this separation and how the groups are labeled.
Billions Millions Thousands Units

432 561 963 875
Each digit within each group of three has its own individual place value. Therefore, digits put in
different places, as well as different groups, take on different values. Consider the assigned values to the
group of three in the following example.
EXAMPLE 1: Write 234 in words.
Solution:- 2 hundreds 3 tens 4 ones

i.e. Two hundred thirty four
EXAMPLE 2: Write 527904 in words
Solution: First separate the number into groups of three counting from right to left: i.e. 527,904
Next evaluate the individual place values in each group and label each group with its
group name:
Thousands units
527 904
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5 hundreds 2 tens 7 ones 9 hundreds 0 tens 4 ones
"Five hundred twenty seven thousand, nine hundred four"
Notice that when there is a zero digit in a particular place value or in an entire group, it is not read as
"zero tens", as in our example, or "zero millions" it is simply not read or written.
When writing numbers in words, as in writing numbers using digits, the comma is not required.
However, when reading and writing larger numbers in any form, using commas to group the digits can
make reading them much easier.
Now look at an example where we write the numeral from words.
EXAMPLE 3: Write the following words in numerals
"Seventeen million, four hundred seventy thousand, nine hundred three"
Solution:-First separate the words, using the group names as the separators.
Seventeen million
1 ten = 10
7 ones = 7
Three hundred seventy thousand

4 hundreds = 400
7 tens = 70
Nine hundred three
9 hundreds = 900
3 ones = 3
Putting the groups together and placing our commas in the correct place gives us the following:
17,470,903
The following place value chart has been presented to show place values for very large numbers and can
be used for study and reference.
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2.4 Calculation involving fractions, percentages and mixed numbers .
i. Fraction Number
When 2 is divided by 3, it may be written as or 2/3. is called a fraction. The number above the
line, i.e. 2, is called the numerator and the number below the line, i.e. 3 is called the denominator.
When the value of the numerator is less than the value of the denominator, the fraction is called a
proper fraction; thus is a proper fraction. When the value of the numerator is greater than the
denominator, the fraction is called an improper fraction. Thus is an improper fraction and can also
be expressed as a mixed number, that is, an integer and a proper fraction. Thus the improper
fraction is equal to the mixed number 2 . When a fraction is simplified by dividing the numerator
and denominator by the same number, the process is called cancelling. Cancelling by 0 is not
permissible.
All fundamental operations are applied in this section also. Addition, subtraction, Multiplication,
and division of fraction numbers are possible.
Example:-Simplify +
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The LCM of the two denominators is 3x7=21
Expressing each fraction so that their denominators are 21.
Hence + + = +
Step 1: The LCM of the two denominators;
Step 2: For the fraction1/3, 3 into 21 goes 7times, 7x the numerator is 7x1;
Step 2: For the fraction 2/7, 7into 21 goes 3times, 3x the numerator is 3x2;
Thus 1/3 + 2/7 = =
ii. Mixed Numbers

What is a mixed number?
A mixed number is a combination of a whole number and a fraction.
Example:-1 , 2 , 4 etc.
a. Changing Improper Fractions to Mixed Numbers

An improper fraction can be changed to a mixed number by dividing the numerator by the
denominator and putting the remainder over the denominator.
Change the improper fractions to mixed numbers.
Step 1: Write the improper fraction.
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Step 2: Divide the numerator by the denominator.
Step 3: The quotient becomes the whole number and the remainder is put over the
denominator.
Example:- Write the improper fraction.
Divide the numerator by the denominator
The quotient becomes the whole number and the remainder is put over the denominator
b. Changing Mixed Numbers to Improper Fractions

A mixed number can be changed to an improper fraction by multiplying the denominator by the
whole number and then adding the product to the numerator. The sum is then placed over the
original denominator.
Step 1: Write the mixed number.
Step 2: Multiply the denominator by the whole number and then add the numerator.
4x2+3=11
Denominator x Whole number + numerator
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Step 3: Put the resulting number over the original denominator to produce the improper fraction.
C. Operations with Mixed Numbers (Addition / Subtraction / Multiplication / Division)
To the already established methods for adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing fractions, we
need only add one more step at the beginning and one at the end.
At the beginning the mixed numbers are converted to improper fractions.
Sometimes the usual methods give an improper fraction answer, so the last step is to convert the
improper fraction to a mixed number.
Addition
To add mixed numbers:
1. Convert each mixed number to an improper fraction.

2. Multiply the numerator and denominator of each improper fraction by a factor to obtain the
lowest possible common denominator for the two fractions.
3. Add the numerators
4. Reduce the answer fraction if possible.
5. If the answer is an improper fraction convert it to a mixed number.
Example
Subtraction
To subtract mixed numbers:

2. Multiply the numerator and denominator of each improper fraction by a factor to obtain the
lowest possible common denominator for the two fractions.
3. Subtract the numerators
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Example
Multiplication
To multiply mixed numbers:

2. Multiply the numerators and multiply the denominators of the two fractions.
Example
Division
To divide mixed numbers:

2. Change the division to a multiplication by the reciprocal of the divisor.
3. Multiply the numerators and multiply the denominators of the two fractions.
Example
iii. Percentage
Percentages are used to give a common standard and are fractions having the number 100 as their
denominators. For example, 25 percent means and is written 25%.
Percentage means for each 100.
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Thus, 100% means 100 for each 100, which is to say, all. 100% of 12 is 12.
50% is another way of saying half, because 50% means 50 for each 100, which is half. 50% of 12
is 6.
Example 1. Below are 100 small squares, and 32 have been shaded.
What percent of the squares have been shaded?
Answer. 32% -- 32 for each 100.
If we think of 100 being divided into one hundred equal parts, that is, into hundredths, then a percent
is a number of hundredths.
When the percent is less than or equal to 100%, then we can say "out of" 100. 32% is 32 out of
100. But to say that 200% is 200 out of 100 makes no sense. 200% is 200 for each 100, which is
to say, twice as much.
Example 2. 100 people were surveyed, and 65 responded Yes. What percent responded
Yes?
Answer. 65% -- 65 out of 100.
. How do we change a percent to a number?
24%=?
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Divide by 100, and drop the % sign.
i.e. 24% = .24
How do we change a number to a percent?
.24 = ?%
Multiply it by 100, and add the % sign.
i.e. .24 = 24%
2.5 Checking Numerical computation

Area of plane figures (mensuration)
Mensuration is the mathematical name for calculating the areas, volumes, length of sides, and other
geometric parts of standard geometric shapes such as circles, spheres, polygons, prisms, cylinders,
cones, etc., through the use of mathematical equations or formulas. In this lesson the students will
investigate the area formula for a circle and the theorems relating to the arcs of a circle, and learn
formulae relating to arcs, Segments, sectors and area of a circle. Included here are the most
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frequently used and important mensuration formulas for the common geometric figures and
symbols, both plane and solid.
Symbols
A Area
a,b,c etc. Sides
A,B,C Angles
h height perpendicular to base
L Length of sides
R Radius
n Number of sides
C Circumference
V Volume
D Diameter
i. Area of polygons
A polygon is a number of coplanar line segments, each connected end to end to form a closed
shape. It is a closed plane figure bounded by straight lines.
A polygon which has:
(i) 3 sides is called a triangle

(ii) 4 sides is called a quadrilateral
(iii) 5 sides is called a pentagon
(iv) 6 sides is called a hexagon
(v) 7 sides is called a heptagon
(vi) 8 sides is called an octagon
There are five types of quadrilateral, these being:
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(i) rectangle (ii) square
(iii) parallelogram (iv) rhombus (v) trapezium
Area: is the measurement of the amount of space occupied by a closed flat surface and is measured in
square units. The most widely used units of area are mm 2, cm2 and m2. Land areas are often
given in hectares (ha). 1 ha = 10 000 m2
Knowledge of calculating the area of simple figures or shapes is an essential skill for tradesmen such
as carpenters, painters, machinist, metalworker and builders.
The following are applications of area:
 To calculate the number of tiles to be ordered to tile a kitchen floor, the area of the kitchen floor
must be taken into consideration.
 It is known that 5 liters of paint is needed to cover 50 square meters. To calculate the amount of
paint needed to paint a room, we need to take into consideration the area of the walls, ceiling and
windows.
 To calculate the amount of glass required for a window, we need to know the area of the
window.
 To the carpenter or carpet layer, who is concerned with the amount of material to be used,
measurement of area is very important.
ii. Calculating the Area of polygons
You learned the following formulas for calculating the area of plane figures such as squares, rectangles
and triangles.
Example:- 1 Find the area of:
a. a square flower-bed of side 17 m

b. a rectangular field 45 m long and 40 m wide
c. a triangle of base length 30 m and height 25 m
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Solution:
Note:
To find the area of a region enclosed within a plane figure, draw a diagram and write an appropriate
formula. Then substitute the given values and use a calculator, if necessary, to obtain the required area.
ii. Area of Other Figures
Knowledge of finding the area of rectangles and triangles enables us to find the area of other plane
figures. For example, we can find the area of plane figures such as a parallelogram, trapezium,
rhombus and kite.
iii. Area of a Parallelogram
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral that has two pairs of parallel sides of equal length.
Consider the area of the following parallelogram.
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To calculate the C divide it into two parts that can form a rectangle. This is possible if we cut off one
end of the parallelogram (i.e. triangle AFD) and add it to the other end to form the rectangle FGCD, as
shown below.
It is clear from the diagram that the area of the shape has not
changed.
Example 2 Find the area of the following parallelogram.
Solution:
A =bh
=18cmx16cm
=288cm2
So, the area of the parallelogram is 288 cm2.
iv. Area of a Trapezium
A trapezium is a quadrilateral that has only one pair of parallel

sides.
Consider the area of the following trapezium
To calculate the area of a trapezium, divide it into a rectangle and two triangles as shown below.
Now, piece together the triangular ends so that the trapezium

is divided into a triangle and rectangle. The base of the
triangle is the difference between the lengths of two parallel sides. That is, a – b.
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Example 3:Find the area of the following trapezium.
Solution:
So, the area of the trapezium is 204 m2.
v. Area of a Rhombus
rhombus has four equal sides & its diagonals bisect each other at right angles.
Consider the area of the following rhombus.
The diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other at right

angles.
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Example 4 Find the area of the following rhombus.
Solution: x = 24 cm, Y = 18 cm
A = (1/2)XY = ½.24.18
= 216
So, the area of the rhombus is 216 cm2.
vi. Area of a circle
The area, A, of a circle is given by the following formula where r is the radius of the circle:
A=πr2
Example 1Find the area of a circle whose radius is 14m using an approximate value for π of
Solution:
R=14mA=πr2
=3.14x(14m)2
=616m2
So, the area is 616 m2.
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Measurement of Volume
Volume is how much three-dimensional space a substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or shape occupies or
contains, often quantified numerically using the SI derived unit, the cubic
meter. The volume of a container is generally understood to be the
capacity of the container, i. e. the amount of fluid (gas or liquid) that the
container could hold, rather than the amount of space the container itself
displaces.
Three dimensional mathematical shapes are also assigned volumes.
Volumes of some simple shapes, such as regular, straight-edged, and
circular shapes can be easily calculated using arithmetic formulas. The volumes of more complicated
shapes can be calculated by integral calculus if a formula exists for the shape's boundary. One-
dimensional figures (such as lines) and two-dimensional shapes (such as squares) are assigned zero
volume in the three-dimensional space.
The volume of a solid (whether regularly or irregularly shaped) can be determined by fluid
displacement. Displacement of liquid can also be used to determine the volume of a gas. The combined
volume of two substances is usually greater than the volume of one of the substances. However,
sometimes one substance dissolves in the other and the combined volume is not additive.
In this section, you will learn how to calculate the volume of common solids to include definition of
volume, prisms, cylinders, pyramids, cones, and spheres.
A measuring cup can be used to measure volumes of liquids. This cup measures volume in units of cups,
fluid ounces, and milliliters.
i. Volume of cylinder
A cylinder has a round base and a given height. The area of the base must be found first, and then it can
be multiplied by the height to give the volume of the cylinder.
The area of the base is given by taking the radius (r) of the circular base and squaring it and then
multiplying it by π.
Area base = πr2 ,
Then multiply that by the height (h) of the cylinder to get the volume.
Volume of cylinder = π r2 h
Fig. i cylinder
Ex. Find the volume of a cylindrical canister with radius 7 cm and height 12 cm.
Solution:
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Volume of cylinder = π x r x r x h
= π x 7cm x 7cm x 12cm
=1847.5 cm3
ii. Volume of prism
Prisms are three-dimensional objects having end faces that are:
 polygons;
 parallel to each other; and
 have the same shape and size.
Prisms have identical cross-sections if a plane cuts them parallel to the
ends.
Fig. ii Prism
For example, a cuboid is a rectangular prism. The ends of a cuboid are rectangular and it has identical
rectangular cross-sections when cut by a plane parallel to the ends. Prisms are named according to the
shape of their base (or cross-section). The volume, V, of a prism is given by
V=Area of base x Height
V=Ah
Where A is the area of the base (or cross-section) of the prism and h is the height.
The volume V of any right prism is the product of B, the area of the base, and the height h of the prism.
Formula: V = Bh
B=lw
Fig.iii prism
Example 1
If the rectangular box were filled with 1 cm cubes, there would be:
As there are 3 layers,
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Now note that the area of the box's base is given by:
From the above discussion, we can derive a formula for the volume of arectangular box as follows:
Example 2
A prism that has a length of 3 units, a width of 6 units, and a height of 4 units for the fig. below. Find the
volume of prism.
V=lwh
=3x6x4
=72unit3
iii. Volume of cone
What is Cone?A cone is a space figure having a circular base and a single vertex. If r is the radius of the
circular base, and h is the height of the cone, then the volume of the cone is 1/3 × π× r2 × h. The volume
of a cone is based on the height and the radius of the base. A cone is a space figure with one circular
base and a vertex that is directly above the center of the base. This is the equation to find the volume of
a cone.
Volume = 1/3 π r2 h
Fig. iv Cone
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Example: What is the volume in cubic cm of a cone whose base has a radius of 3 cm, and whose height
is 6 cm, to the nearest tenth?
We will use an estimate of 3.14 for π.
The volume is 1/3 × π× 32 × 6 = π×18 = 56.52, which equals 56.5 cubic cm when rounded to
the nearest tenth.
iv. Volume of pyramids

What is a pyramid?
A pyramid is a space figure with a square base and 4 triangle-shaped sides. It isA 3-dimensional solid in
which the base is a polygon and the sides are triangles which meet in one point called the
Fig. v pyramid
vertex. We shall examine regular pyramids in which the base is a regular polygon and the sides are
congruent triangles.
A pyramid is a polyhedron with a single base and lateral faces that are all triangular. All lateral edges of
a pyramid meet at a single point, or vertex.
To find the volume of a square based pyramid, we will start with a cube, which is a prismthat has edges
of equal length, which have been labeled with the traditional letter s. So the volume of pyramid in fig
below is:
V=Bh Where B=base area, h=height=s2h/3
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Fig.vi pyramid
v. Volume of Sphere
A sphere is a space figure having all of its points the same distance from its center. The distance from
the center to the surface of the sphere is called its radius. Any cross-section of a sphere is a circle.
If r is the radius of a sphere, the volume V of the sphere is given by the formula V = 4/3 × π×r3.
The surface area S of the sphere is given by the formula S = 4 × π ×r2.
A sphere is the locus of all points in a region that are equidistant from a point. The two-dimensional
rendition of the solid is represented below.
Fig. vii Sphere
To calculate the surface area of a sphere, we must imagine the sphere as an infinite number of pyramids
whose bases rest on the surface of the sphere and extend to the sphere's center. Therefore, the radius of
the sphere would be the height of each pyramid.
Example:-Find the volume and surface area of a sphere of diameter 8 cm.
Since D=8cm,then , radius , r=4cm.
V=4/3πr3 =4/3xπx(4cm)3 =268.1cm3
Displacement
Displacement (vector), the difference between the final and initial position of a point (for instance, the
center of mass of a moving object). It can simply be defined as the shortest path between the final point
and initial point of a body.
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 Particle displacement, a measurement of distance of the movement of a particle in a medium as it
transmits a wave (represented in mathematics by the lower-case Greek letter ξ)
 Displacement field (mechanics), an assignment of displacement vectors for all points in a body
that is displaced from one state to another.
 Displacement (fluid), an object immersed in a fluid pushes the fluid out of the way
A displacement is the shortest distance from the initial to the final position of a point P. Thus, it is the
length of an imaginary straight path, typically distinct from the path actually travelled by P. A
'displacement vector' represents the length and direction of that imaginary straight path.
Displacement versus distance traveled along a path.
A position vector expresses the position of a point P in space in terms of a displacement from an
arbitrary reference point O (typically the origin of a coordinate system). Namely, it indicates both the
distance and direction of an imaginary motion along a straight line from the reference position to the
actual position of the point.
A displacement may be also described as a 'relative position': the final position of a point ( Rf) relative to
its initial position (Ri), and a displacement vector can be mathematically defined as the difference
between the final and initial position vectors:

In considering motions of objects over time the instantaneous velocity of the object is the rate of change
of the displacement as a function of time. The velocity then is distinct from the instantaneous speed
which is the time rate of change of the distance traveled along a specific path. The velocity may be
equivalently defined as the time rate of change of the position vector.
Diameter
In geometry, the diameter of a circle is any straight line segment that passes through the center of the
circle and whose endpoints lie on the circle. It can be also defined as the longest chord of the circle.
Both definitions are also valid for the diameter of a sphere. All diameters of a circle or sphere have the
same length, this being twice the radius.
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All diameters of a circle or sphere have the same length, this being twice the radius.
fig. 2.34 Diameter, radius and circumference of a circle
The diameter is defined to be the largest distance that can be formed between two opposite parallel lines
tangent to its boundary, and the width is defined to be the smallest such distance. Both quantities can be
calculated efficiently using rotating calipers.
i. Inside diameter: is the diameter of the inside of a tube, pipe or other object. The length of a line
which passes through the center of a hollow cylindrical or spherical object and whose end points lie on
the inner surface of the object. Abbreviated ID.
Fi
g ur
e .2
. 3
5
showing inside diameter
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ii. Outside diameter:The outer diameter of a pipe, including the wall thickness; usually measured with
calipers. Abbreviated OD.
Figure 2.36 showing outside diameter
1. Circumference: is the linear distance around the outside of a closed curve or circular object. The
circumference of a circle is of special importance to geometric and trigonometric concepts. However
circumference may also describe the outside of elliptical closed curves. Circumference is a special
example of perimeter.
Circumference = twice the pi times the radius ( C = 2πr OR C = πd),
where C = circumference ,r = radius and d = diameter
2. Length: In geometric measurements, length is the longest dimension of an object. In other contexts
"length" is the measured dimension of an object. For example it is possible to cut a length of a wire which is
shorter than wire thickness.
Length may be distinguished from height, which is vertical extent, and width or breadth, which is the
distance from side to side, measuring across the object at right angles to the length. Length is a measure of
one dimension. The unit of length is a fundamental unit, from which other units are defined.
In the International System of Units (SI), the basic unit of length is the meter. The centimeter and the
kilometer, derived from the meter, are also commonly used units. English or Imperial system of units,
commonly used units of length are the inch, the foot, the yard, and the mile.
3. Thickness:
 is the quality or condition of being thick.
 is the dimension between two surfaces of an object, usually the dimension of smallest measure. A
layer, sheet, stratum, or ply: Each floor is a single thickness of concrete.
 is the measure of the smallest dimension of a solid figure: a board of two-inch thickness.
4. Taper: means
i. get or make narrower: to become narrower at one end, especially gradually, or make
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something do this
ii. reduce gradually: to become smaller in size or amount, or less important, especially
gradually, or make something do this
The taper gauge is a tapered metal rod with a measurement scale marked on it. It is slipped into the gap to
be measured. The depth of the opening may be determined by reading the number on the taper gauge at the
point where it just enters the gap.
5. Out of roundness Cylinder wear caused by piston thrust. This results in wear to front and back of
cylinder. Cylinder wears oval shaped rather than round.
Figure 2.37 out of roundness
Out of roundness a measuring instrument for determining out-of-roundness—that is, the greatest distance
from a surrounding circle of points on the actual cross-sectional profile of a cylindrical surface
Out-of-roundness gauges are used to check internal and external cylindrical surfaces 3-1,000 mm in diameter
and 100-1,600 mm long. The results of measurement are recorded by an automatic device with
magnifications of 2 × to 20,000 × on a disk or strip chart; the smallest measuring error is 0.05-0.8 micron.
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Figure 2.38. Diagram of determination of out-of-roundness for a cylindrical part by means of an out-of-
roundness gauge: (1) instrument table, (2) part, (3) precision arbor, (4) primary transducer (sensor), (5)
screws of centering device
An out-of-roundness gauge with a tip that moves along the axis of the part is used to detect deviations from a
cylindrical shape (the greatest distance of points on the actual surface from the surface of the surrounding
cylinder). In this case the out-of-roundness and the deviations of the cylindrical profile in a longitudinal
section of the part are determined simultaneously.
2.6 Reading of Instruments to the limit of accuracy .

Precision and Accuracy
Accuracy is the proximity of measurement results to the true value; precision, the repeatability, or
reproducibility of the measurement
The accuracy of a measurement system is the degree of closeness of measurements of a quantity to that
quantity's actual (true) value. The precision of a measurement system, also called reproducibility or
repeatability, is the degree to which repeated measurements under unchanged conditions show the same
results.
A measurement system can be accurate but not precise, precise but not accurate, neither, or both. For
example, if an experiment contains a systematic error, then increasing the sample size generally increases
precision but does not improve accuracy. The result would be a consistent yet inaccurate string of results
from the flawed experiment. Eliminating the systematic error improves accuracy but does not change
precision.A measurement system is considered valid if it is both accurate and precise.
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Written Test
Self-Check 2
1. Parallel clamps are used for aligning steel rules with the axis of cylindrical shafts
2. micrometer is a wood working tool used to test and mark out right angles,
3. Accuracy is the proximity of measurement results to the true value; precision, the
repeatability, or reproducibility of the measurement
1. Two resistors with R1= 3Ώ and R2 = 6Ώ are connected in parallel. The total resistance of the two
resistors is A. 9 Ώ B. 6 Ώ C. 2 Ώ D. 18 Ώ
2. A resistor of 10Ώ is connected across a supply voltage of 4v. The amount of current that flows the
circuit is; A. 14A B. 40A C.6A D. 2.5A
3. The electric meter that measures the amount of electrical energy is;
A. Watt meter B. KWh meter C. Volt meter D. All
III. Give the necessary answers for the following questions.
1. Write the types of micrometer?

2. List at least 5 parts of caliper.
3. Explain the fundamentals of algebra.
4. Write the application of protractor?
5. List the types of caliper.
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Operation sheet 2. Perform measurement
JOB TITLE: perform measurements using
i. Steel rules and transfer it into work places (sheet metal or board)
ii. Vernier caliper the thickness of electrical wires, coils, cores etc
iii. Protractors and try square angles
UNIT OF COMPETENCY: perform measurement and calculation
READING: read carefully the information sheet 2 and related information from reference book and internet
OBJECTIVES: At the end of this practice the trainees will be able to:
 Measure either in metric or inch system dimension of objects

 Perform accurate measurements
 Thickness of materials with vernier caliper
 Check angles different figures
LABORATORY WORK:
1. Choose the proper measuring instruments and the proper scale for the measurement.
2. At all possible, have either the part or the steel rule resting in a stable conditions.
3. Align scale edge of the steel rule and the line of measurement of the part as closely as possible.
4. Align the reference Point to the steel rule so that sharp edges on either will not interfere.
5. Read the measured Point from a point directly opposite.
6. Repeat sufficient times for the needed reliability based on your skill
7. Read and calculate to get the results (for vernier caliper)
8. Have both the part and the measuring instruments clean.
of 92
9. Handle properly the measuring instrument
Supplies and Materials Tools and Instruments Equipment
Sheet metal, Board Steel rule, Try Square,
Different size wires andcoils Protractor
Different size cores vernier caliper
Measure these shapes by a steel rule both by metric and inch system
EVALUATION: Each lab exercise should be checked in accordance to the procedure
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Comment is given immediately, then they try to correct their work based on the comments
Unit Three Carry out Measurement and Calculation

This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following
topics.
 Handling measuring instruments without damage.

 Cleaning before and after using measuring instruments.
 Undertaking proper storage of instruments
This unit will also assist you to attain the assessment criteria of the module title stated in the
cover page. Specifically, upon completion of this Learning Guide, you will be able to –
 Handling measuring instruments without damage.
 Cleaning before and after using measuring instruments.
 Undertaking proper storage of instruments
3. Carry out measurement and calculation

3.1 Handle Measuring instruments without damage
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Measuring instrument should always be in a good condition in order to maintain its accuracy of results.
Every measuring tools and devices have their own proper maintenance and handling guidelines as provided
in their user manual. The content of measuring equipment guidelines should always be followed to have an
accurate result.
The following items are the basic safe handling methods for measuring instruments:
 Always clean the measuring equipment before and after its usage.
 Perform calibration regularly to confirm if its result is still within the international standard.
 Provide designated area for all measuring equipments wherein visual control is observed.
 Always follow the guidelines on how to use measuring equipment properly.
 Provide working instruction on how to check it on a daily basis. Use check sheets.
 Use only appropriate measuring equipment for the specific parts to be measured.
 Segregate and dispose defective measuring instruments to avoid wrong usage.
 Contact the maker of measuring equipment if major problem was occurred on the said instrument.
 Always follow and implement 5S in the working area.
 It is very important to maintain the accuracy of measuring instrument in order to obtain reliable
results and avoid possible rejects as well as to prevent accidents.
Safety
Safety is the state of being "safe", the condition of being protected against consequences of failure, damage,
error, accidents, harm or any other event which could be considered non-desirable. Safety can also be
defined to be the control of recognized hazards to achieve an acceptable level of risk. This can take the form
of being protected from the event or from exposure to something that causes health or economical losses. It
can include protection of people or of possessions.
Instruments should be stored properly to prevent occurrence of any damage on it.
When you store measuring instruments:
 clean them properly before storing.

 put them on the shelf based on their types, that should be accessible for the user easily.
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 do not store instruments randomly.
The critical element of precision instrument care is handling measuring instruments correctly during use.
Taking care to avoid accidental damage and use your tools correctly can help to extend their life and ensure
accurate readings.
When using a measuring tool, it doesn’t have the protection of its case or storage space, so it’s especially
crucial to handle it carefully. Take care to avoid sudden shocks or rough treatment such as dropping,
throwing or banging the device against hard surfaces. Placing rubber mats in workspaces can help protect
tools from damage should someone accidentally drop them.
It’s also essential that you only use your instruments for their intended purposes. Never use measuring tools
as hammers or to pry open other objects. Calipers, for instance, have ID jaws that come to sharp points. They
appear to be ideal for cutting open boxes, but using calipers in this way cause burrs to form on the jaws.
Even though these burrs may be too small to see with the naked eye, they can still affect the accuracy of the
instrument.
As mentioned earlier, you may also want to avoid touching instruments that are especially sensitive with
your bare hands, as the oils on your skin can cause corrosion. For some tools, minimizing the time you spend
holding it or only touching it at certain points may be enough. For the most sensitive instruments or those
you need to handle more frequently, you can use lint-free gloves or accessories, such as tweezers, lifters and
forks, made specifically to handle sensitive instruments.
Another reason to avoid handling measuring tools for long periods is the heat your body produces. Holding
an instrument for an extended period can cause it to heat up, potentially throwing off the accuracy of the unit.
You should also avoid setting it on hot or cold sources and keep it away from sources of cold air or heat.
Throughout the entire process of using the instrument, be careful to keep it at the proper temperature.
Training is vital for ensuring the proper handling of measuring equipment at all times. Employees should
receive sufficient training for each type of instrument they will use, so they know how to take accurate
measurements without damaging the tools.
Maintenance
You will also need to periodically conduct preventive gage maintenance, including regular lubrication and
calibration. It’s helpful to create a schedule for when you will perform maintenance so you can ensure the
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necessary tasks get done. You may also want to create a system for keeping track of what maintenance tasks
you complete at which times and the conditions of your various instruments. You may want to do some
upkeep yourself and outsource other assignments to third parties.
One essential aspect of gage maintenance is lubrication, as it will prevent damage caused by corrosion and
oxidation. It’s crucial that you lubricate each device as frequently as is recommended for each device and
that you use the right lubricants in the right amounts. For many types of precision measuring tools, lightly oil
them after each use. Be sure to remove any excess oil from the surfaces of the instrument using a clean, dry
cloth. If a device is visibly wet with oil, it may attract particles that can cause internal wear of certain parts.
Be sure to use the right types of oils, and don’t use penetrating oils or other substances made for purposes
besides light lubrication. WD-40, for example, may leave a film on your instrument that can affect its
calibration. Even a thin layer can throw off the accuracy of some sensitive instruments.
Calibration is another crucial part of proper gage maintenance. Many types of measuring devices require
regular calibration to ensure they perform correctly and take accurate measurements. Calibration involves
comparing a measurement made by your instrument with the value of the same measurement, as defined by
an accepted standard. This comparison serves to check the accuracy of the tool. If the device’s measurement
differs from the standard to a significant degree, you will need to repair the instrument so it is accurate. For
some devices, you may want to work with a professional calibration company that can ensure your devices
have the correct calibration.
You should calibrate your instruments according to the schedule recommended for each device. All
measurement devices drift out of calibration over time, so it’s vital to recalibrate them regularly. In addition
to your scheduled recalibrations, you may also need to recalibrate your instruments in certain other
situations, such as:
 When it’s undergone a shock such as a fall

 When it’s experienced harsh conditions
 When it’s producing readings that seem incorrect
Handling and storing materials involve diverse operations such as hoisting tons of steel with a crane; driving
a truck loaded with concrete blocks; carrying bags or materials manually; and stacking palletized bricks or
other materials such as drums, barrels, kegs, and lumber. The efficient handling and storing of materials are
vital to industry. In addition to raw materials, these operations provide a continuous flow of parts and
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assemblies through the workplace and ensure that materials are available when needed. Unfortunately, the
improper handling and storing of materials often result in costly injuries.
What is the Importance of Measuring Tool Maintenance
Why is the proper care of measuring tools so important? Some of the benefits include the following.
 Increase accuracy: If measuring tools don’t receive proper care and maintenance, they’re more
likely to take inaccurate readings. Some of these tools take exact measurements, so even small
changes can impact the accuracy of measurements. Damaged instruments may also be off by
relatively large amounts. If you don’t realize your measurements are off, these inaccuracies could get
in the way of the success of a job. A wide variety of factors can impact the accuracy of a measuring
tool, from improper storage temperature to excessive vibrations to physical damage due to dropping
it. Because damage or improper maintenance can affect accuracy, it’s crucial that you’re careful to
maintain them properly. A measuring instrument can also fall out of calibration naturally over time,
so regular gage calibration is essential.
 Extend life: Caring for precision tools properly also helps extend their life. With proper care, many
measuring instruments can serve you well for a long time. Without adequate maintenance, however,
your tools will break sooner, and you’ll have to replace them earlier. Improper care increases the risk
of a tool failing in the middle of a job or gradually becoming less effective, reducing the efficiency
and accuracy of your work.
 Lower costs: Following the right care and maintenance procedures can help you reduce your costs
over the long term. It can help you avoid costly breakdowns, more extensive repairs and downtime. It
also means you’ll have to replace your tools less often, meaning you get more out of your
investments in quality instruments.
Tips for Maintaining Precision Tools
Every measuring tool has different maintenance needs, and you should receive guidelines in the user manual
for each device you purchase. It’s crucial to follow these recommendations to keep your tools in optimal
condition. In the following sections, we’ll look at some overarching recommendations for the care of
measuring tools, as well as some more specific examples..
3.2 Clean measuring instruments
Another essential aspect of gage maintenance is keeping your instruments clean. Like with measuring tool
storage, there are different cleaning recommendations for different types of gages and materials. Be sure to
follow the guidelines for your specific tools to ensure you thoroughly clean them and avoid damaging
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them. Conscientiously cleaning your devices is crucial, as any residue that remains on your device may
impact the accuracy of your measurements.
The material your device is made of plays a significant role in the cleaning method you should use. If an
instrument is mostly aluminum, for example, avoid using alcohol, as it can cause aluminum to deteriorate.
For brass, it’s best not to use anything except for a clean cloth that you’ve dampened with distilled water.
Some general cleaning tips include:
 Not leaving your instruments in contact with dirt or oil for long periods, as oils can cause corrosion
 Avoiding touching gages with your bare hands, as skin oils can be damaging
 Using a soft, non-abrasive cloth to clean your instruments and ensuring the cloth is clean before using
it
Scheduled Cleaning
As part of your routine gage maintenance, you should have a regular cleaning schedule in place for your
devices. Various factors influence how often you should plan to clean your instruments.
 The environment in which you use it: Some situations may cause measuring tools to require
cleaning more often. If you use your tools in a dusty manufacturing environment, for example, you
may need to clean them more often than if you work in a relatively controlled lab environment.
 The task for which you use it: The job you use the tool for can also impact how often it requires
cleaning. For example, pressure gage maintenance may involve cleaning it more often if you use it
with liquids, as opposed to solid items. Also, if the measurements are so precise that small amounts of
dirt or residue could throw them off, you’ll need to clean your instruments more frequently.
 Legal requirements: In certain industries, rules and regulations may require you to clean tools more
often. For example, food-related businesses must adhere to higher cleanliness standards than many
other industries.
It’s a smart rule of thumb to inspect and, if needed, clean instruments before each use. Before using a device,
look for foreign matter on it, as this material could affect the readings.
Spot Cleaning
At times, you may need to do some maintenance beyond your typical scheduled gage cleaning. This type of
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upkeep is spot cleaning, and is a more vigorous method you use when your routine maintenance doesn’t
remove all foreign matter. Spot cleaning may involve using stronger cleaners, repeating cleaning processes
until you remove all contaminants or other techniques
Important Safety Measures
To reduce the number of accidents associated with workplace equipment, employers must train employees in
the proper use and limitations of the equipment they operate. In addition to powered industrial trucks, this
includes knowing how to safely and effectively use equipment such as
conveyors, cranes, and slings.
Basic Safety and Health Principles

Employers can reduce injuries resulting from handling and storing materials by using some basic safety
procedures such as adopting sound ergonomics practices, taking general fire safety precautions, and keeping
aisles and passageways clear.
3.3 proper storage of instruments
Storage is a critical element of measuring tool care, as these devices can spend significant amounts of time in
cupboards or cabinets where they may get damaged. Be sure to follow the recommendations for how to store
each tool you use. Different types of gages and tools made of different materials often have different storage
requirements.
Many measurement devices come in cases, and it’s often a best practice to store your tools in these cases. If
your tool didn’t come with a case, purchase one that meets the storage requirements of your instrument.
Make sure it’s the right material, size and shape and that it has the right features. Often, these containers will
have padding. For some types of gages, you may want to place them on a clean, dry cloth inside a case.
Keeping your tools in a case helps to protect them from airborne contaminants and accidental physical
damage.
Another crucial measure to take to prevent physical damage is to separate your devices so that they don’t
bump into and damage each other. You can separate them using dividers or cases. Don’t stack devices on top
of each other unless they’re in cases that will protect them from damaging each other.
It can also be helpful to take time to organize your devices in a cart, tray, inspection station or other location.
Doing so can help make it easier to follow proper storage procedures and enable you to access your tools
more efficiently.
You also need to ensure that you store your devices in the proper temperature and humidity and that other
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conditions are suitable for your tools as well. In general, you want to keep gages in a cool, dry place, but
some devices may also come with more specific recommendations.
Be sure to keep the storage area at an appropriate temperature and keep your devices away from sources of
heat, including sunlight. If your gages get exposed to sunlight or other sources that produce too much heat,
they may expand as they heat up and then contract as they cool, potentially damaging them and decreasing
their accuracy.
You also need to take steps to keep the humidity of the storage space at a suitable level and to take care of
any moisture issues that may arise. Doing so is crucial, since excessive moisture can lead to corrosion. Air
conditioning or a dehumidifier can help you control humidity and reduce ambient moisture. Placing silica gel
packets in the drawers where you store your tools can help take care of any other excess moisture.
Over time, vibration can cause measuring tools to fall out of calibration, so store your instruments away from
any equipment that may cause vibration or movement
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Written Test
Self-Check 3
I. Give the necessary answers for the following questions
1. explain how to handle measuring instruments safely
2. list down the different types of cleaning mechanisms
3. what are the methods applied to avoid storage hazards
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Unit 4 maintain measuring instruments
This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following
learning outcomes:
 Object or component to be measured is identified according to procedures
 Correct specifications are obtained from relevant source
 Measuring tools are selected in line with job requirements
This unit also assist you to attain the assessment criteria of the unit stated in the cover page.
Specifically, upon completion of this unit, you will be able to –
 Identify object or component to be measured

 Obtain correct specifications
 Select measuring tools in line with job requirements
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Unit Four Maintain measuring Instruments
4.1. Identifying object or component
Measuring instrument should always be in a good condition in order to maintain its accuracy of results.
Every measuring tools and devices have their own proper maintenance and handling guidelines as provided
in their user manual. The content of measuring equipment guidelines should always be followed to have an
accurate result.
The following items are the basic safe handling methods for measuring instruments:
 Always clean the measuring equipment before and after its usage.
 Perform calibration regularly to confirm if its result is still within the international standard.
 Provide designated area for all measuring equipments wherein visual control is observed.
 Always follow the guidelines on how to use measuring equipment properly.
 Provide working instruction on how to check it on a daily basis. Use check sheets.
 Use only appropriate measuring equipment for the specific parts to be measured.
 Segregate and dispose defective measuring instruments to avoid wrong usage.
 Contact the maker of measuring equipment if major problem was occurred on the said instrument.
 Always follow and implement 5S in the working area.
 It is very important to maintain the accuracy of measuring instrument in order to obtain reliable
results and avoid possible rejects as well as to prevent accidents.
Safety
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Safety is the state of being "safe", the condition of being protected against consequences of failure, damage,
error, accidents, harm or any other event which could be considered non-desirable. Safety can also be
defined to be the control of recognized hazards to achieve an acceptable level of risk. This can take the form
of being protected from the event or from exposure to something that causes health or economical losses. It
can include protection of people or of possessions.
4.2 Obtain correct Specification (SPEC)

Exact statement of the particular needs to be satisfied or essential characteristics that a customer requires and
which a vendor must deliver. Specifications are written usually in a manner that enables both parties (and/or
an independent certifier) to measure the degree of conformance. Specifications are divided generally into two
main categories:
(1) Performance specifications: conform to known customer requirements such as keeping a room's
temperature within a specified range.
(2) Technical specifications: express the level of performance of the individual units, and are subdivided
into;
(a) individual unit specifications which state boundaries (parameters) of the unit's performance
consisting of a nominal (desired or mandated) value and tolerance (allowable departure from the
nominal value,
(b) acceptable quality level which states limits that are to be satisfied by most of the units, but a certain
percentage of the units is allowed to exceed those limits, and
(c) distribution specifications which define an acceptable statistical distribution (in terms of mean
deviation and standard Deviation) for each unit, and are used by a producer to monitor its production
processes.
(3). Manufacturer’s specifications:

The written installation and/or maintenance instructions which are developed by the manufacturer of a
product and which may have to be followed in order to maintain the product warrantee.
Standard operation procedures (SOP)

Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) help maximum safety and operational efficiency. SOPs are detailed
written instructions to achieve uniformity of the performance of a specific function. A well-written SOP can
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be used to satisfy compliance requirements. SOPs are recommended for all procedures that pose a potential
risk to the health and safety of personnel.
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) lets you operationalize documents such as plans, regulation,
compliance, and policies. SOPs distil requirements contained in these documents into a format that can be
used by staff members in their work environment.
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) should be transferred without every modification to insure the
expected results. Every modification or divergence of a given standard, the Procedure should being served,
while an investigation and results of the investigation documented according to the internal divergence
procedure. All high-class processes and procedures should be put on in a Standard Operating Procedure.
This Standard Operating Procedure should be the base for the everyday training program of every employee.
The Standard Operating Procedure should be often updated to insure of obedience to the realization
conditions and the working practice.
A minimum review list of 3 years is recommended. Changes of the Standard Operating Procedure are
activated generally by the process or the procedure changes or the adaptations. These changes should be led
by the internal site controlling procedure. A part of the activity list of such changes should be to update the
coherent standard operating procedure. Standard operating procedure should be in the place for all high-class
systems plus the specific operational activities on the side.
The structure of the Procedure System and the sum of all SOPs should be considered carefully. Too many
standard operating procedure could lead to a breakdown of the SOP System
Maintain and Repair
Maintenance, repair, and operations(MRO) or maintenance, repair, and overhaul involve fixing any sort of
mechanical, plumbing or electrical device should it become out of order or broken. It also includes
performing routine actions which keep the device in working order or prevent trouble from arising. MRO
may be defined as, "All actions which have the objective of retaining or restoring an item in or to a state in
which it can perform its required function. The actions include the combination of all technical and
corresponding administrative, managerial, and supervision actions."
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Maintenance types
Generally speaking, there are three types of maintenance in use:
 maintenance: where equipment is maintained before break down occurs. It is maintenance performed
in an attempt to avoid failures, unnecessary production loss and safety violations.
The effectiveness of a preventive maintenance schedule depends on the RCM analysis which it was based
on, and the ground rules used for cost-affectivity.
Recent studies have shown that Preventive maintenance is effective in preventing age related failures
of the equipment. For random failure patterns which amount to 80% of the failure patterns, condition
monitoring proves to be effective.
Corrective maintenance, where equipment is maintained after break down. This maintenance is often most
expensive because worn equipment can damage other parts and cause multiple damages. Corrective
maintenance is probably the most commonly used approach, but it is easy to see its limitations. When
equipment fails, it often leads to downtime in production. In most cases, this is costly business. Also, if the
equipment needs to be replaced, the cost of replacing it alone can be substantial. It is also important to
consider health, safety and environment (HSE) issues related to malfunctioning equipment.
Corrective maintenance can be defined as the maintenance which is required when an item has failed or worn
out, to bring it back to working order. Corrective maintenance is carried out on all items where the
consequences of failure or wearing out are not significant and the cost of this maintenance is much greater
than preventive maintenance.
Reliability maintenance , often known as RCM, is a process to ensure that assets continue to do what their
users require in their present operating context.
Reliability centered maintenance is an engineering framework that enables the definition of a complete
maintenance regime. It regards maintenance as the means to maintain the functions a user may require of
machinery in a defined operating context. As a discipline it enables machinery stakeholders to monitor,
assess, predict and generally understand the working of their physical assets. This is embodied in the initial
part of the RCM process which is to identify the operating context of the machinery, and write a Failure
Mode Effects and Criticality Analysis (FMECA). The second part of the analysis is to apply the "RCM
logic", which helps determine the appropriate maintenance tasks for the identified failure modes in the
August, 2022
Written Test FMECA.
Self-Check 4
Once the
logic is complete for all elements in the FMECA, the resulting list of maintenance is "packaged", so that the
periodicities of the tasks are rationalized to be called up in work packages; it is important not to destroy the
applicability of maintenance in this phase. Lastly, RCM is kept live throughout the "in-service" life of
machinery, where the effectiveness of the maintenance is kept under constant review and adjusted in light of
the experience gained.
August, 2022
1. Measuring instrument should always be in a good condition in order to maintain its accuracy of
results.
2. Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) help maximum safety and operational efficiency.
3. Corrective maintenance is a maintenance that is applied, where equipment is maintained after break
down.
1.. ________________, is a process to ensure that assets continue to do what their users require in their
present operating context.
A. Reliability or centered maintenance B. Corrective maintenance C. Preventive maintenance
II. Give the necessary answers for the following questions
1. What is maintenance and repair?_________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. Write the three types of maintenance. ____________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. Explain in short the three types of maintenances.___________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
References
1) "Introduction to the Measurement of Roundness" (PDF). Taylor-Hobson Precision. the separation of
two concentric circles that just enclose the circular section of interest.
2) "A guide to the Measurement of Roundness" (PDF). Taylor-Hobson Precision. Diameter is not the
same as roundness
3) "Your Dictionary entry for "volume"". Retrieved 2010-05-01.
4) One litre of sugar (about 970 grams) can dissolve in 0.6 litres of hot water, producing a total volume
of less than one litre. "Solubility". Retrieved 2010-05-01. Up to 1800 grams of sucrose can dissolve
August, 2022
in a liter of water.
5) "General Tables of Units of Measurement". NIST Weights and Measures Division. Retrieved 2011-
01-12.
6) "capacity". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September
2005. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
7) "density". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September
2005. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
8) Coxeter, H. S. M.: Regular Polytopes (Methuen and Co., 1948). Table I(i).
9) Rorres, Chris. "Tomb of Archimedes: Sources". Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences.
Retrieved 2007-0 IS
10) ↑http://www.miniphysics.com/measurement-of-length.html
11) ↑http://www.miniphysics.com/how-to-read-a-vernier-caliper.html
Participants of this Module (training material) preparation

N Name Qualification Field of Organiz Mobile E-mail
o (Level) Study ation/ number
Instituti
on
1 A(MSC)
2
3
4
5
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6
7
August, 2022

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Electrical/Electronic Equipment

Module Title: - Perform Electrical/Electronic

1.2 Obtain correct Specification

1.3 Select measuring instruments

Measurable independent and semi-independent electrical quantities comprise:

 Voltage by the means of voltmeter

 Inductance by the means of Inductance meter

1.4 Making workstation ready with job specification

Voltage V or E Volt Unit of Electrical Potential V=I×R

Current I or i Ampere Unit of Electrical Current I=V÷R

Resistance R Ohm Unit of DC Resistance R=V÷I

Conductance G Siemen Reciprocal of Resistance G=1÷R

Capacitance C Farad Unit of Capacitance C=Q÷V

Charge Q Coulomb Unit of Electrical Charge Q=C×V

Inductance L Henry Unit of Inductance VL = -L(di/dt)

Power P Watts Unit of Power P = V × I or I2 × R

Impedance Z Ohm Unit of AC Resistance Z2 = R2 + X2

Frequency F Hertz Unit of Frequency ƒ=1÷T

Multiples and Sub-multiples

. Symbol Multiplier Power of Ten

Terra T 1,000,000,000,000 1012

Giga G 1,000,000,000 109

Mega M 1,000,000 106

Kilo K 1,000 103

None None 1 100

Centi C 1/100 10-2

Milli M 1/1,000 10-3

Micro µ 1/1,000,000 10-6

Nano N 1/1,000,000,000 10-9

Pico P 1/1,000,000,000,000 10-12

 size: the size or extent of something (usually used in the plural)

 property defining physical quantity (physics): one of a group of properties or

A. Watt meter B. Ammeter C. Volt meter D. Inductance mete

A. Terra B. Giga C. Mega D. Pico E. Micro F. Micro

Unit two Measurement Instruments

2.1 Select suitable measuring instrument

A. Mechanical measuring Instruments

I. The Steel Rule

fig. 2.1 Graduations of steel, rule

How to Use Rules

Using a steel rules requires three important considerations.

 First, which particular style of rule will best do the Job?

Fig.2.3 Parallax error

fig 2.4 Angle Measuring

fig. 2.5 types of protractor

iii. Indirect Reading Instruments

fig.2.6 Calipers (A . inside caliper B. outside caliper)

IV. Vernier Calipers

Fig.2.7 vernier caliper

V. Taper and thickness gauges

B. Electrical Measuring Instruments

fig. 2.14 connection of watt meter

fig. 2.17 the symbol of energy meter

fig. 2.18 frequency counter

fig.2.21 Function generator

2.2 Obtain Accurate measurements

Simple Electric Circuit

fig. 2.22 An electric circuit

fig. 2.23 schematic diagram of an electric circuit

Switch and its function