3/5/2024

Engineering Hydraulics
By
Khaldoun Shatanawi, PhD

Civil Engineering Department

The University of Jordan

Open Channels
 Open-channel flow has a free surface that varies based
in flow conditions, whereas; in pipe flow: flow is full
and is pressurized.
 As the free surface is subjected to atmospheric pressure,
it remains constant throughout the entire length of the
channel.
 It is driven by gravitational forces along channel slope
whereas pipe flow equations includes the slope of EGL.
 Natural open channels: streams, rivers, estuaries, brook
 Artificial open channels: storm sewer, sanitary sewer,
culverts flowing partly full, drainage ditches, irrigation
canals, aqueducts, flood diversion channels.

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Open Channels
 Applications:
◦ design of artificial channels for irrigation, drainage, water supply,
wastewater conveyance.
◦ Analysis of flooding in natural waterways.
◦ Predict flood surges caused by dam breach.
 Same principles applied in the fluid mechanics course,
but here its more complex due to free surface.
 Another important variable in open channels is the:
◦ Extreme variability in cross sectional shape
◦ Extreme variability in roughness

Open Channels
Because of free surface, gravity is the driving force in open
channel. The most important dimensionless parameter is
the ratio of inertial to gravity force: called Froude Number.
𝑉
𝐹𝑟 =
𝑔𝐷
Re could be important but one of the few simplifications in
natural open channel in the existing of large Reynold’s
number, therefore, viscous effects in less important.

Two conditions to be considered open channels:

• Patm
• Free surface

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Pipe Flow vs Open Channels

Open Channels vs Pipe Flow

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Open Channel Flow Classifications

Open-channel flow may be classified by space as:
 Uniform flow
The water depth remains the same throughout a length of channel
reach at a given time. Uniform flow is more likely to occur in
prismatic channels (channels where the cross-sectional area and
bottom slope do not change over the channel reach).
 Non-uniform flow or called varied flow
The water depth or the discharge change along the length of the
channel.

Depending on whether the changes in the flow depth are

gradual or abrupt, varied flow can further be classified as:
 gradually varied flow (GVF)
 rapidly varied flow (RVF)

Open Channel Flow Classifications

Open-channel flow may be classified by time as:
 Steady flow
The discharge and water depth at any section in the reach do not
change with time during the period of interest.
 Unsteady flow
The discharge and the water depth at any section in the reach
change with time.

Uniform flows in open channels are mostly steady;

unsteady uniform flows are very rare in nature. Varied
open-channel flow may be either steady or unsteady. A
flood wave is an example of varied unsteady

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Open Channel Flow Classifications

Open Channel Flow Classifications

Open-channel flow may be classified based on Froude
number as:
 Subcritical flow, Fr < 1, Slow velocity
 Supercritical flow, Fr > 1, Fast velocity
 Critical Flow, Fr = 1

Open-channel flow may be classified based on Reynold’s

number as:
 Laminar flow, Re < 500
 Turbulent flow, Re > 750
 Unpredictable flow, 500 < Re < 750
Other references recommend Re > 2500

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Basics
To solve open-channel flow problems, we must seek the interdependent
relationships between the slope of the channel bottom, the discharge, the water
depth, and other channel characteristics. The basic geometric and hydraulic
definitions used to describe open-channel flow through a channel section are:

Cross-Sectional Relationships for

Open-Channel Flow

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The Energy Equation

𝑉12 𝑉22
𝑍1 + 𝑦1 + = 𝑍2 + 𝑦2 + + ℎ𝐿
2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑍1 −𝑍2 ℎ𝐿 𝑦1 +𝑍1 −(𝑦2 +𝑍2 )

𝑆𝑜 = 𝑆𝑒 = 𝑆𝑤 =
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿

Uniform Flow in Open Channel

Uniform flow in an open channel must satisfy the
following conditions:

 The water depth, flow area, discharge, and the velocity

distribution must remain unchanged in all sections of the
entire channel reach.
 The EGL, the water surface, and the channel bottom
must be parallel to each other.

Based on the second condition, the slopes of these lines are

the same
𝑆𝑒 =𝑆𝑤 =𝑆0

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Uniform Flow in Open Channel

(Chezy’s Formula)

The forces acting on the free body in the direction of the flow include:
• Hydrostatic pressure forces, F1 and F2 acting on the control volume.
• The weight of the water body in the reach, W, (Wsin𝜃) in the direction of the flow.
• Resistance force, 𝐹𝑓 , exerted by the channel (bottom and sides) on the flow.

A summation of all these force components in the direction of the channel yields

𝐹1 + 𝑊 sin 𝜃 − 𝐹2 − 𝐹𝑓 = 0

This equation can be further simplified because there is no change in water depth
in uniform flow. Therefore, the hydrostatic forces at the two ends of the control
volume must be equal, 𝐹1 = 𝐹2. The total weight of the water body is:

𝑊 = 𝛾𝐴𝐿

where 𝛾 is the specific weight of water, A is the cross-sectional area normal to the
flow, and L is the length of the reach. In most open channels, the channel slopes
are small and the approximation, sin 𝜃 = tan 𝜃 = 𝑆0 , is made. The gravity force
component may thus be expressed as:

𝑊 sin 𝜃 = 𝛾𝐴𝐿𝑆0

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The resistance force exerted by the channel boundaries may be expressed in terms of
resisting force per unit area (i.e., shear stress) multiplied by the total channel bed area
that is in contact with the flowing water. This channel contact area is the product of the
wetted perimeter (P) and the length of the channel reach (L).

In 1769, French engineer Antoine Chezy assumed that the resisting force per unit area
of the channel bed is proportional to the square of the mean velocity, 𝐾𝑉 2 , where K is
a constant of proportionality. The total resistance force may thus be written as:

𝐹𝑓 = 𝜏0 𝑃𝐿 = 𝐾𝑉 2 𝑃𝐿

where 𝜏0 is the resisting force per unit area of the channel bed, also known as the wall
shear stress.

Substituting the gravity weight and resistance equations in the summation of force
equation, we have:
𝛾𝐴𝐿𝑆0 = 𝐾𝑉 2 𝑃𝐿

or

𝛾 𝐴
𝑉= ( )( )𝑆0
𝐾 𝑃

In this equation, 𝐴 𝑃 = 𝑅ℎ , and 𝛾 𝐾 may be represented by a constant, C. For

uniform flow, 𝑆0 = 𝑆𝑒 , the above equation may thus be simplified to:

𝑉 = 𝐶 𝑅ℎ 𝑆𝑒

in which 𝑅ℎ is the hydraulic radius of the channel cross section. The hydraulic radius
is defined as the water area divided by the wetted perimeter for all shapes of open-
channel cross sections.

This equation is the well-known Chezy's formula for open-channel flow. Chezy's
formula is probably the first formula derived for uniform flow. The constant C is
commonly known as Chezy's resistance factor; it was found to vary in relation to both
the conditions of the channel and the flow.

Over the past two and a half centuries, many attempts have been made to determine
the value of Chezy's C. The simplest relationship, and the one most widely applied in
the United States, derives from the work of an Irish engineer, Robert Manning (1891
and 1895). Using the analysis performed on his own experimental data and on those of
others, Manning derived the following empirical relation:
1
𝐶 = 𝑅ℎ1 6
𝑛
in which n is known as Manning s coefficient of channel roughness. Some typical
values of Manning's coefficients are found in almost all open channel textbooks.

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Substituting Manning empirical relation into Chezy’s formula, we have

Manning's equation:
𝑘𝑢 2 3 1 2
𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆
𝑛 ℎ 𝑒

where 𝑘𝑢 = 1.00 𝑚1 3 𝑠 = 1.49 𝑓𝑡 1 3 𝑠 is a unit conversion factor. This

will allow the use of the same n-values in different unit systems. Manning's
equation may be used for gradually varied flow using the EGL slope (𝑆𝑒 ) and
uniform flow using the bottom slope (𝑆0 = 𝑆𝑒 for uniform flow). In terms of
the discharge (Q) and the flow area (A), the equation is written as:

𝑘𝑢
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉 = 𝐴𝑅ℎ2 3 𝑆𝑒1 2
𝑛

Setting 𝑘𝑢 = 1 in the SI unit system, these equations become:

1 2 3 1 2
𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆
𝑛 ℎ 𝑒
and
1 2 3 1 2
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉 = 𝐴𝑅 𝑆
𝑛 ℎ 𝑒

Manning’s Equation
1 2 3 1 2
𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆
𝑛 ℎ 𝑒
1
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉 = 𝐴𝑅ℎ2 3 𝑆𝑒1 2
𝑛
where V has units of m/s, 𝑅ℎ is given in m, 𝑆𝑒 in m/m, A is given in m2, and Q
is given in m3/s. On the right-hand side of this equation, the water area (A) and
the hydraulic radius 𝑅ℎ are both functions of water depth 𝑦𝑛 which is known as
the or normal depth when the flow is uniform.

1.49 2 3 1 2
𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆
𝑛 ℎ 𝑒
1.49 2 3 1 2
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉 = 𝐴𝑅ℎ 𝑆𝑒
𝑛
where V has units of ft/sec, 𝑅ℎ is given in ft, 𝑆𝑒 in ft/ft, A is given in ft2, and Q
is given in ft3/sec. On the right-hand side of this equation, the water area (A)
and the hydraulic radius 𝑅ℎ are both functions of water depth 𝑦𝑛 which is
known as the or normal depth when the flow is uniform.

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Manning’s n Coefficient

Example 1
A 3-m-wide rectangular irrigation channel carries a discharge of
25.3 m3/s at a uniform depth of 1.2 m. Determine the slope of
the channel if Manning's coefficient is n = 0.022.

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Example 2
A 3-m-wide rectangular irrigation channel carries a discharge of
25.3 m3/s at a uniform depth of 1.2 m. Determine the slope of
the channel if Manning's coefficient is n = 0.022. If the
discharge in the channel in is increased is 40 m3/s, what is the
normal depth?

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Best Hydraulic Section

(Hydraulic Efficiency of Open Channels)
1 2 3 1 2
𝑉= 𝑅 𝑆
𝑛 ℎ 0
1
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉 = 𝐴𝑅ℎ2 3 𝑆01 2
𝑛
 Manning uniform flow equations show that for the same cross-sectional
area (A) and channel slope (𝑆0), the channel section with a larger hydraulic
radius (𝑅ℎ ) delivers a larger discharge.
◦ Keeping A and S constant: The larger 𝑅ℎ given larger Q
 It is a section of hydraulic efficiency.
𝐴
 𝑅ℎ = therefore as A is constant, if P ↓ then Q↑
𝑃
 For given cross sectional area, the channel section with least wetted
perimeter is the best hydraulic section

Best Hydraulic Section

(Hydraulic Efficiency of Open Channels)
 Among all open-channel shapes, the semicircle has the least
perimeter for a given area, so it is the most hydraulically efficient
of an sections.
 Disadvantages:
◦ The sides are curved and almost vertical at the water surface level,
which makes the channel expensive to construct (excavation and
forming).
◦ Difficult to maintain (bank stability).
 In practice, semicircular sections are only used when pipes are
appropriate or in smaller flumes of prefabricated materials.

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Best Hydraulic Section

(Hydraulic Efficiency of Open Channels)
 For large channels, trapezoidal sections are the most common
◦ Most efficient is a half hexagon (semi circle with it’s center at the free
water surface and 60𝑜 angles on the sides)

 Another common section is the rectangular

◦ Most efficient is a half-square section, semi-circle with center of the
free water surface.

Best Hydraulic Section

(Hydraulic Efficiency of Open Channels)

 The design should be made on the best hydraulic section,

but can be modified for particularity and cost.

 Free board: Vertical distance from the designed water

surface to the top of the channel bank to prevent over
flowing.

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Example 6.4
 Prove that the best hydraulic trapezoidal is a half hexagon

Solution
𝐴 = 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑚𝑦 2 …………………………………………………………………………………………..(1)
𝑃 = 𝑏 + 2𝑦 1 + 𝑚2 ..............................……………………………………………….......(2)

𝐴
From equation (1), 𝑏 = − 𝑚𝑦 is substitute in equation (2) yields:
𝑦
𝐴
𝑃 = − 𝑚𝑦 + 2𝑦 1 + 𝑚2
𝑦

Now consider A and m constants and let the first derivative of P with respect
to y equal zero to obtain a minimum value of P, we get:
𝑑𝑃 −𝐴
= 2 − 𝑚 + 2 1 + 𝑚2 = 0
𝑑𝑦 𝑦

Substitute A from equation (1) in the previous equations, we get:

𝑏𝑦 + 𝑚𝑦 2
= 2 1 + 𝑚2 − 𝑚
𝑦2

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Solution
Or it can be rewritten as:
𝑏 = 2𝑦( 1 + 𝑚2 − 𝑚) ………………….........................…………………………………..(3)

We know that:
𝐴 𝑏𝑦+𝑚𝑦 2
𝑅ℎ = =
𝑃 𝑏+2𝑦 1+𝑚2
……………….........................…………………………………………..(4)

Substitute b from equation (3) in the equation (4), w get:

𝑦
𝑅ℎ = 2

It shows that the best hydraulic trapezoidal section has a hydraulic radius
equal to one-half of the water depth.

Solution
Substitute equation (3) in equation (2) and solving for P, we get:
𝑃 = 2𝑦(2 1 + 𝑚2 − 𝑚) ……………..........................…………………………………….(5)

To determine m that makes P the least, then the first derivative of P is taken
with respect to m = zero and after simplifying, we get:
3
𝑚= = cot 60𝑜 ………………………….........................…………………………………….(6)
3

Therefore equation (5) maybe written as:

1 3 3
𝑏 = 2𝑦 1+ − =2 𝑦
3 3 3

Or
3
𝑦= 𝑏 = 𝑏 sin 60𝑜
2

The section is a half hexagon

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THANK Y U

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