Introduction to Ammunition and Basic Ballistics

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ISBN: 978-1-945697-41-8

Content written by Frank Vigil. Photos by Frank Vigil, unless otherwise noted.

Rev. 8.22
 Introduction to Ammunition and Basic Ballistics
Contents

Chapter 1 - Introduction, History, Projectiles: Parts and Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 2 - Projectiles: Military and Shotgun, Materials, Coatings, BC and SD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Chapter 3 - Cases: Parts of a Case, How Cases are Formed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Chapter 4 - Cases Part 2: Types of Cases, Materials and Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Chapter 5 - Propellants: History, Type, Burn Rate and Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Chapter 6 - Centerfire Primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Chapter 7 - A Complete Cartridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

Chapter 8 - Firing Sequence and Interior Ballistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

Chapter 9 - Recoil and Cycling, Transitional and Exterior Ballistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

Chapter 10 - Terminal Ballistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

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 Chapter 1 - Introduction, History, Projectiles: Parts and Types
INTRODUCTION TO AMMUNITION AND BASIC BALLISTICS 3
A Brief History 5
PARTS OF A CARTRIDGE 7
Projectiles 7
Parts of a Bullet 8
TYPES OF PROJECTILES 19
 Introduction to
Ammunition and
Basic Ballistics
Ammunition is as important to firearms as gaso-
line is to automobiles. Without ammunition, the
firearm is simply an over-engineered blunt ob-
ject. Ammunition is the fuel that drives the fire-
arm and like fuel, there are many different types
and grades. Understanding how a cartridge is
designed to function, its performance, and how
each of its components lead to its performance
is extremely important on all levels of shooting
sports, hunting, self-defense, and military use.
Understanding static parts and their function is
only the beginning. Add a spark, heat, and pres-
sure and things really get interesting. Ballistics
is the science of the behavior of a cartridge

3
 Figure 1: Various types of cartridges.
Front Row, left to right: .40 Smith & Wesson, .17 Hornady Mach II, .22 Long Rifle Stinger, .22 Long Rifle, .17 PMC Aguila, .380
ACP, .32 ACP, .32 Smith & Wesson, .25 ACP, .22 Short, .22 BB Cap.
Second Row, left to right: .44 Remington Magnum, .30 Carbine, .50 Action Express, .357 Smith & Wesson Magnum, .25-20
Winchester, 5.7x28mm FN, .17 Winchester Super Magnum, 12-Gauge 1¾ in. 7/8 oz. Slug, .44 Smith & Wesson Special, .45 Schofield,
.38 Smith & Wesson Special, 7.62x25 Tokarev, .22 Winchester Magnum Rimfire, .17 Hornady Magnum Rimfire, 5mm Remington
Rimfire Magnum, .45 ACP, .45 Auto Rim, 10mm Auto, .44 Russian, 9x19mm Parabellum, .38 Smith & Wesson.
Third Row, left to right: .35 Remington, .25-35 Winchester, 12-Gauge 2¾ in. 1 oz. Bean Bag, 12-Gauge 2¾ in. 1 oz. Slug, .22-250
Remington, .410 Bore 2½ in. #6 Birdshot, 20-Gauge 2½ in. #7.5 Birdshot, .460 Smith & Wesson Magnum, .450 Bushmaster, .50
Beowulf, .458 SOCOM, .375 Reaper, .300 AAC Blackout, 7.62x39mm, 6.8mm Remington Special Purpose Cartridge, .224 Valkyrie,
5.56x45mm NATO M855A1, 5.45x39mm, 12-Gauge 2¼ in. 00 Buckshot, .454 Casull.
Fourth Row, left to right: 12.7x108mm, .50 Browning Machine Gun M2, .408 Cheyenne Tactical, .338 Lapua Magnum, .300
Winchester Magnum, .458 Winchester Magnum, 7mm Dakota, .270 Winchester, .30-06 Springfield, 7.92x57mm Mauser, 7.5x55mm
Swiss, 6.5x55mm Swedish Training Round, 7.62x54mmR, .303 British, 7.62x51mm NATO MK 319 MOD 0, .410 Bore 3 in. ¼ oz
Slug, 12-Gauge 3 in. 00 Buckshot, .338 Marlin Express, .243 Winchester, .444 Marlin, .45-70 Government, .300 Savage.

and projectile inside the firearm, in flight and Throughout this book we will discuss the
upon impact. Ballistics is divided into four ba- various parts of a cartridge, cartridge types,
sic categories based upon the environment the the firing sequence of a cartridge, and how
projectile is interacting with. The study of the the cartridge and projectile behave during and
cartridge and projectile inside the firearm is after discharge. We will also discuss the basic
known as Interior/Internal Ballistics. The study factors that affect ballistics and how to explain
of the projectile once it has exited the muzzle why certain features of a cartridge will affect
and cleared the muzzle “blast” is Intermediate/ the various ballistic types in very specific ways.
Transitional Ballistics. The study of the projec- Through an understanding of ammunition and
tile “in flight” is known as Exterior Ballistics, basic ballistics, you will be able to choose the
while the study of the projectile upon impact of most appropriate cartridge for any situation
the target is known as Terminal Ballistics. and circumstance.

4
A BRIEF HISTORY The cannon was scaled down to provide soldiers
with the first portable firearms, in the form of
The history of the modern cartridge can be the muzzleloader. Even as the technology of the
traced back to over 1,000 years ago to the muzzle loader progressed from the matchlock,
Chinese and the invention of gunpowder (char- to the wheel lock, to the flintlock, the basic de-
coal, saltpeter, and sulphur). They crafted make- sign was still the same: a tube filled with gun-
shift “rockets” from tubes filled with gunpowder powder, capped by a projectile. It wasn’t until
that featured metal spear tips. As technology the advent of two separate technologies in the
and time progressed, someone realized that they 19th century that we start to see the ground-
could use gunpowder crammed into crude “fire- work for the modern cartridge: percussion caps
arms” to fling projectiles at their enemies. Once and the breechloader. 2
the technology began to spread west around the
The percussion cap lead to what we now know
13th century, the Arabs became the first people
as a primer, and the breechloading design al-
in recorded history to use “cannons” in battle.1
lowed the use of a cartridge instead of separate

Figure 2: Some of the first modern metallic cartridge types.

From left to right: 5mm Pinfire (Circa 1840). The pinfire round was the first true self-contained metallic cartridge and the precursor
to the modern cartridge.
.22 BB Cap (1845). The .22 BB Cap was the first rimfire cartridge and the predecessor to all modern, self-contained metallic cartridges.
.22 Short (1857). The .22 Short was the first American metallic cartridge and is the oldest cartridge still being manufactured to this
day. The .22 Short was also developed for the first Smith & Wesson revolver. .44 Henry Rimfire (1860). The .44 Henry Rimfire was
developed in conjunction with the Henry Model 1860 Repeating Rifle used during the American Civil War. The round and the rifle
were the first successful examples of a repeating rifle and cartridge combination.
.45 Colt (1872). The .45 Colt was the original chambering for the Colt Single-Action Army, which was adopted by the United
States Army in 1873. .44-40 Winchester (1873). The .44-40 Winchester was the first metallic centerfire cartridge manufactured by
Winchester and was the original chambering for the Winchester 1873 rifle and carbine. The .44-40 and 1873 rifle became so popular
that the rifle was touted as the “gun that won the west.” 8x50mmR Lebel (1886). The 8mm Lebel was the first smokeless propellant cartridge
to be manufactured and adopted by any country (France). .30-30 Winchester (1895). The .30-30 Winchester was the first non-military,
smokeless, high-velocity bottleneck cartridge developed in the United States. The .30-30 Winchester was the first smokeless chambering
for the Winchester Model 1894 and became one the most famous rifle/cartridge pairings. 7.92x57mm Mauser (8mm Mauser) (1905).
The 8mm Mauser is the direct descendant of the first smokeless, rimless bottleneck cartridge, the Patrone 88/M88. The M88 evolved
into the 8mm Mauser by necking the case up from .318 in. to .323”; everything else remained the same.

5
components. The first modern cartridge as we
know it was a rimfire design introduced in 1859.
About 10 years later, we saw the introduction of
the first centerfire cartridge.3
The basic cartridge design hasn’t deviated much
from the first self-contained metallic cartridges
of 150 years ago. While the materials are basi-
cally the same (lead, brass), the shape of the pro-
jectile and case and the composition of the pro-
pellant and priming compound have changed
significantly. Performance in all aspects has
also changed significantly, reaching distances
that were once impossible. New case and pro-
jectile materials have been introduced and have
found success with niche markets but have not
replaced the originals. The modern cartridge
also benefits from computer-aided design, com-
puter-controlled manufacturing techniques, and
state-of-the-art testing facilities.

6
 Depending on the type of cartridge, the pro-
Parts of a Cartridge jectile used may be a single bullet or multiple
round balls (or combination of the two).
The major difference between a bullet and oth-
Depending on the design, there are three or er forms of firearm projectiles is that the shape
more major parts or assemblies that come to- of a bullet requires it to be “stabilized” by the
gether to form a complete cartridge. These firearm before entering the open air. This sta-
parts are the bullet or projectile, the case, pro- bilization comes from rotation imparted by the
pellant, and primer. The case houses the other rifling inside the bore of certain firearms' bar-
components and, in most instances, is the only rels. Typically, bullets are fired from pistols and
part that can be re-used. Some cartridges may rifles, while shotguns with “smooth” bores fire
feature a few more parts or combine two parts round projectiles (balls) that do not require spin
into an assembly. Sometimes, some of these to stabilize in flight.
parts are interchangeable with other cartridges Consider a person throwing a football and a
while others are meant for specific applications. baseball. When a football is thrown properly,
Understanding the features of these parts will it will rotate around its center axis as it flies
help in the overall understanding of the science through the air to its intended target. A foot-
behind the ballistics of a certain cartridge. ball that is thrown improperly will wobble and
tumble through the air, rarely if ever hitting its
PROJECTILES target. Now think about someone throwing a
A projectile is a generic term for an object that baseball. Regardless of whether the baseball is
is propelled by an external force and continues spinning or not (such as a knuckle ball), it will
to travel from its own momentum. When a car- always make it to its intended target without
tridge is discharged, the object exiting the muz- wobbling or tumbling.
zle and flying through the air is the projectile.

Figure 3: Various components.

7
 Figure 4: Various projectiles.

Like a football, a bullet is an elongated projec- beyond what was capable even 100 years ago. As
tile that requires spin to stabilize it in flight. computer-aided modeling and simulated fluid
The basic bullet shape is a cylinder with either a dynamic software evolve, bullet designers are
round or pointed nose, depending on whether it able to evolve the design of the bullet at a rate
is intended for a pistol or rifle, respectively(and never seen before. Using powerful software, de-
is more or less aerodynamic). There is a point, signers can rapidly change the shape of a bullet
however, that a bullet can be spun too fast, and simulate its travel both inside the bore and
which may cause the bullet to fragment or sepa- in various environmental conditions, without
rate prior to striking the target. Therefore, the ever having to leave the comfort of their office.
appropriate spin to bullet weight and shape has Each feature of the modern bullet contributes
some science to it. to its overall performance and many features
Other projectiles used in modern firearm car- can be “stacked” to multiply its performance.
tridges are often limited to smoothbore shotgun The following are the various parts and features
use. The general types of projectiles used in these of a bullet.
cartridges are slugs, which are similar to bullets • Core – The core of a bullet is its heart.
in shape and design but utilize a special feature The core is what makes up the basic
to impart spin on themselves, and buckshot and size and shape of the bullet. The term
birdshot, which are spheres of varying sizes. Like core is typically used when the bullet
baseballs, buckshot and birdshot do not have to utilizes a multi-piece construction: the
spin to stabilize in flight, which perfectly suits core wrapped in an envelope. Solid con-
them for use in a non-rifled shotgun smoothbore. struction bullets do not feature a core or
envelope and are comprised of a single
PARTS OF A BULLET material throughout. The core and jacket
Although the general bullet shape is a fairly will always be constructed of dissimilar
standard design, there are many features of the materials, typically with a softer core and
modern bullet that allow it to perform well a harder coat. There are instances with

8
 Figure 5: Various bullet cores.

military use where the core is made up of drastically and melting inside the bore.
dual or multiple materials while still be- The answer was to cover the soft core
ing covered with a metal jacket. with a harder material that would prevent
it from deforming or melting and would
Depending on bullet type, the core (or protect the bore from a melted core.
solid bullet) may be formed in one of
several ways: the bullet may be cast in a Depending on bullet type, the jacket may
single operation, drawn from wire and completely encompass the entire core,
swaged (pressure formed in a die) over or only cover a small portion of it. The
multiple operations, machined from a jacket may simply cover the core, allow-
solid billet with one or multiple opera- ing for more of a chance of separation
tions, or (injection) molded from ad- upon impact of the target, or the jacket
vanced composite materials. The core may be mechanically bonded (brazed,
may also be mechanically “bonded” to glued or swaged) to the core, creating less
the jacket through various methods. of a chance of separation upon impact.
Bonding two or more different substanc- The jacket type is a huge factor in the
es together can be thought of as welding bullet's terminal ballistic performance.
the materials together. The jacket material is also a considerable
factor in its terminal performance.
• Jacket – The jacket is a protective metal
covering, formed over the core and used The concentricity of the jacket and the
to protect both the bullet and the bore of uniformity of the wall thickness is key
the firearm. Since the advent of modern, to its exterior ballistic performance and
smokeless propellants, bullet velocities and its ability to stabilize. The typical form-
chamber pressures became so great that ing process for a bullet jacket involves
soft, unprotected cores were deforming stamping out a round disc or biscuit

9
 Figure 6a: Various solid projectiles. Figure 6b: Solid brass projectiles.

from a sheet of material and forming a the rifling will engrave its pattern into
“cup” by drawing out the material with the body of the bullet and begin to rotate
various shaped dies. The length of the it as it travels through the barrel. The
cup is stretched until it is long enough to length of the body and its relation to the
cover the core. The core is inserted into tip and base of the bullet is critical to
the jacket and another set of dies is used the stabilization of the bullet inside the
to shape the open end of the jacket and bore and to its transitional ballistics as it
form a tip (or base) over the core. leaves the muzzle-rifled slug. The rifling
will not only react with the material in
• Body/Bearing Surface – The body (or the bore, but when the bullet/projectile
bearing surface) is the cylindrical section leaves the bore, air will pass through the
of a bullet that contacts the bore and ri- rifling and impart resistance in the rifling
fling as it passes through the barrel. The that will cause the bullet/projectile to
diameter of the body of a bullet closely continue to spin.
matches the diameter of the bore of the
firearm (from groove to groove) to with- • Cannelure/Crimp Groove/Grease
in .0005 in. The tight body-to-bore fit Ring – The cannelure (or crimp groove/
seals the bore forward of the bullet from grease ring) is a channel formed as a ring
high pressure gas when the cartridge is around the body of a bullet. The can-
discharged. As the bullet enters the bore, nelure serves many purposes depending

Figure 7: The body of a new bullet and the engraving Figure 8: A rifle shotgun slug.
of a bullet that was fired.

10
on the type of bullet it is being used on. groove together. The cannelure acts as
With solid, cast bullets the groove serves a “belt” being cinched around a pair of
as a grease ring to help lubricate the bul- pants to keep them from falling. Every
let as it travels through the bore. Solid cannelure is not meant to bond the two
cast bullets may feature several grease parts together; some cannelures are not
rings, with one ring being used as a deep enough. The cannelure allows the
crimp groove. bullet forward of the groove to distort,
while the area behind the bullet re-
With jacketed and solid bullets, the can- mains intact. Only bullets advertised as
nelure acts as a crimp groove, allowing “bonded” utilize the cannelure for this
the case mouth to be pressed into it, purpose. The cannelure still also acts as
securing the bullet in place and position. a crimp groove in many instances. As a
When used as a crimp groove, it prevents byproduct, the cannelure and crimp can
bullet setback during the loading cycle affect the burn rate and pressure curve of
with semi-automatic firearms. If the ac- the discharging cartridge on every bullet.
tion of the bullet being loaded into the Many manufactures and shooters believe
chamber is too violent, the bullet may that cannelures have a negative impact
push back into the case when contact- on the flight of the bullet/projectile as it
ing the feed ramp. If the bullet is pushed may increase the turbulence in that area
too far back (typically ~.075 in.) and the as the bullet/projectile passes through
cartridge is discharged, the pressure may the air.
spike and damage the firearm and pos-
sibly cause injury. • Shoulder – The shoulder of the bullet
is the area at the top edge of the bear-
The cannelure is also used to “bond” the ing surface, just ahead of the cannelure.
jacket to the core. When the cannelure The shoulder is the transition between
is pressed into the jacket, the groove the cylindrical portion of the body and
that is created displaces material on the the curved or angled section of the front
core and secures the material below the (or nose) of the bullet. When the bullet

Figure 9: Grease rings, crimp grooves, and a bullet with a bonded jacket.

11
 will form shorter, rounder noses, while
larger arcs (larger circle) will form longer,
pointed noses. The shape and length of
the ogive will determine how suited the
bullet is to defeating air resistance.

There are two basic ogive shapes, based

on the size of the arc and its intersec-
tion with the bearing surface (shoulder).
The two types are tangent and secant. A
tangent ogive utilizes a smaller arc and a
smooth transition to the bearing surface
(the arc of the ogive flows into the body).
Bullets with a tangent ogive will have a
Figure 10: Two shoulder types: smooth shoulders and
sharp shoulders.
larger bearing surface and, in turn, more
mass than a comparable bullet with a se-
cant ogive. The tangent ogive is a feature
begins to enter the bore, the shoulder is of the original spitzer (spire) bullet, the
the first point to contact the lead of the first truly aerodynamic bullet design used
rifling. The shape of the shoulder will in a modern cartridge.
affect how the bullet enters the rifling.
A smooth shoulder will allow the bullet A secant ogive utilizes a larger arc and a
to enter the rifling straighter, on a more sharper transition to the bearing surface
consistent basis, and is less perceptible to (the arc of the ogive flows beyond the
cant caused by the bullet's seating depth. body). Generally, a secant ogive will be
A sharp shoulder is more likely to cant as more suited to defeating drag and other
it enters the rifling. environmental factors but will be more
susceptible to misalignment when en-
• Ogive – The ogive of a bullet is the curved gaging the rifling. A bullet with a secant
(or straight) area just ahead of the shoul- ogive will have a shorter bearing surface
der, up to the tip. The ogive shape is basi- and, in turn, less mass than a comparable
cally a circular arc (segment of a circle); bullet with a tangent ogive. The secant
ogives with smaller arcs (smaller circle) ogive is typically a design feature with

Figure 11a: Tangent ogive bullets. Figure 11b: Secant ogive bullets. Figure 11c: Hybrid ogive bullets.

12
 Figure 12: Various sized meplats.

very low drag (VLD) and ultra-low drag the meplat is directly related to the bul-
(ULD) bullets, which are (currently) the let's ability to cut through the air and
pinnacle of aerodynamic bullet design. contributes greatly to its terminal per-
formance. A smaller meplat (a sharper
Hybrid ogives provide the best of both point) will cut through the air (and tar-
worlds. A hybrid ogive utilizes a tangent get) better than a blunt (round or flat)
arc just ahead of the shoulder, which meplat. Typically, pistol bullets will have
transitions to a secant arc at the nose of a much larger meplat than long, pointed
the bullet. This allows the bullet to be rifle bullets. The term applies to pointed,
very aerodynamic, while not being as round, flat, and hollow bullet designs.
finicky with seating depth and rifling Consistently shaped meplats (from bul-
engagement. A bullet with a hybrid ogive let to bullet) will ensure the highest pos-
will have a longer bearing surface than a sible precision.
bullet with a secant ogive, and less mass
than one with a tangent ogive. • Boat Tail – The boat tail of a bullet is
the tapered area at the bottom that runs
• Meplat – The meplat is the point or from the body to the base. The boat tail
tip of the nose of the bullet. The size of

Figure 13: Bullets featuring boat tail and rebated boat tail bases.

13
 Figure 14: The heel of various bullets.

design serves two main intended pur- shoulder from the bearing surface to a
poses while providing incidental benefits. boat tail with a reduced diameter at its
Unlike the flat-based bullet design that junction with the shoulder. The rebated
creates turbulent air behind the projec- design creates a smoother, more uniform
tile, the boat tail design provides a tran- transition of muzzle gas behind the bul-
sition that will smooth the flow of air let, improving its transitional and exter-
behind the projectile. This will provide nal ballistics. The rebated boat tail design
greater stability and better aerodynamics. creates a better seal than the traditional
The boat tail design is also intended to boat tail, increasing bore life. The tapered
reduce drag on the projectile by reduc- design of the traditional boat tail allows
ing surface area from the bullet's body. gas to wedge itself between the boat tail
As a side effect, the boat tail design can and bore and escape ahead of the bullet.
be used to shift the center of mass of the The sharp transition between the shoul-
bullet, making it more stable in flight. der and bearing surface does not allow
The boat tail design decreases the bear- gas to force the bullet to cant inside the
ing surface area, reducing the amount of bore. The rebated design also offers in-
strain on the bullet and the barrel. The creased accuracy and precision over simi-
boat tail design also increases accuracy lar bullets with a traditional boat tail.
and precision. The original spitzer design
was the first bullet to utilize a boat tail. • Heel – The heel of a bullet is the junc-
tion between the bearing surface (for flat
A variation of the boat tail design, the base bullets) or boat tail and the base of
rebated boat tail, utilizes a sharp (~90°)

Figure 15: Different base styles.

14
 base designs including flat, dish, cup,
hollow, and heel (or rebated).

The flat base is appropriately named as

the base is flat, perpendicular 90° to the
bullet's bearing surface. The dish base
is slightly concave, while the cup base is
much deeper. The hollow base provides
the deepest cavern of the three. The dish,
cup, and hollow bases are designed to ex-
Figure 15b: Rebated base bullets. pand (slightly for the dish, much greater
for the hollow), sealing the bore (obtura-
tion) behind the bullet as it travels down
the barrel. The dish, cup, and hollow
the bullet. The heel typically features a bases also aid in bullet stabilization as
small radius regardless of base design. The they can be utilized to shift the center of
radiused heel aids in the loading process, mass of the bullet, enhancing its exterior
preventing any shaving as the bullet is ballistic performance.
seated in the case. The uniformity of the
heel also contributes to the bullet's transi- The heel (or rebated) base design serves
tional ballistic performance by distribut- a different purpose than other base
ing muzzle gas around the base evenly. designs. The heel base is designed for
cartridges with case and bullet diameters
• Base – The base of the bullet is the sur- that are the same. To be able to insert
face opposite the meplat: the bottom of and crimp the bullet into the case, the
the bullet. The majority of the force from base of the bullet needs to be slightly
expanding gas when a cartridge is dis- smaller than the diameter of the inside of
charged is focused primarily on the base. the case. Unlike the rebated boat tail, the
The shape of the base will dictate how heel base does not taper but runs paral-
thoroughly the bullet will seal the bore lel with the bearing surface. The heel is
and how effectively it will divert gases at inserted into the case and crimped right
the muzzle. There are several different under the shoulder.

Figure 16a: Different types of polymer tips.

15
 the hollow cavity it rests in to expand
outward upon impact of the target, caus-
ing the bullet to deform greatly. Some
designs will serve to improve aerody-
namics and enhance the bullet's ability to
expand. Polymer tips are only used with
some bullet designs and are not a feature
of every bullet.

Other tip inserts include aluminum and

Figure 16b: Polymer-tipped projectile cross-sections. titanium. Aluminum tips serve several
functions. The tip shifts the bullet's cen-
ter of mass and extends the length of the
bullet's nose, both contributing to the
bullet's aerodynamics. The tips are also
utilized to defeat hard barriers and aid in
• Polymer/Ballistic Tip – The polymer the expansion/deformation of the bullet.
tip is a hard plastic or rubber insert The titanium tip is used in a much dif-
used in the hollow cavity in the nose of ferent manner. The titanium tip can be
some bullets. The insert serves different designed for defeating barriers and hard
purposes, depending on its intent. With armor. Titanium can also be used for
some designs, the polymer tip serves to instant feedback in the form of flash and
increase the aerodynamics of a bullet sparks when hitting another hard object.
with a flat or hollow nose. With other The titanium tip can also be used to aid
designs, the tip acts as a wedge, forcing in expansion and deformation.

Figure 16c: Expanded polymer tipped bullets.

16
 Figure 17: Aluminum- and titanium-tipped bullets. Figure 18: Gas checks. Photo courtesy of Shamus Sage,
Sage’s Outdoors. Used with permission.
www.sagesoutdoors.com/blog new-50-rifle-caliber-copper-
gas-checks-are-in-the-testing-phase/

• Gas Check – A gas check is a small

metal cup used on the base of some
solid bullets used to seal (obturate) and
protect the bore. Gas checks are only
found on solid, soft (lead) bullets that
are fired at supersonic speeds. The bullet
features a rebated base, which is capped
by a (pressed) gas check that is the same
diameter as the bullet. When fired, the
gas check expands, sealing the bore and
protecting the soft bullet from the hot,
high pressure gas. The gas check also
protects the bore by reducing the amount
of (soft) bearing surface. The gas check
is typically found on bullets intended for
magnum and some rifle cartridges.

17
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18
Types of Projectiles
There is no “magic bullet” — a projectile that can
perfectly perform every task that is presented
to it. With as many facets of shooting as there
are, it may be an impossible task to design a
single bullet (even over multiple calibers and
weights) that could successfully perform for
each purpose. This is the reason there are so Figure 19: Recovered ball bullet from a dirt berm.
many types of projectiles, with many variants
of each, with many different weights, over a
plethora of calibers. One caliber can use many
different projectile types and weights for a
variety of purposes and still not meet the need are other bullet types. Depending on the
of every shooter. Understanding the various material the bullet impacts, there is often
types of projectiles and their intended purposes little to no deformation of the bullet.
will allow you to choose the correct cartridge for Often, the only marking found on re-
the task at hand. As William Cowper so aptly covered bullets are the engravings cut by
put it in his 1785 poem, The Task, "Variety is the the rifling. Ball ammunition is also more
spice of life." likely to ricochet off hard targets than
Pistol and rifle bullets are measured in cali- other bullet types.
ber (U.S. standard and metric) and by weight. Ball ammunition is also better suited
Caliber is typically a measurement from groove for use in semi-automatic firearms. In
to groove but may be measured from land to fact, many semi-auto firearms are de-
land. Weight is expressed in grains, which are signed specifically for exclusive use of
equal to 1/7000 of a pound, 1/438 of an ounce, ball bullets. The round nose makes the
or 1/15 of a gram. perfect shape for use in magazines or to
• Ball – The name “ball” is very mislead- move across the feed ramp and into the
ing. Ball projectiles are not spherical at chamber. The smooth nose design does
all; in fact, some are long and pointed not feature any edges that may hang up
(spitzer). The term ball applies to bullets against the magazine or firearm, making
with a round nose and meplat, jacketed ball bullets more reliable than other bul-
or solid (monolithic). Both pistol and let shapes.
rifle bullets can be found in ball configu-
rations. Ball ammunition is designed to • Full Metal Jacket (FMJ)/Total Metal
be cheap and abundant, unlike hollow Jacket (TMJ)/Complete Metal Jacket
point, soft point, or one of the many (CMJ) – The full metal, total metal, or
specialty projectiles. The military almost complete metal jacketed bullet is a varia-
exclusively uses ball ammunition, which tion of the ball round. The terms FMJ,
also finds extensive use with civilians. TMJ, and CMJ are used to describe ball
bullets, which are jacketed or covered.
Because of their design, ball projectiles The FMJ utilizes a jacket that encom-
are more likely to perforate (put a hole passes everything but the base of the
through) a target (most materials) than bullet, while a TMJ covers the bullet

19
 Figure 20: Various ball bullet types.

completely. CMJ bullets do not techni- • Hollow Point – The hollow point bul-
cally utilize a jacket; rather the solid, let is appropriately named because of the
swaged core is coated (electroplated) large cavity in the meplat of the bullet.
with a very thin layer of copper. The ben- The hollow point bullet is designed to
efits of jacketed or covered ball ammuni- limit penetration and prevent perfora-
tion are that a jacketed bullet can be fired tion. When a hollow point bullet con-
at higher velocities than its non-jacketed tacts a soft target (animal or human),
counterpart; a jacketed bullet will experi- the hydraulic pressure created inside the
ence less deformation upon impact of cavity forces the material surrounding it
certain targets than their non-jacketed outward, forcing the mouth of the open-
counterparts (the CMJ is the exception); ing to expand and roll over itself. As the
and jacketed and coated bullets are more bullet expands as it moves through the
popular than non-jacketed solid bullets. target, the increased surface area will

Figure 21: Different FMJ, TMJ, and CMJ bullets.

20
 Figure 22a: Several different hollow point bullets.

Figure 22b: Various hollow point bullet cross-sections.

Figure 22c: Expanded hollow point bullets.

Figure 22d: Hollow point versus open tip projectiles.

21
dramatically slow the projectile. The core and jacket from separating (which
bullet's expansion is what prevents it happens with non-bonded bullets).
from perforating the target and possibly
damaging or injuring (or worse) some- The hollow point bullet is used almost
thing behind it. When a hollow point exclusively by law enforcement and civil-
bullet impacts any other material, it may ians for self-defense. The use of hollow
fail to expand, or distort unexpectedly. point bullets by the military is prohibited
Some materials may clog the cavity of by The Hague Convention. The hollow
the bullet and prevent it from expanding point's design makes it the perfect choice
because of the lack of hydraulic force. when over-penetration or perforation is
a concern, especially with hunting and
The hollow point bullet may be solid self-defense. Because of the increase in
or jacketed. When solid hollow points quality control and cost of manufactur-
expand (under hydraulic pressure) and ing, hollow point ammunition is often
the mouth rolls over, the recovered bullet two to three times more expensive than
may look like a mushroom. This is where ball ammunition.
the term “mushrooming” comes from.
Jacketed hollow points typically feature • Soft Point – The soft point is named
a jacket that extends up to the mouth of so because of the exposed, malleable
the cavity, just short of it, or even extends core that protrudes from the jacket at
into the cavity. The jacket may be solid, the nose of the bullet. With soft point
or it may be scored or prestressed so that bullets, the jacket will typically cover
upon impact the jacket will expand, split, the base completely and extend upward,
and form “petals.” These petals are dev- stopping just short of the tip. The core of
astating to soft tissue and create enough the bullet will fill the jacket completely
drag to stop the projectile inside the tar- and protrude upward from the opening
get. Some jacketed hollow point bullets in the front of the jacket. The exposed
utilize a jacket that is bonded to the core, core, protruding from the jacket, will
which limits expansion but prevents the form a semi-pointed/round/flat tip. The

Figure 23a: Various soft point bullets.

22
 Figure 23b: Soft point bullet cross-sections. Figure 23c: Expanded soft point bullet.

soft tip is designed to promote deforma- of expansion is dependent on the alloy of

tion and expansion. When the bullet the core, the velocity of the bullet upon
impacts the target, the first point to hit is impact, and the material that is being
the soft tip. The tip will begin to deform impacted. If the material is too soft, the
and push back into the jacket, forcing the soft point may not expand and perforate
nose of the jacket to expand and deform. the target, similar to a round nose bullet.
The soft point bullet is not as finicky as
the hollow point bullet and will expand • Match – Match bullets are manufactured
through a variety of conditions. to a much higher tolerance than other
bullets. The core of the match bullet is
The soft point is designed to be more much more consistent in the mixture of
aerodynamic than a hollow point bullet its alloying materials and is almost al-
and experiences greater expansion and ways swaged for the most uniform shape
deformation than a ball bullet. The soft and weight. The jackets are also drawn
point bullet will also penetrate deeper with greater precision to ensure the most
than a traditional hollow point. The rate uniform wall thickness and concentricity

Figure 24: Various types of match bullets.

23
to the core. The machines used to manu- • Very Low Drag (VLD) – Very low
facture match bullets are more precise drag bullets are the current pinnacle of
and consistent than machines used to aerodynamic projectile design. They are
manufacture bulk ammunition. The designed to be extremely streamlined to
quality control process involved in overcome disruption from outside forces.
manufacturing match bullets is also more The name very low drag indicates that
meticulous, sometimes featuring human the projectile will experience less air
interaction during every step of the pro- resistance than other projectiles of the
cess. In some cases, match bullets are also same size and weight, with a less aerody-
weighed, measured, and sorted for the namic form. This means the VLD bullet
utmost consistency between batches. can fly farther, maintain its velocity over
a greater distance, and resist wind and
Match bullets are not limited to a par- atmospheric conditions better than any
ticular style or type. Match bullets can other projectile type.
be found in both pistol and rifle bullets,
ball, hollow point, open tipped, tipped, The typical VLD projectile is a jacketed
and many other styles. Match bullets will (lead core), open tip (not hollow point),
typically utilize many features to make boat tail design. The VLD bullet tends to
the bullet more aerodynamic, including be very long and heavy for a bullet of its
various types of tips, long ogives, and caliber, with a longer tapered or rebated
boat tails. Match bullets are only the boat tail, a short bearing surface, and a
beginning to match ammunition. As is very long secant or hybrid ogive nose. The
often the case, propellant and primer are open tip design is used to shift the projec-
all of a higher quality and manufactured tile's weight rearward, increasing its stabil-
more consistently. ity. The VLD projectile will be built to
match standards and may sometimes fea-
ture a tip to further increase aerodynamics.

Figure 25: VLD bullets.

24
 Figure 26: Various types of tipped bullets.

• Tipped – Tipped bullets utilize a spe- Some hollow point bullets utilize a
cialized tip of varying materials for dif- polymer tip with a round nose that aids
ferent purposes. The tip may be made in feeding with semi-automatic pistols.
from hard polymer, rubber, aluminum, Because many semi-auto pistols are
steel, or titanium. Polymer-tipped bullets designed to use ball ammunition pri-
serve many purposes, including mak- marily, using hollow point bullets may
ing flat or hollow point bullets more cause malfunctions in the feeding cycle
aerodynamic, assisting hollow point bul- of operations. The ball tip eases the car-
lets in expansion, increasing the feeding tridge's transition up the feed ramp and
reliability of hollow points, and making into the chamber. The ball also acts as a
pointed (spitzer) bullets safe to load into wedge, aiding in more consistent expan-
lever-actions. sion. With cartridges intended for lever-
actions, the polymer tip allows the use of
The polymer tip turns flat and hol- spitzer-style bullets without the risk of
low point bullets into more of a spitzer unintentional discharge. If a traditional
shape, making them less susceptible to spitzer bullet were used in a tubular
drag, allowing them to move faster and magazine, a large enough shock (recoil)
further. The polymer tip may also aid might cause the tip of one cartridge to
in (more consistent) expansion by act- strike the primer of the cartridge in front
ing as a wedge, driving into a cavity and of it, setting off a dangerous chain reac-
forcing the core and jacket outward. It tion. Rubber tips are generally used with
also makes the bullet expand more con- pistol bullets to aid with expansion.
sistently through a variety of materials
(wood, drywall, sheet metal, glass, heavy • Wadcutter – The wadcutter bullet is
clothing) rather than just expanding designed primarily for use in target
from hydraulic pressure. and bullseye competition. The basic

25
wadcutter (full wadcutter) bullet features base (small bevel on the base that aids in
a completely flat nose. From the bear- loading the cartridge) and double-ended
ing surface, the shoulder turns 90° to the (a bevel on each end).
face. The sharp shoulder is designed to
“punch” a perfectly round hole in a piece The wadcutter bullet is also not suited
of paper. The idea behind the wadcutter for use in anything other than revolvers.
design is that there is no way to dispute The shape of the bullet creates a
the score on the target because the holes feeding nightmare for magazine-fed,
are cut so precisely. Other bullet designs semiautomatic pistols. When the
typically tear through paper, leaving torn wadcutter is used in a revolver’s cylinder,
or serrated holes. there are no issues as the cartridges do
not undergo a "feeding cycle" as seen
Because of the shape of the wadcutter in semi-automatic firearms. With the
bullet, they are typically limited to sub- typical wadcutter cartridge, the bullet is
sonic velocities and distances of 25 yd. or set back in the case so that the face of
less. Wadcutter bullets will also typically the bullet is flush with the case mouth.
feature solid construction. The subsonic Some cartridges feature a bullet that is
velocities will not distort solid, soft (lead) seated farther out.
bullets and will not melt or foul the bore,
which would happen if they were moving Because of the shape of the bullet and
at supersonic speeds. There are jacketed the fact that they are typically “heavy” for
wadcutter bullets that feature a jacket a bullet of a specific caliber (there are no
that extends half to three-quarters of the tapers, so there is more material and more
way up the bearing surface. These rounds mass), wadcutter bullets are sometimes
can be fired at supersonic speeds and do used for hunting at close distances
not foul the bore as much as solid wad- (loaded to supersonic velocities within
cutters. While the typical wadcutter de- ~50 yd.). The increased surface area on
sign features a completely flat face, there the nose of a wadcutter will impact the
are variants that feature small differences. target harder than a similarly designed
Wadcutter bullet designs include target bullet with a spitzer point, which is
(small ring groove of the face of the bul- more likely to perforate the target. The
let), hollow base, hollow point, beveled wadcutter bullet is more likely to deliver

Figure 27: Several different types of wadcutter bullets.

26
 Figure 28: Various semi-wadcutter bullets.

all of its energy to a target rather than there are also some hollow point ver-
carrying its energy through the target. sions. The round nose wadcutter features
This is why the wadcutter bullet is also a nose similar to a ball round. The SWC
sometimes used for self-defense. may be fully or partially jacketed or may
utilize a gas check.
• Semi-Wadcutter – The semi-wadcutter
(SWC) is similar to the wadcutter in A benefit of the SWC over the traditional
purpose but differs dramatically in wadcutter is the enhanced reliability when
design. The semi-wadcutter bullet feeding through semi-auto pistols. The
utilizes the sharp shoulder of the nose on the SWC (specifically truncated
traditional wadcutter but features a and round) is designed to improve the
nose similar to a ball round. The semi- cartridge's ability to travel through the
wadcutter is designed to cut precise holes breech (through the magazine, up the
like the traditional wadcutter but features feed ramp, and into the chamber). The
enhanced aerodynamics like a ball round. SWC also benefits from the aerodynamic
advantage in the form of increased
From the shoulder, the nose of the bullet
effective range (100+ yds). SWC bullets
is rebated (reduced diameter). The shape
may also be fired at both subsonic and
of the nose will vary greatly, depending
supersonic velocities. The semi-wadcutter
on the bullet design. The various semi-
is used in both revolvers and semi-
wadcutter designs include button nose,
automatic pistols.
conical, Keith/truncated, and round nose.
• Flat Nose/Truncated – The flat nose
The button nose semi-wadcutter features or truncated bullet features a nose that
a small button-shaped nose that proj- is flat. Unlike the wadcutter or SWC,
ects from the face of the wadcutter. The the flat nose/truncated bullet does not
conical wadcutter features a sharp cone- feature a sharp shoulder or rebated
shaped nose. The Keith or truncated nose. The flat nose bullet serves the
conical wadcutter features a cone-shaped same purpose as the wadcutter and
protrusion with its nose cut off. The nose SWC bullet while displaying greater
of the truncated wadcutter is flat but

27
aerodynamics and enhanced reliability
when feeding in semi-auto pistols. The
main difference between the flat nose
and truncated bullet is the shape of their
ogives. The flat nose bullet features an
ogive similar to a round nose bullet: an
arc that extends from the bearing surface
to the meplat. Unlike the round nose
bullet, the meplat of the flat nose bullet
is flat with a very sharp shoulder from
Figure 29: Flat nose and truncated bullets.
the ogive to the meplat. The ogive on the
truncated bullet is flat. From the bearing
surface, the nose of the bullet is shaped
like a cone with its tip cut off. The flat
nose and truncated bullet may be solid
or jacketed/semi-jacketed. Flat nose and
truncated bullets are used primarily in
semi-automatic pistols and in some rifles.

28
 Chapter 2 - Projectiles: Military and Shotgun, Materials, Coatings, BC and SD
MILITARY 31
SHOTGUN PROJECTILES 35
Wads and Cups 35
Shot 40
Birdshot 40
Buckshot 41
Shot Buffer 42
Self-Defense Shotshell Projectiles 42
Other Shotshell Projectiles 44
PROJECTILE MATERIALS 47
Coatings 52
Ballistic Coefficient 55
Sectional Density 56
Form Factor 57
30
 penetrator may be shaped like a cone in

Military the nose of the bullet or may be spitzer-

shaped centered in the core or a spike (or
spikes) positioned in the rear of the core.
Military projectiles typically consist of ball rifle Some AP bullets utilize a hollow point
and pistol bullets. However, militaries all around design, with the penetrator exposed in
the world utilize specialty projectiles for a vari- the cavity, while others utilize the pen-
ety of reasons. Some of these specialty rounds etrator as the tip.
are used to defeat armor (both hard and soft), While most soft armor will stop almost
identify trajectory and point of impact, ignite all pistol calibers, they will not likely
flammable materials, and explode or prevent hold up against an AP pistol round or
penetration of hard targets. Special rounds in- even a standard ball rifle round. Most
clude armor piercing (AP), tracer, incendiary, AP is designed to defeat hard body ar-
explosive, and frangible. mor and vehicle armor. A typical ball
• Armor Piercing (AP) – The armor rifle round will fragment upon impacting
piercing cartridge, as its name implies, hard armor, while an AP rifle round will
is used to perforate both soft and hard often punch right through, leaving a hole
body armor and vehicle armor. Most AP that looks like it was laser cut. AP bul-
bullets are constructed in a way similar lets can be used in pistols and rifles, but
to a standard ball round, with the excep- there are also penetrator slugs for use in
tion of a steel (typically hardened) or shotguns.
tungsten (carbide) penetrator. The typi-
cal AP round features a core consisting • Tracer – Tracer bullets are used to iden-
of a steel or tungsten spike in front of or tify trajectories when shooting at night.
enveloped by a lead, aluminum, or tin/ Tracers produce a bright flash that cre-
bismuth core encased by a full or partial ates a trail behind the bullet. Tracers
jacket. Upon impact, the core and jacket are primarily used with machine guns
will separate from the penetrator as it where the firing rate is high and aiming
continues into or through the armor. The is often accomplished by watching point

Figure 1: Various armor piercing rounds.

From left to right (pairs)- .50 BMG M2 AP, .30-06 Springfield M2 AP, 7.62x51mm NATO M61 (T29),
7.62x51mm NATO M80 A1, Norinco 7.62x39mm AP, 5.56x45mm M855A1, 5.45x39mm 7N6,
5.56x45mm NATO M855, 7.65mm Browing AP.

31
 Figure 2: Various tracer bullets.

of impact. In this application, tracers are bullet. The bullet often features a deep
often loaded every third to tenth round. cup or hollow base but remains a primar-
When fired, the tracer will provide a ily jacketed ball design. The color of the
visual reference of the approximation of tracer will depend on the chemicals used,
impact of the shot stream. When dis- which are typically magnesium, phos-
charging at a high enough rate, it may phorus, and another chemical that burns
appear as if the individual tracers are a a specific color. The most popular tracer
continuous stream. colors are red (from strontium nitrate in
the compound) and green (from barium
Upon discharge, as the propellant ig- nitrate in the compound), but other col-
nites inside of the case, it will also ignite ors can also be found.
chemicals compressed in the base of the
The benefit of the tracer round is also its
downfall. The bright light of the tracer
round can be seen from every angle.
While the tracer is providing the shooter
a visual reference, it is also providing the
enemy with the shooter's position.

The tracer round can also be used for

training purposes. The tracer can be used
to help new shooters understand trajec-
tory and teach point of aim and point of
impact at various distances. The tracer
round can also be used to show how
ricochet affects the bullet's trajectory.

Although tracer rounds are available

for civilian use in most states (check
Figure 3: Tracer fire. Photo Courtesy of Wikipedia. your local and state laws and regulations

32
 • Explosive – Explosive rounds are used
for exactly what their name implies: to
explode. The explosive projectile is de-
signed to explode on impact or slightly
thereafter. The explosive cartridge utiliz-
es an incendiary compound in the nose
of the bullet, followed by a high explo-
sive (HE) compound located in a hol-
low cavity behind the incendiary. Upon
impact, the incendiary will ignite the
HE and cause the projectile to explode
into many pieces. Some HE rounds may
feature a penetrator that will continue
through the cavity the HE round has
just created. These rounds are known as
high explosive incendiary armor piercing
(HEIAP). HE rounds are typically re-
Figure 4a: High explosive incendiary bullets. served for large rifle calibers, like the 50
BMG, but can be found in smaller rifle
and pistol rounds.

regarding tracer use), the use of the tracer • Frangible – The frangible projectile is
round can be dangerous in irresponsible designed as a training round to prevent
hands. Many fires have been created ricochet or shrapnel. The frangible
by tracers fired into environments that bullet is designed to disintegrate or
may catch fire. Tracers should not be crumble when impacting a hard target.
fired into dry grass or dead trees and are It is constructed from powdered
banned for use in most indoor ranges. metal (typically copper) that is either
compressed or compressed and sintered.
• Incendiary – The modern incendiary Sintering brings the individual grains of
round is designed to cause ignition metal powder to a temperature just short
of a target that contains flammable of melting. This creates a (weak) bond
materials, such as a gas tank. Similar to a between the grains. The frangible may
tracer, incendiary bullets use a chemical
(typically phosphorus and magnesium)
in the nose of the bullet that ignites
upon impact. The incendiary will
typically perforate the intended target,
igniting its contents as it passes through.
Early incendiary bullets were similar to
tracer bullets because they would ignite
upon firing, limiting their use to a few
hundred yards. The incendiary bullet
may also feature a penetrator, like with
armor piercing incendiary (API) rounds
that are designed for harder targets. The
incendiary round can be found with
pistols, rifles, and shotguns. Figure 4b: Incendiary slug.

33
 Figure 5a & 5b: Explosive projectiles.

also be composed of metal powder that is One major con with frangible bullets is
mixed either with a glue or polymer and there is a chance with compressed, non-
molded. When impacting a hard target, sintered rounds that they can break up
the individual grains or small chunks in the bore and become jammed. Newer
will break apart, preventing penetration, designs utilize a solid jacket over a com-
perforation, or ricochet. The frangible pressed metal core to help prevent break-
is used inside of “shoot houses” when up in the bore. The jacket does make the
practicing tactics in confined spaces. It frangible perform similar to a ball round
allows the shooter to train in a simulated on soft targets but will still break up when
house without fear of shooting into impacting a hard target. This makes some
another room. Frangible rounds are also frangible rounds candidates for use as
used for shooting steel targets at close home or self-defense rounds. Frangible
range, which has become a fairly new bullets (projectiles) can be found in pistol,
practice in modern tactical training. rifle, and shotgun cartridges.

Figure 6: Various frangible projectiles.

34
 projectiles are measured by the size of a single
Shotgun Projectiles pellet and the total weight of all the projectiles
in the case. Weight is almost always expressed
in ounces.
Shotgun projectiles can vary more than any oth-
er projectile type, but there are three major vari- WADS AND CUPS
ances: slugs, buckshot, and birdshot. Buckshot
Before we discuss shotgun projectiles, we need
and birdshot consist of small balls of varying
to touch on wads and cups. Wads and cups are
sizes. Because of their smoothbore design, shot-
not technically projectiles, even though they are
guns are also capable of firing many other objects
projected from the firearm. Wads and cups are
outside of their standard load, including less le-
used to protect the propellant and the projec-
thal, explosive, and armor piercing projectiles.
tiles inside the case and when discharging.
The various projectiles that can be fired through
a smoothbore shotgun make it the most versa- The wad is used to separate the propellant
tile platform ever. Shotgun projectiles are used from the projectile and act as a buffer during
for everything from hunting and self-defense discharge. When the cartridge is loaded, the
to sport/competition and law enforcement/ powder is loaded into the case and capped with
military use. To understand the capabilities of a wad. The wad prevents the propellant from
shotgun ammunition, there are many places in mixing with the birdshot or buckshot and acts
Africa where the shotgun is known as the “poor as a “filler,” taking up any empty space inside
man’s elephant gun,” although it would not be the hull. The wad also acts as a cushion and seal
the preferred method (or the smartest). during discharge, preventing the shock of the
propellant gas expanding from damaging the
Shotgun ammunition is not expressed in cali-
projectiles. The expanding gas works (primarily)
ber or bore size like pistol and rifle cartridges.
against the wad, driving the projectiles through
Shotgun ammunition is expressed in the gauge
the bore. Depending on the load, there may only
of the bore. Gauge is a measurement of the
be a single wad or a few stacked up. With slug
number of bore diameter lead balls that can be
loads, the wad sits over the propellant and below
made from one pound of lead, which has noth-
the slug. With buckshot or birdshot loads, the
ing to do with the projectiles used. Shotgun

Figure 7: Various shotgun projectiles.

35
 Figure 8a: Various wads and cups.

wad sits above the propellant and below the cup. exiting the muzzle, the drag exerted against the
The wad may be made from compressed paper/ cup will cause the body to split and the sections
fiber, felt, or plastic. Wads made of plastic are to expand outward, forming petals that create a
also known as gas seals. With some shot shell huge amount of air resistance. Only shot shells
designs, there may be an additional wad in front loaded with buckshot and birdshot utilize a cup;
of the shot to prevent it from falling out of the they are not used with slugs.
front of the case. Modern shot shells utilize a combination wad/
The cup is used to hold the projectiles together cup. The one-piece design features a wad/gas
inside the case and bore and release them when seal at its base, a buffer or “crush zone” above
exiting the bore. During discharge, the wad will the base, and a cup on top of the buffer. The
drive the cup through the bore, while the cup wad/gas seal is still used to contain the propel-
holds the birdshot or buckshot (or another pro- lant and seal the bore from expanding gas and
jectile) together in a tight cluster. This cluster the cup is still used to contain and protect the
is called the shot string. The cup can be used
to control the expansion or restriction of the
shot string. The cup also protects the buckshot
and birdshot from deforming while firing. Any
shot that is not completely round will destabi-
lize during flight and cause the shot string to
expand dramatically. The cup also protects the
bore from the projectiles and prevents exces-
sive fouling in the bore. When the cup exits
the muzzle, the air resistance will slow the cup
dramatically (as if it had its own parachute) and
the projectiles will continue ahead. Cups are
typically made from plastic and often feature
slits around their body, forming sections. When Figure 8b: Various wads and cups.

36
shot. The buffer acts as a cushion between the There are several different slug designs,
wad/gas seal and cup and also serves as a spacer, but they can all be grouped into two
filling any empty space inside the hull. When main categories: full bore and sabot.
discharged, the wad will drive forward before Full bore slugs are appropriately named
the cup begins to move. The buffer will crush because the diameter of their bearing
and absorb some of the energy from the wad. surface is the same as the bore. Of all of
The buffer is used to protect the shot from de- the full bore slug variances, the Brenneke
forming upon discharge. The design of the buf- and Foster slugs are the most popular.
fer will vary greatly by manufacturer, which will
change how each crush zone compresses. The Brenneke slug is the original mod-
ern shotgun slug. Before the Brenneke
• Slug – The slug is like a round nose bul- slug, smoothbore shotguns fired cylinder
let that is used in smoothbore shotguns. diameter round balls. The need arose
Unlike the bullet, the slug is typically the for a more accurate, stable projectile.
same size as the bore or slightly smaller Introduced in 1898, the Brenneke slug
(~.001" – .0005”). Because shotgun loads was the first projectile with a more tradi-
are typically very low pressure (~11,000 tional bullet shape to be used in smooth-
psi) and the wad/gas seal obturates to bore shotguns. The original Brenneke
seal the bore, the slug does not need to design features solid construction, “fins”
expand (but may slightly). Also, unlike around the circumference of the bearing
traditional round nose bullets, the slug surface, and a paper/fiber wad that is at-
will feature hollow construction, center- tached to the base of the slug.
ing most of its mass toward the nose
of the slug. There are slugs that are de- The solid design of the Brenneke slug
signed for use with smoothbores, chokes, does not provide much stabilization and
and rifled bores. The slug manufacturer the fins do not impart very much rota-
will often recommend the barrel or tion as the slug moves through the bore.
choke that should be used. The primary From the bearing surface to the nose of
use for slugs is hunting at short ranges, the slug there is a sharp (~90°) shoulder
where the use of rifles is not allowed. that transitions to a short, rebated round
Some slug designs are also meant for nose similar to a SWC. The wad is at-
self-defense. tached to the base to shift the weight of
the slug forward, increasing its stabiliza-
tion in flight. If there is any disturbance
in flight, the air resistance around the
projectile will act upon the lighter tail
and “push” it in line with the slug’s tra-
jectory. The wad also serves to seal the
bore upon discharge. The fins are de-
signed to reduce the amount of bearing
surface, reducing friction and increasing
velocity. In flight, air resistance does act
upon the fins, imparting a very slow rota-
tion on the projectile. The Brenneke slug
is used in smoothbore shotguns and with
most choke types. The Brenneke slug has
an effective range of about 75 yd.
Figure 9: Brenneke slugs.

37
• Foster slugs feature some of the char- are much thicker. The thicker walls on
acteristics of the Brenneke slug but are the sabot require a bullet that is a much
a newer, improved design. The foster smaller diameter than the bore. Twelve-
slug features more of a ball bullet shape, gauge Brenneke and Foster slugs typi-
with a round nose that extends from the cally measure around .729 in. – .730 in.
bearing surface and tangent ogive. The (12-gauge bore diameter is around .729
bearing surface of a Foster slug is “rifled” in. – .730 in.), while a 12-gauge sabot
and the base is hollow. The design of the slug measures between approximately
Foster slug (with its hollow base) pushes .450 in. and .630in.
all of the mass to the front of the bullet,
eliminating the need for the wad base. The sabot slug is designed for use exclu-
Once a Foster slug leaves the barrel, the sively with shotguns that utilize a rifled
wad quickly falls off from air resistance. barrel. During discharge, the sabot (not
The Foster slug may or may not fea- the bullet) will engage the rifling. As the
ture grooves along its bearing surface. sabot travels through the bore, the rifling
Although the rifling is only designed to will impart rotation on the sabot, which
reduce friction by removing surface area in turn, imparts rotation on the bullet.
from the body of the slug, the rifling will Upon exiting the muzzle, the sabot will
impart a small amount of rotation on fall away due to air resistance while the
the slug, providing slightly more stability bullet will continue ahead, stable from
than a non-rifled slug. The Foster slug is the rotation.
used in smoothbore shotguns and with The sabot slug can be found in a variety
some choke types. The Foster slug has an of styles. Because the sabot protects the
effective range of about 75 – 100 yd. bore from the projectile, sabot slugs can be
• Sabot slugs differ greatly from full bore found with solid construction (with a va-
slugs. Sabot slugs are more similar to a riety of material), jacketed, hollow point,
rifle bullet than to a pistol bullet. The and tipped. The sabot may be constructed
sabot slug utilizes a jacket that acts as from plastic or paper. The sabot slug is
a vehicle for the slug inside the bore. designed for use only with rifled barrels.
The sabot is similar to the combination When used in smoothbore shotguns, they
wad/cup, except the walls of the “cup” do not receive the required stabilization

Figure 10: Foster slugs. Figure 11: Sabot slugs.

38
 Figure 12: Wad slugs. Figure 13: Plumbata slugs.

and accuracy suffers. The sabot slug has become damaged. The wad slug makes
an effective range of 200+ yd. reloading slugs easier as it utilizes a stan-
dard wad/cup and can be used with vari-
Wad slugs are similar to the sabot slug ous crimps. The wad slug has an effective
with the exception that the slug itself is range of about 75 yd.
more like a smooth (non-rifled) Foster.
The name suggests that a wad slug is Plumbata slugs are similar to Foster-style
similar to a Brenneke slug with the wad slugs but function similar to a Brenneke.
attached to the base, but the wad slug The plumbata slug is typically rifled
utilizes the combination wad/cup. In and hollow like a Foster slug but utilizes
fact, standard buckshot/birdshot cups a wad that fits inside the hollow base.
can be used. The slug itself features a Working on a similar principle to the
deep hollow base that is reinforced by a Brenneke slug, the plumbata slug uti-
rib that runs the diameter of the bottom lizes a lightweight wad as a tail to help
of the cavity in the base. The rib pre- stabilize it in flight. The plumbata's wad
vents the slug from expanding too much features a wad/gas seal for its base, fol-
and creating unnecessary strain on the lowed by a buffer zone and finally a nose
wad during discharge. The wad slug also that fits inside the slug’s base. When
features more of a ball nose. The diam- exiting the muzzle, the wad does not fall
eter of the wad slug is also much closer away from the slug, but continues with it,
to the bore than a sabot slug, usually stabilizing its flight. It is not until impact
measuring around .690 in. for a .729 in. that the wad separates from the slug.
12-gauge barrel.
There is a variance of the plumbata that
The wad slug is designed for use with features a sabot/wad combination. The
smoothbore shotguns but can also be sabot is designed to break away from the
used in rifled barrels. The rifled bar- slug, leaving the wad attached to its base.
rel will impart rotation onto the wad, The sabot/plumbata is designed for use
but because its wall thickness is much in rifled barrels. The plumbata slug has an
thinner than a sabot slug, the wad may effective range of about 75 – 100 yd.

39
SHOT (not jacketed) with a harder metal. Because of
the range in size of shot, there is typically a size
Shot is a term used to describe shotgun pro- for any type of game that may be encountered.
jectiles that consist of a cluster of (sometimes Shot is also used for competition, self-defense,
very small) spheres. Shot may range in size from law enforcement, and military use. (See Tables
very tiny balls to large balls the size of a 9mm 1 and 2.)
bullet. Shot size is expressed with numbers and
letters: the larger the number, the smaller the BIRDSHOT
shot pellet. A #12 pellet of birdshot measures
around .05 in., while a 000 (pronounced triple Of the types of shot, birdshot utilizes the small-
aught) pellet of buckshot measures around .36 est sized pellets. Birdshot sizes run from #12
in. As shot size increases, fewer pellets can be (.05 in.) to F (.22 in.). Because of its small size,
loaded into the hull. In a 1 oz. load, approxi- birdshot is best suited for hunting birds, snakes,
mately 2,000 #12 pellets will be loaded, while small mammals and pests. Birdshot in sizes 12,
only six 000 pellets will fit. Because of the wide 11, and 10 are referred to as snake/pest/dust
range of sizes and loads of shot, it is one of the shot because of its extensive use on nuisance
most versatile projectiles available. animals. As shot size increases, the size of the
animal that can be humanely dispatched in-
Shot can be divided into two basic categories:
creases. Shot sizes #9 – #7 are used for most bird
bird and buck. As their name implies, bird shot
hunting and some small game: doves, pigeons,
is typically used for hunting birds, while buck-
grouse, quail, partridge, rabbits. Sizes #9 – #7
shot is used for hunting deer and other game.
are also used for sporting purposes: trap, skeet,
Shot can also vary in the alloy of its composi-
and sporting clays. Sizes #6 – #4 are best suited
tion. Softer shot or “chilled” shot features a
for larger birds such as turkey. Sizes #3 – T are
higher lead content than “magnum” shot, which
used for water fowl such as ducks and geese and
features a higher antimony (an alloying metal
are also suited for many varmints, including
used to make shot harder) composition. Some
coyotes, fox, cougar, and bobcats. Pest shot has
types of shot (both bird and buck) may be plated
an effective range of about 10 yd. (max), while

Figure 14: Various types of shot.

40
 Figure 15: Various types of birdshot.

medium sized shot is around 40 yd., and sizes threatening injury. If the shot were to perforate
#3 – T can reach 50 – 60 yd. one complete wall, it would not make it through
Birdshot is also well suited for home defense. a second. The energy and penetration from the
One of the greatest considerations when choos- shot may not be enough to completely incapaci-
ing home defense ammunition (or any defen- tate an intruder, but the tradeoff is the safety of
sive ammo) is over-penetration. Walls inside of other family and friends inside the home (and
a home typically consist of wood framing, sheet anyone outside of the home).
rock walls, and some insulation. There may also
be some wire and plumbing. Most rifle and BUCKSHOT
handgun bullets will perforate through at least Buckshot is much larger than birdshot, ranging
one complete wall, endangering anyone in the from #4 (.24 in.) to 000 (.36 in.). Because of its
other room. Slugs and buckshot will produce larger size, buckshot is suited for small and large
the same results. Many of those same cartridges game. Buckshot is used to harvest everything
will perforate several walls, including exterior from varmints to elk. The #4 – #3 buckshot is
walls (with the added layers from siding, stucco, useful for large birds, such as geese, and small
or brick) and continue into another dwelling. to medium varmints. With #2 and #1 buck,
The small size and low mass of birdshot makes you begin to get into medium game territory,
it a good choice for use inside of the home. Shot pronghorn, and deer within ~40 yd. Buckshot
in sizes #7.5, #7, and #6 are the best balance of in sizes 0 (aught), 00 (double aught) and 000
shot size and weight (~1.5 grains per pellet), (triple aught) is used for medium to large game.
and pellet count. The #7.5 shot will typically Single aught is good for medium game such as
only perforate a single layer drywall, becoming pronghorn, ram, and coyote. Between double
stuck in the second layer on the opposite side. aught and triple aught you can harvest several
The shot may perforate the second wall but will types of big game, including deer, caribou, and
not typically have enough energy to cause life most bears (black, grizzly, polar, and brown).

41
 Figure 16: Various types of buckshot.

Buckshot is not a responsible choice for home inside the hull and during its travel through the
or self-defense (except for some of the smaller bore. The buffer material will cushion the pel-
calibers) because of its larger size, pellet count, lets during discharge, preventing pellet deforma-
mass, and energy. Most buckshot will perforate tion by preventing them from contacting each
several walls inside a home and continue out- other. When exiting the muzzle, the buffer will
side. Even if you hit your intended target, there fall away with the wad. The buffer material is
is still risk of perforation into other rooms. typically made of tiny polymer (polyethylene or
Buckshot’s primary purpose is hunting medi- polypropylene) spheres that are usually white but
um to large game and is (often) too powerful may be dyed to suit the manufacturer’s needs.
for most other tasks. Buckshot, typically 00 and
000, has also found extensive use with military SELF-DEFENSE SHOTSHELL
and law enforcement. PROJECTILES
SHOT BUFFER Although we have established that most buck-
shot and slugs are not very suitable for self- or
Shot buffer is used with some birdshot and home defense, specialty loads have been devel-
buckshot loads, as well as with some hollow base oped by mixed slugs and shot of various sizes.
slugs. The shot buffer is used to protect the shot Some of these specialty loads may feature a few

Figure 17: Shot buffer material.

42
 Figure 18: Specialty self-defense projectiles.

smaller (under #1) buckshot pellets, followed by are designed to be fired below the target's neck.
a slug that is typically half of its normal weight. If fired at the head, the impact may be enough
Other designs may use small, stacked disks to kill instead of injure. The greatest downside
(similar to a nickel) followed by larger birdshot to less-lethal projectiles is that if the attacker is
(B and above). Others may utilize a mixture of not incapacitated, they can continue to attack.
a few smaller buck and several larger birdshot Less-lethal rounds may even be illegal to use for
(B and above) pellets. Limiting the number of self-defense in some areas. Less-lethal rounds
larger projectiles and increasing the number of are employed mostly by law enforcement and
smaller projectiles will increase the likelihood the Department of Corrections.
of a hit, while still providing more energy than
small projectiles alone. It will also prevent the
likelihood of over-penetration and perforation.
The smaller birdshot will not likely penetrate
more than a wall, and the smaller number of
larger projectiles limits the chance of one of hit-
ting something unexpected in another room.
Outside of the specialty rounds that are avail-
able, there is also a category of less-lethal op-
tions. These projectiles are designed to cause in-
jury and pain, but they will not (typically) pen-
etrate let alone perforate. These less-lethal pro-
jectiles are often shaped like slugs or buckshot
but are made from a very dense rubber. Upon
impact, these projectiles will often bounce off
of the intended target, leaving large welts and
bruising. There are also “bean bag” projectiles
that are filled with birdshot-sized rubber pellets.
The reason these projectiles are called less-le-
thal and not non-lethal is there is still a chance Figure 19: Less-lethal projectiles.
for severe injury or worse. Less-lethal rounds

43
 Figure 20.

OTHER SHOTSHELL
PROJECTILES
There are also many “non-standard” projectiles
used in smoothbore shotguns. These projec-
tiles are not used for sport or self-defense and
are considered novelties (not to say they could
not cause injury or be lethal). These projectiles
include (but are not limited to) bolo, flechette,
flamethrower, flashbang, and rock salt. The
bolo rounds consist of two to three larger balls
(larger than 000 buck) connected by a braided
metal wire. The flechette round utilizes dozens
of small metal “darts” or tiny arrows. The flame-
thrower rounds utilize phosphorous and magne-
sium to create a huge stream of flame and spark.

44
 a
12-Gauge Shotshell
Size Diameter in Inches Pellets per Ounce (Average)
Lead Birdshot:
12 .05” 2,385
11 .06” 1,250
10 .07” 1,040
9.5 .075” 688
9 .08” 585
8.5 .085” 497
8 .09” 410
7.5 .095” 350
7 .1” 300
6 .11” 225
5 .12” 170
4 .13” 135
2 .15” 90
BB .18” 50
Steel Birdshot:
8 .09” 577
7.5 .095” 490
7 .1” 420
6 .11” 317
5 .12” 247
4 .13” 192
3 .14” 154
2 .15” 125
1 .16” 103
B .17” 86
BB .18” 72
BBB .19” 61
T .2” 53
F .22” 40
Buckshot:
4 .24” 22
3 .25” 19
2 .27” 15
1 .3” 11
0 .32” 9
00 .33” 8
000 .36” 6
Slug:
Foster/Brenneke .729” 1
American National Standard Voluntary Industry Performance Standards for Pressure and Velocity of Shotshell Ammunition for the Use of Commercial
a

Manufacturers. (n.d.). Retrieved October 4, 2018, from www.SAAMI.org saami.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Z299-2_ANSI-SAAMI_Shotshell.pdf#page=8

Table 1. 12-Gauge Shotshell

45
 b,c
12-Gauge Shotshell Uses*
Game:† Projectile:

Moose,Ŧ BisonŦ, ElkŦ 1 oz Slug (including sabot slugs) or Heavier

1 oz Slug (including sabot slugs) or Heavier,
Bear: Grizzly,† Polar,† BrownŦ
00, 00 Buckshot
Caribou, Deer, Black Bear 000, 00, Buckshot

Pronghorn, Mountain Goat, Ram 00, 0, 1, 2 Buckshot

4, 3 Buckshot
Geese, Fox, Bobcat, Coyote
F, T, BBB, BB, B Birdshot
Turkey, Duck, Rabbit B, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 Birdshot

Doves, Pigeons, Grouse, Quail, Partridge 9, 8, 7 Birdshot

Snake, Pests 12, 11, 10 Birdshot

Sporting/Competition:

Action Shooting (3 Gun) Slug (when allowed)

Trap, Skeet, Sporting Clays, Cowboy Action 9, 8, 7 Birdshot

Military/LE: 000, 00 Buckshot

Self Defense:§ 9, 8, 7.5, 7, 6 Birdshot

* Make certain to research state and local hunting laws for specific use of different projectiles on various animals.
†
Some areas will only allow shotguns because of range restrictions. Some areas do not allow certain calibers or
projectiles.
Ŧ
Within 30 – 40 yd.
§
Within 5 – 10 yd.
b Shot Sizes. (n.d.). Retrieved October 4, 2018, from www.rivermenrodandgunclub.com/shot-size-chart--recommendations.html

c Browning, Chris. (n.d.). Shotgun Shell Sizes: Comparison Chart and Commonly Used Terms. Retrieved October 4, 2018, from ”gunnewsdaily.com/shotgun-shell-
sizes-comparison-chart-terms/

Table 2. 12-Gauge Shotshell Uses.

46
 blend can go as high as 35.5 percent (23

Projectile Materials percent antimony, 12.5 percent tin). As

the percentage of alloying metal increas-
es, so will the hardness of the lead.
Projectile materials will vary almost as much as
Lead is widely used for projectiles or as
bullet types. The materials used are very impor-
a component of a projectile. It is used for
tant in all aspects of the projectile's ballistics. It
solid bullets and as a core for jacketed
is important to understand how each material
bullets. Lead is also primarily used with
affects the overall performance of the round.
bird- and buckshot as well as with slugs.
Most bullets will use more than one material,
Most military rounds also contain lead as
while others will be made of one solid piece.
the core. The lead used in pistol and rifle
• Lead – Lead is a very soft, dense, and bullets is either cast (melted and poured
heavy metal used in most projectiles. into a mold) or swaged (formed by hy-
It makes the perfect projectile material draulic pressure and dies).
because of its properties. Lead is much
denser and, in turn, has more mass per Slugs and buckshot are either cast or
area than most other metals. This con- swaged, while birdshot is formed by air.
tributes to the projectile's momentum Larger sizes of birdshot are sometimes
and energy. The malleability of lead leads swaged, while most birdshot is formed
to its deformation when impacting most by pouring molten lead or lead alloy over
targets and helps with energy transfer. a sieve (a metal sheet with many small
holes or a fine grate) in a shot tower. A
Lead can be found in nearly pure (99.9 shot tower is a multi-story building with
percent) form, which is known as “soft” holes that are aligned on each level to al-
lead, or in a variety of alloys, which are low the shot to fall through. The drops
known as “hard” lead. The compound of lead will fall 30+ ft. (about three sto-
used and the ratio of the alloy will ries) through the hole in each level, into
change how the lead performs through- a pool of water. As the molten lead falls,
out the firing cycle. Alloying metals are air resistance acts upon the drop, causing
tin or antimony. Tin or antimony can be the surface tension of the lead to form
blended into lead from 1 percent to 30 spheres. The spheres are then sorted by
percent of total mass and a tin-antimony size and non-round pellets are discarded.

Figure 21: Lead in various forms.

47
 Figure 22: Copper in various forms.

Pure lead is often too soft for most appli- • Copper – Copper is a semi-soft, mal-
cations, except if it is jacketed. Most lead leable metal that is harder and less
used in projectiles is alloyed with at least dense than lead. The use of copper in
1 percent tin or antimony. The average projectiles is the primary contributor to
alloy contains at least 4 percent tin or an- the modern bullet design. Without the
timony (or a mixture of both). Projectiles copper jacket, lead bullets would not be
produced with this alloy are either cast able to handle the pressure and reach the
or swaged, solid or jacketed. Most slugs, velocities of the modern jacketed bullet.
buckshot, and birdshot are also composed Copper is also the perfect “middle-man,”
of ~96 percent lead with a 4 percent tin/ protecting the soft lead core and the
antimony mix. Soft lead projectiles will bore. While copper is harder than lead
often deform too much inside the bore (preventing the pressure inside the bore
and create a huge amount of fouling. If from deforming the bullet), it is also
soft lead is used, it is with projectiles in- softer than steel and prevents excessive
tended to be fired subsonic, with very low lead buildup in the grooves of the rifling.
chamber pressure. If the lead alloy fea-
tures too much tin or antimony, the bullet Copper is found in pure form in jackets,
will be too hard and brittle and may shat- solid projectiles,* pressed or sintered
ter upon discharge. (heated powder or granules to make a
solid) cores, or as plating. Copper jack-
ets and gas checks are typically drawn
WARNING out using a hydraulic press and a series
Lead is a toxic element that is known to cause of dies. Solid copper bullets are either
cancer and other issues. Whenever handling swaged or turned on a lathe. Copper
lead, either in raw form or as solid lead bullets cores are typically constructed from
or shot, make certain to wash your hands copper powder that has either been
before eating or touching your face or mouth. compressed or sintered and may feature
Not only must you be mindful of handling
a copper jacket. Sometimes, the cop-
cartridges and bullets, you must also take
per powder is mixed with another metal
caution when cleaning f irearms. Wash your
hands with cold water to prevent your pores powder such as tin or zinc. Copper may
from opening and inviting lead in. also be used as plating over a steel jacket.

48
 Figure 23: Brass in various forms

The steel jacket may be too hard for the animals with thick hides. Brass pro-
bore and cause excessive wear. Copper is jectiles are almost always turned, while
applied in a very thin coat that prevents jackets and gas checks are drawn. Like
the steel of the jacket contacting the copper, the use of brass is growing in an
bore. Copper plating is typically found attempt to replace lead.
on pistol bullets and bird- and buckshot.
*The ATF considers some solid brass handgun bullets to
Copper solid projectiles (as well as other be armor piercing, making them illegal in some areas.
materials) are quickly becoming popular Please review local, state, and federal laws for the legal-
ity of solid brass projectiles.
as many state and local governments
push legislation to ban the use of toxic
lead projectiles. Copper (as well as other • Steel – Steel is an alloy of iron, carbon,
materials) is considered environmentally and a few other trace elements. Steel is
friendly for use when hunting. harder but lighter than brass, copper, and
lead. It is found as a jacket material and
as a penetrator for AP bullets. When
*The ATF considers some solid copper handgun bullets
to be armor piercing, making them illegal in some areas.
Please review local, state, and federal laws for the legal-
ity of solid copper projectiles.

• Brass – Brass is an alloy of copper that is

harder and slightly lighter than pure cop-
per. It is composed of roughly 60 percent
copper and 40 percent zinc. Brass can be
found in solid* (monolithic) projectiles
and as a jacket or gas check. Because
brass is harder and less malleable than
copper or lead, it is mostly used for bul-
lets intended for large and dangerous
game. Brass projectiles will penetrate
deeper and deform less than a bullet with
the same design of a different material,
which makes them very well suited for
Figure 24: Steel in various forms.

49
 used as a jacket, steel should be plated by removing mass. These lightweight
to help protect the bore and preserve bullets move much faster than traditional
barrel life. When used as a penetrator, lead or copper projectiles but are affected
the steel may be in an annealed form more by air and environmental factors.
(slow air cooled) or hardened. Hardened Aluminum is also used with gas checks.
penetrators undergo further processing Aluminum is not used for solids or as a
where the projectile is quenched (rapidly jacket because it can cause severe fouling
cooled in liquid) and then undergoes or galling in the bore.
tempering (raised to a controlled
temperature to stabilize the structure of • Tin – Tin is an alloying metal that is
the metal). Steel jackets are drawn and lighter than brass and copper and slightly
composed of a very soft form of annealed harder than lead. It is found mostly
steel. Contrary to popular belief, the steel mixed with lead, but as the push to re-
used in projectile jackets are generally place lead continues, tin may be alloyed
softer than the steel used for barrels. with other metals. Tin is also alloyed
Because of this, accelerated wear may be with copper to form the brass used in
seen as it is harder than copper; however, some solid bullets. Tin can be found as
it will still take time to wear down the a core material, utilizing a copper jacket,
rifling in the bore. but can only be found in a few examples.

• Aluminum­ – Aluminum is a lightweight • Nickel – Nickel is a metal that is almost

metal that is fairly malleable and about as as heavy as copper, and almost as hard as
hard as brass. It is used for projectile tips some steels. It is found primarily as plat-
and cores. The tips and cores may either ing. Nickel is used to prevent corrosion
be swaged, cast, or turned. Aluminum and is used on copper jackets and solid
tips are used to shift the weight of the copper bullets. Because nickel is as hard
bullet, elongate its form, and improve its as or only slightly harder than steel, there
aerodynamics. As a core material, alu- is little to no worry of excessive barrel
minum is not used to add momentum wear because of the limited use as a coat-
to the projectile, but rather to limit the ing. Nickel plating can be found on pistol
projectile's penetration and perforation and rifle bullets as well as on some bird-
and buckshot. Nickel-plated buck- and

Figure 25: Aluminum tipped and core bullets. Figure 26: A tin core bullet.

50
 Figure 27: Nickel plated bullets and plated shot.

birdshot consists of a base coating of cop- • Tungsten – Tungsten is a very hard, very
per followed by the nickel plating. heavy metal. It is found as a penetrator in
armor piercing bullets and as a material
• Zinc­ – Zinc is a metal that is nearly as for some buckshot and birdshot. Because
heavy as tin and as hard as aluminum. It tungsten is so hard, the only way to pro-
can be found as a core material or as plat- cess it into penetrators or shot is to sinter
ing. When used as a core material, the zinc it. Tungsten powder is compressed into a
is always jacketed by copper to protect spike or ball and heated until the grains of
both the bullet and bore. Zinc is also used powder fuse together. While tungsten may
as a plating on bullets that utilize a steel be hard, tungsten carbide is an alloy that
jacket. The zinc is used to preserve barrel is much harder. The carbon, along with
life and prevent excessive wear. various heat treats, quenches, and temper-
• Bismuth­ – Bismuth is a metal that is ings, creates a crystalline structure in the
nearly as dense as lead but is slightly alloy's atoms, which makes it extremely
harder. Bismuth is quickly becoming one hard, but also brittle. Tungsten carbide is
of the major replacements for lead be- used in applications where standard tung-
cause it is environmentally safe and fea- sten may not penetrate hard armor.
tures similar properties to lead. Bismuth
is mostly found as an alloy with both
birdshot and buckshot. It is also begin-
ning to appear as a core material in solid
form and as a powdered metal core in
frangibles. Bismuth is typically alloyed
with tin at a ratio of around 9:1.

• Antimony – Antimony is an alloying

metal that is lighter than zinc and as
hard as brass. It is typically only found as
an alloying compound of lead. Antimony
may also be mixed with tin in various Figure 28: Zinc core rifle and pistol bullets.
lead alloys.

51
 Figure 29: A tungsten penetrator.

• Titanium – Titanium is a lightweight composite projectile may be mixed with

metal that is harder than steel. It can be a binder and compressed until cured, or
found as a specialized bullet tip that can it may be injection molded. The metal
be used for several different purposes. composite bullet may also be constructed
The tip is typically turned and then as a solid or as a core that is jacketed.
swaged into a core. Like tungsten, tita-
nium can be alloyed to change the way it COATINGS
performs under various conditions.
On top of all the various materials that compose
• Metal Composite – Metal composite a projectile, some may use additional coatings
is a hybrid material that utilizes some to enhance their performance in certain aspects.
type of metal powder and a binder. Coatings are used to protect the bullet or bore
Depending on the composition of the from fouling, wear, and corrosion. Other coat-
composite, the projectile may perform ings are used to reduce the amount of friction
like a solid or frangible. The metal pow- the bullet experiences while in the bore.
der is typically copper, though other
powders or blends are used. The binder Some coatings, like copper and zinc, are used
is typically an adhesive, but epoxies and to protect the bore from the bullet. Bullets that
polymer blends are also used. The metal feature a steel jacket are typically plated with a

Figure 30: A titanium tipped bullet Figure 31: Metal composite bullet.

52
 Figure 32: Copper, zinc, and nickel plated bullets.

thin layer of copper or zinc to shield the bore in and then baked to cure. Because of the mate-
from the jacket. Nickel is used on copper jack- rial thickness added, once the bullets have been
eted or copper solid bullets for corrosion resis- cast, they are coated and then sized to their fi-
tance or aesthetic appeal. nal dimension. The polymer coating can also be
Black oxide is more of a surface conversion than used for aesthetic purposes. Polymer coatings
a coating and does not add any thickness to the come in a plethora of colors, including metallic
material. Although black oxide is more of an flakes and pearls.
aesthetic coating, it does have a few benefits. There are other coatings designed to enhance
Only copper jacketed or solid copper projectiles a projectile's interior/internal ballistics. Such
can be coated. Black oxide does not increase coatings are designed to reduce friction inside
wear on the bore while reducing fouling. Black the bore, which increases velocity and barrel life.
oxide also provides corrosion resistance similar
to nickel without the increase in diameter.
Polymer is used as more of a protective coat-
ing than a performance coating. Polymer is used
on cast lead bullets to protect the bore from the
core. The polymer coating allows lead pistol
bullets to be fired at greater velocities (1,300 fps
– 1,500 fps), with some coatings allowing lead
rifle bullets to be fired to as high as 2,700 fps.
Polymer coated bullets not only protect the bore
from fouling, they almost provide a cleaning or
polishing attribute, leaving the bore surprisingly
clean after firing many rounds.
The polymer coating is applied to cast bullets
before they are sized. The coating is typically a
two-part mixture that the bullets are tumbled
Figure 33: Black oxide coated bullets.

53
 Properties of Materials Found in Projectiles
Weight Hardness
Material
(pounds per cubic foot)d (Mohs Scale) e
Lead 707.96 1.5
Copper 559.87 3
Brass 535.68 3
Steel 490 4 – 4.5
Aluminum 168.48 2.5 – 3
Tin 455.67 1.5
Nickel 555.72 4
Zinc 445.30 2.5
Bismuth 611 2 – 2.5
Antimony 419.99 3–4
Tungsten/Carbide 1204.41 7.5/8.5 – 9
Titanium 283.39 6
Metal Composite N/A N/A
Coyote Steel. (n.d.). Weights of Various Metals in Pounds per Cubic Foot. Retrieved October 16, 2018, from
d

www.coyotesteel.com/assets/img/PDFs/weightspercubicfoot.pdf
e
E] Jewelry Notes “The MOHs Scale of Hardness for Metals: Why is it Important” www.jewelrynotes.com/the-mohs-scale-of-hardness-for-metals-why-it-is-
important/ (Accessed 10/16/2018)

Table 3. Properties of materials found in projectiles.

These coatings are typically a dry film (non- in a coefficient of friction (COF) number. The
liquid) lubricant that is applied to the projec- lower the number the “slicker” the coating. Moly
tile by tumbling. The most popular coatings for has a COF of around .1 – .3,1 while WS2 comes
projectiles are molybdenum disulfide (MoS2/ in around .03 – .07,2 and HBN around .15 – .7.3
moly), tungsten disulfide (WS2), and hexagonal All three lubricants can be applied through tum-
boron nitride (HBN). bling; the coating is peened into the surface via
Lubricants are measured by how “slick” they impact with the projectile. Moly is one of the
make a surface. This measurement is expressed original dry lubricants used on projectiles, with

Figure 34: Polymer coated bullets.

54
many factories utilizing the technology in pro- cutting instrument. If the bullet is the cutting
duction ammunition. WS2 and HBN are fairly instrument and the medium is air, then the bul-
new for use on projectiles. While moly is one of let needs to be sharp and heavy to efficiently cut
the most widely used lubricants, its application through the air. Streamlined, heavy bullets will
also requires that it be sealed (with wax) to pre- have a greater BC than blunt, light bullets. A
vent the coating from rubbing off during han- heavy projectile will cut through the air better
dling. WS2 and HBN do not experience this is- than a light projectile but not as well as a heavy,
sue. Once the coating is embedded into the sur- streamlined projectile.
face it is difficult to remove. All three coatings Projectiles with a greater BC will have a flat-
can also be used to treat the bore of the firearm, ter trajectory and maintain their velocity over
further increasing the projectile's capabilities. a greater distance. They will also have a great-
er effective range. A high BC projectile will
BALLISTIC COEFFICIENT be able to deliver more energy farther down
A projectile’s exterior ballistic performance can range than a low BC projectile because they
be quite accurately predicted with its ballistic will retain more of their energy while in flight.
coefficient (BC) and a few other factors (veloc- Projectiles with a high BC will resist changes in
ity, mass, atmospheric conditions). Ballistic co- trajectory from wind, altitude, and temperature
efficient is a measure of a projectile’s ability to better than lower BC bullets.
defeat air resistance and environmental factors. The idea sounds simple but when you begin to
The higher the number the greater the projec- introduce all factors involved, BC can become
tile's ability to cut through the air. quite confusing. Mass and general shape are not
To cut through any material, there are a couple the only factors to consider when calculating a
of basic requirements: the cutting instrument projectile's BC. Other factors include the diam-
needs to be sharp and there needs to be a suf- eter of the projectile, velocity, and its shape in
ficient amount of energy/mass from/within the relation to a standardized form (form factor),

Figure 35: A projectile with a high ballistic

coefficient next to a projectile with a low BC.

55
including the shape of its ogive, tip, length of Sectional density can also be used to determine
body, and base. Although there are several fac- a projectile's ability to penetrate armor and bar-
tors that compose a projectile's BC, they can be riers. A projectile with a high SD alone will not
grouped into two major factors: sectional density automatically become AP, but a bullet with a
and form factor. In the most basic terms, BC is high SD that is constructed like an armor pierc-
a ratio of the projectile's section density to its ing round will perform much better than a simi-
form factor (BC = sectional density/form factor). lar projectile with a low SD. With AP projec-
tiles, construction is more important than SD,
SECTIONAL DENSITY but a high sectional density will increase the AP
bullet's penetration capabilities.
Section density (SD) is a ratio of a projectile’s
mass to its diameter. The higher the SD num- The advantage of using a smaller caliber pro-
ber, the greater the projectile's mass is in rela- jectile with a high SD versus a larger caliber,
tion to its diameter. A greater mass to diameter heavy projectile is the reduced recoil, because
ratio is beneficial for one purpose: penetration, it takes less energy/force to make a lighter
regardless of medium. projectile move. We know that "for every ac-
tion, there is an equal and opposite reaction",
When talking about SD in relation to BC, air is which means that the same force that is exerted
the medium being penetrated. A projectile with on the rear end of the projectile to begin its
a high SD features a smaller cross-section com- movement will also be exerted on the breech/
pared to its mass, focusing drag onto a smaller bolt face of the firearm. This rearward force
area on the front of the projectile. A projectile causes felt recoil. Thus, a lighter projectile will
with a high SD will experience less drag be- cause the operator to experience less felt recoil.
cause there is less surface area to act against and Therefore, if you can choose a projectile that
more momentum behind it. Projectiles with a recoils less and provides more penetration, the
low SD will experience drag more because of decision seems obvious.
the greater frontal area and lack of momentum
from reduced mass. Sectional density does not A projectile’s sectional density is more impor-
take shape or velocity into account, so with all tant to BC than its shape because the mass of
things being equal (caliber and mass), a spire the projectile will allow the projectile to retain
point projectile will have the same SD as a more of its energy when counteracted by forces
blunt, round nose projectile. like gravity, air resitance, and wind. This relates
to Newton's first law which summarizes that an
While SD is a factor when calculating BC, sec- object will not change its motion unless another
tional density can also be useful when selecting force is great enough to alter that objects mo-
a projectile for hunting. When discussing SD in tion. Therefore, it will take more energy to alter
relation to hunting, the projectile is measured the motion of a projectile that has more density
on its ability to penetrate flesh. Like with air, (mass). Form does contribute to a projectile's
a higher SD will penetrate better than a low BC, but changes in form will only incrementally
SD. Section density numbers can be used to change its ballistic coefficient; changes in SD
determine a projectile's ability to dispatch vari- will affect it more dramatically.
ous sized game. For example, a section density
of .180 and below is suited for small game, an For example purposes, we will use three differ-
SD between .200 and .240 is good for medium ent projectiles. Because all factors are known,
game (deer), an SD between .270 and .290 is you can see how they relate and affect each oth-
suited for large game (elk), and .300+ is needed er. The projectiles we will use are:*
for large, thick-skinned and dangerous game • 9x19mm NATO – .355 diameter, 115
(bear, moose), regardless of caliber.4 grains (weight), .130 SD, .155 BC be-
tween 900 and 1,300 fps, .839 G1 FF.

56
• 5.56x45mm NATO – .224 diameter, 77 168/.095† x 7,000 = SD
grains, .219 SD, .372 BC 3000+ fps, .591
G1 FF. 168/665 = SD

• .308 Winchester – .308 diameter, 168 .253† = SD

grains, .253 SD, .462 BC 2,600+ fps .548
G1 FF. †
Rounded to three digits after the decimal.
*All three projectiles' data gathered from SierraBullets.com.
All three BCs are related to the G1 form factor. The pistol
round is a standard ball (FMJ), the two rifle rounds are open
tip, jacketed boat tail (HPBT Matchking). The Sectional Density Chart on page 63 shows
a selection of the most popular cartridges and
their sectional densities for various projectile
Calculating SD is fairly simple. All you need is weights. Some of the results are surprising when
the projectile's weight in grains and its diam- considering that some very powerful cartridg-
eter. SD is calculated by dividing the projectile's es do not penetrate as well as cartridges with
mass (M) by its diameter (D) squared (D x D), smaller diameter projectiles and less mass. It is
multiplied by the constant 7,000.* Sectional easy to see from this chart why SD plays such a
density is expressed in pounds per inch, squared big role in a projectile's BC. Many of the cali-
(lb. in.^2). The formula is as follows: 5 bers that have a high SD will also typically have
SD lb. in.^2 = M (grains)/7,000* x (D x D) a very high BC.

SD – sectional density in pounds per inch FORM FACTOR

squared
The form factor (FF) of a bullet is a measure-
M – mass in grains ment of how well its form will overcome drag
D – bullet diameter compared to a standardized model of a projec-
tile. Form factor measures how streamlined the
*Constant 1 lb. = 7,000 grains shape of a specific bullet is (regardless of mass)
in comparison to a standardized bullet shape.
9x19mm NATO –115 (M)/(.355 x .355) (D) While measuring a projectile's SD is fairly easy
x 7,000 = SD and only requires a calculator, form factor is
115/.126† x 7,000 = SD much more difficult to measure. Form factor re-
quires measurement of a projectile’s drag, which
115/882 = SD is specific to each projectile.
.130† = SD The standardized models, “G” models or Gavre
functions, are projectile designs that have been
5.56x45mm NATO –77/(.224 x .224) extensively tested to calculate the amount of
x 7,000 = SD drag their shape experiences. The basic speci-
fication for the standardized projectile is that it
77/.050† x 7,000 = SD weighs 1 lb. and is 1 in. in diameter. Each specif-
77/350 = SD ic G model will vary in shape and length, with
some specializing in varying velocity ranges.
.220 = SD There are 11 different forms used for a variety
of projectile shapes, with one being more suited
.308 Winchester –168/(.308 x .308) to artillery than small arms, and only two that
x 7,000 = SD have been adopted as industry standard: G1 and

57
 Figure 36: A projectile with a low SD versus a projectile with a high SD.

G7. The form used for artillery projectiles is the Now, let’s take the same two projectiles and
G2, and the remainders are the G5, G6, G8, GI, compare them to the G7 form factor, which is
GL, GS, GC and RA-4. more aerodynamic than the G1. Both projec-
The value of each standardized form factor is 1, tiles will have a 1+ FF because neither is more
but each form factor value is not equal to each aerodynamic than the standard form. This is
other. A G1 form factor of 1 is not equal to a G7 why G1 BC numbers will always be higher than
form factor of 1. The value of each form factor G7 BC numbers.
is equal to one unit of drag against that specific For decades, the G1 form was the standard
projectile form. The form factor number will upon which all small arm BC calculations were
change for a specific projectile when compared based. The G1 was one of the first standardized
to the different shapes of the G models. This models used for ballistic calculations and so was
is why a projectile's G1 and G7 form and BC widely adopted by the ballistic community. 1 in.
numbers will differ greatly. diameter, flat-based, semi-pointed bullet. The
For example, let’s compare two theoretical pro- G1 projectile is 3.26 calibers long (3.26 in.) with
jectiles to the G1 drag model. Let’s say that a 1.96-caliber (1.96 in.) body, and a 1.32-caliber
Projectile I is more aerodynamic than the G1 (1.32 in.) nose with a 2-caliber (2 in.) tangent
model, while Projectile II is less aerodynamic. ogive.The G1 form factor is also known as the
Projectile I’s form factor (FF) may equal .950. Ingalls form factor and is nearly identical to the
Projectile II’s FF may equal 1.050. What these GI form factor.
numbers mean is that Projectile I experiences 95 The G7 form factor has gained much favor in the
percent (or 5 percent less) of the drag than the last decade. The form of the G7 projectile is clos-
G1 projectile experiences, while Projectile II ex- er to the modern spitzer and VLD style bullets,
periences 105 percent (or 5 percent more) drag. with a longer profile and boat tail. The G7 form

58
 Figure 37: G1 form factor. Figure 38: G7 form factor.

is a 1 lb., 1 in. diameter, flat-based, semi-pointed boat tail, and a 2.1-caliber nose with a
bullet. The G1 projectile is 3.26 calibers long 6.19-caliber blunt tangent ogive.
(3.26 in.) with a 1.96-caliber (1.96 in.) body, and
a 1.32-caliber (1.32 in.) nose with a 2-caliber (2 • G6 – A flat base, spitzer style projectile.
in.) tangent ogive. The G6 projectile is 4.81 calibers
long, with a 2.53-caliber nose and a
It is easy to see from these figures why the G1 6.99-caliber secant ogive.
form factor produces high BCs for boat tail
spitzer bullets. The modern spitzer has superior • G8 – A flat base, spitzer style projectile.
aerodynamics compared to the blunt point, flat The G8 projectile is 3.64 calibers long,
base G1 projectile, but only marginal perfor- with a 2.18-caliber long nose and
mance when compared to the streamlined G7. a 10-caliber secant ogive. Similar to the
The remaining form factors are used for various G6 model with a longer nose.
other types of projectiles, including artillery, • GI – Basically a G1 form factor.
cylindrical (wadcutter), round ball (buck/bird-
shot) and rimfire. Other form factors include • GC – A blunt nose (wadcutter)
the following: 6 projectile. The GC projectile is 3 calibers
• G2 – A long, conical nose, banded long. The GC form factor mirrors that of
artillery projectile. The G2 projectile is the G1 projectile below 1,200 fps.
5.19 calibers long with a .5-caliber, 6° • GS – A sphere. The GS projectile is a
boat tail. The G2 form factor is typically 9/16 in. ball projectile. Smaller or larger
not used to calculate FF for small arms spheres will have an identical form factor.
projectiles. Also known as the Aberdeen
J projectile. • GL – A long, round nose lead projectile
(ball). The GL form factor mirrors that
• G5 – A short boat tail, semi-pointed of the G1 below 1,400 fps.
projectile. The G5 projectile is 4.29
calibers long, with a .49-caliber, 7°

59
• RA-4 – .22 Long Rifle Rimfire. Mirrors
9x19mm NATO –.130 (SD)/.155 (BC) = FF
the G1 below 1,400 FPS.
.839† = G1 FF
Although it may be very difficult measuring a 5.56x45mm NATO –.220/.372 = FF
projectile's form factor if BC is unknown, when
BC is known, the calculation is fairly simple. .591† = G1 FF
All that is needed is the projectile's BC and SD
.308 Winchester –.253/.462 = FF
(both of which manufacturers typically provide).
The formula is as follows: 7 .548† = G1 FF
FF = SD/BC †
Rounded to three digits after the decimal.

FF – form factor
In a perfect world all projectiles would have
SD – sectional density a BC of 1.0 or higher, meaning that the pro-
jectile would perform as well as the selected
BC – ballistic coefficient

Figure 39: Other form factors.

60
standardized projectile. Since this is the real 9x19mm NATO –.130 (SD)/.839 (FF)
world, there is a finite number of projectiles = G1 BC
used by civilians that have a BC that even ap-
proaches 1.0. Most projectiles average a G1 BC .155† = G1 BC
of around .250 – .350, while VLD bullets will 5.56x45mm NATO –.219/.591 = G1 BC
average between .500 and .700. One of the only
projectiles to reach a G1 BC higher than 1.0 is .371† = G1 BC
the 50 Browning Machine Gun (BMG) with a
BC 1.05. This is a massive projectile compared .308 Winchester –.253/ 548 = G1 BC
to other small arm projectiles; the 50 BMG is .462† = G1 BC
.5 in. in diameter and weighs in at 750 grains or
1.71 oz. The mass and diameter of the 50 BMG †
Rounded to three digits after the decimal.
contribute to an SD of .429, which by itself is
very impressive. Add a very streamlined body
and you get an extremely high-performance Luckily for us, manufacturers typically list the
projectile. A high SD and a low form factor will BC of all the projectiles they manufacture. It
contribute to a high BC projectile. is almost impossible for the average person to
calculate a specific projectile's BC (specifically
If you know both sectional density and the form factor) without very sophisticated and ex-
projectile's form factor (related to a specific G pensive testing equipment (Doppler radar and
model), calculating BC is simple. specialized, environmentally controlled facili-
BC G? = SD / FF ties). Even if we were able to calculate a projec-
tile’s specific BC in a controlled environment,
BC – ballistic coefficient of a specific G the ballistic coefficient would change under dif-
model ferent conditions, such as altitude, temperature,
SD – sectional density humidity, and barometric pressure. Even fired
into an environment where all conditions are
FF – form factor

Figure 40: Various projectile BCs. All BCs in G1.

From left to right: .510 dia. 750 grains 1.050 BC, .338 dia. 300 grains .736 BC, .308 dia. 212 grains .673 BC, .308
dia. 168 grains.490 BC, .257 dia. 115 grains .483 BC, .257 dia. 115 grains .453 BC, .224 dia. 77 grains .420 BC,
.224 dia. 73 grains .398 BC, .308 dia. 150 grains .215 BC, .451 dia. 230 grains .175 BC, .223 dia. 40 grains .138 BC,
.224 dia. 31 grains .115 BC, .355 90 grains .112 BC, .730 dia. 437.5 grains .090 BC, .410 dia. 109.4 grains .060 BC.

61
known and accounted for, the BC of a projectile
will change as its velocity changes.
Now that you have a basic understanding of
ballistic coefficient, what does it actually mean?
How can this be applied to real world shooting?
If you are shooting a pistol or are within about
100 yd., BC does not really apply. With pistol
cartridges that are used between 25 and 50 yd.,
the projectile is not in flight long enough for a
high BC to make a difference. If you are shoot-
ing beyond 100 yd., BC doesn’t really come
into play until about 200 yd. Beyond 200 yd.,
BC plays a huge role because projectiles with a
high BC will have a flatter trajectory and main-
tain higher velocities and energy over a greater
distance. This means that you can shoot farther
with a high BC bullet than with a low BC bul-
let in the same firearm. High BC projectiles ef-
fectively extend the effective range of most fire-
arms (that have the proper twist rate to stabilize
them). Projectiles with high BCs can benefit
hunters, target shooters, long-range shooters,
and military/LE personnel.

62
 Sectional Density (SD) by Cartridge
Cartridge Diameter (in Inches) Weight (in Grains) SD
.22 Long Rifle .223 40 .115
.380 ACP .355 90 .102
9x19mm NATO .355 115 .130
.40 Smith & Wesson .400 165 .147
.45 ACP .451 230 .161
5.7x28 FN .224 31 .088
.22 Hornet .224 40 .113
.44 Remington Magnum .429 240 .186
5.56x45 NATO .224 55 .156
5.56x45 NATO .224 62 .176
5.56x45 NATO .224 77 .220
.300 Blackout .308 110 .165
.300 Whisper .308 220 .331
7.62x39 .311 124 .183
6.5mm Grendel .264 130 .267
6.8 SPC .277 130 .242
30-30 Winchester .308 150 .226
.243 Winchester .243 75 .181
45-70 Government .458 300 .204
6.5 Creedmoor .264 120 .246
6.5x55 Swede .264 139 .285
.308 Winchester .308 168 .253
.257 Weatherby Magnum .257 100 .216
30-06 Springfield .308 200 .301
300 Winchester Magnum .308 190 .286
.358 Winchester .358 225 .251
.338 Lapua Magnum .338 300 .375
.416 Rigby .416 400 .330
.450 Bushmaster .452 250 .175
.50 Browning Machine Gun .510 750 .412
.410 Bore (Slug) .410 109.4 (¼ ounce) .092
12-Gauge (Slug) .729 437.5 (1 ounce) .117

Table 4. Sectional density (SD) by cartridge.

63
 Ballistic Coefficient (BC) by Cartridge
Cartridge Weight (in Grains) Average Ballistic Coefficient (G1)
.22 Long Rifle 40 .138
.380 ACP 90 .112
9x19mm NATO 115 .158
.40 Smith & Wesson 165 .131
.45 ACP 230 .172
5.7x28 FN 31 .115
.22 Hornet 40 .132
.44 Remington Magnum 240 .185
5.56x45 NATO 55 .237
5.56x45 NATO 62 .233
5.56x45 NATO 77 .396
.300 Blackout 110 .155
.300 Whisper 220 .467
7.62x39 124 .265
6.5mm Grendel 130 .461
6.8 SPC 130 .403
30-30 Winchester 150 .215
.243 Winchester 75 .221
45-70 Government 300 .192
6.5 Creedmoor 120 .389
6.5x55 Swede 139 .465
.308 Winchester 168 .499
.257 Weatherby Magnum 100 .357
30-06 Springfield 200 .613
300 Winchester Magnum 190 .533
.358 Winchester 225 .377
.338 Lapua Magnum 300 .768
.416 Rigby 400 .319
.450 Bushmaster 250 .210
.50 Browning Machine Gun 750 1.05
.410 Bore (Slug) 109.4 (¼ ounce) .060
12-Gauge (Slug) 437.5 (1 ounce) .090
Table 5. Ballistic Coefficient (BC) by cartridge.

64
Chapter 3 - Cases: Parts of a Case, How Cases are Formed
67
68
79
How Cases are Formed
PARTS OF A CASE
CASES
66
 Figure 1: Various cartridge cases.

Cases
The case is the central component to any car- contract or extraction of the case would become
tridge: it is the housing for all of the other very difficult, depending on the condition of the
pieces. The cartridge case is utilized to contain chamber. Pistol and rifle cartridge cases may be
part of the immense pressure that is created referred to as “brass,” while shotshell cases may
when a cartridge is discharged, when it is held be referred to as “hulls.”
stable by the chamber. The case is also the only There are many different case types and styles
part of a cartridge that can typically be re-used. with various features for a variety of chambers.
Upon discharge, the case must expand to seal There are also several different materials that
the chamber and prevent gas blowback from the are used and coatings that are applied. Cases can
breech of the firearm and contract once cham- be grouped into two main categories, with many
ber pressure has dropped so that it may be ex- styles for each. The case may also be used for
tracted. This means that the case must be strong identification purposes. The case features mark-
enough to contain the extreme pressure, pliable ings that provide different information about
enough to stretch and expand to seal the cham- the cartridge, but if the markings are missing or
ber, ductile enough to contract back to nearly unknown, the dimensions of the case will also
it’s original shape and soft (malleable) enough provide information about the caliber. While a
to do it repeatedly without cracking or splitting. single projectile can be used with different cases,
The case will contract back slightly when it has each case is specific to a caliber and is (typically)
experienced a slight cooling. This happens very never interchangeable.
quickly to the observer, however, a case should

67
 Almost every cartridge case (with the

Parts of a Case exception of many rimfire cases and a

few centerfire cases) will feature some
taper; even “straight wall” cases will taper
The general cartridge case design is basically slightly. The taper helps the case to re-
a cylindrical container with provisions for the lease from the chamber after discharge,
primer and extractor. The case design will vary aiding in its extraction. The greater the
with the type of firearm it is intended for and taper, the easier it will extract. The trade-
for its proposed purpose. Some features are uni- off to enhanced extraction is magazine
versal to every case and some are unique to only design. When heavily tapered cases are
a single type. The various parts and features of a stacked, the stack begins to curve. The
cartridge case include the following: magazine design must account for this
curvature, which may cause issues with
• Body – The body of a cartridge case is reliability. The taper will vary by caliber
a cylindrical tube that features one end and type of case but will range from .14°
that is partially capped. The hollow of for a “straight-walled” case (e.g. 10mm
the body houses the propellant and part Auto) to 2.7° for a heavily tapered case
of the projectile. Depending on cartridge (e.g. 7.62x39).
type, the body will either transition to the
case shoulder or mouth. In the opposite Depending on the caliber, type of case,
direction, the body will extend down- manufacturer, and location of measure-
ward into the case rim or the extractor ment, the wall thickness of the body
groove. At the bottom of the hollow, the will vary between .010 in. and .060+
body transitions into the web and the in. Typically, the wall thickness will be
flash hole. The body may feature (semi) thinner near the case mouth and taper
straight walls or walls that taper toward so that it is thicker near the case head.
the mouth. The body may also feature a If the case is reloaded, the walls will
cannelure around its circumference used begin to thin out as the case is forced to
to control projectile seating depth. repeatedly stretch. Because the external

Figure 2: Various case bodies.

68
 Figure 3: How case taper affects magazine design.

dimensions of the case are restricted With pistol and rifle cartridges, the en-
by very tight tolerances, much of the tire cartridge is typically a single piece
variation in wall thickness is internal. with many features. With modern non-
Variations in wall thickness between metallic shotshell cartridges, the body is
cartridges will lead to variations in case a separate component that is mechani-
volume and pressure levels. cally bonded to the case head. Because

Figure 4: Various wall thicknesses. From left to right: .50 BMG, .410 Bore 3 in., .30-06 Springfield, .30-06 Springfield (steel
case), 12 Gauge 2¾ in., .30-30 Winchester, .308 Winchester (steel case), .45 Long Colt, 10mm Auto, .25 ACP, .22 Long Rifle.

69
 Figure 5: Shotshell body length before and after discharge.

most shotshell hulls are polymer, the case neck to the case body, which is a
body is molded to the case head, which larger diameter. The shoulder also pro-
is a different material. With most shot- vides a smooth transition for the high
shells, the crimp is also part of the body. pressure moving from the inside of the
When fired, the crimp will unroll or body, through the case neck and through
unfold and reveal the full length of the the bore. The shoulder is a feature of the
cartridge body. over-bore or bottleneck cartridge, which
features a body that is a larger diameter
• Shoulder – The shoulder is a tapered than the neck and the bullet. The angle
area above the body used to transition of the shoulder will vary with caliber
from the neck to the body. It is used to but is typically anywhere from 5° to 40º,
provide a smooth transition from the with the average shoulder angle of about

Figure 6: Various shoulder angles. From left to right: .408 CheyTac, .338 Lapua Magnum, .257 Weatherby Magnum,
.270 Winchester, .30-06 Springfield, 7.5x55 Swiss, 7.62x54mmR, .30-30 Winchester, .35 Remington, 6.8 Remington
SPC, .22 Hornet, .300 AAC Blackout, 5.7x28mm FN, 5mm Remington Magnum, 7.62x25mm Tokarev.

70
 bottleneck cartridge, the neck is ahead of
the shoulder, just before the mouth.

Depending on the cartridge type, the

crimp may be applied to the neck. Some
cartridges do not utilize a crimp, but
the friction on the bullet created by the
neck is enough to keep the projectile in
place. The length of the neck depends
on the caliber, recoil, and whether it
Figure 7: Various case necks. was designed for longer or shorter pro-
jectiles. As with cartridges designed to
fire longer, high SD bullets are typically
23º. A sharp shoulder (~40º) will allow designed with longer necks to support
for more case capacity than a steep (~5º) the round. Cartridges designed to fire
shoulder. A steep shoulder will provide a short projectiles will have a shorter neck.
smoother transition for propellant gases. Typically, the neck will be around 1 cali-
ber long (equal to the diameter of the
With some calibers, the shoulder also projectile) for heavy recoiling cartridges,
acts as a point for the cartridge to while lighter recoil cartridges may fea-
headspace against if the shoulder has a ture a neck length 80 percent – 90 per-
sharp enough angle (~15º+) and is wide cent of a caliber.
enough. When the cartridge is cham-
bered, a point halfway between the top • Mouth – The mouth is the part of the
and bottom of the shoulder will bottom cartridge case where the projectile is
out against the chamber wall. When inserted. It is the hole in the front of
the chamber is locked, the breech face the case. Depending on the caliber, the
will sandwich the cartridge between the mouth may be ahead of the neck or atop
shoulder and the cartridge head. If the the body. Also, depending on caliber,
shoulder does not sit in the correct loca- the mouth may be crimped, headspaced
tion, the cartridge may not fit or it may against, or simply be an opening.
be too loose in the chamber.
When the case mouth is utilized for
• Neck – The neck is the part of a bottle- crimping, the mouth is rolled into a can-
neck cartridge case that places tension nelure or crimp groove located on the
on the bullet, preventing it from moving projectile (roll crimp). With some shot-
unintentionally. The neck also supports shells, the mouth is folded over the front
and aligns the bullet to the bore. On a of the projectiles. When the mouth is

Figure 8: Various case mouths.

71
 Excessive setback can lead to a cata-
strophic pressure spike that could de-
stroy the firearm and cause injury. Bullet
setback as little as .010 in. can be dan-
gerous with some loads. Even if a crimp
was not satisfactory, the cannelure would
stop any rearward movement of the bul-
let as it impacts the feed ramp of the
Figure 9: Case cannelures.
firearm. A cannelure is often found with
high power pistol cartridges and cases
utilized for headspace, the mouth of the intended for self-defense ammunition
cartridge will bottom out against a ledge designed for autoloaders.
inside the chamber and the cartridge will
• Web – The web is the area between the
be sandwiched by the breech face/slide.
body and the case head on the inside of
When the mouth is used for headspace
the case; it is the bottom of the hollow
it cannot also utilize a roll crimp. The
part of the case. The web almost com-
crimp changes the length of the case and
pletely seals the bottom of the inside of
it will not headspace correctly.
the case with the exception of a small
• Cannelure – The cartridge case cannelure hole (or holes) that is centrally located
is an indented ring or channel along the in the web. The web tends to be much
body or neck. The cannelure serves to thicker than any other part of the case
prevent the bullet from being pushed (with the exception of maybe the head),
back (setback) into the case during the so that it can withstand the immense
feeding step or with hard recoil. The can- amount of pressure inside the case. Upon
nelure forms a small ledge inside the case discharge, the web will experience cham-
that prevents the bullet from entering be- ber pressure equal to the case walls and
yond a specific point. The cannelure may projectile. The web also separates the in-
also add additional friction, strengthening side of the body from the primer pocket.
the crimp on the projectile.

Figures 10: Various case web and flash style holes.

72
 Figure 11: Parts of a case head.

• Flash Hole – The flash hole is the open- large as .100 in. Shotshells utilize a flash
ing in the center of the web. The flash hole that is around .180 in. for almost
hole provides an orifice from the primer every shotgun caliber. The .50 BMG uti-
pocket into the case body. Upon dis- lizes a flash hole around .135 in.
charge, embers from the primer travel
through the flash hole and onto the pro- Some cartridge designs utilize two small-
pellant. There is no “standard” flash hole er flash holes that are located around the
size, but most manufacturers will utilize center of the web. These smaller flash
a hole .080 in. in diameter for pistol and holes measure around .040 in. each. The
rifle cartridges. The flash hole may range size of the flash hole will vary by the
from about .070 in. to .085 in., with manufacturer, caliber of the cartridge,
some examples as small as .050 in. and as case material, and size of the primer used
(small/large). The size of the flash hole

Figure 12: Shotshell case heads.

73
 may also vary from case to case because • Primer Pocket – The primer pocket is a
of manufacturing tolerances. hollow cavity in the center of the head
of a centerfire cartridge. It is utilized to
• Head – The case head is the base of house the primer. The primer pocket
the cartridge. Although the case head is shares the web with the body and uti-
only a feature of the cartridge case, the lizes the flash hole to transfer embers
head has several of its own features. The from the primer onto the propellant.
head contains the primer pocket and is Depending on case and primer type, the
comprised partly of the rim and, if ap- primer pocket may also feature a part of
plicable, the extractor groove. The case the primer: the anvil.
head also bears the cartridge markings
or “headstamp.” Regardless of cartridge Some cases and primer pocket designs
type or caliber, the “face” of the head will utilize an integral anvil in the primer
always be the cartridge’s second point pocket and feature two smaller flash
for headspace. The front of the cartridge holes. The cases are known as “Berdan”
case will headspace against a point inside style, while cases with a single flash hole
the chamber, while the head of the case and no anvil are known as “Boxer” style.
will headspace against the bolt/breech The two types are not interchangeable.
face/slide. Regardless of style, the primer pocket is
typically the same size or slightly smaller
With shotshells, the head is typically a (~.002 in.) than the primer, so that the
separate piece from the body. The body primer can be pressed into place and se-
is molded to the head, which extends cured by a friction fit.
partly up the body. There are two basic
head lengths, referred to as “high-brass” The Boxer primer pocket’s size will vary
and “low-brass.” The size of the head by cartridge type and caliber. There are
will usually depend on the type of load, four primer pocket sizes: small pistol/
not the pressure of the load, which is a rifle (~.1735 in. diameter x ~.120 in.
common myth. Buckshot and slug loads deep), large pistol (~.2095 in. diameter x
will typically feature a head that extends ~.120 deep), large rifle (~.2095 diameter
further up (high) the case body, while x .129 in. deep), and shotshell (~.241 in.
low-pressure, “target,” or birdshot loads diameter x ~.299 in. deep).1 Although
will typically have shorter (low) heads. small pistol and rifle pockets are the same
size, the primers are not interchangeable.

Figure 13: Various primer pockets. From left to right: (Boxer) small pistol, large pistol, small rifle, large rifle, .50 BMG,
shotshell, (Berdan) small pistol, large pistol, small rifle, large rifle.

74
 Figure 14: Various rim types.

There is a fifth primer pocket size, but in. deep), large pistol 5005 (~.196 in.
it is specific to the .50 BMG. The .50 diameter x ~.092 deep), small rifle 4520
BMG primer pocket is ~.315 in. in diam- (~.176 in. diameter x .082 in. deep), and
eter and ~.216 in. deep. large rifle. It is with the large rifle where
things get a bit confusing. There are five
The Berdan primer pocket is also variations of the large rifle Berdan prim-
found in four basic sizes: small pistol er, which means five different pocket
4506/4521 (~.176 in. diameter x ~.092

Figure 15: Various cartridges being extracted.

75
Figure 16: With some cartridges that headspace against the rim, shorter cartridges can be safely fired that share the same caliber.
For example, a firearm chambered for the .460 S&W can also safely fire the .454 Casull, .45 Colt and .45 S&W. A 12-gauge
shotgun chambered for 3 in. shells can also fire 2¾ in., 2¼ in. and 1¾ in. shells safely. *Make certain to read the specif ic
f irearms owner’s manual or contact the manufacturer to verify exactly what calibers the specif ic f irearm is designed to
shoot. From left to right: .460 Smith and Wesson Magnum, .454 Casull, .45 Long Colt, .45 Smith and Wesson/Schofield,
12-Gauge- 1¾ in., 2¼ in., 2¾ in., 3”.

sizes: (5608) ~.216 in. diameter x .112 in. in diameter than the case body, while the
deep, (5620) ~.216 in. diameter x ~.102 semi-rimmed case features a rim that is
in. deep, (6000) ~.249 in. diameter x .112 only slightly larger than the case’s body.
in. deep, (6504) ~.253 in. diameter x .092 The rimless case features a rim that is
in. deep, and (6507) ~.253 in. diameter x the same diameter as the case body, while
~.135 in. deep.2 the rebated rim case utilizes a rim that is
smaller in diameter than the case body.
• Rim – The cartridge case rim is a flange
or lip that is located around the case head. Outside of the other possible uses for
The rim’s size will vary greatly with car- the rim, extraction (ejection for revolv-
tridge type and intended firearm. The rim ers) is the primary purpose for every
serves one main purpose but may also be cartridge type. The extractor's claw will
used for secondary purposes. The primary grab the rim of the cartridge and, as the
purpose of the rim is to provide a point action moves rearward (either manually
of contact for the extractor to remove the or automatically), the empty (or new)
empty cartridge case from the chamber cartridge case will be pulled from the
after firing. The secondary function of the chamber. With revolvers, the ejector will
case rim for some cartridges is headspac- push against the rim, driving the cases
ing. Another function of the rim for some from the chamber.
cartridges is to provide a housing for the
priming compound. The case rim can also be used for head-
space. The top of the rim will bottom
The size of the rim will depend on the out against a recessed ledge along the
type of cartridge and the firearm the car- chamber face of the barrel (or cylinder),
tridge is intended for. There are four basic while the bottom of the case head will
rim types: rimmed, semi-rimmed, rim- rest against the breech face/bolt. This
less, and rebated rim. Rimmed cartridges arrangement is used only with rimmed
feature a pronounced rim that is larger and semi-rimmed cases, as rimless and

76
 Figure 17: Rimfire cartridge rims. From left to right (pairs): .22 Winchester Magnum Rimfire,
.17 Hornady Magnum Rimfire, .22 Long Rifle, .22 Short.

rebated rim cartridges do not have a • Extractor Groove – The extractor groove
large enough rim. Headspacing against is a channel cut into the case body, di-
the rim allows for variation in case rectly above the case rim. It is designed
length, permitting use of multiple cali- to provide a relief for the extractor’s claw.
bers in a single firearm platform. The extractor groove is found on almost
every case type except for most rimmed
With certain case types, the rim serves cases. The extractor groove is not needed
as a housing for priming compound. on a rimmed case because the rim is al-
Rimfire cartridges utilize a case that uses ready a sufficient diameter to allow the
a rim that doubles as a primer, is used for extractor to grab the case. Every other
headspace, and is used for extraction. The case rim type (semi-rimmed, rimless, and
inside of the case head and rim is hollow, rebated rim) requires an extractor groove
and priming compound is packed around to allow the extractor's claw to properly
the inside of the lip. When impacted by engage the case rim because of their re-
the firing pin/striker, the hollow rim will duced diameter.
crush the priming material between the
walls of the rim and cause it to ignite. • Belt – The belt of a case is a raised band
along the bottom of the body, just above

Figure 18: Various extractor grooves. Figure 19: Various belted cases.

77
Figure 20a: Various headstamps. From left to right: Aguila 12-Gauge, Barrett .50 BMG, Lapua .338 Lapua Magnum,
Hornady .458 Winchester Magnum, Federal Cartridge (FC) .308 Winchester, Southern Ballistic Research (SBR) .458
SOCOM, Winchester .40 Smith & Wesson, Armscor Philippines (AP) .22 TCM, Remington-Peters (R-P) .22 Hornet.

the extractor groove. Only cartridges des- that specific area, the belt is only designed
ignated as “belted” or “belted magnum” to provide a point for headspace.
will feature a belt. The belt is designed to
provide a “shoulder” to headspace against • Headstamp – The headstamp is a mark-
for large caliber cartridges that do not ing or series of markings that are used
have a large enough shoulder or cannot to identify the cartridge. The markings
headspace against the case mouth. may consist of letters, numbers, symbols,
or other images. The headstamp mark-
• There is often some confusion about the ings typically include caliber, manu-
purpose of the belt. Some claim the belt facturer (sometimes only of the case),
is used to strengthen “magnum” cases near location, date of manufacture, features of
the case head. While the added material the cartridge, and lot or batch number.
may slightly increase the case's strength in Headstamp markings can be divided

Figure 20b: Military headstamps. From left to right: Lake City (LC) .50 BMG, NATO Lake City
7.62x51mm, NATO Lake City 5.56x45mm, Dornach (D) Altdorf (A) May (5) 1981 (81) 7.5x55mm Swiss,
1980 (8) Export (0) AB Norma Projektilfabrik Amotfors (027) 6.5x55 Swede, Igman Zavod Ad Konjic
(Igman Factory at Konjic IK) 1977 7.62x39mm, Plant 21 Romania (21) 1955 (55) 7.62x25mm Tokarev.

Figure 20c: Rimfire headstamps. From left to right: Henry-Winchester (H) .22 BB Cap, Remington
(Rem) .22 Short, Aguila (A) .17 PMC Aguila, Hornady (H) .17 Hornady Mach II, CCI (C) .22 Long
Rifle Stinger, Remington Arms Co./Union Metallic Cartridge Company (U) 5mm Remington Magnum,
Winchester (W) .17 Hornady Magnum Rimfire, Winchester (W) .17 Winchester Super Magnum.

78
Figure 21: Modified cases. The .375 Reaper case is made by shortening and “necking” up the 7.62x51mm NATO case.
The .300 AAC Blackout case is a shortened and necked up 5.56x45mm NATO case.

into two categories: civilian and military. HOW CASES ARE FORMED
Civilian headstamps will typically feature
manufacturer and caliber information, Regardless of caliber, case type, or features,
while military headstamps will feature forming cases is fairly standard. The major
manufacturer/location, date of manu- exception would be shotshell cases. All brass
facturer, cartridge features or lot/batch cartridge cases and the heads of shotshells be-
number. Often, the information on the gin life as processed, rolled brass (typically 70
headstamp will be abbreviated so that percent copper, 30 percent zinc) sheet or “coil.”
it can fit on the head of the cartridge. From raw material to finished case requires
Rimfire cartridges will typically only varying processes and several operations in mul-
feature a single marking in the center of tiple machines. The steps between manufactur-
the head. ers will vary slightly but the overall process is
very similar. Steel and aluminum cases are also
There are some exceptions where the formed in a similar manner.3,4,5
cartridge caliber does not match the
headstamp. When a cartridge is modi-
fied from one caliber to another, as with
wildcat cartridges, the headstamp is not
modified. The headstamp will display
the old caliber while the cartridge may
not be interchangeable. Identifying these
cartridges may require measurement and
reference to available drawings.

Figure 22: Brass cups. Photo courtesy of Peterson

Cartridge.

79
Figure 23: Cups after the 3rd draw and trim. Photo Figure 24: Turned head. Photo courtesy of Peterson
courtesy of Peterson Cartridge. Cartridge.

Depending on manufacturer, the sheets or coils that will tumble and clean them, removing the
may be cut down into thinner strips. The sheets thin layer of oxidation. Moving forward, the cup
or strips are fed into a machine that stamps out may be annealed between each process depend-
small blanks. Heavy duty carbide dies and hy- ing on the manufacturer’s procedure.
draulic pressure are used to form the blanks. The next step is for the cups to be drawn out.
The blanks will vary but typically consist of The cup will pass through a series of carbide
either a disk or cup. If a disk is stamped, it is dies that will begin to expand and lengthen it.
then formed into a cup in a subsequent process. This step is often referred to as the “1st draw.”
Some machines are capable of stamping a disk After the 1st draw, the cup will be slightly lon-
and forming a cup in a single process. Most ma- ger and feature thinner walls. The base of the
chines will stamp out several disks or cups in a cup may also be slightly radiused. The cup will
single pass. then go into another annealing treatment, fol-
The cups are very bulky compared to the final lowed by tumbling and cleaning.
case. The base and walls are much thicker than Once the cups have been annealed, tumbled,
the finished product, which allows the material and cleaned, they will go into a second drawing
to be drawn out or stretched. The mouth of the process. The 2nd draw is similar to the first in
cup is also very rough from the initial stamping that the case is stretched farther. Like the 1st
and will need to be addressed at a later step. draw, the 2nd draw also introduces stresses and
At this point, the brass may begin to “work hardness into the material that must be relieved.
harden” from the processing, which will make The cup will go through another annealing, fol-
the brass hard and brittle. To alleviate the resid- lowed by tumbling and cleaning.
ual stress, the cases are put through an annealing After the 2nd draw, anneal, and cleaning, the
process, which stabilizes the grain structure of cups will go into a 3rd draw process. By now, the
the material and brings it back into a malleable case will typically be drawn to nearly its final di-
state. Although the annealing process softens ameter and wall thickness (it may be slightly un-
the brass so it can be worked again, it also intro- dersized in diameter). The drawing process has
duces oxidizers into the material's surface. These stretched the cup beyond the final length of the
oxidizers leave a very hard surface on the brass finished case and requires the extra material to
that can be harmful to the dies, so it must be be trimmed. The extra material is often removed
removed. The cups are run through a machine

80
in a process known as “pinch” trimming. The cup to cut the rim while the case is spun in a type
is trimmed to, or nearly to, its final length. of vertical lathe. Once the head has been fully
After the 3rd draw and trim, the cup is cleaned turned, the cases are annealed, tumbled, and
once more. The trimmed cup moves on to the cleaned once more. Rimfire cartridges do not
“header” where the case head, primer pocket, undergo the head turning process. With belted
rim, and headstamp are all formed over various cartridges, the belt is typically formed with the
processes. A fitted die is inserted into the mouth rest of the rim and extractor groove.
of the cup to hold it as other dies are “rammed” After head turning, the process will vary slightly
into the base. Depending on the manufacturer depending on the manufacturer and case type.
and caliber, the head may be formed in a single With some pistol cases, the next steps are typi-
operation or over several stampings. If multiple cally to punch out the flash hole, perform the
dies are used, one die will typically flatten the final trim, and finally taper the case. With some
face of the head and form the primer pocket and rifle cases, the next steps include several tapers,
rim. A second die, featuring a raised mirror im- followed by a final trim and chamfer. Finally, the
age of the headstamp, will strike the head once flash hole is punched.
more, refining the face and imprinting it with With pistol cases, the unfinished case will move
the headstamp marking. With rimfire rounds, to a machine that uses a hydraulic punch to cut
the head, rim, and headstamp are often formed the flash hole out of the primer pocket. The
in a single operation. After forming the head, the press will punch a hole from the primer pocket,
rimfire cartridge is typically ready for priming. through the web, and into the body of the case.
Once the headstamp and primer pocket have This process may be referred to as “venting.”
been formed, the case will move on to the head Typically, the next step for pistol cases is the final
turning process. During the head turning step trim. The case is trimmed one last time to bring
(which may be a single or several processes), it to its final overall length. This is a very im-
the rim is cut to its final diameter and thickness portant step for some pistol cases because they
and, if applicable, the extractor groove is cut. A headspace against the case mouth. The final trim
single cutter or multiple profile cutters are used will ensure that these cases headspace correctly.
After being trimmed to size, the case may need
to be tapered. Up to this point the body of the
case is straight. Depending on the degree of ta-
per, this may be done over a single or several pro-
cesses. During the final tapering step, the case
mouth may also receive a slight flare in prepara-
tion for accepting a bullet. Once the case is fin-
ished, it will undergo a final tumble and clean.
With rifle cases, the next step after head turn-
ing is tapering. The average rifle case features a
bottleneck design. In addition to the taper, the
neck and shoulder of the case are formed dur-
ing the tapering process. The taper, neck, and
shoulder are typically formed over two to three
processes. Each progressive step tapers the case
and forms the shoulder and neck slightly so as
not to overwork or work harden it. The cases
Figure 25: Various stages of taper, neck, and shoulder may also go through several annealing treat-
forming. Photo courtesy of Peterson Cartridge. ments between tapering steps. For rifle cases,

81
the tapering process is as important as the fi- As the tube progresses from the first machine,
nal trim for pistol cases because many rifle cases it will pass through a series of furnaces, man-
headspace against the shoulder. drels, and cooling baths, which will bring the
After tapering and forming the shoulder and tube into a pliable state, stretching and cooling
neck, rifle cases go to final trim. The neck of it several times. After each pass through a fur-
the case is trimmed to the case’s final overall nace, the heavy walled tube will pass through a
length. The neck is typically trimmed by turn- machine that will draw out the tube, bringing
ing it, which also allows the inside of the mouth its internal diameter (ID) and outer diameter
to be chamfered. The chamfer eases the bullet’s (OD) closer to its finished size. By the last heat
seating when the cartridge is loaded. and stretch cycle, the case body will reach its fi-
nal dimensions. Once the tube has reached its
After final trim and chamfer, the rifle case final ID and OD, the tube will be cut to size
will move to the “venter,” where the flash hole in the final machine. These tube blanks will be
is pierced. From the venter, the case may go moved on to another machine that will join the
through another annealing process, but this body to the head.
time only the neck and shoulder are softened.
The case is finished once it has been tumbled Paper shotshells begin life as a large roll of pa-
and cleaned one final time. per. The paper is cut into strips, which are fed
into another machine and made into smaller
The forming process for shotshell cases varies rolls. The smaller rolls are fed into a machine
greatly from other case types.6,7 The forming that cuts the paper into smaller (12 in.) pieces
of the case head is similar to traditional brass that are rolled into tubes. The paper pieces are
(or steel or aluminum) cases, but that’s where rolled around a mandrel and combined with
the similarities end. The case head and body are some type of glue or binder. The newly formed
made during different operations and joined tubes are removed from the mandrel and placed
later in the manufacturing process. into an area where they can dry and cure.
The case head is formed in a similar manner to The dried, cured tubes move on to a machine
pistol and rifle brass. The head begins life as a that lubricates and sizes them to their final ID
sheet or strip of brass or steel from which blank and OD. The tubes are cured once more be-
disks or cups are formed. The head will move fore moving on to the next step. The tubes are
through several draw, anneal, and tumble and moved to another machine where they are cut
clean processes, as well as receive a headstamp, down to their final length (2¾ in. – 3 in.). The
primer pocket, and flash hole. tubes will then move on to a machine where
Manufacturing the body of a shotshell will vary they are treated once more by soaking them in
based on the material being used. Shotshell pressurized, melted wax. From the wax bath, the
bodies are manufactured from two basic ma- tubes will need to cure one more time before
terials: plastic and paper. Plastic shotshell hulls being joined to the case head.8
begin life as colored high-density polyethylene Regardless of material, once the body is com-
pellets. The pellets are fed into an extruder, plete and cut to size, it is ready to be joined to
where they are melted and forced through a die, the case head. Depending on the manufacturer,
forming a plastic tube. At this point, the tube this may occur in one of several ways. The head
features very heavy walls and is one continuous and body may be joined by some mechanical
piece that spans over 100 ft. as it passes through means, be it friction-locked, wedged, molded, or
various machines. bonded with adhesive. Once the head and body
are joined, the case is ready to load.

82
 Chapter 4 - Cases Part 2: Types of Cases, Materials and Coatings
TYPES OF CASES 85
Rimfire 85
Centerfire 85
Case Capacity 94
CASE MATERIALS 97
CASE COATINGS 103
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY BLANK

84
 .40 and .50 caliber cartridges. The introduc-

Types of Cases tion of both smokeless propellant and centerfire

cases made the large caliber rimfire cartridge
obsolete. Smokeless propellant pushed chamber
pressure to a level beyond the rimfire cartridge
Now that there is a basic understanding of case
case’s capacity with larger caliber cartridges. The
features and construction, we can discuss case
thin walls of the rimfire case are not typically
types. The case type will vary with its intended
designed to withstand chamber pressure beyond
purpose and the firearm it is designed for. The
26,000 psi (the .17 Winchester Super Magnum
case shape and features will vary based on the
is the exception with 33,000 psi).1 If the rimfire
type of action it is designed to function with.
case was designed to accommodate higher pres-
sure, the rim would be too thick to try to reliably
RIMFIRE
crush. Rimfire cases and cartridges are still in
The rimfire case is a simplistic design that com- current use and production, but are limited to
bines a cartridge case with priming compound. smaller calibers such as the .17 and .22.
The rimfire cartridge was the first successful
design for a widely accepted/commercial self- CENTERFIRE
contained cartridge. The rimfire case utilizes a
The centerfire case utilizes a primer that is a
hollow rim that accommodates a priming com-
separate part from the case. This allows the case
pound. When the case rim is crushed, the prim-
to feature thicker walls to contain greater pres-
ing compound located in the rim will ignite, in
sure, while still utilizing a thinner primer cup.
turn igniting the propellant in the body of the
The centerfire design also allows the spent case
case. Because of the design of the rimfire car-
to be reloaded (with most examples). There are
tridge, rimfire cases are typically not reloadable.
centerfire cases that are designed to work with
The rimfire case is designed to work primarily
pistols, rifles, and shotguns.
with pistols and rifles.
The centerfire design is utilized with a variety
Originally, the rimfire cartridge case (and black
of case types and can be scaled to function with
powder) was utilized by a large variety of cali-
a plethora of calibers. The centerfire design can
bers. Rimfire cases could be found in everything
be found in pistol, rifle, and shotgun cases in
from tiny .17 and .22 caliber cartridges, to large

Figure 1: Various rimfire cases. From left to right: .22 BB/CB, .22 Short, .22 Long Rifle, .17 PMC Aguila, .17 Hornady
Mach II, .22 Long Rifle Stinger, 5mm Remington Magnum, .17 Hornady Magnum Rimfire, .22 Winchester Magnum
Rimfire, .17 Winchester Super Magnum.

85
Figure 2: Various centerfire cases. From left to right: .25 ACP (semi-rimmed, straight wall), .357 SIG (rimless, bottleneck),
.45 ACP (rimless, straight wall), .22 TCM (rimless, bottleneck), HK 4.6x30mm (rimless, bottleneck), .50 Action Express
(rebated rim, straight wall), .17 Remington Fireball (rimless, bottleneck), .243 Winchester Super Short Magnum (rimless,
bottleneck), 6.8mm Remington SPC (rimless, bottleneck), .25-35 Winchester (rimmed, bottleneck), .444 Marlin (semi-
rimmed, straight wall), 7.92x57mm Mauser (rimless, bottleneck), 20-Gauge 2.5 in. (rimmed, straight wall), .410 Bore 2.5
in. (rimmed, straight wall), .257 Weatherby Magnum (rimless, belted bottleneck), 12-Gauge 3 in. (rimmed, straight wall),
.338 Lapua Magnum (rimless, bottleneck), .458 Lott (rimless, belted straight wall), .408 CheyTac (rimless, bottleneck),
12.7x108mm (rimless, bottleneck).

calibers ranging from .17 caliber to the 20mm different features. Centerfire cases can be
cannon (20x102mm) cartridge. The centerfire grouped into four basic types based on the rim
case design will vary depending on the applica- design. These cases can be classified even fur-
tion it is intended for. The thicker walls of the ther based on the design of the body. The four
centerfire case are perfectly suited for smokeless basic centerfire case types include:
propellant and higher chamber pressure. • Rimmed – Rimmed cases feature a rim
Depending on the application, centerfire cas- that is significantly larger in diameter
es can withstand chamber pressures as high than the case body. The first centerfire
as 65,000 psi (8mm Remington Magnum).2 cases were all rimmed and remained so
Centerfire shotshell cases are designed for fairly for quite some time. The rimmed cen-
low pressure, with some of the higher-pressure terfire case design provides a place for
cartridges barely reaching 14,000 psi (3.5 in. the cartridge to headspace against and a
12-gauge).3 Centerfire pistol cases range great- point of contact to remove the spent case
ly, with some of the higher-pressure cartridges from the chamber. With certain actions
reaching 65,000 psi (460 Smith & Wesson like lever and pump guns, the rim is used
Magnum/454 Casull).4 Most pistol cases are to control feeding into the action.
designed to withstand pressures in the 20,000 –
30,000 psi range. Most centerfire rifle cases are Rimmed cases were originally used
designed to withstand chamber pressure in the with single-shot firearms, such as the
40,000 – 50,000 psi range. break- and single-shot bolt-actions. As
the development of the repeating action
Unlike the rimfire case, which features a fairly arose, the rimmed case was adopted by
standard design regardless of its intended pur- the lever-actions and revolvers, as well as
pose, the centerfire case will vary with many pump-actions and repeating bolt-actions

86
Figure 3a: Various rimmed cases. From left to right: .32 Smith & Wesson, .44 Smith & Wesson Special, .44 Remington
Magnum, .17 Hornet, .22 Hornet, .454 Casull, .460 Smith & Wesson Magnum, 8x50mmR Lebel, .45-70 Government,
7.62x54mmR, .303 British, .348 Winchester.

later on. The rimmed case has found Staggering rimmed cases can cause feed-
great success with these action types and ing malfunctions. The rims do not allow
is still in use and production to this day. the cases to sit flat against each other
Almost every modern revolver, lever- and may cause a condition known as
action, break-action, and single-shot fire- “rim lock.” Rim lock occurs when the
arm still utilizes a rimmed cartridge. rim of the top case in a magazine is lo-
cated behind the rim of the case below
Although the rimmed case has found it. When the top round is stripped from
success with many action types, it is the magazine, it’s rim hits the rim of the
limited in use to manual repeating ac- round below it and causes the top round
tions and fixed, tubular magazines and to seize in the magazine. Rimfire rounds
revolver cylinders. The rimmed case has suffer the same issue when used in verti-
found little to no success with semi- cal magazines.
automatic actions and detachable maga-
zines. The greatest issue arises when • Rimless – Rimless cases feature a
rimmed cartridges are stacked in a box rim that is the same diameter as the
magazine. The first issue is that the cases case body. The lack of rim makes
can only be arranged in a “single stack.” the rimless case better suited for

Figure 3b: Rimmed case cross-sections. From left to right (pairs): .38 Smith & Wesson Special, .357 Smith & Wesson
Magnum, .44-40 Winchester, .45 Colt, .30-30 Winchester.

87
Figure 4a: Various rimless cases. From left to right: .380 ACP, .40 Smith & Wesson, 7.62x25mm Tokarev, 10mm Auto,
.300 AAC Blackout, .224 Valkyrie, .17 Remington, .308 Winchester, .270 Winchester, .338 Lapua Magnum, .50 BMG.

semi-automatic applications. Rimless The modern semi-automatic and auto-

cases can be stacked in single or multiple matic firearm would not be possible if it
staggered columns, around the inside were not for the rimless case. The vast
of a drum, and connected in the links majority of semi-automatic and auto-
of a belt. Unlike rimmed cases, the only matic firearms as well as most feeding
purpose for the rim on a rimless case is devices are designed to work with the
to extract it from the chamber. The lack rimless case. There are also many exam-
of rim also requires the case to utilize an ples of single-shot and manual repeat-
extractor groove so that the extractor has ing actions being chambered for rimless
ample space to engage the rim. cartridges. Even revolvers can be retrofit-
ted to use rimless cases (which would

Figure 4b: Rimless case cross-sections. From left to right (pairs): 9x19mm Parabellum, .45 ACP, .22 TCM, .223
Remington, .30-06 Springfield.

88
Figure 5: Various semi-rimmed cases. From left to right (pairs): .25 ACP, .32 ACP, .338 Marlin Express, .308 Marlin
Express, .444 Marlin.

otherwise drop through the cylinder) by that headspace against the shoulder.
using a specialty case holder known as Although the rimless case design quickly
a “moon clip.” Rimless cases are utilized replaced the semi-rimmed case, there are
almost exclusively by pistols and rifles. still many current production cartridges,
including .25 ACP, .32 ACP, .38 Super,
• Semi-Rimmed – Semi-rimmed cases .308 Marlin, .338 Marlin, .444 Marlin
feature a rim that is only slightly larger and .500 Smith & Wesson Magnum.
in diameter than the body of the case. The semi-rimmed case does not suffer
The semi-rimmed case was designed the same fate as rimmed cartridges in
as a solution to the issues of feeding semi-automatics because of the marginal
rimmed cartridges before the introduc- size of the rim, and the small bevel on
tion of the rimless case. The small rim the edge of the rim allows the top case to
requires an extractor groove to allow for ride over the rim of the bottom case.
clearance for the extractor. The rim may
still be used for headspace with some • Rebated Rim­ – Rebated rim cases fea-
straight-walled pistol cases (.25 ACP ture a rim that is smaller in diameter
and .32 ACP), while the rim may only than the body of the case. The rebated
be used for extraction with bottleneck rim case is intended to provide more
rifle cases (.308 Marlin and .338 Marlin) case capacity in a cartridge that would

Figure 6: Rebated rim cases. From left to right (pairs): .50 Action Express, .458 SOCOM, .50 Beowulf, .450 Bushmaster.

89
 Outside of the type of rim the
case features, the shape of the
body can be utilized to categorize
the case type. There are four basic
body shapes:
• Straight Wall – The term
“straight-walled” is often used
to identify cases that are not
bottleneck, belted, or heavily
tapered. Although many cases
that are classified as straight-
walled truly feature straight
(parallel) walls, there are many
Figure 7a: Straight-walled cases with a slight taper. examples that feature a very
slight taper. Cases like the .44
Remington Magnum, .380 ACP and
10mm Auto are all considered straight
otherwise be too large for a given firearm. wall cases even though they all feature a
The rebated rim design allows a larger ca- slight taper (.04º, .12º, and .14º respec-
pacity/caliber case to be used in a firearm tively). All shotshell cases and almost all
chambered for a smaller caliber without rimfire cases (except the .22 Winchester
having to modify the action or bolt face rimfire with a .12° taper) are designed
(the barrel is typically the only part that with true straight walls. Non-shotshell,
needs to be replaced). An example of non-rimfire cases include .25 Auto,
the rebated case design is the .50 Action .32 Smith & Wesson, .38 Special, .357
Express, which shares a smaller diameter Magnum, .45 Colt, .454 Casull and .460
rim with the .44 Magnum. This allows Smith & Wesson Magnum.
a firearm like the Desert Eagle to swap
Most straight wall cases are also rimmed.
caliber from .50 AE to .44 Magnum
This is mostly a result of the manufac-
with a simple barrel and magazine swap.
turing process at the time of the case’s
Recently, the rebated rim case has found
introduction because tapered cases could
a resurgence with the AR-style rifle plat-
form, allowing larger chamberings like
the .450 Bushmaster, .458 SOCOM and
.50 Beowulf while still utilizing bolt heads
from smaller calibers (the 50 Beowulf and
7.62x39 share the same rim diameter of
.445 in.).

Figure 7b: Straight wall rimfire and shotshell cases.

From left to right: .22 Short, .22 Long Rifle, .410 Bore,
20-Gauge, 12-Gauge.

90
Figure 7c: True straight wall cases. From left to right: .25 ACP, .32 Smith & Wesson, .38 Smith & Wesson Special, .357
Smith & Wesson Magnum, .45 Long Colt, .454 Casull, .460 Smith & Wesson Magnum.

not be manufactured reliably. Most cases • Tapered – The tapered case design fea-
intended for revolvers are also straight- tures a body that is larger near its base
walled. Straight wall cases are less likely and narrower near the case mouth. The
to experience “setback,” which is a con- tapered case design was developed to
dition where the case backs out of the assist in case extraction. The tapered
cylinder during recoil, causing the action case is less likely to stick in the chamber
to seize. Straight-walled cases help to al- than a straight-walled case because the
leviate this issue with the increase in fric- tapered shape will experience less fric-
tion the case experiences with the walls tion when exiting the chamber. Unlike
of the chamber. a straight-walled case that will drag the
length of the case as it is pulled from
the chamber, the taper case will release

Figure 8: Tapered cases. From left to right: .223 Remington, 9x19mm Parabellum, .22 Hornet, .300 H&H Magnum,
.22-250 Remington, .250 Savage, .348 Winchester, 7.62x39mm.

91
 almost immediately, depending on the the case volume is greater in relation to
degree of taper. the bore diameter. The bottleneck case is
designed for high pressure, high velocity
Cases that were originally designed to cartridges over a vast range of calibers.
be made from steel will typically feature The bottleneck design revolutionized
a greater taper. Steel will not contract as small arm ballistics by providing flatter
much as brass after firing, so the case de- trajectories than anything before it.
sign must account for the added friction.
Cases that are made of steel but were not With all things being equal (caliber, bul-
originally designed so may experience a let weight, and case length), a bottleneck
greater chance of sticking in the chamber design will produce higher velocities
because of the lack of a sufficient taper. than a straight-walled or tapered case
because of the increase in case volume.
Case taper may be slight, like the .223 Bottleneck cases are not limited to rifle
Remington/5.56x45mm NATO and its calibers either; there are many pistols
1° tapered body. One of the most heavily that are chambered for high velocity
tapered cases is the 7.62x39 with a 2.7° bottleneck cartridges. The body of the
taper. Other tapered cases include the bottleneck case will almost always feature
9x19mm Parabellum (1.14º), .22 Hornet a slight taper (1° – 2º) leading up to the
(1.58º), .300 H&H Magnum (1.92º), .22- shoulder to assist with extraction because
250 Remington and .250-3000 Savage most bottleneck cases are quite long.
(2.3º) and the .348 Winchester (2.46º). The bottleneck design can be found in
• Bottleneck – The bottleneck case de- rimfire, rimmed, semi-rimmed, rebated
sign features a body of a larger dimen- rim, and belted cases in calibers from .17
sion than the diameter of the projectile. to .50.
The diameter of the body will taper The design of the bottleneck case will
(the shoulder) down to the neck, which vary by caliber. The case may feature a
provides greater case capacity for a body that is much larger than the neck
given caliber. The bottleneck case is also diameter, like with the .223 Winchester
known as an “overbore” design, meaning

Figure 9a: Bottleneck cases. From left to right: .17 PMC Aguila, .32 NAA, .357 SIG, .400 Corbon, HK 4.6x30mm,
.300 AAC Blackout, .375 Reaper, .224 Valkyrie, .223 Winchester Super Short Magnum (WSSM), .243 WSSM, .25
WSSM, .17 Remington, .338 Marlin Express, .35 Remington, .303 British, .270 Winchester, .338 Lapua Magnum,
.300 Weatherby Magnum, .375 H&H Magnum.

92
Figure 9b: Bottleneck case cross-sections. From left to right (pairs): 7.62x25 Tokarev, 5.7x28mm FN, .458 SOCOM,
.22-250 Remington, .308 Winchester, 7.92x57mm Mauser, .300 Winchester Magnum, .50 BMG.

Super Short Magnum (WSSM), .243 the ledge inside the chamber and cause
WSSM and .25 WSSM, or the body an excessive headspace issue. The belted
may only be slightly larger, like with the case can now be found in both tapered
.300 AAC Blackout, .375 Reaper and .35 and bottleneck cartridges. Belted bottle-
Remington. Other bottleneck designs neck cases will still headspace against
include the .50 Browning machine gun the belt. One of the original belted car-
(rimless), .300 Winchester Magnum tridges, the .375 Holland & Holland,
(belted), .303 British (rimmed), .338 became the parent case for many others,
Marlin (semi-rimmed), .458 SOCOM including the .458 Lott, .300 Weatherby
(rebated rim), 5.7x28mm FN (rimless Magnum, .300 Winchester Magnum,
rifle/pistol), 7.62x25 Tokarev (rimless .257 Weatherby Magnum, .450 Marlin,
pistol) and the .17 Aguila (rimfire). and 6.6mm Remington Magnum.

• Belted – The belted case design features

a band of material above the extractor
groove used to headspace against. The
belted case is often associated with high
power, “magnum” cartridges, with the
misunderstanding being that the belt
adds significant strength to the case. The
only purpose of the belt is for headspace.
Although all belted cartridges are very
powerful, there are more powerful car-
tridges that do not utilize a belt.

The belt was introduced as a design fea-

ture for large caliber, straight wall (non-
bottleneck) cases where headspacing off
of the case mouth would be too dan- Figure 10a: Belted cases. From left to right: .450 Marlin,
gerous. The fear was that the straight- 6.5mm Remington Magnum, .300 H&H Magnum, .300
walled case mouth could slip forward of Weatherby Magnum, .458 Lott, .375 H&H Magnum.

93
Figure 10b: Belted case cross-sections. From left to right (pairs): .458 Winchester Magnum, .257 Weatherby Magnum,
.300 Winchester Magnum.

CASE CAPACITY
Case capacity is a measure of the volume inside between case wall thickness in cases from the
the case’s body, from the web to the mouth. A same manufacturer can affect capacity. Brass de-
case with greater capacity can hold more pro- signed for military use will often feature thicker
pellant and produce more energy. Case capac- walls. Because of the dimensional restrictions
ity is measured in grains of water, which gives on the outside of the case, the added material
an accurate measure of the total volume inside is typically internal, meaning less case capacity.
the case but does not represent the amount of
Inconsistencies in case capacity can have an ad-
propellant the case will hold. Some of the case
verse effect on chamber pressure, pressure curve,
volume is consumed by the projectile and in
velocity, and precision. For example, two cases
the case of shotshells, wads and fillers. The re-
with the exact same bullet weight, seating depth,
maining volume is not filled completely with
and propellant charge, but with different ca-
propellant; there is typically a small amount of
pacities, will produce different results. The case
“air space” or empty space to allow for room for
with the smaller internal volume will experience
expanding propellant gas.
a greater peak chamber pressure with a pressure
Case capacity can be affected by several factors. spike sooner in the pressure curve, as well as pro-
Assuming various cases utilize the same caliber duce higher velocities. The case with the greater
projectile, bottleneck cases will have a greater internal volume will experience a lower peak
capacity than tapered cases, which have a great- chamber pressure, with a pressure spike farther
er capacity than straight-walled cases. Cases of along the curve and producing lower velocities.
the same caliber may feature slightly different The reason for this is the propellant gas will lose
capacities because of variations between dif- pressure the more it expands; a greater internal
ferent manufacturers. Even inconsistencies volume will allow the gas to expand more.

94
Figure 11a: Various case capacities. From left to right: 7.65mm Browning Short 60 grain AP, .22 Long Rifle 36 grain
hollow point, 9x19mm Parabellum 50 grain hollow point, .357 SIG 125 grain CMJ, .45 ACP 138 grain frangible, .17
Hornady Magnum Rimfire 17 grain hollow point, 5.7x28mm FN 40 grain polymer tipped, .458 SOCOM 335 grain
hollow point, .300 AAC Blackout 110 grain polymer tipped (Supersonic), .300 AAC Blackout 212 grain polymer tipped
(Subsonic), 5.56x45 NATO 62 grain AP, 12 Gauge 2¾ in. 1¼ oz. #6 Birdshot, .444 Marlin 225 grain hollow point, .410
Bore 3 in. ¼ oz. slug, 7.62x51mm NATO 155 grain AP, .257 Weatherby Magnum 115 grain OTM, .458 Winchester
Magnum 500 grain FMJ, .50 BMG 750 grain aluminum tipped.

95
Figure 11b: Case capacity of commercial versus military brass.

96
 Figure 12: Brass cartridge cases.

Case Materials as 65,000 psi, providing great strength

without being brittle. Brass is ductile
enough to withstand the plastic (perma-
nent) deformation the case undergoes
Cartridge cases are typically made from brass
when the cartridge is discharged and also
but can be found in a variety of different materi-
exhibits elastic (temporary) deformation
als. Materials are chosen for their performance,
to a small degree when the expanded
attributes, workability, availability, or cost. Some
case contracts to nearly its original size.
cartridges may even use multiple materials to
Brass will expand to seal the chamber
form the case. The various materials include:
and contract slightly to aid in extraction.
• Brass – Brass is the most common mate- The malleability of brass makes it very
rial used in the construction of cartridge easy to work, turning flat disks into cases
cases (and shotshell case heads), for sev- through a series of drawing steps. This
eral different reasons. Brass (in conjunc- is the reason the first metallic cartridges
tion with a steel chamber) is capable of were all made from brass. Brass is also
withstanding chamber pressures as high softer than steel. The soft brass case will

97
 not scratch or otherwise damage the Brass is also a very good thermal con-
steel chamber or extractor. Brass will not ductor.5 During discharge, some of the
rust, but it may tarnish and, in severe in- energy from the expanding propellant
stances, corrode. will be transferred to the case in the form
of heat. The case acts as a heat exchanger,
Brass (Boxer primed) cases are also the transferring heat from the discharging
only case type that are reloadable. The cartridge to the chamber of the firearm.
malleability of brass allows for multiple The exchange of heat is not an issue
resizing and discharging cycles without when only firing a few rounds per min-
compromising the integrity of the case. ute. The issue arises during sustained fire,
One of only a few drawbacks of brass is rapid fire, and automatic fire. Excessive
that it will work-harden after a few (to heat in the chamber can cause premature
several, depending on caliber) reloads. wear on the throat of the barrel. With
Often, the work-hardening can be allevi- some closed-bolt machine guns, exces-
ated by annealing the brass. The brass sive heat in the chamber can lead to a
case will eventually go through enough condition known as “cook off,” where the
discharging and reloading cycles that the round in the chamber is heated to the
case walls will become too thin and fail or point where the propellant in the case
the case will become too brittle and crack. will automatically ignite (auto-ignition)
A few downsides to the brass case are without the primer being struck.
cost and heat. Brass-cased ammunition is • Steel – Steel has been used as a viable
typically more expensive per round than substitute for brass for over 75 years. The
steel- and aluminum-cased ammunition. primary reasons steel would be used for
Although the manufacturing process is cartridge cases instead of brass are cost
fairly similar, the cost of raw materials is and availability. Steel is more cost effec-
much higher. The price of the case will tive as a raw material for case manufac-
also go up with the quality of the case. turing and is more likely to be available
Mass produced, military, and bulk cases during war time resource shortages. This
will cost less than cases manufactured
with tighter tolerances.

Figure 13: Steel cartridge cases. From left to right (pairs): .380 ACP, 9x19mm Parabellum, 7.62x39mm, 5.45x39mm,
5.56x45mm NATO, .308 Winchester.

98
was especially true of European and
Asian countries during WWI, WWII,
and later, where brass was too expensive
or not available.

As a case material, steel is stronger

than brass, which makes it more than
capable of withstanding extreme cham-
ber pressure. Steel will experience more
plastic deformation than brass as the
case expands to seal the chamber, but
will exhibit less elastic deformation as Figure 14: Aluminum cartridge cases.
it will not contract as much as a brass
case. Because steel is harder than brass
and does not contract as much as a brass
case, steel cases may create more wear
on the extractor during extraction than • Aluminum­ – Aluminum is also used
a brass case would. The wear from steel as a cost-effective substitute for brass.
is greater with cases that were not origi- The cost of raw materials for aluminum
nally designed to be made from steel, cases is much lower than brass cases and
like the .223 Remington or the .45 ACP. does not fluctuate as much with market
Steel does not conduct heat nearly as ef- changes. Aluminum also has the benefit
ficiently as brass, causing the case to stay of being much lighter than brass, weigh-
hotter (and in turn, expanded) longer ing only about a third as much. This may
than a brass case. not seem like an advantage for the aver-
age civilian firearm owner, but for police
While the manufacturing process for and military applications, where they
steel cases almost mirrors brass, steel must carry several pounds of gear and
will wear drawing dies more than brass. ammunition, the weight savings really
While steel may not be as easily work- makes a difference.
able as brass, the use of a very mild (low
carbon) steel ensures it will not be overly The downsides of the aluminum case are
hard or brittle. Steel cases also cannot several. First, aluminum is not as strong
typically be reloaded because they are as brass or steel.6 Aluminum has a lower
manufactured by European and Asian yield strength than other case materials
countries where Berdan primer is pri- and is not nearly as ductile. When an
marily utilized. Many indoor ranges do aluminum cartridge is fired, the case will
not allow steel-cased ammunition be- expand to seal the chamber but will not
cause the range cannot sell the cases as contract as much as brass or steel. This
scrap or reload them for resale. Unlike is why aluminum cases are reserved for
brass, steel will rust and corrode. This is low pressure pistol applications. Another
why the majority of manufacturers will reason why aluminum is not used for
plate or coat the case to protect it from high pressure or rifle applications is be-
the elements. Steel case coatings include cause of its relatively low melting point
brass, copper, lacquer, and polymer. These compared to brass or steel.7 The stress
coatings also protect the chamber from from firing also makes the case weak and
the steel case. brittle, which prevents aluminum cases

99
 Figure 15: Polymer hybrid cases.

from being reloadable. Aluminum does Although the hybrid plastic case has
feature the benefit of not rusting, is fairly found great success with shotshells,
corrosion resistant, and does not require which are fairly low pressure, hybrid rifle
any additional coatings. and pistol cases have not. Over the past
few decades, many companies have tried
• Hybrid-Metal/Polymer/Composite – to bring a polymer hybrid case to frui-
A hybrid cartridge case utilizes two dis- tion with little to no success. The big-
similar materials in its construction. The gest issue with plastic cases has always
hybrid cartridge case design is not some been the type of polymer used. Either
“cutting edge” or “futuristic” concept. In the material was too soft and could not
fact, the hybrid case has been around for contain the pressure or would melt, or
almost 150 years in the form of the paper the material was too hard and brittle,
shotshell.8 The paper shotshell utilizes a causing cases to crack or split. Within
paper (tube) body and a brass head. The the past few years, many companies have
modern version of the hybrid case, the introduced polymer cased ammunition
plastic shotshell, has been around since in an attempt to evolve the traditional
the early 1960s. Like the paper shell, the metallic cartridge. Advances in material
plastic shell utilizes a plastic (low density and manufacturing have made the poly-
polyethylene LDPE/high density poly- mer hybrid case viable, but much of the
ethylene HDPE) tube body and a brass concept’s stigma has followed through
(or brass plated steel) head. The body with these new designs. Like the shot-
may be joined to the head mechanically, shell, polymer-cased ammunition also
bonded to the head with adhesive, or utilizes a polymer/composite body and a
molded to the head during the injection metallic head.
molding process.

100
While many of the companies producing reduction (heat and flash), increased
hybrid polymer casings are only filling accuracy and precision, corrosion resis-
military and law enforcement contracts, tance and recyclability. Unlike a brass
a couple have begun sales to the civilian case, which acts as a heat sink or heat
market. Much of the advantage of the exchanger, the polymer hybrid case acts
polymer hybrid case is not realized by the as an insulator.10 Instead of the burning
civilian market. For military and LE, the propellant transferring energy (in the
advantages are many. The greatest advan- form of heat) to the case, the insulating
tage of the polymer hybrid case is weight properties of the polymer case allow the
savings.9 The polymer cartridge weighs propellant to burn more efficiently. The
between 30 percent and 40 percent less body of the polymer hybrid case can also
than a traditional brass cartridge, which be manufactured more consistently to
means soldiers can carry more ammuni- a tighter tolerance than a brass or other
tion or more gear. The weight savings is metal case. This means the internal vol-
also advantageous for vehicle and aircraft ume and neck tension is more consistent
mounted weapons, allowing them to from case to case. An efficient, consistent
carry more ammunition or conserve fuel burn rate coupled with a more consis-
from the reduced mass. The weight sav- tent case manufacturing process will
ings is also beneficial when transporting lead to more consistent velocities, which
pallets of ammunition to the battlefield, will lead to greater precision. Another
allowing more ammo to be carried or less advantage of the polymer case manufac-
fuel wasted. turing process and the ability to control
internal volume is that case volume can
Other claimed advantages of polymer be reduced for subsonic loads, removing
hybrid ammunition include signature unneeded empty space.

The polymer/composite hybrid case also

has the benefit of being rust and corro-
sion proof. This means cartridges can be
stored for a greater amount of time with-
out worry of degrading (as long as the
metal head of the case is properly coated).
Polymer hybrid cases can also be dyed to
help identify the type of bullet/load being
used (ball, tracer, AP). Some cases can
even be recycled, making the polymer hy-
brid case environmentally friendly.

Another type of hybrid case has been

introduced recently: the metal-metal
hybrid. The metal hybrid case, like the
polymer hybrid pistol/rifle case, has been
a bit of an obscurity in the past that
never really went mainstream. Previous
incarnations featured a two-piece brass

Figure 16: Metal hybrid cases.

101
body and steel head that screwed togeth-
er.11 Other designs have been introduced
for military use or have undergone mili-
tary trial to replace brass-cased ammuni-
tion, but none have been adopted yet.12
Recently, one design has begun to gain
ground in the race to replace brass. 13

Utilizing a nickel/stainless alloy body

and a nickel plated aluminum case head
provides many actual and some claimed
benefits over the traditional brass case.
First, is weight savings and strength. The
use of aluminum allows for a lighter case,
while the alloy body provides greater
strength than brass or steel. The manu-
facturing technique also allows for a case
with greater capacity at a cost less than
or comparable to bulk brass. Because
nickel and stainless do not conduct heat
as much as brass, the case and chamber
stay cooler, and the propellant is burned
more efficiently.

102
 is neglected, the carbon buildup will

Case Coatings cause cases to stick. Additionally, the case

can heat up to the point where the lac-
quer melts and adheres to the chamber
Case coatings are used primarily to prevent cases walls. Over time, these layers will build
from rusting, corroding, or tarnishing. Coatings up and will make feeding, chambering,
can also be used to improve feeding and extrac- and extracting more difficult. This is es-
tion. Steel cases are primarily coated, but coat- pecially true of cartridges that were not
ings can also be found on brass (or hybrid) cases. originally designed to be manufactured
The various case coatings include: from steel (like the .223 Remington).

• Lacquer/Polymer – Lacquer and poly- • Nickel/Copper/Brass – Nickel, cop-

mer are both used on steel cases to pro- per, and brass are all used to plate brass
tect the case from rust and corrosion. and steel cases. Nickel is primarily used
Originally, steel cases were coated with on brass cases, while copper and brass
lacquer, which is a natural resin mixed are used on steel. Nickel is used as more
with alcohol. Polymer was introduced as of a performance case coating on brass.
an alternative to lacquer and has nearly Nickel is used to prevent brass cases from
replaced lacquer in popularity. There are tarnishing or corroding as well as to make
situations where both lacquer and poly- the cases “slicker.” Nickel has a lower coef-
mer case coatings will “gum up” a hot ficient of friction than brass, which makes
chamber and cause cases to stick. The the cases feed and eject more easily. Nickel
issue arises because steel cases will not plated brass cases also feature the advan-
expand as much as brass and will allow tage of still being reloadable. Brass and
a small amount of gas blowback past the copper are used to plate steel cases to pre-
case into the chamber. When the firearm vent them from rusting or corroding.

Figure 17: Lacquer and polymer coated steel cases.

103
• Black Oxide – Black oxide is a surface
conversion coating used on brass cases.
Black oxide is used primarily as an aes-
thetic coating or for marketing hype, but
also provides some corrosion resistance.
Unlike lacquer/polymer, nickel, or cop-
per/brass, black oxide does not add any
material thickness to the case.

Figure 18: Nickel plated brass cases.

Figure 19: Copper and brass plated steel cases. Figure 20: Black oxide coated cases.

104
NOTES
NOTES
 Chapter 5 - Propellants: History, Type, Burn Rate and Charges
PROPELLANT 109
A Brief History 110
TYPES OF PROPELLANT 115
Explosives vs. Propellants 115
Burn Rate 115
Charge Weight 125
Load Density 126
Figure 1a: Smokeless powder.

Propellant
Propellant is the fuel or “energy” of the cartridge.
When the propellant is burned, the solid fuel is
converted into rapidly expanding gas (sublima-
tion). This high pressure gas forces the projec-
tile from the case and through the bore of the
firearm. Depending on the cartridge, the pro-
pellant can produce high pressure gas ranging
from 12,000 to 65,000 psi, driving a projectile
between 700 and 4,000+ fps.
Modern smokeless propellant is often misiden-
tified as gunpowder or “black” powder. Although
both modern black powder and smokeless pro-
pellant are used in some current production
firearms and cartridges, they differ significantly.
Modern smokeless propellant and gunpowder
are not the same and are often not interchange-
able. The major difference between smokeless
and black powder is that black powder will
burn at the same rate whether confined or not.

109
 Figure 1b: Smokeless propellant.

Smokeless propellant will only burn at a high chemical oxidizer (consisting of one molecule of
rate when confined and pressurized.1 Smokeless potassium, one molecule of nitrogen, and three
propellant is also about 3X to 4X more pow- molecules of oxygen). The spark came from di-
erful than black powder (of the same weight/ rect flame, punks, rudimentary fuses, or pieces
volume) and produces significantly less smoke of flint. Black powder was used as a propellant
and fouling when burned. Black powder is also and explosive for “firearms,” rockets, cannons,
a “powder,” while smokeless propellant is made mortars, grenades, and other implements of war
up of granules. for over a millennium and still finds some use
with modern black powder breech and muzzle-
A BRIEF HISTORY loaders as well as some black powder cartridges.

Gunpowder, or black powder, changed the land- Along with being both impact and shock resis-
scape of the world and the way wars have been tant, black powder is also hygroscopic, mean-
fought for over 1,000 years. Chinese alchemists ing it is efficient at absorbing water.3 If black
accidentally created the first known chemical powder is not properly stored, the powder will
explosive in the mid-9th century while trying absorb moisture from the air. This may cause
to create an elixir of youth.2 Originally, black the powder to fail to ignite or burn erratically.
powder was a composition of saltpeter (potas- Outside of the white smoke that is produced
sium nitrate KNO3, ~75 percent), sulphur (~10 when burning, black powder also burns very
percent), and charcoal (~15 percent), but the ra- dirty (leaving the bore with contaminates and
tios and formula have changed over time. Black fouling) and is corrosive.
powder is classified as a low explosive because of Through the years, attempts were made to im-
the characteristics of its burn rate. prove and refine the formula for black powder,
To create fire or combustion you need three but despite the advances in design, the core
things: fuel, oxygen, and a spark. With black mixture remains fairly original. Sources and
powder, the sulphur and charcoal are used processes for raw materials were standardized
as fuel, while the saltpeter is used as a solid to ensure consistency between batches, and

110
materials have been refined for purity, but the of the 19th century (~1884), a French chemist
basic formula has remained unchanged. Even named Paul Veillie created what would become
the techniques used to process raw materials the first single base smokeless propellant.6 By
and form kernels improved (rolling kernels in treating the guncotton with alcohol and ether,
graphite to reduce hygroscopicity), but the base Veillie discovered he could stabilize the com-
product remained the same. pound, which was gelatinized, rolled into sheets,
The introduction of the self-contained car- and cut into flakes. Veillie called his new pro-
tridge and conical bullets necessitated a new pellant Poudre B. Poudre B is made up of 68.2
fuel that would push these “modern” projectiles percent insoluble nitrocellulose and 29.8 percent
farther. Black powder is fairly inefficient, with soluble nitrocellulose gelatinized with ether and
45 percent – 55 percent of its output being in- 2 percent paraffin.
ert solids (smoke and fouling) that have nothing A few years later, Alfred Nobel discovered he
to do with the propulsion of the projectile.4 It could improve upon Veillie’s formula by com-
wasn’t until the mid-to-late 19th century that bining guncotton and nitroglycerine. Nobel
we began to see the beginning of a suitable re- called his formula “Ballistite,” which became the
placement for black powder. In the mid-19th first double base smokeless propellant. Ballistite,
century, two European chemists (one Italian with its added nitroglycerine, was even more
and one Swiss) invented nitroglycerine and powerful than Poudre B. Ballistite is made up of
guncotton/nitrocellulose, respectively, both of 45 percent nitroglycerine, 45 percent nitrocel-
which would lead to the next successful firearm lulose, and 10 percent camphor.
“fuel.” 5 Nitroglycerine is a high explosive cre- Shortly after, the British government obtained
ated by nitrating glycerol, while guncotton is a samples of both Poudre B and Ballistite for
highly flammable substance created by nitrating testing but concluded they were not suitable
cellulose (cotton). for their application. Two British chemists,
These new substances were found to burn cooler, Frederick Abel and James Dewar, discovered a
cleaner, and produce more gas volume (and in method of dissolving a mixture of nitroglycer-
turn, pressure) per original mass than black pow- ine, guncotton, and petroleum jelly in acetone
der, but both guncotton and nitroglycerine were to create a paste that could be pressed through a
found to be too powerful and unstable and not die and formed into strings. The new propellant
suitable for small arms propellant. Near the end was appropriately named “Cordite.”

Figure 2: Poudre B.

111
 Figure 3: Cordite.

The original formulation of Cordite (Cordite when contained in a pressure vessel like a car-
MK I: 58 percent nitroglycerine, 37 percent tridge or chamber/bore. Outside of containment,
guncotton, 5 percent petroleum jelly) proved to Cordite will burn very slowly and uneventfully.7
be very corrosive on chambers and bores so it Near the end of WWII (~1945), Cordite began
underwent a slight formula change to reduce its to fall out of favor as a new generation of pro-
corrosiveness. Cordite MD (modified) was in- pellants began to gain popularity. During WWI,
troduced (65 percent guncotton, 30 percent ni- several new powders were developed in an ef-
troglycerine and 5 percent petroleum jelly) and fort to replace Cordite. The Dupont company
proved to be easier on barrels. During WWI and introduced a new line of smokeless propellants
WWII, Cordite also saw several new formula- they dubbed IMR (Improved Military Rifle)
tions: Cordite RDB, SC, and N, the latter being powders. These propellants are nitrocellulose
the first triple base smokeless propellant. With based (single base) but include several additives
Cordite N, guncotton and nitroglycerine were to control burn rate (dinitrotoluene, DNT), sta-
mixed with another explosive, nitroguanine. bilize (diphenylamine) and reduce muzzle flash
Unlike black powder, Cordite (and most mod- (potassium sulphate). During the manufactur-
ern smokeless propellants) will only burn rapidly ing process, the mixture is extruded, forming

Figure 4: IMR propellant.

112
 Figure 5: Ball propellant.

small sticks. This is why IMR got the nickname

“stick” powder. IMR has been manufactured in
a variety of formulations and sizes.
In the early 1930s, a new process reshaped the
manufacturing of smokeless propellant as well
as the grain itself. Unlike the extrusion process
that forms sticks that fall into a tray, the new
process dripped the propellant mixture into
water. As the droplets move through the water
they are shaped by other droplets, which form
them into balls or spheres.8 This new propel-
lant was appropriately named “ball” powder.
This new propellant not only changed the way
propellant was manufactured, but also made the
process much safer because most of the process
is under water.
Ball propellant is double base, consisting of
both nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine. When
formed, the droplets only consist of nitrocellu-
lose. The nitroglycerine is added after the grains
are formed and dried through surface impreg-
nation. DNT or other similar substances may
also be used to control burn rate. Ball propellant
didn’t gain popularity until the 1950s, but can
now be found in a variety of formulas and sizes.

113
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY BLANK

114
 While modern propellant is designed to def-
Types of Propellant lagrate under pressure, too much pressure may
cause the velocity of reaction propagation to
increase, possibly detonating. A detonation of a
Modern propellants haven’t really changed cartridge inside a firearm is possible and would
much in the past 100 years. They are still mostly be catastrophic and could potentially cause inju-
nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine based and are ry (or worse) to the operator. Bullet setback, an
manufactured in much the same way as they overcharged cartridge, the incorrect propellant
were a century ago. The biggest change to mod- type, or squibs can also lead to a situation where
ern propellants is the additives. These additives a pressure spike can destroy a firearm.
are designed to control the propellant’s burn
rate, provide longterm stabilization, reduce the BURN RATE
amount of fouling and reduce the signature of
the shot (in the form of flash and smoke). All propellants are not created equal. Some pro-
pellants are meant to burn quickly, and some are
Before discussing the various types of propel-
designed to burn at a slower rate. The differenc-
lants, we need to briefly cover one of the char-
es may only be measurable in milliseconds, but
acteristics of propellant: the burn rate. The burn
when you are dealing with a buildup of 50,000+
rate is a product of the composition of the pro-
psi, the difference is very important. There is
pellant, its additive and stabilizers, and the shape
a huge variety of propellant types, with each
of the individual granules. Controlling burn rate
manufacturer producing many different types
is extremely important for the safety of the op-
for pistol, rifle, and shotgun cartridges. Modern
erator. Too rapid of a burn rate and the firearm
propellants can be classified into two basic
becomes a grenade. Pairing the correct burn rate
types and three basic shapes, all of which have
with a specific cartridge or firearm will ensure
a different burn rate. Manufacturers will classify
the combination is safe to use and provides the
propellant types even further by burn rate (fast
best possible performance.
and slow) and will typically publish a list of pro-
pellants from fastest to slowest. Both the type
EXPLOSIVES VS. PROPELLANTS and shape of the propellant, along with a variety
To understand propellant burn rate, you must of additives, are designed to control burn rate.
first understand the difference between an ex- The composition of the propellant is one major
plosive and a propellant. The major difference factor affecting burn rate. Explosive base reac-
between the two is the speed at which the reac- tion propagation will vary depending on the
tion propagates, meaning how fast each kernel base used, as well as the amount of energy (pres-
burns and how quickly each adjacent kernel is sure) and byproducts (smoke, carbon, fouling).
ignited. A reaction wave that propagates faster Additives will also alter the reaction propaga-
than the average speed of sound (1,125 fps) or tion, producing varied byproducts. The two pro-
is supersonic is known as detonation. A reaction pellant types are organized by the base(s) they
wave that propagates slower than the speed of utilize. The two types of propellants include:
sound or is subsonic is known as deflagration.
Single Base – A single base propellant only
Although all the base explosives utilized by var-
utilizes one explosive compound in its formula.
ious propellants (nitrocellulose and nitroglycer-
With single base propellants, the explosive base
ine) detonate at supersonic speeds (23,000+ fps
is typically nitrocellulose (guncotton). Single
and 25,000+ respectively), the manufacturing
base propellants will also contain other addi-
process and various chemical additives (retard-
tives used to control burn rate, provide stabili-
ers) slow the reaction dramatically.1
zation, reduce fouling, and bind all the various

115
chemicals. Because of the exclusive use of ni- rapidly falls off. The second base also makes
trocellulose, single base propellants tend to burn double base propellants burn hotter and pro-
slower than double base propellants. Single base duce more fouling. Like single base propellants,
propellants will typically create a pressure curve double base propellants also utilize additives to
that quickly peaks before plateauing and gradu- control burn rate, provide stabilization, reduce
ally falling off. Single base propellants tend fouling, and bind all the various chemicals.
to burn cleaner (less fouling) and cooler than Additives – Propellant manufacturers utilize
double base propellants and are affected less by additives to control many aspects of the propel-
ambient temperatures. lant’s reaction. Some additives are used as pre-
Double Base – A double base propellant utilizes servatives or stabilizers to prolong the useful/
two explosive compounds in its formula. With safe life of propellants. Deterrents, moderants,
double base propellants, the two base materi- and retarders are used to slow the burn rate of
als are nitrocellulose and, typically, nitroglycer- certain propellants. Plasticizers are used to pro-
ine.2 Other explosive bases may include nitro- tect the shape of the grain from breakage. Other
guanidine, bis-nitroxyethylnitramine (DINA), additives act as detergents, removing fouling or
tetramethylolcyclopentanone tetranitrate, di- copper deposits from the bore. Other additives
ethylene glycol dinitrate (DGN), acetyl cellu- are used to reduce muzzle flash and reduce wear
lose, dinitroethylenglycol and dinitrotoluene. on the throat and bore of the firearm.3
The addition of a secondary base increases a Nitrocellulose based propellants may break
double base propellant’s energy output as well down over time due to an abundance of residual
as its burn rate. Double base propellants tend to nitric acid leftover after manufacturing the gun-
burn much quicker than single base propellants. cotton. This deterioration could lead to an un-
Double base propellants will typically produce a stable material that could lead to spontaneous
pressure curve that immediately peaks and then combustion. Stabilizers are used to slow down

Figure 6: Single base vs. double base pressure curves.

116
the decomposition of the propellant. Single base Detergents are used to prevent and remove copper
propellants are more prone to degradation than fouling and carbon buildup inside the bore. For
double base propellants. Single base propellants every round fired, carbon and other solid waste
utilize acetone or ethyl alcohol in their mixture, byproducts are deposited in the bore as a result
which is more volatile than nitroglycerine and of the reaction of the propellant burning. The
therefore more likely to dissipate. When these friction the projectile experiences as it is forced
compounds begin to deplete, the propellant will through the rifling, down the bore, can lead to
begin to deteriorate and may become unstable. a small amount of copper being deposited (gall-
Some compounds used as stabilizers include di- ing) on the rifling. Adding certain compounds
phenylamine, petroleum jelly, calcium carbon- to the propellant can prevent this buildup from
ate, magnesium oxide, sodium bicarbonate, and sticking to the bore, which will be “wiped” away
beta-naphthol methyl ether. by the next shot. Using materials like bismuth or
Pure nitrocellulose and nitrocellulose/nitroglyc- various bismuth compounds will remove copper
erine compounds alone burn too quickly to be buildup in the bore. Copper dissolves in molten
safely used as propellants. Deterrents/moder- bismuth, which leaves a very brittle alloy that is
ants are utilized to slow the burn rate of both easily wiped from the bore by the following shot.
single and double base propellants. Modifying Other detergents include tin, tin dioxide, bis-
the burn rate of a propellant allows the manu- muth trioxide, bismuth subcarbonate, bismuth
facturer to tune the propellant for the best pos- nitrate, and bismuth antimonide.6
sible performance for a given caliber. Slowing Flash reducers are used to lessen the amount of
the burn rate of a propellant allows it to cre- flash that is seen from the muzzle of the fire-
ate steady pressure for longer. Deterrents may arm. The same way smoke produced from black
be layered on the grain to prolong its burn rate powder marked a soldier’s position during bat-
even further. When the granule is ignited, the tle, muzzle flash can also give a soldier’s position
outer layer of deterrent is burned (slowly) first away. One drawback to using a flash reducer is
until the layer of nitrocellulose or nitroglycerine the slight increase in smoke. Various flash re-
is reached. The kernel will then begin to burn ducers include potassium chloride, potassium
more rapidly until reaching the next layer of nitrate, potassium sulfate, and potassium hydro-
deterrent. This process will continue until the gen tartarate.7
whole granule has been consumed. The last types of additives that may be used in
The consistency of the burn rate from granule to modern propellants are wear reducers. These
granule is dependent on the size of each kernel. are typically solid lubricants designed to reduce
Granules of the exact same shape and size will friction as the bullet is pushed through the bore.
burn at the same rate. Granules that break or Wear-reducing additives include wax, talc, tita-
are crushed produce smaller pieces with greater nium dioxide, ethyl acetate, rosin, and graphite.8
surface area that burn faster than the complete Outside of composition, the shape and den-
granule. If too many of the propellant granules sity of the propellant plays a vital role in burn
are crushed or break, it can cause a pressure rate. The size and shape of the propellant di-
spike that could be catastrophic. Plasticizers are rectly control the rate at which pressure is re-
used to reduce the brittleness of the individual leased. When propellant is burned, the reaction
grains of propellant. Plasticizers also reduce the (sublimation) will only occur along the exposed
need for solvents that may dissipate and cause surface of the granule. If the surface area of the
the propellant to decompose.4 Various plasticiz- grain is increased (or decreased), the rate of
ers include di-normal propyl adipate (DNPA), the reaction (and pressure release) will change.
diethyl phthalate, dibutyl phthalate, triacetin The density of the granule will also determine
(glyceryl triacetate) nitroglycerine, dinitrotolu- the length of time that it burns. High density
ene, and ethyl centralite.5

117
granules will burn longer than low density gran- The manufacturing process produces balls of
ules. There are three basic shapes of propellant, varying sizes. The balls are sifted and sorted by
with many variations of each shape. The three size. The various sizes of granules will all have
basic propellant shapes include: a different burn rate. Smaller spheres will burn
Ball/Spherical – Ball or spherical propellants, as faster, while larger spheres will burn for longer.
their name implies, are formed into small orbs The manufacturing process also removes much
that may be perfectly round or may be slightly of the excess nitric acid from the nitrocellulose,
pressed or “flattened.” Just like the original ball lessening decomposition and extending storage
powder introduced around WWI, modern ball life of ball propellants. The manufacturing pro-
propellants are formed in water through a pro- cess for ball propellant is also much quicker, of-
cess of agitation. The gelatinized nitrocellu- ten taking only a few days as opposed to several
lose is dripped into water, where the impact of weeks for other propellant types.
other granules forms the globs into very dense Because of the size and high density of the in-
spheres. All ball propellants begin life as single dividual granules, ball propellants tend to burn
base propellants. It isn’t until after the granules slowly. This slow burn allows pressure to build
are dried that (if the propellant is designed to be gradually, while peak pressure is maintained for
double base) they are rolled in nitrocellulose and a longer duration. Because of their shape, ball
the surface is impregnated. propellants will burn from the outside inward,
reducing the amount of surface area of the
granule as it is converted into gas. The pressure
curve of ball propellants will typically peak rap-
idly before plateauing for a short duration and
then gradually falling off. Flattened ball pro-
pellants will burn at a different rate than true
spherical propellants. The flattened ball burns
more like a flake, which increases the velocity
of the burn rate.
Ball propellants will also typically burn cooler. A
cooler burning propellant will transfer less heat
to the throat and bore of the firearm, which will
contribute to less wear. The shape and density
of ball propellant also makes it ideal for meter-
ing specific amounts. It easily flows in powder
dispensers, producing consistent charges be-
tween cartridges. Other propellant types may be
crushed by the powder dispenser, yielding incon-
sistent results. One drawback to ball propellants
is that they are typically temperature dependent.
The performance of the propellant may vary de-
pending on the ambient temperature.
Ball propellant is used primarily with rifle car-
tridges with lighter projectiles, especially U.S.
military rifle cartridges (military WC 846
double base ball propellant for 5.56x45mm
Figure 7: Various ball and flattened ball propellants. NATO M855 and 7.62x51mm NATO M80).

118
 Figure 8: Ball propellant pressure curve.

Ball propellants are also used with some mag- propellant granule is a short to medium cyl-
num (high velocity) pistol cartridges, such as inder, but small “tubes” are also very common.
the .357 Smith & Wesson Magnum and the Tube-shaped granules feature a single (some-
.44 Remington Magnum. Some ball propellants times multiple) perforation through the center
may even see some use with shotshell cartridges, of the cylinder. These perforations are designed
like the .410 bore. to allow the granule to burn from the outside in,
Extruded – Extruded propellants are named as well as the inside out. As the granule burns
after the process used to form the individual from the outside in, the surface area of the gran-
granules. Extruded propellants begin as a single ule decreases, but as the granule burns from the
or double base mixture that has the consistency inside out, the surface area increases. This allows
of dough or clay. The mixture is pressed through the surface area of the granule to remain fairly
an extrusion die that forms long tubes or cords constant as the entire granule burns.
that are then cut to size. The resulting granules
are shaped like small sticks or tubes. This is why
extruded propellant is often referred to as “stick”
powder. With extruded propellants, the bases
and most additives are mixed before being ex-
truded. Other additives may be added after the
granules are shaped and cut to size.
Extruded propellants can be manufactured in
various shapes and sizes with varied lengths and
surface areas. The basic shape of an extruded
Figure 9: Extruded cylindrical propellant.

119
 Figure 10a: Extruded tubular propellant. Figure 10b: Extruded tubular propellant cut into
smaller disks.

Like ball propellants, the size and shape of propellants will typically peak rapidly before
extruded propellants lend to a propellant that plateauing for a longer duration and then will
burns on the slow side. Outside of additives and gradually fall off. Extruded propellants tend to
deterrents, extruded propellant burn rate is con- burn slightly hotter than ball propellants and
trolled by the size and shape (cylinder or tube) tend to leave more fouling in the bore.
of the individual granules. The burn rate of ex- The size and shape of extruded propellants pres-
truded propellant can be slowed by making the ent issues when metering them through powder
individual granules larger and/or longer and can dispensers. Longer granules can be crushed or
be accelerated by making the granules smaller cut off by the dispenser, yielding granules of
and/or shorter. Solid cylindrical granules will varying sizes, which may alter the burn rate. This
also typically burn slower than perforated, tu- issue is resolved by making the granules shorter
bular granules. The pressure curve of extruded so they flow more easily through the dispenser.

Figure 11: Extruded propellant pressure curve.

120
The manufacturing process may also create results in an immediate pressure release that
granules with varying densities and burn rates. will quickly dissipate.
Extruded propellants are used primarily with Like other extruded propellants, flake propel-
large caliber rifle cartridges and heavy projec- lants present issues when metering. Because of
tiles where case volume is a concern. Cartridges the shape of the flakes, the individual granules
like the .300 Winchester Magnum and .50 can stack up and cause inconsistent metering.
BMG typically utilize extruded propellants be- This will lead to inconsistent performance when
cause of their burn rates as well as their volume. the cartridge is discharged. The density of the
Extruded propellants with shorter granules may flakes may also vary, which will affect perfor-
also find use with some pistol calibers, such as mance. Flake propellants burn hotter than ball
the 9x19mm Parabellum .38 S&W Special, .44 propellants, which can lead to additional bore
S&W Special, and .45 ACP. Some faster burn- wear, but are not as temperature sensitive.
ing extruded propellants may even be used with Flake propellants are common for low-pressure,
some shotshell cartridges. low-volume applications like pistols and shot-
Flake – Flake propellant is appropriately named guns with lighter projectiles. Their size and
so because the individual granules are shaped shape make them perfect for low volume cases
into small disks or “flakes.” Like stick or tube (with projectile and/or wad seated) where ball
propellants, flake propellants are also extruded; or extruded propellants would fill the case be-
they are just cut into smaller (thinner) granules. yond capacity. Flake propellants are typically
Flake propellants can also be single or double used with cartridges that use lighter projectiles
base. Flake propellants can be manufactured in moving at subsonic to just past supersonic ve-
various sizes (diameters) and thicknesses to ma- locities. Flake propellants are used with popular
nipulate burn rate. shotshell calibers, like the 12- and 20-gauge,
Flake propellants are designed to burn from the and with pistol cartridges, like the .32 Auto and
outside in, primarily from the large “flats” on .45 Colt.
each side. The large surface area on each side of Now that we have a basic understanding of
the granules and the flakes’ thin profile lend to propellant granule shapes and their densities,
a propellant that is very fast burning. Outside we can discuss the characteristics of how the
of size of the individual granule, additives are individual granules burn and how it affects per-
used to tailor the burn rate of flake propellants formance. There is not a universal rule for burn
to suit their specific application. The pressure rates based on granule shape and density. Each
curve of flake propellants will (typically) im- individual propellant type features a unique burn
mediately peak before rapidly falling off. This rate based on its formulation and the additives

Figure 12: Flake propellants.

121
 Figure 13: Flake propellant pressure curve.

used by the manufacturer. Granule shapes that (decreasing surface area), so will the inside of
burn fast or slow may have their burn rate al- the granule (increasing surface area). Neutral
tered by additives or deterrents. There are three burning propellants are typically slower burn-
basic types of burn rate: ing but can be altered with additives and deter-
Regressive – As the granule burns, its surface rents. The pressure curve of neutrally burning
area decreases. As surface area of the grain de- propellants will (typically) rapidly peak before
creases, so does the amount of gas released. A plateauing and then rapidly fall off.
regressive burn rate is the most common type Progressive – As the granule burns, its surface
of granule decomposition. Ball, flake, and ex- area increases. As the surface area of the grain in-
truded (solid) cylindrical granules all burn re- creases, so does the pressure released. Extruded
gressively. Regressively burning propellants granules with multiple perforations will burn
are typically fast burning but can be slowed by progressively. Typically, progressive propellants
adding deterrents to the granule. The pressure are slow burning. A regressively burning granule
curve of a regressive propellant will (typically) can be made to burn progressively with the ad-
immediately peak before rapidly falling off. dition of surface deterrents. The deterrent will
There will be an almost instant pressure release make the granule burn slowly initially, produc-
before rapidly dissipating. ing a minimal amount of pressure until the un-
Neutral – As the granule burns, its surface area derlying layers are reached. Once the under lay-
will remain fairly consistent throughout the er is reached, the speed of the burn (and amount
reaction. The pressure release from a neutral of pressure released) will increase. The pressure
burning granule will remain fairly constant un- curve of a progressively burning propellant will
til the granule has been completely consumed. (typically) rapidly rise before gradually peaking,
Extruded, single perforation granules will burn plateauing for a short duration, and then rapidly
neutrally. As the outside of the granule burns fall off.

122
 Figure 14: A comparison of propellant type pressure curves.

So why is burn rate important? A burn rate that this rule is shotgun and some magnum pistol
is not properly matched to its application can cartridges. Shotguns will typically utilize faster
lead to wasted energy or worse: destruction of burning propellants, while some magnum pistol
the firearm and potential injury to the operator. cartridges will utilize slower burning propellants.
When pairing a propellant to a cartridge and If a fast burning propellant were to be used in
firearm, there are two very important consider- a longer barrel, the reaction and pressure re-
ations: barrel length and projectile weight. lease would cease before the projectile left the
Of the two factors, barrel length is the most im- muzzle. Depending on the length of the barrel,
portant consideration. There is a direct correla- the friction of the rifling on the projectile may
tion between the time of the reaction and the overcome the pressure behind it and cause the
length of the barrel. A general rule of thumb is projectile to begin to decelerate before exiting
that longer barrels require slower propellants, the muzzle. With a worst case scenario, a fast
while shorter barrels require faster propellants. burning propellant in a long barrel could lead
With longer barrels the propellant must produce to a pressure spike that would be catastrophic
gas and pressure for a longer amount of time as to the firearm and hazardous to the operator.
the projectile travels through the barrel. With In contrast, if a slow burning propellant were
shorter barrels, the propellant must produce gas to be used in a shorter barrel, the reaction and
and pressure quickly before the projectile exits pressure release may not be complete before the
the muzzle. This is why rifles will typically uti- projectile exited the muzzle. This would result is
lize slower burning propellants, while pistols will a huge muzzle flash from the still burning pro-
use faster burning propellants. The exception to pellant and a waste of pressure and energy.

123
 Figure 15: Burn rate pressure curves.

Shotguns utilize faster burning propellants be- using slower propellants for magnum pistol car-
cause they do not face the same conditions as tridges is the wasted energy. With most magnum
rifled pistol and rifle barrels. When a cartridge cartridges, there is a huge muzzle flash when the
is fired through a rifled rifle or pistol barrel, projectile exits the muzzle, which is caused by
the oversized projectile is squeezed through propellant that is still burning.
the bore. This requires an immense amount of Projectile weight also plays an important factor
pressure to accomplish. Because shotguns typi- in propellant selection. Typically, a heavy-for-
cally utilize smoothbore barrels, they do not caliber projectile will require a slower burning
require as much pressure to push the wad or propellant than a light-for-caliber projectile.
projectile(s) out of the muzzle. The wad/projec- The reasoning behind this is that a heavy pro-
tile experiences far less friction than through a jectile requires more energy to move than a
rifled barrel, so the rapid pressure release of a lighter projectile. If too fast of a propellant is
fast-burning propellant is all that is needed to used with a heavy projectile, the chamber pres-
drive them through the barrel at relatively low sure may peak before the projectile has begun to
velocity (~1,200 – 1,300 fps). move. Under the right circumstances (too fast of
Magnum pistol cartridges utilize a slower burn- a propellant and too heavy of a projectile), this
ing propellant to provide more pressure to drive scenario can be catastrophic to the firearm and
the projectile at a higher velocity. The slower hazardous to the operator. In contrast, a slow
propellant and longer pressure buildup lead to propellant and a light projectile will lead to a
velocities far greater than standard pistol rounds projectile moving at a high velocity.
(1,500 – 1,600 fps). The biggest downside to

124
To add confusion to things, the propellant is a light projectile. With all things being equal
not (typically) continually burning as the pro- (caliber, case capacity, and propellant type), a
jectile travels the complete length of the barrel. lighter charge will propel a heavier projectile at
Complete propellant burn usually occurs within a slower velocity, while a heavier charge will pro-
the cartridge and the first couple of inches of the pel a lighter projectile at a greater velocity, with
bore. Slower propellants may burn for a longer both loads producing almost the same chamber
duration than faster propellants, but the reaction pressure. For example, if you were to throw two
still only occurs within about 6 in. – 8 in. of the rocks, one heavy and one light, with the same
chamber with a small amount of the propellant.9 force, the heavier one will travel a shorter dis-
The projectile will reach its maximum velocity tance at a slower velocity, while the lighter rock
shortly after leaving the case and will continue will travel a farther distance faster.
to be propelled by the continually expanding gas. So why does this happen? Why doesn’t a heavi-
As the projectile moves down the barrel, the vol- er projectile require more propellant, or why
ume inside the bore increases and provides more doesn’t a lighter projectile require less propel-
room for the combustion gas to expand, which lant and why do both loads produce almost the
in turn causes a decrease in pressure regardless same chamber pressure? The answer is case vol-
if the propellant is slow or fast burning. Slower ume, which is a product of projectile weight. To
propellants will experience less gradual pressure confuse things more, it’s not so much the weight
loss than fast propellants but will still experience of the projectile, but its length. Because projec-
loss as the bore volume increases. tiles face diameter constraints, as the weight
of the projectile increases, so does its length.
CHARGE WEIGHT Also, because most cartridges face length con-
Charge weight is the measurement of the mass straints (overall length OAL), as the length,
of a particular amount of propellant for a specific weight, and/or length of the projectile increases,
cartridge and projectile weight (see Figure 16). it must be seated deeper into the case to meet
Charge weight will vary with caliber, propellant OAL requirements. As the projectile is seated
type, and projectile weight. As a rule of thumb, deeper into the case, the volume inside the case
a heavier projectile utilizes a lighter charge than is reduced.

Figure 16: A propellant charge from a .380 ACP (~3.5 grains)

versus a propellant charge from a .50 BMG (~240 grains).

125
As the volume inside the case is reduced, less
propellant is needed to reach a peak chamber
pressure. With lighter projectiles, there is more
volume inside the case for the combustion gas
to expand. As the volume inside the case is in-
creased, more propellant is needed to reach the
same peak pressure. Even small variances in the
wall thickness of the case can cause variations in
chamber pressure.
Charge weight is typically measured in grains.
One grain is equal to 1/7000 of a pound or ~
1/15 of a gram. As the size of the cartridge in-
creases, so will the charge weight. Small car-
tridges, like the .380 ACP, may only utilize
around 3.4 grains of propellants, while the .50
BMG requires around 241.5 grains of propel-
lant. Table 1 is a list of various charge weights
by cartridge and projectile weight.

LOAD DENSITY
Load density is measurement of the volume the
propellant charge occupies inside the case. Load
density is a product of case capacity and propel-
lant bulk density.10 Bulk density is a ratio of a
grain of propellant’s mass to its volume that it
occupies, typically expressed in grams per cu-
bic centimeter (g/cc). Most cartridge loads will
feature a load density that is around 80 percent
– 90 percent case capacity, meaning that after
the propellant is loaded into the case and the
projectile is seated to depth, there will be around
10 percent – 20 percent empty (air) space left in
the cartridge. A load density of 100 percent or
greater is known as a “compressed” load. This
means that the seated projectile is actually com-
pressing the propellant inside the case.

126
 Various Cartridge Charge Weights*
Average Projectile Average Charge
Cartridge
Weight (in Grains) Weight (in Grains) **
.380 ACP 90 3.4
9x19mm NATO 115 5.2
.40 Smith & Wesson 140 6.9
.45 ACP 230 5.7
5.7x28 FN 40 6
.22 Hornet 40 11.3
.357 S&W Magnum 125 7.4
.44 Remington Magnum 240 10.7
.500 S&W Magnum 500 22.9
.223 Remington 55 23.1
.300 Blackout (Subsonic) 220 10.2
7.62x39 125 28.8
6.5mm Grendel 100 27.4
6.8 SPC 110 26.8
.30-30 Winchester 150 30.5
.243 Winchester 55 44.4
.45-70 Government 300 54.5
6.5 Creedmoor 130 34.5
6.5x55 Swede 120 42.2
.308 Winchester 150 44.7
.257 Weatherby Magnum 115 63
.30-06 Springfield 165 46.8
.300 Winchester Magnum 180 68
.358 Winchester 220 44.8
.338 Lapua Magnum 250 84.6
.416 Rigby 350 101.7
.450 Bushmaster 250 40
.50 Browning Machine Gun 750 241.5
12-Gauge 2¾“ 1 oz. Slug 437.5 (1 oz.) 32.3

*These figures are only averages based upon several propellant types. Do not try to use these figures as reloading data. Always refer to
manufacturer’s load data for specific cartridges and propellants.

**Data gathered and averaged from www.hodgedonreloading.com.

Table 1. Various cartridge charge weights.

127
NOTES
 Chapter 6 - Centerfire Primers
CENTERFIRE PRIMERS 131
Parts of a Primer 132
How a Primer Works 135
Types of Primers 136
Primer Sizes 138
130
Figure 1: Various primer types.

Centerfire Primers
The primer is the ignition system of the cartridge.
The spark and flame created when the primer is
struck ignites the propellant and initiates com-
bustion. There are three basic types of primers,
with several different sizes, none of which are in-
terchangeable. Depending on the style of primer,
it may consist of two to four components.
Centerfire primers are used exclusively with
centerfire pistol, rifle, and shotgun cartridges.
Rimfire cartridges utilize a rim-incorporated
primer. The centerfire primer resides in the
primer pocket of the cartridge case. The primer
is slightly oversized (.001 in. – .002 in.) and must
be pressed into the primer pocket. The use of a
separate priming assembly allows a cartridge to
withstand immense pressure without compro-
mising the case’s integrity. Another benefit of
using a removeable primer is that the centerfire
cartridge can be reloaded. Because a rimfire car-
tridge utilizes a hollow rim that is filled with
priming compound, they are generally not able
to be reloaded.

131
PARTS OF A PRIMER the cartridge case walls can be substan-
tially thicker to contain higher pressure.
Although all centerfire primers function in the
same basic manner, the three basic types differ Depending on the type of primer, the
significantly in their construction. These three cup may contain other parts to help
basic types are battery cup, Berdan, and Boxer. initiate ignition or may only contain
The various components that are used in the the priming compound. The battery
different primer types include: cup primer type utilizes a smaller cup
inside of a larger, inverted cup to help
• Cup – The primer cup is the centralized
strengthen the assembly. The cup-in-cup
component of the primer, and the only
assembly provides structure for the com-
component the average shooter ever sees.
ponents and is used in a primer pocket
It is the component in which all of the
that could not otherwise support the
other components are imbedded. The
reaction without it. The outer cup of this
cup is appropriately named because it is
primer type features its own “flash hole”
shaped like a tiny, shallow cup. The cup
because the case does not. The outer cup
may either be composed of thin-walled
also features a flange or lip around its
brass, copper, or in some cases, steel, and
mouth to prevent it from being seated
may be nickel plated in some instances.
too deeply into the primer pocket.
It utilizes a fairly thin material thickness
so that it can be reliably deformed by the Like brass cases, cups are also formed
firearm’s firing pin or striker. on presses with dies. The cups are then
tumbled in abrasive media to polish and
This is one reason that rimfire cartridges
remove any burrs from the mouth of the
cannot be utilized for more powerful car-
cup and to ease insertion into the primer
tridges. As pressure inside the case is in-
pocket. The cups may also be nickel plat-
creased, so must the case’s wall thickness
ed to add a layer of material to enhance
to contain the pressure. The firing pin or
corrosive resistance.
striker would not be able to reliably crush
the rim of the cartridge and initiate com- • Anvil – The anvil is a small, triangular,
bustion. The thin material of the primer pyramid shaped component used to help
cup allows for reliable deformation, while initiate ignition in the primer. The anvil

Figure 2: Various primer cups.

132
 Figure 3: Various types of anvils.

sits inside the cup and provides a back- compound. The anvil is located in the
ing for the cup to work against. The anvil primer pocket of the case. When the cup
sits just shy of flush with the inside of is impacted by the firing pin, it bottoms
the cup and provides a small space for out against the protrusion in the center
the priming compound to sit between. of the primer pocket. Because of this, the
When the cup is crushed, the resulting flash holes are located along the side of
crater bottoms out against the point of the case’s integral anvil.1
the anvil and initiates ignition. The three
“legs” of the anvil bottom out against • Priming Compound – The prim-
the floor of the primer pocket. The area ing compound is a very sensitive, very
around each leg is where the spark and volatile explosive. The chemical com-
flame from the priming compound move pound used for priming is known as a
to pass through the flash hole of the case. primary explosive. A primary explosive
is a compound that is very sensitive to
Only two of the three primer types uti- heat, friction, impact, or electricity. The
lize an anvil. These are the Boxer and primary explosive used as a priming
battery cup primer designs. Battery cup compound is sensitive to impact. Outside
primers feature a flat anvil that sits per- of the primary explosive that is used for
pendicularly in the inside cup. The anvil detonation, the compound also utilizes
features two legs that sit against the out- oxidizers, sensitizers, and metals, such as
side cup and a point that faces the inside aluminum and magnesium.
of the inside cup. The two legs of this
anvil bottom out against the inside of The composition of priming compound
the outer cup and the inside cup’s crater has evolved many times over the years.
contacts the tip of the anvil. The spark The first primers that we would recog-
created blows through the flash hole of nize as a “modern” primer utilized mer-
the outer cup. cury fulminate as the primary explosive
compound. The first primer adopted by
The Berdan primer does not utilize a the U.S. military utilized a compound
self-contained anvil at all. This type of composed of mercury fulminate, potassi-
primer features only the cup and priming um chlorate, glass dust, and gum arabic.2

133
 Figure 4: Priming compound.

The issues with this compound were that adopted by the U.S. military.4 Since then,
the mercury reacted with the brass of almost all U.S.-made priming com-
the cartridge case, making it brittle and pounds (both military and non, as well
susceptible to failure upon discharge, and as rimfire cartridges) have been non-cor-
the potassium chlorate was very corrosive rosive. This non-corrosive priming com-
to the chamber and bore of the firearm. pound consisted of lead styphnate (40
The decomposition of potassium chlo- percent), barium nitrate (40 percent), and
rate creates potassium chloride, which is tetrazene (4 percent).5, 6 The mixture also
very hygroscopic, drawing moisture into contains aluminum, antimony sulfide,
the bore and chamber and causing corro- and PETN (pentaeythritol tetranitrate)
sion and rust. to account for the final 16 percent. Lead
styphnate is the explosive, while barium
Because of the corrosive nature of mercu- nitrate is used as an oxidizer. Tetrazene
ry fulminate/potassium chlorate primers, is used as a sensitizer to ensure the lead
a need arose for a non-corrosive priming styphnate ignites when crushed by the
compound. In 1928, a German company cup and anvil. The aluminum, antimony
named RWS introduced the first non- sulfide, and PETN are all used as fuel.
corrosive primer.3 The compound utilized The use of aluminum also ensures igni-
a mixture of lead styphnate and barium tion of the propellant as the molten met-
nitrate. Although the new compound was al comes in contact with the individual
non-corrosive, it did not meet the U.S. granules.
military standards for storage and reli-
ability, so the U.S. continued to use cor- Depending on the manufacturer, modern
rosive primers throughout WWII. priming compounds may also contain
magnesium and powdered glass. The
It wasn’t until around 1955 that the magnesium serves the same purpose as
non-corrosive priming compound was aluminum, providing spark and molten

134
 metal to increase the reliability of com- HOW A PRIMER WORKS
bustion. Powdered glass is used to in-
crease friction and improve the reliability The process of initiating combustion inside a
of ignition in the primer. Most rimfire cartridge may seem simple, but it is one of the
cartridges will also use powdered glass in most crucial steps in firing a cartridge. The reli-
the priming compound to increase the ability and performance of the primer translate
reliability of ignition. to the reliability and performance of the car-
tridge. If the primer fails to ignite, the cartridge
Because of the growing concerns for lead will not fire, no matter how many times the fir-
exposure, the latest generation of primers ing pin strikes the primer. If the performance of
is moving toward a priming compound the primer is not consistent, accuracy and preci-
that is lead-free. The solution to this sion will suffer.
issue is replacing lead styphnate with
When a cartridge is fired, ignition is initiated
a lead-free alternative such as nitrocel-
by one of two means, either with a firing pin
lulose.7 These lead-free primers utilize a
or striker. The firing pin is driven by the ham-
compound that consists of nitrocellulose
mer, while the striker is self-propelled by its
(20 percent), bismuth oxide (60 percent),
own spring. The momentum of the steel firing
aluminum (10 percent), and a mixture
pin or striker will create an indentation in the
of sensitizers, fuels, and binders (10 per-
soft brass (or copper) cup of the primer. As the
cent). Nitrocellulose is utilized as the ex-
cup deforms, the protrusion formed on the in-
plosive, while the bismuth oxide is used
side of the cup will butt against the anvil. The
as an oxidizer. The aluminum is used to
anvil, being bottomed out against the inside of
sensitize the nitrocellulose as well as help
the primer pocket (or against the inside of the
ignite the bismuth.
outer cup or integral to the case) has no room
• Foil/Paper – The primer (sometimes) to move.
utilizes a small, thin piece of paper or As the crater in the cup moves into the anvil,
foil to cover the priming compound. The it will begin to crush the priming compound.
paper/foil serves to prevent any loose Being a shock-sensitive primary explosive, the
priming compound from mixing with small amount of compound (~20 milligrams
the propellant as well as prevents any for small primers and ~36 milligrams for large
propellant from mixing with the priming rifle primers8) detonates. Sensitizers and (some-
compound. The foil/paper also serves as times) the use of glass powder, assist in the deto-
a barrier from any moisture coming in nation of the priming compound. The reaction
contact with the priming compound. creates flame and spark in the form of molten
metal (aluminum, magnesium, zirconium, tita-
nium, nickel, zinc, and bismuth). The reaction
also produces enough gas to begin to pressurize
the case. The flame and spark are forced through
the flash hole(s) and onto the propellant. The
pressure created is substantial enough to push
the primer cup from the primer pocket until it
contacts the breech/bolt/slide face. The entire
reaction lasts about 200 to 1,500 microseconds
(1/5,000 – 3/2000 of a second).9
The cartridge’s load density will determine how
far the flame and spark will reach into the case.
Figure 5: Foil/paper. With very dense or compressed loads, the flame

135
and spark will only reach the propellant closest that utilizes a single, centrally located
to the flash hole(s). With less dense loads, the flash hole. The major benefit of the
propellant can shift in the case, which allows the Boxer primer is that it can be easily re-
flame and spark to reach granules closer to the moved and replaced so that the cartridge
case mouth. The number of propellant granules case can be reloaded. One drawback is
ignited initially by the propellant can affect the that it is more complicated and costs
propellant reaction’s pressure curve. more to produce than a Berdan primer.
Any variance in the amount of priming com- The Boxer primer comes in five basic
pound can also alter the pressure curve. Too lit- sizes: small pistol and rifle, large pistol
tle compound, and the flame and spark will not and rifle, and .50 BMG, as well as mag-
initially ignite as much propellant. Too much num and benchrest variations.
priming compound, and the reaction may cre- • Berdan – The Berdan primer is the
ate so much pressure that the propellant is com- standard primer type used in Europe,
pressed and experiences erratic ignition.10 Once Asia, and most of the world. The Berdan
the propellant ignites and begins to build pres- primer consists of a cup, priming com-
sure, the case will begin to expand and stretch pound, and a foil or paper cover. The
to fill the chamber. The head of the case will Berdan primer resides in a primer pocket
stretch and butt up against the breechblock/ that features its own integral anvil with
bolt/slide face, pressing the primer back into the two flash holes on either side of the
primer pocket. anvil. The major benefits to the Berdan
primer are its simplicity and cost. Berdan
TYPES OF PRIMERS primed cases can be reloaded but are
much more difficult to do so because
To again briefly summarize the various
of the dual flash hole arrangement. The
primer types, we provide the following
Berdan primer comes in several sizes, but
descriptions: the most common are small pistol and
• Boxer – The Boxer primer is the stan- rifle and large pistol and rifle.
dard primer type used in the United
States. The Boxer primer consists of • Battery Cup – The battery cup primer is
a cup, pyramid shaped anvil, priming the standard primer type used in all shot-
compound, and a foil or paper cover. The shells and with some muzzleloaders. The
Boxer primer resides in a primer pocket battery cup primer is also known as the

Figure 6: Various Boxer primers.

136
 • Magnum – The magnum primer is a
variation of the Boxer primer. Magnum
primers utilize more priming com-
pound and more metal powder in the
compound. Magnum primers are used
for applications where case capacity is
beyond that of the average pistol or rifle.
Figure 7: Berdan primers. The increased amount of compound and
metal in the compound ensures more
consistent ignition with a greater propel-
lant charge.

• Benchrest – The benchrest primer is

209 primer because its average body di- another variation of the Boxer primer.
ameter is .209 in. The battery cup primer Benchrest primers are manufactured
consists of a smaller cup inside of a larger more consistently than other primer
cup that features a lip around its mouth types. This means that the amount of
and its own flash hole. Unlike other anvil compound used is more uniform from
types, which are cone or pyramid shaped, primer to primer. Higher consistency in
the battery cup primer utilizes an anvil the manufacturing process leads to more
that is flat and features two legs that butt uniform ignition from round to round,
against the inside of the outer cup. The which will lead to more consistent ac-
priming compound and foil/paper cover curacy and greater precision. Benchrest
reside in the inner cup. The purpose of primers are (typically) only available in
this cup-in-cup design is that the shot- the small and large rifle sizes.
shell does not utilize a flash hole with
either a “floor” or a flash hole. Like the
Boxer primer, the battery cup primer can
also be easily removed for reloading. The
battery cup primer is only available in
one standardized size.

Figure 8: Battery cup primers.

137
PRIMER SIZES
Primers of varying sizes are used for cartridges of varying sizes. Larger cartridges will require larger
primers to reliably ignite a larger propellant charge. Smaller cartridges require less priming compound to
reliably ignite the propellant. Although some pistol and rifle primer sizes are the same size, they are not
interchangeable. Rifle primers utilize more (and often more powerful) compound than pistol primers.

Primer Sizes
Primer Type Diameter (Inch) Depth (inch)

Boxer
Small Pistol .175” .118”
Large Pistol .210” .118”
Small Rifle .175” .118”
Large Rifle .210” .127”
.50 BMG .315” .215”
Berdan
Small Pistol .177” .091”
Large Pistol .197” .091”
Small Rifle .177” .081”
.217” .111”

.217” .101”

Large Rifle .250” .111”

.254” .091”

.254” .134”
Battery Cup
209 .209” .299”

Table 1. Primer sizes.

138
NOTES
NOTES
 Chapter 7 - A Complete Cartridge
A COMPLETE CARTRIDGE 143
Crimped Primers 144
Charging 145
Seating the Projectile 145
TYPES OF CRIMPS 147
TYPES OF CARTRIDGES 151
Intended Use 162
142
Figure 1: Complete cartridges.

A Complete
Cartridge
Up to this point we have discussed projectiles,
cases, propellants, and primers, and now it is
time to complete the cartridge. For most car-
tridge types, the assembly process is very similar.
Some cartridges require fewer steps to complete,
while others may require more. Regardless of
whether the cartridge is loaded in an automated
machine by a large-scale manufacturer or one-
by-one by hand in a small-scale custom shop,
the process is almost identical. The only differ-
ence is time and quality.
Every cartridge begins life as a fully formed and
properly sized case. The cases are cleaned and
the mouth of the case is (typically) flared, ready
to accept a projectile. With both centerfire and
rimfire cartridges, the first step is priming. With

143
 Figure 2: A primed centerfire case. Figure 3: Crimped primers.

rimfire cartridges, the priming process involves CRIMPED PRIMERS

dropping a small “pellet” of (wet) priming com-
pound into the case. Utilizing centrifugal force, Cartridges intended for military use undergo a
the cases are spun until the priming compound couple of additional steps beyond just seating
is forced into the case rim. The cases are spun the primer. With sustained fire through an au-
with such force that the priming compound tomatic weapon, there is a greater chance that
is compacted into the rim. The priming com- the pressure inside of the case can build up to
pound is allowed to dry before moving on to the a point where the primer is forced out from the
next step. primer pocket. The loose primer can wedge itself
into the action and seize the firearm. Excessive
With centerfire cartridges, the priming step is
heat in the chamber from automatic fire can
much simpler. With the head of the case secured
cause chamber pressure to rise beyond standard
in a shell holder or shell plate, a primer of the ap-
operating pressure, “popping” the primer from
propriate type and size is inserted into the primer
its pocket.
pocket of the case. Utilizing a press or hydraulic
ram, the primer is pressed into the primer pocket To prevent the primers from popping, manufac-
of the case until it sits just below flush of the face turers crimp the primer in place. A small amount
of the case head. This process is the same for of material from the mouth of the primer pock-
Boxer, Berdan, and battery cup primers. et is displaced over the seated primer. When the

Figure 4: Sealed primers.

144
cartridge is hot enough to cause a pressure in- correct propellant charge for a specific propel-
crease, the displaced material holds the primer lant and cartridge and determine its volume. A
in the pocket and prevents it from popping. chamber on the charging machine is adjusted
Various manufacturers will crimp primers in to match the volume the cartridge requires. As
different ways. The most common crimp styles the case moves along the assembly line, pro-
include several small stakes or a complete ring pellant from a hopper is dropped down into
around the mouth of the pocket. the chamber through a trap door. As the case
Military cartridges also utilize sealer on the reaches the funnel of the charge machine, a sec-
primer. The sealer serves to create a moisture ond trap door under the chamber opens and
proof barrier and retain the reliability of the drops a specific amount of propellant into the
primer. The sealer is typically a type of dyed case. This method is precise enough to ensure
lacquer. Ammunition intended for civilian use cases are loaded with a fairly consistent amount
does not typically utilize a primer sealer because of propellant from round to round. For greater
it will not undergo the harsh conditions a sol- precision, charges would have to be weighed
dier may experience. The primer being over- out individually, increasing the time and cost of
sized already creates a tight enough seal in the manufacturing. Some machines will utilize an
pocket to provide enough moisture protection extra stage where the case is checked to ensure
for civilian use; the sealer is just a guarantee un- the case was not under- or overcharged.
der extreme conditions.
SEATING THE PROJECTILE
CHARGING The final component(s) to be incorporated into
Once the case has been primed (or filled with the case is the projectile. This operation may
priming compound), it is ready to be filled with seem straightforward, but there are several con-
propellant. Most major manufacturers will fill siderations to address. The weight and length of
cartridges with a charge based on the volume it the projectile (or number of projectiles), how far
occupies. The manufacturer will determine the the projectile is inserted into the case, and how

Figure 5: Charged cases. From left to right: .308 Winchester,

.300 AAC Blackout (Supersonic), 9x19mm Parabellum, .22 Long Rifle.

145
 Figure 6: Seated bullet. Figure 7: Sealed bullets.

the projectile(s) is secured must all be considered. assembly line, the next machine presses the pro-
The seating process will vary with shotshells and jectile down into the case by its ogive to preserve
rimfire/centerfire pistol and rifle cartridges. the shape of its tip. Manufacturers adjust their
With centerfire pistol and rifle and rimfire seating dies to produce a cartridge with a spe-
cartridges, a single projectile is pressed into cific overall length.
the mouth of the case. This stage is where the Every SAAMI standardized cartridge must fall
process begins to differ for shotshells. Before within a specified maximum cartridge overall
dropping projectiles into a shotshell case, wads length (COAL). This requirement ensures that
and cups are inserted to separate the propellant manufacturers produce a round that will fit in
from the bird, buckshot, or slugs. Without a every firearm that is chambered for that specific
wad or cup, the propellant would mix with the caliber. This specification also ensures that every
bird or buckshot and would not properly ignite. cartridge produced will fit inside of magazines
The wad also serves to act as filler inside the designed for that specific caliber. Cartridges
case, occupying any empty space in the case and loaded beyond maximum COAL may hang up
preventing the other components from shifting or jam in the magazine or may not fit at all. Once
around. The wad(s) also helps the components the projectile has been seated, the cartridge can
reach a specific length so that once crimped, the move on to its final process.
cartridge will reach a specific length. Once the Cartridges intended for military use undergo an
wad(s) or cup has been inserted, the shot or slug extra step before the projectile is seated. Like the
can be added. primer, the projectile is also sealed. Typically, tar
With centerfire pistol and rifle and rimfire or some type of lacquer sealer is applied to the
cartridges, the process is much more simple. bullet before it is seated into the case. Sealing
Seating typically occurs in two stages. In the the projectile and primer ensures the cartridge
first step, a projectile is placed in the mouth will be completely moisture proof and will ex-
of the case. As the cartridge moves down the tend the storage life of the ammunition.

146
Types of Crimps
Now that the bullet is seated, it needs to be se-
cured to the case. If the bullet is not secured,
there is a high probability that the projectile
could be pushed into or pulled out of the case.
If the bullet is inserted too deep, it can create
a pressure spike when discharged because of
the reduced internal volume. This can be cata-
strophic to the firearm and dangerous for the
operator. If the bullet is pulled or falls from the
case, the propellant can fall out into the action
or the feeding device.
Outside of securing the projectile(s) in the case, Figure 8: Cartridges with a taper crimp.
the crimp also serves to increase neck tension.
The increased neck tension helps with combus-
tion by allowing the pressure inside the cartridge • Roll – The roll crimp displaces material
to build. Without the increase in neck tension, from the mouth of the case inward. The
the projectile would begin to move from the case roll crimp is utilized with cartridges that
as pressure begins to rise, increasing case volume do not headspace off of the case mouth
and decreasing peak pressure. The consistency of and with projectiles that feature crimp
neck tension can affect both accuracy and preci- grooves or cannelures. When a cartridge
sion. The measure of the force required to push is crimped using a roll crimp, the mouth
the bullet from the case is known as bullet pull. of the case is rolled inward into the
When the bullet is seated in the case, the flared groove in the projectile. The roll crimp
material around the mouth remains. Crimping is not utilized with cartridges that head-
the mouth of the case moves material inward space against the case mouth because the
to secure the bullet. There are three basic crimp displaced material shortens the length of
types. The type of crimp utilized is based on how the case, which does not allow it to prop-
the cartridge headspaces and on the type of pro- erly headspace in the chamber. The roll
jectile used. The three crimp types are as follows: crimp is also not used with projectiles
• Taper – The taper crimp simply flattens
out the flare along the mouth of the case
and creates a slight taper that decreases
from the neck to the mouth. The taper
crimp is utilized with cartridges that
headspace against the case mouth or
with projectiles that do not feature a
cannelure or crimp groove. The reason
the taper crimp is used with cartridges
that headspace against the neck is that
it leaves a substantial step on the mouth
of the cartridge to bottom out against
the inside of the chamber. Almost all
cartridges intended for use with semi-
automatic firearms use taper crimps. Figure 9: Cartridges with a roll crimp.

147
 Figure 10: Shotshells with a roll crimp.

that do not feature a crimp groove or • Star – The star crimp is a type of crimp
cannelure because the displaced material that is only utilized with shotshells. With
has nowhere to go and forces the mouth the star crimp, the end of the case is fold-
of the case outward. The roll crimp is ed over the top of the shot cup, forming
used primarily with rimmed cartridges triangular segments. The purpose of the
intended for use in revolvers. star crimp is to prevent shot from falling
out of the case. The crimp will typically
There is a variation of the roll crimp that feature six or eight segments. When fired,
is used for shotshells. When a shotshell the segments unfold and open up to form
is loaded with a slug, the mouth of the the top portion of the body. The star
case is rolled inward over the projectile, crimp is used exclusively with shotshells
leaving the nose exposed. When fired, the loaded with bird and buckshot. There
slug pushes against the crimp and causes are some examples of blank cartridges
it to unfurl. The roll crimp can only be that utilize a star crimp on the neck and
used with slugs or with buck/birdshot mouth of the cartridge.
loads utilizing an overshot wad/card. The
overshot card prevents the shot from fall-
ing out of the front of the cartridge.

Figure 11: Shotshells with a star crimp. Figure 12: Blank cartridges with star crimps.

148
 Top: Figure 13a: Complete cartridges. Bottom: Figure 13b: Cartridge cutaways.
From left to right: .50 BMG, .30 – 06 Springfield, .458 Winchester Magnum, .257 Weatherby Magnum,
7.92x57mm Mauser, 7.62x51mm NATO, .410 Bore 3 in., .444 Marlin, 12 Gauge 2¾ in., .300 AAC Blackout
(subsonic), 5.56x45mm NATO, .458 SOCOM, 4.6x30mm HK, .22 WMR, .17 HMR, 10mm Auto, .45 ACP,
.22 TCM, 9x19mm Parabellum, .357 SIG, .22 LR, .32 ACP.

149
150
 fast burning propellants would be detrimental
Types of Cartridges in the longer barrel.
• Pistol – Pistol cartridges are typi-
cally much shorter than rifle cartridges
Now that we have an understanding of the indi- and feature a straight-walled design.
vidual components of a cartridge and how car- Cartridges that are designated as pistol
tridges are assembled, we can discuss cartridge cartridges typically must fit within the
types and their intended uses. The four types dimensional constraints of a magazine
are pistol, rifle, rimfire, and shotshell cartridges. that fits within the grip frame of a semi-
Things become confusing because there are no automatic pistol or the cylinder of a re-
standardized rules of classification, meaning volver. Pistol cartridges may be rimmed,
some rifles are chambered for pistol, rimfire, or semi-rimmed, rimless, rebated rim,
shotshell cartridges, while some pistols may be straight-walled, tapered, or bottleneck in
chambered for rifle, rimfire, or shotshell car- calibers ranging from .25 (.25 ACP) to
tridges. Shotguns are almost always chambered .50 (.500 Smith & Wesson Magnum).
for shotshell cartridges but may feature a second There is also a small segment of pistol
(or third) barrel chambered for a pistol, rifle, or “shotshells,” which are pistol caliber car-
rimfire cartridge. tridges like the 9x19mm Parabellum and
We can begin to group cartridge types together .357 Smith & Wesson Magnum that fire
by their size, but there will always be exceptions small diameter (#9 – #12) birdshot.
to the rule. The size of the cartridge will be our
first clue as to whether it is classified as a pistol, Pistol cartridges are used primarily with
rifle, rimfire, or shotshell cartridge. Shorter car- semi-automatics, revolvers, and single-
tridges will be able to fit within the constraints shot pistols, but the current trend of
of a pistol’s magazine and grip or cylinder, while the pistol caliber carbine (PCC) has
longer rifle and shotgun cartridges would be too created a huge segment of pistol cali-
long to be practical. Shorter pistol cartridges ber rifles. Popular rifle actions, like the
may be able to fit and function in a rifle, but the AR- and AK-style of firearms, can now
be found in popular pistol cartridges

Figure 14: Pistol shotshells.

151
 Figure 15: Various pistol cartridges. From left to right: .500 S&W Magnum, .44 Remington Magnum,
.50 Action Express, 10mm Auto, .45 ACP, .40 S&W, .357 SIG, 9x19mm Parabellum, .25 ACP.

Pistol Cartridge Performance

COAL Bullet Weight Velocity Muzzle Energy
Cartridge
(Inches) (Grains) (Feet-Per-Second) (Foot-Pounds)
.25 ACP .91 45 815 66
.380 ACP .984 90 1,025 210
9x19mm Parabellum 1.169 115 1,180 355
.357 SIG 1.140 125 1,400 543
.40 Smith & Wesson 1.135 135 1,400 587
.22 TCM 1.265 40 2,070 380
.45 ACP 1.275 230 835 356
10mm Auto 1.260 180 1,300 675
.38 Smith & Wesson Special 1.55 125 1,000 277
4.6x30mm HK 1.516 31 2,300 364
.45 Colt 1.6 250 900 449
.50 Action Express 1.610 300 1,500 1,498
5.7x28mm FN 1.594 31 2,350 380
.357 Smith & Wesson Magnum 1.59 125 1,450 583
.44 Remington Magnum 1.61 240 1,350 971
.454 Casull 1.77 300 1,650 1,813
.460 Smith & Wesson Magnum 2.300 300 2,060 2,826
.500 Smith & Wesson Magnum 2.300 500 1,425 2,254

Table 1. Pistol cartridge performance.

152
like the 9x19mm Parabellum, .40 Smith Parabellum (tapered, rimless) and .25
& Wesson, .45 ACP and 10mm Auto. ACP (straight-walled, semi-rimmed).
Many also use already available maga-
zines like the Glock and HK MP5. Pistol cartridges can also be categorized
There is no real performance advantage by their performance. The average pistol
of using a pistol caliber in a rifle; the cartridge has an effective range of about
real advantage comes from cost of op- 100 m (110 yd.), with some calibers
eration and a reduction in recoil. Some shorter, some longer. Many pistol cali-
pistol cartridges have also been used with bers are lethal to a much greater distance
lever-action rifles for over a century. (200 m+), but with short barrels, short
sight radiuses, and limited stability, most
With the exception of some specialty pistols (and shooters) cannot accurately
revolvers, the largest caliber revolver (and reach out to these distances. In fact, most
all handgun) chambering is the .500 pistol shooting occurs from 3 to 50 yd.
Smith & Wesson Magnum, a straight- Pistol cartridges are limited to these per-
walled, semi-rimmed cartridge. The larg- formance standards by two factors: case
est chambering for a semi-automatic pis- capacity and projectile selection.
tol is the .50 Action Express, a straight-
walled, rebated rim cartridge. Other pis- Part of the limitations of pistol car-
tol cartridges include the .44 Remington tridges can be attributed to projectile
Magnum (straight-walled, rimmed), selection. Pistol bullets are often short
.357 SIG (bottleneck, rimless), 9x19mm and wide and feature a blunt nose. Pistol
bullets often have very low SD and BC
and because they are typically moving

Figure 16: Various rifle cartridges. From left to right: .50 BMG, .458 Lott, .308 Marlin Express, .444 Marlin,
5.56x45mm NATO, .300 AAC Blackout (Subsonic), 7.62x39mm, .458 SOCOM, .17 Hornet.

153
 at subsonic speeds, drop fairly quickly. cartridges are not limited in size like pis-
Pistol bullet types include solids, FMJs, tol cartridges and can be scaled to fit any
hollow points, soft points, polymer size magazine or action. Rifle cartridges
tipped, and wadcutter. may be rimmed, semi-rimmed, rimless,
rebated rim, straight-walled, tapered,
The restrictions on COAL limit the bottleneck, or belted in calibers ranging
pistol cartridge to short cases with long from .17 (.17 Hornet) to .50 (.50 BMG).
bullets, longer cases with shorter bul-
lets, and everything in-between. Outside While rifle cartridges are used primar-
of cartridges intended for revolver use ily with semi-automatic and repeating
(which can be fairly long), the only way (bolt- and lever-action) rifles, the current
to increase the power and performance of trend of the rifle caliber pistol has created
a pistol cartridge intended for a semi-au- a growing segment of pistols chambered
tomatic pistol is to increase its diameter. for rifle cartridges. Popular rifle action
Semi-automatic cartridges are limited types, like the AR and AK series of fire-
to about 1.6 in. to ensure that the grip is arms, can now be found in pistol con-
not impractically large. Most cartridges figurations (no stock and short 8 in. – 12
intended for use in semi-automatics are in. barrels) chambered in calibers such as
around 1.250 in. Revolvers can be de- the 5.56x45mm NATO, 7.62x39mm, and
signed to accept much longer cartridges .300 AAC Blackout. These rifle caliber
because the length of the cylinder has pistols are also able to accept high capac-
no bearing on the size of the grip. Most ity magazines as well as drum magazines.
revolver cartridges fall below 1.6 in., but The greatest advantage of the rifle caliber
there are some calibers as large as 2.3 in. pistol is the ability to utilize a powerful
rifle cartridge in an easy-to-maneuver,
Because of their size restrictions, pistol compact package. The major downside
cartridges are (typically) limited to lower to the rifle caliber pistol is the short bar-
velocities and energy levels below rough- rel. Many cartridges will not be able to
ly 600 ft-lb. of energy. There are excep- produce the same performance from the
tions for both performance standards, shorter barrel as they would a full length
with some cartridges reaching velocities (16 in.) barrel. Although there is a reduc-
as high as 2,300 fps and others produc- tion in performance, many rifle cartridges
ing as much as 2,800 ft-lb. of energy. are still able to produce power levels sub-
As energy increases, so will recoil, mak- stantially higher than a pistol cartridge.
ing some of the larger caliber cartridges
impractical for normal pistol usage With the exception of some specialty,
(plinking, competition, and self-defense). single-shot bolt-action rifles, the larg-
Below is a chart comparing pistol car- est commercial rifle cartridge is the .50
tridge performance. BMG, a rimless bottleneck cartridge.
The .50 is also the largest chamber-
• Rifle – Rifle cartridges may be a bit ing for a semi-automatic rifle. Other
harder to classify, especially with some rifle cartridges include the .17 Hornet
of the smaller calibers. The typical rifle (bottleneck, rimmed), .458 SOCOM
cartridge features a bottleneck design (bottleneck, rebated rim), .444 Marlin
and is larger than a pistol cartridge. Rifle

154
 (straight-walled, rimmed), .308 Marlin than pistol bullets, some of which out-
Express (bottleneck, semi-rimmed) and perform the BC of the test model (1.0).
.458 Lott (straight-walled, belted). Many rifle calibers utilize bullets with
BCs between .3 and .8. The high BC
It is more difficult to categorize rifle of rifle bullets also makes it possible for
cartridges by their performance because them to reach velocities beyond 3,000
of the huge disparity in performance fps and maintain supersonic velocities
between small and large rifle cartridges. for a greater distance. Rifle bullet types
A smaller rifle cartridge may have an ef- include solids, FMJs, hollow points, soft
fective range of about 300 m (330 yd.), points, polymer tipped, match, and VLD.
while a large rifle cartridge may have an
effective range beyond 1,000 m. Some Because rifle cartridges are not typically
cartridges are capable of incredible ac- restricted by COAL constraints, they can
curacy beyond 1,000 m. At the time reach performance levels far beyond pis-
of this writing, the world record long tol cartridges. The average rifle cartridge
distance (sporting) shot is 5,280 yd. or generates velocities beyond 2,500 fps and
3 miles, held by the .408 Cheytac. Most 2,500 ft-lb. of energy. Many cartridges
rifle cartridges will be utilized between reach far beyond the standard, with some
100 and 800 yd. The only limitation to cartridges producing as high as 3,900+
rifle cartridge performance is the size of fps and others producing as much as
the cartridge. 13,000 ft-lb. of energy. Below is a chart
comparing rifle cartridge performance.
Rifle projectile selection is one of the
main contributors to the performance • Rimfire – Out of all of the cartridge
of rifle cartridges. Before the advent of types, rimfire cartridges may be the easi-
the spire point or spitzer bullet, rifle est to classify. Any cartridge that does
bullets were blunt like pistol bullets and not feature a centrally located, replace-
had an effective range of about 200 m. able primer and is fired from the rim is a
Modern rifle bullets all have higher BCs rimfire cartridge. Because of the pressure

Figure 17: Various rimfire cartridges. From left to right: .22 BB/CB, .22 Short, .17 PMC Aguila, .22 Long Rifle,
.17 Hornady Mach II, .22 Long Rifle Stinger, 5mm Remington Magnum, .17 Hornady Magnum Rimfire,
.22 Winchester Magnum Rimfire, .17 Winchester Super Magnum.

155
 Rifle Cartridge Performance
COAL Bullet Weight Velocity Muzzle Energy
Cartridge
(Inches) (Grains) (Feet-Per-Second) (Foot-Pounds)
.17 Hornet 1.715 25 3,170 557
.22 Hornet .1700 40 2,825 708
.17 Remington Fireball 1.780 25 3,790 797
.458 SOCOM 2.260 325 1,860 2,496
.243 WSSM 2.36 70 3,700 2,127
.50 Beowulf 2.125 400 1,800 2,877
5.45x39mm 2.244 53 2,900 990
5.56x45mm NATO 2.260 62 3,100 1,322
.224 Valkyrie 2.260 90 2,640 1,392
.300 AAC Blackout 2.260 220 1,050 538
7.62x39mm 2.205 123 2,420 1,599
.450 Bushmaster 2.260 250 2,410 3,223
.22-250 Remington 2.35 50 3,940 1,723
.35 Remington 2.525 200 2,070 1,902
.30-30 Winchester 2.540 150 2,390 1,902
.444 Marlin 2.55 240 2,350 2,942
.45-70 Government 2.55 300 2,275 3,447
.308 Marlin Express 2.60 140 2,800 2,436
.243 Winchester 2.7098 65 3,740 2,018
.308 Winchester 2.800 150 2,820 2,648
6.5mm Remington Magnum 2.800 120 3,210 2,745
.303 British 3.075 174 2,500 2,414
8x57mm Mauser 3.228 196 2,600 2,941
.270 Winchester 3.340 140 2,910 2,631
.30-06 Springfield 3.340 180 2,700 2,913
.458 Winchester Magnum 3.340 350 2,550 5,052
.300 Winchester Magnum 3.340 180 3,140 3,940
.257 Weatherby Magnum 3.209 100 3,600 2,877
.300 Weatherby Magnum 3.562 180 3,250 4,220
.458 Lott 3.60 400 2,550 5,774
.338 Lapua Magnum 3.681 300 2,710 4,891
.408 CheyTac 4.547 419 3,000 8,371
.50 BMG 5.45 750 2,820 13,241

Table 2. Rifle cartridge performance.

156
 Rimfire Cartridge Performance
COAL Bullet Weight Velocity Muzzle Energy
Cartridge
(Inches) (Grains) (Feet-Per-Second) (Foot-Pounds)

.22 BB/CB Cap .343 18 780 24

.22 Short .695 29 1,045 70

.22 Long Rifle 1.000 32 1,430 145

.22 Long Rifle Stinger 1.000 30 1,640 179

.17 PMC Aguila .945 20 1,850 151

.17 Hornady Mach II 1.000 17 2,100 166

5mm Remington Rimfire

1.300 38 2,100 374
Magnum
.17 Hornady Magnum
1.349 17 2,650 265
Rimfire
.22 Winchester Magnum
1.350 30 2,300 352
Rimfire
.17 Winchester Super
1.590 20 3,000 399
Magnum

Table 3. Rimfire cartridge performance.

limitations of the rimfire case, rimfire is the most widely used cartridge type in
cartridges are relegated to small calibers the world. Many firearms chambered for
designed to fit into small pistol and rifle full sized pistol and rifle cartridges have
actions. The modern rimfire cartridge also found success with offering similar
can be found in straight-walled and bot- models chambered for rimfire cartridges.
tleneck types, in .17 (.17 HMR) and .22 This allows training on a familiar plat-
(.22 Long Rifle) calibers. There is also form without the cost and recoil of a
a small segment of rimfire “shotshells,” larger cartridge.
which are rimfire caliber cartridges like
the .22 LR that fire small diameter (#10 At the moment, the largest and most
– #12) birdshot. powerful rimfire chambering for any
rimfire firearm is the .17 Winchester
Rimfire cartridges have found use with Super Magnum, a bottleneck cartridge.
almost all firearm types. All types of pis- At the moment, the largest chamber-
tols, including revolvers, single shots, and ing for a semi-automatic rimfire pistol
semi-automatics, as well as all rifle types, is the .22 Winchester Magnum Rimfire,
including bolt, lever, pump, and semi- a straight-walled cartridge. The average
automatic, have models chambered for a rimfire cartridge has an effective range of
rimfire cartridge. This is part of the suc- about 75 – 100 m. Even the mighty .17
cess of the rimfire cartridge and why it WSM is only effective to around 250 m

157
 Figure 18: Various shotshell cartridges.

Shotshell Cartridge Performance

COAL Projectile
Velocity Muzzle Energy
Cartridge Fired Weight
(Feet-Per-Second) (Foot-Pounds)
(Inches) (Grains)
.410 Bore Slug 3” 109 (¼ oz.) 1,800 784

28-Gauge #8 Birdshot 2¾” 328 (¾ oz.) 1,286 1,204

437 (20 Pellets

20-Gauge #3 Buckshot 2¾” 1,200 1,397
1 oz.)

16-Gauge #6 Birdshot 2¾” 464 (11/16 oz.) 1,330 1,822

12-Gauge #7.5 Birdshot 2¾” 492 (1⅛ oz.) 1,200 1,572

~464 (9 Pellets
12-Gauge 00 Buckshot 2¾” 1,180 1,434
1 1/16 oz.)

12-Gauge Slug 3” 437 (1 oz.) 1,700 2,803

10-Gauge Slug 3½” 765 (1¾ oz.) 1,280 2,782

Table 4. Shotshell cartridge performance.

158
 (275 yd.). Most rimfire cartridges will be Because shotshells headspace against
utilized between 25 and 75 yd. the rim of the case, they can almost be
any length up to the maximum length
Outside of the pressure restrictions of of the chamber. For example, a 12-gauge
the case, projectile selection is probably shotgun with a 3½-in. chamber can
the greatest limiting factor in rimfire safely chamber and fire shotshells from
cartridge performance. Although many 1¾ to 3½ in., and even if the shells will
rimfire projectiles are pushed near or not cycle in the action, they can be single
beyond 2,000 fps, the light weight of the loaded by hand and fired. This allows the
projectiles allows for more deceleration. shooter to use light and reduced recoil
The low SD and BC of rimfire projec- loads to train, compete, or plink with and
tiles leads to a bullet that cannot readily then switch to full power or magnum
overcome air resistance and gravity. The loads for hunting or self-defense. This
light weight of the projectile is also the is part of the versatility that has granted
greatest limiting factor in rimfire car- the shotgun so much success.
tridge energy. Even with velocities in ex-
cess of 2,000 fps, most rimfire cartridges Another factor that has made the shotgun
produce between 150 and 250 ft-lb. of and shotshell so successful is projectile
energy. Below is a chart comparing rim- selection. With proper projectile selection,
fire cartridge performance. the shotshell can be utilized to harvest
everything from birds and small game to
• Shotshells – Like rimfire cartridges, bears, elk, and moose. Projectile selection
shotshells are simple to classify. Their also gives the shotgun a fairly wide ef-
distinguishable, hybrid case construction, fective range. Birdshot is effective out to
rimmed case head, straight body, and star about 50 yd., while buckshot can reach
or roll crimped mouth are all identifying a bit farther out to 75 yd. Slugs will vary
features of the shotshell. Shotshells are depending on whether they are fired from
typically also the only cartridge type to a smooth or rifled barrel but will typically
fire more than one projectile and be fired have an effective range of 100 – 150 yd.
through a smooth bore, although there
are shotshells that feature a single pro- What gives the shotshell its success is
jectile meant to be fired through a rifled also its greatest performance limiting
bore. Shotshells are often straight-walled factor. Birdshot, buckshot, and slugs all
and rimmed in calibers ranging from have very low SD and BCs. Although
.410 (.410 bore) to 10-gauge (.775 in.); the mass of the collection of projectiles
however, smaller shotshells are often used is high, each individual pellet is often
for pest control and are meant for short quite light compared to other projectile
ranges. types. In contrast, the individual weight
of a slug may be great, but it is also very
Shotshells can be used in break, pump, blunt. The mass of the projectile(s) is
lever, bolt, pistol/AOW, and semi-auto- the greatest contributing factor to the
matic actions. There are even a handful energy produced by shotshells. The av-
of revolvers that are chambered for the erage shotshell pushes the projectile(s)
.410 bore cartridge. Other shotshell cali- to around 1,300 fps and produces
bers include (in order of size) 28-gauge, about 1,600 ft-lb. of energy. Table 4 is
20-gauge, 16-gauge, 12-gauge, and a chart comparing shotshell cartridge
10-gauge. performance.

159
 Figure 19: Handloading.

There are other cartridges that fall within the or to reduce recoil or signature. When
four major cartridge types but may not be seating bullets, great care can be taken
standardized or factory manufactured. These to ensure every projectile is seated to the
cartridges may be loaded to be more accurate same exact depth, or seated past SAAMI
than factory ammunition to fill an existing per- recommended COAL for enhanced ac-
formance gap or to fulfill a specialized purpose. curacy and precision. Loads (projectiles
These cartridges include: and charge weights) can be tuned for the
greatest performance or reliability in a
• Handloaded – Handloaded cartridges specific firearm. Handloading can be a
are cartridges that are loaded by a person slow and tedious process, but with pa-
as opposed to being loaded in bulk by a tience, it can yield the greatest possible
machine. Handloading is utilized when performance.
the utmost consistency, reliability, and Wildcat – Wildcat cartridges are “cus-
quality is desired, or to “tune” cartridges tom” cartridges that have not (yet) been
to a specific application. Handloaded standardized by SAAMI. Wildcat car-
cartridges can also be loaded in bulk, but tridges are either brand new designs or
there is little benefit (price or time) over designs modified from existing cartridg-
commercially available bulk ammunition. es. The purpose of a wildcat cartridge is
A reloader (person who handloads) has to fill a performance void or to increase
control over every aspect of the loaded the performance for a specific firearm
cartridge. Every projectile and case can platform.
be weighed and sorted for consistency A wildcat cartridge may utilize a
and every propellant charge can be mea- case from one caliber and a projectile
sured to a fraction of a grain (~.1 grains). from another. Cases can be shortened,
Charge weights can also be tuned to straight-walled cases can be tapered or
increase velocity, accuracy, and precision, have shoulders added and case mouths

160
 Figure 20: Wildcat cartridges. From left to right: 6mm XC- A .250 Savage necked down to 6mm,
.375 Reaper- A .308 Winchester shortened and necked up to .375, .277 Wolverine- A 5.56x45mm
NATO case necked up to .277, .224 Montgomery Wildcat- A .25 ACP case necked down to .224.

can be “necked up” (increased in diam- • Subsonic – Subsonic cartridges are

eter) or “necked down” (decreased in standard calibers that are loaded with
diameter). Shoulders can also be moved heavier-than-standard projectiles at
back or “blown out” (moved forward). slower-than-standard velocities. Subsonic
With some wildcat cartridges, the only cartridges are designed to be fired
modification may be that the angle of through suppressors to further reduce the
the shoulder is changed to increase case signature of the shot. Projectiles traveling
capacity. The rim of a rimmed or semi- at supersonic velocities (~1,125 fps and
rimmed cartridge may also be turned above) produce a pressure wave ahead of
down to form a rimless or rebated rim the projectile that can be heard as a loud
cartridge. To lengthen a case, a new de- “crack” sound. Even when fired through
sign must be utilized. a suppressor, supersonic rounds will still
produce this crack sound. Projectiles
With some wildcat cartridges, the only moving at subsonic velocities (below
thing that is needed to convert a firearm 1,125 fps) do not produce the supersonic
from one caliber to the new cartridge crack, thus reducing the shot's signature.
is a new barrel. Other conversions may
require a new barrel, bolt, and modified While most pistol cartridges are natu-
feeding device. Sometimes, the wildcat rally subsonic, specific loads have been
cartridge is designed for a completely developed to ensure the round is not
new firearm. A cartridge will remain a moving faster than ~1,050 fps while
wildcat until it is adopted by the industry still providing adequate muzzle velocity
and standardized by SAAMI. and energy. For example, the 9x19mm
Parabellum has a standard loading

161
 consisting of a 115-grain projectile mov- function of the cartridge. A low-density
ing at about 1,180 fps, producing 355 propellant is often utilized to help fill
ft-lb. of energy. A subsonic 9x19mm the empty space that would otherwise be
Parabellum may consist of a 165-grain filled with 2X – 3X more propellant.
projectile moving at around 900 fps, pro-
ducing around 300 ft-lb. of energy. Recently, with the sudden popularity
of suppressors, there have been many
The vast majority of rifle cartridges are new cartridges developed specifically
supersonic, 2X – 3X over (2,250 fps – for suppressed applications. One of the
3,375 fps/Mach II and III). When a rifle most popular suppressor cartridges is
cartridge is loaded to subsonic velocities, the .300 AAC Blackout. The Blackout
the load often consists of a heavier-than- is a .30 caliber cartridge designed to
standard projectile and pistol propel- work in AR-15 and similar sized actions.
lant. While a standard rifle cartridge, The Blackout is a modified 5.56x45mm
like the 5.56x45mm NATO, consists of NATO case, shortened and necked up
a 62-grain projectile moving at about to .308. The blackout is capable of firing
3,100 fps (producing ~1,322 ft-lb. of everything from 110-grain projectiles at
energy), a subsonic load may consist of a 2,350 fps, to 220 – 230 grain projectiles
130-grain projectile moving at 1,050 fps at 1,050 fps. In many instances, the sub-
(producing ~ 318 ft-lb. of energy). The sonic load utilizes a projectile that is lon-
propellant selection for subsonic rifle ger than the case and leaves just enough
rounds is crucial to the reliability and internal volume for a small charge.

Figure 21: Cartridges next to subsonic bullets and their supersonic counterparts. From left to right: .300 AAC Blackout
190 grain (960 FPS/subsonic), 190 grain bullet, 212 grain bullet, 111 grain bullet (2,350 FPS/supersonic), 9x39mm
278 grain (1,050 FPS/subsonic), 278 grain bullet, .223 Winchester 130 grain (1,000 FPS/subsonic), 130 grain bullet,
55 grain bullet (3,240 FPS/supersonic), 9x19mm Parabellum 185 grain (950 FPS/subsonic), 185 grain bullet,
165 grain bullet, 115 grain bullet (1,200 FPS/supersonic).

162
Figure 22: Plinking ammunition. From left to right: 12 Gauge 2¾ in. #7.5 Birdshot, 20 Gauge 2¾ in. #7.5 Birdshot,
7.62x39mm, .223 Remington, .45 ACP, 9x19mm Parabellum, .22 Long Rifle.

INTENDED USE designated shooting range. This is not

to say that people plinking are not fol-
Understanding the different cartridge types and lowing the universal safety rules, they
their components is crucial to understanding are just not bound by range rules such
why certain cartridges are used for some tasks. as ammunition restrictions, fire rate, and
Like any task, the correct tool is crucial to prop- designated targets. Plinking is also much
er or successful completion. The plethora of cheaper than shooting at a traditional
calibers, cartridge types, and projectile selection range because there is no range fee and
ensures there is a cartridge that will suit the task you do not (typically) have to purchase
at hand. Always refer to federal, state, and lo- targets or specialty ammo.
cal laws for the use of firearms and various am-
munition types. The various uses for different Plinking is also much cheaper than
cartridges include: other types of shooting because it often
utilizes the cheapest bulk ammunition
• Plinking – Plinking is a form of casual
available. The most popular plinking
target shooting. It is usually done at
cartridge is the .22 Long Rifle. The .22
non-standard shooting ranges, like home
LR is cheap to shoot, plentiful, with low
ranges, private or government-approved
recoil and low noise, and is the perfect
land, at non-standard targets like cans,
cartridge for teaching new shooters.
bottles, pieces of metal, or other natural
A shooter can fire hundreds of rounds
targets. The term “plink” is an example
of .22 LR a day without fatigue, sore
of onomatopoeia in that it comes from
shoulders or wrists, or headache from
the sound of a projectile hitting a tin can
percussion. Other plinking ammunition
or other small piece of metal. Plinking is
includes cheap, bulk ball, or steel-cased
more relaxed than other shooting types
ammo in a variety of popular calibers,
and does not face the same rules as a

163
Figure 23: Long-range shooting cartridges. From left to right: .408 CheyTac- 419 grain solid projectile .949 G1 BC,
.338 Lapua Magnum- 300 grain OTM .736 G1 BC, 6.5mm PRC- 147 grain polymer tipped VLD .697 G1 BC, .308
Winchester- 168 grain OTM .480 G1 BC, 6mm Creedmoor- 108 grain VLD .536 G1 BC, 6.5mm Creedmoor- 120
grain polymer tipped .450 G1 BC, .223 Remington- 77 grain OTM .372 G1 BC, 6.5 Grendel- 123 grain polymer
tipped .510 G1 BC, .224 Valkyrie- 75 grain TMJ Match .400 G1 BC.

like the 9x19mm Parabellum, .45 ACP, regulations, and requirements. The vari-
.223 Remington or 7.62x39mm. When ous competition types include:
plinking with shotguns, the most popu-
lar calibers are 12- and 20-gauge utiliz- › Target – Target shooting is the most
ing birdshot (#7 - #9) shotshells. basic form of competition. With target
shooting, the shooter and the target
• Competition – Competition shoot- are (typically) stationary. The targets
ing is more structured and serious than are standardized and are set at a spe-
plinking. Competition shooting is done cific distance (or distances) for every
at traditional ranges with standardized round of competition. The rate of fire
sets of rules and regulations on officially is often very slow and the round count
sanctioned targets. While plinking is a is often fairly low. The goal of the
more relaxed form of shooting, competi- target shooter is the greatest possible
tors are often placed in situations meant accuracy and precision. Target shoot-
to mimic stresses. Competition shooting ing sports typically hold competitions
is often timed, and, in some instances, for pistol (revolver and semi-auto) and
the shooter will have to run through or rifle (bolt and semi-auto) shooters.
navigate a course. Competition shoot- Target competitions include bullseye,
ing is a broad term for many different silhouette, and benchrest shooting.
shooting sports, all with their own rules,

164
Because target shooting is focused on › Action Shooting – Action shoot-
accuracy and precision, the cartridges ing is a form of competition that is
used are designed for the greatest pos- in drastic contrast to target shooting.
sible consistency. Recoil is not really With action shooting, the competi-
a concern because there is no need tor must navigate through courses of
for rapid follow-up shots, so the am- varying targets, which may also be
munition is often full power. Pistol moving. The rate of fire is often very
shooters will often utilize wadcut- high, with less emphasis on preci-
ter bullets to create the most precise sion and more focus on speed. Unlike
holes in the target for the most accu- target shooting, where winning is
rate scoring. Match ammunition and based on how many shots are in the
projectiles are also very popular with “bullseye,” action shooting relies on
target shooting. Often, target shooters a combination of time and target
will handload their own ammunition, “zones.” As long as a shot falls within
ensuring the greatest possible con- a zone (typically the “A” zone), there
sistency. Handloading their own am- is no time penalty added to the score.
munition ensures the greatest possible Action shooting sports typically hold
accuracy and precision because the competitions for pistol (revolver and
loads are tuned to the specific firearm semi-auto), rifle (almost exclusively
they are being fired from. Calibers are semi-auto and some lever-action), and
often the preference of the shooter shotgun (both pump and semi-auto).
but must usually fall between a mini- Action shooting competitions in-
mum and maximum size. clude USPSA, IDPA, IPSC, 2-Gun,
3-Gun, and Cowboy Action.

Figure 24: Clay shooting cartridges.

165
 Because action shooting is focused yd. away and require a great degree of
more on speed than precision, the precision. Long-range competition
cartridges used are often the cheapest is similar to action shooting in that
bulk ball rounds available. Recoil is shooters compete in dynamic stages
more of a concern with action shoot- while under time constraints. The
ing competitions because it limits round count may not be as high as ac-
the ability for rapid follow-up shots. tion shooting, but the rate of fire may
Many competitors will handload be high. Long-range shooting compe-
cartridges to reduce recoil and allow tition is also similar to action shoot-
for faster shooting and sight track- ing in that hits count anywhere on the
ing. Action shooting competitions target scoring zone and do not need
often require a minimum caliber to fall within a bullseye. Long-range
(usually 9x19mm Parabellum, .223 shooting sports only hold competi-
Winchester, and 12-gauge) and car- tions for precision bolt-action rifles.
tridges to meet a specific “power fac- Long-range shooting competitions
tor,” which is a product of projectile include PRS, NRA High Power, and
weight and velocity. Shotgun action F-Class.
shooting will utilize a variety of bird-
shot, buckshot, and slugs for different Because long-range shooting is fo-
target types. cused on precision shooting at great
distances, the cartridges used are of-
› Long-Range – Long-range shoot- ten built to match standards, which
ing competition is a mixture of target means VLC and polymer tipped
and action competition. Long-range projectiles with very high SD and
competition is similar to target shoot- BCs, consistent propellant charges
ing in that the targets are 300 – 600+ from round-to-round, cases with

Figure 25: Small game cartridges. From left to right: .243 Winchester, .410 Bore 2½ in. in. #9 Birdshot, .223
Remington, .17 Hornet, .17 Winchester Super Magnum, .22 Winchester Magnum Rimfire.

166
Figure 26: Medium game cartridges. From left to right: .30-06 Springfield, .308 Winchester, .234 Winchester,
12 Gauge 3 in. 00 Buckshot, .30-30 Winchester, .250 Savage, 12 Gauge 2¾ in. Slug, .44 Remington Magnum,
.357 S&W Magnum.

uniform dimensions and volume, breaking it in the air or on the ground.

and benchrest primers. Competitors Trap, skeet, and sporting clay competi-
that do not utilize factory match am- tions are shot exclusively with shotguns
munition will often handload their (break, pump, and semi-auto).
rounds. Like other shooting sports,
long-range competitions will typically Because clay shooting is done exclu-
have stipulations on caliber and car- sively with shotguns, only shotshell
tridge performance. Some of the most cartridges are used. The projectiles
popular calibers include many differ- of choice are always birdshot in sizes
ent cartridges in .223, .264 (6.5mm) from #9 – #7. The most popular
and .308. caliber is 12-gauge, with 20-gauge a
close second.
› Trap, Skeet, and Sporting Clays –
Trap, skeet, and sporting clay competi- • Hunting – Hunting is the process of
tions are shotgun shooting sports that harvesting animals for food, sport, or
consist of shooting clay “pigeons”from necessity/safety. Because of the immense
varying directions. Trap competition amount of game types, it would be dif-
consists of clay pigeons that move ficult to categorize hunting into a single
away from the shooter from a single type. To add confusion to things, all
position. Skeet competition consists of hunting is not accomplished with a fire-
two pigeons that cross in front of the arm. Some types of hunting are accom-
shooter from positions on either side plished through trapping, while others
of the shooter. Sporting clay competi- are done with a bow or crossbow. Various
tion consists of multiple clays mov- forms of hunting utilize pistols, rifles,
ing from varying positions. Scoring is shotguns, and rimfire firearms.
accomplished by hitting the clay and

167
Figure 27: Big game cartridges. From left to right: .300 Winchester Magnum, .270 Winchester, .30-06 Springfield,
6.5mm Remington Magnum, .444 Marlin, .45-70 Government, .460 S&W Magnum, .500 S&W Magnum.

It may be easiest to classify the types of or bird intended for meat is typically
hunting by the size of the game. Varmint dispatched with birdshot in sizes rang-
animals typically include pests like ro- ing from #7 – #9 to minimize damage to
dents, prairie dogs, and squirrels, preda- the meat. Many predators are dispatched
tors like badgers, bobcats, foxes, coyotes, with larger rimfire calibers such as the
raccoons, and snakes, and invasive species .22 Winchester Magnum Rimfire or the
like crows, ravens, starlings, and (small)
wild boars. Many of these species are
hunted because they pose a danger to
crops, farm animals, and humans. They
are not typically hunted to harvest meat,
although some species are. Small game
animals include rabbits, pheasants, geese,
and ducks. Many of these species are
hunted to harvest meat. Either way, these
small animals are hunted the same way.
Cartridges used for small game hunting
include a variety of rimfire cartridges and
small caliber (.17 and .22) centerfire car-
tridges utilizing hollow point, soft point,
or polymer tipped projectiles. Shotshells
are also used, loaded with birdshot (#7
– #12) in 20-gauge, 28-gauge, and .410
bore. Rodents and other small mammals Figure 28: Dangerous game cartridges. From left to
are typically dispatched with small diam- right: .338 Lapua Magnum, .458 Lott, .375 H&H
eter birdshot or rimfire cartridges. Rabbit Magnum, .458 Winchester Magnum.

168
 .17 Winchester Super Magnum, or small Big/large game animals include elk,
centerfire cartridges, like the .17 Hornet, moose, caribou, muskox, bison, cougar,
.223 Winchester or .243 Winchester, to and several varieties of bear. Most species
minimize pelt damage. of big game are hunted for meat, while
many others are only taken as trophies.
Medium game animals include deer, Cartridges used for large game hunting
goat, sheep, pronghorn, antelope, and include centerfire rifle and shotshells,
larger wild boars. Almost all species of with a few pistol examples. Energy
medium game are hunted for meat, while levels recommended for big game are
some are hunted as trophies. Cartridges 1,200 ft-lb. and above.2 Cartridges used
used for medium game hunting include for big game hunting are always full
centerfire pistol, rifle, and shotshell. power or magnum, with hollow point,
Energy levels recommended for me- soft point, or polymer tipped projectiles.
dium game are 800 ft-lb. and above.1 Calibers used for big game hunting
Cartridges used for medium game hunt- include 6.5mm Remington Magnum,
ing are always full power, with hollow .270 Winchester, .30-06 Springfield,
point, soft point, and polymer tipped .300 Winchester Magnum, .338 Federal,
projectiles. Calibers used for medium .358 Norma Magnum, .444 Marlin, .45-
game hunting include .243 Winchester, 70 Government, .460 S&W Magnum,
.250 Savage, .30-30 Winchester, .308 and .500 S&W Magnum. These car-
Winchester, .30-06 Springfield, 7mm tridges are also well-suited for small, thin
Remington Magnum, 8mm Remington skinned, dangerous game such as leop-
Magnum, .357 S&W Magnum, .44 ards, jaguars, and Russian wild boars.
Remington Magnum, and 12-gauge
(buckshot and hollow point slugs).

Figure 29: Self-defense cartridges. From left to right: .300 AAC Blackout- 168 grain expanding frangible,
.223 Remington - 73 grain polymer tipped, 12 Gauge 2¼ in. reduced recoil 00 buckshot, 12 Gauge 1¾ in. reduced recoil
slug, .45 ACP- 180 grain polymer tipped, 9x19mm Parabellum- 135 grain polymer tipped, .380 ACP- 90 grain hollow
point, .380 ACP- 102 grain hollow point.

169
 Larger, thin-skinned dangerous game, deadly force; it is intended to inform you
such as lions, tigers and grizzly bears, re- of the best choice of ammunition.
quire more power. The minimum energy
level recommended for these animals is Self-defense is a very general term that
2,000 ft-lb. and above.3 Cartridges for covers the various ways a person may
hunting large, thin-skinned dangerous defend themselves. The means by which
game include the .30-06 Springfield and you defend yourself will change from
7mm Remington Magnum. individual to individual. While some in-
dividuals can manage the recoil of large
Large, thick-skinned dangerous game caliber cartridges, others may not be able
include cape buffalo, hippo, rhino, and to and require smaller calibers. When
elephant. Most species of thick-skinned you think about your daily activities, you
dangerous game are only hunted for tro- will typically move through a handful of
phies. Cartridges used for thick-skinned environments: your home, your vehicle,
dangerous game are almost exclusively your workplace, and out in public areas.
centerfire rifles. Energy levels recom- When selecting the appropriate cartridge
mended for dangerous game are 3,500 for self-defense, you must consider the
ft-lb. – 5,000+ ft-lb.4 Cartridges used different variables in each environment.
for dangerous game include large caliber
bottleneck, straight wall, and belted car- The caliber and cartridge you choose
tridges utilizing solid or jacketed FMJ for self-defense will depend on several
projectiles. The reason hollow points factors. Personal ability, experience,
or other expanding projectiles are not and skill will all dictate your cartridge
used is that the projectile must make it choice. Shooters with more skill, experi-
through the thick hide and heavy shoul- ence, and ability may choose a larger,
der bone before reaching the internal more powerful cartridge, while inexpe-
organs. Expanding projectiles would open rienced shooters may choose a smaller,
too soon and not penetrate deep enough. less powerful cartridge.
Calibers used for dangerous game include Considering surroundings, when you
.338 Lapua Magnum, 416 Rigby, .458 are inside your home, is it a rural, urban,
Winchester Magnum, .458 Lott, .470 or suburban environment? Do you live
Nitro Express, and .500 Nitro Express. in a house in the middle of nowhere, or
• Self-Defense – Every person in the do you live in an apartment with your
world has the natural right to defend closest neighbor only feet away? In your
themselves against threat of death or in- vehicle, what obstacles or barriers would
jury, but only Americans (and citizens of you need to shoot through? In your place
a few other countries) have the right to of work, what is the arrangement of
defend themselves (and sometimes their the office or the work site and the area
property) with a firearm, which is specifi- around it? When in public, is it a densely
cally written into the constitution of the populated area?
land. Self-defense with a firearm is one of So, what is the best cartridge choice?
the most serious undertakings a civilian Some people will strongly support one
can take on. Self-defense may not only cartridge over all others, either because
be a matter of life and death for yourself it has more stopping power, less recoil,
and others; there are also serious legal higher capacity, or has a great “spread.”
ramifications involved. This information The best cartridge selection, however, is
is not intended to advise you when to use going to be based on your preference,

170
Figure 30: Military cartridges. From left to right: .50 BMG M2, 7.62x51mm NATO M80A1, 7.62x51mm NATO
MK319 MOD 0, 5.56x45mm NATO M855A1, 5.56x45mm NATO MK318 MOD 0, .45 ACP, 9x19mm NATO,
7.92x57mm Muaser, 7.62x54mmR, 5.45x39mm, 7.62x39mm, 7.65mm Browning Short.

skill, ability, and personal scenario. While follow-up shots from heavy recoil, creat-
larger calibers are going to have greater ing a risk for other people in your sur-
stopping power, they are more likely to roundings. While in your vehicle, smaller
over-penetrate and be slower for follow- cartridges may fail to deliver enough en-
up shots. Smaller cartridges may be easi- ergy to pass through glass or sheet metal
er to manage recoil, quicker with follow- and effectively penetrate the target.
up shots, and provide greater capacity,
but they may not have enough energy to Self-defense cartridges are available for
incapacitate a threat immediately. pistols, rifles, and shotguns in a variety of
calibers and types, with both centerfire
While in an urban or suburban environ- and some rimfire. Most self-defense car-
ment, over-penetration is a serious issue. tridges utilize expanding projectiles, such
Whether you hit or miss your intended as hollow points and polymer tipped,
target, the projectile may continue to to limit over-penetration. Propellant
travel through internal and external charges may be reduced for those that
walls, creating a risk for people on the are recoil sensitive or increased to +P
other side of the walls. In public envi- and +P+ loads for those who want more
ronments, powerful cartridges create a energy. A +P or +P+ load features an
risk of missing your intended target on increased amount of propellant for more

171
 pressure and energy. While +P and +P+ most cartridges will be fired in volume
ammunition utilizes more pressure, it is through automatic weapons. There are
still within a SAAMI recommended safe cartridges that are designed for preci-
load. While many pistol cartridges may sion, but they are reserved for sniper and
see an increase of energy, many rifles and DMR applications. There is also a vari-
shotshell cartridges will see a decrease in ety of specialty ammunition available for
energy to reduce recoil and over-pene- various tasks.
tration. Shotshells may utilize a smaller
birdshot or buckshot load or use lighter Most military cartridges are designed
slugs. Shotshells may also utilize a mix- with ball or FMJ projectiles, extruded
ture of bird/buckshot and slugs to cre- propellants, thicker-than-standard
ate a balance of penetration and energy. cases, and sealed primers and projectiles.
Often, another feature of self-defense The propellant charges are also greater
ammunition is nickel coated cases. The than cartridges designed for civilian
coating creates a barrier or corrosion and use, pushing chamber pressure to the
tarnish resistance, while increasing the maximum safest level. Military cartridges
reliability of the cartridge when loading also utilize specialty projectiles such as
and extracting. AP, OTM, tracer, incendiary, and ex-
plosive. The tips of the projectiles are
• Military – Cartridges designed for mili- often painted to help identify cartridge
tary use are used in a primarily offensive types. Black tips are typically AP, while
application. There is often little to no the tracer is red/orange, the incendi-
concern for recoil or over-penetration. ary may be silver or blue and silver, and
In fact, many cartridges are designed to the explosive is usually green and white.
penetrate as many barriers as possible. U.S. military calibers include 9x19mm
Military cartridges are designed to be NATO, .45 ACP, 5.56x45mm NATO,
manufactured cheaply in bulk. Although 7.62x51mm NATO, .300 Winchester
accuracy and precision are a concern, Magnum, .338 Lapua Magnum, .50
BMG and 12-gauge.

172
NOTES
NOTES
 Chapter 8 - Firing Sequence and Interior Ballistics
FIRING SEQUENCE AND INTERNAL/INTERIOR BALLISTICS 177
Firing Sequence 178
Squeezing the Trigger 182
Ignition 184
Building Pressure 185
.05 Milliseconds 185
Burst Pressure 186
Back Thrust 187
.1 Millisecond 187
Entering the Rifling 188
.2 Milliseconds 189
.3 Milliseconds 194
Harmonics 195
.4 Milliseconds 195
.5 Milliseconds 197
.6 Milliseconds 198
.8 Milliseconds 198
.9 Milliseconds 198
1.5 Milliseconds 199
1.8 Milliseconds 199
176
 Firing Sequence
and Internal/Interior
Ballistics
Now that we have a good understanding of how
a cartridge works, let's hypothetically place one
in a firearm to get a complete picture on bal-
listics. We will begin with internal ballistics:
that which is occurring inside the firearm while
the cartridge is being discharged. To be able to
understand internal ballistics, we first need to
understand the firing sequence.
NOTE: Many of the calculations use figures that are
rounded to various decimal places. If you are following
along with your own calculations, just note there may be
slight variances in the results.

177
 Figure 1a: The firing pin crushes the primer and initiates ignition.

Figure 1b: As the propellant burns, the case exapnds and the bullet begins to move into the throat of the barrel.

Figure 1c: As the pressure rises from the expanding gas the bullet is driven through the rifling and bore.

FIRING SEQUENCE the pressure in the case builds to a great

enough level to overcome the crimp. The
The firing sequence is a series of events that oc- projectile is driven from the case into the
cur when there is a live cartridge locked in the throat of the chamber.
firearm’s chamber and the trigger is squeezed.
6. The continually increasing pressure in-
Regardless of the action type, the firing se-
side the chamber drives the projectile
quence is always the same. The firing sequence
through the bore and out of the muzzle.
is as follows:
1. The trigger is squeezed, releasing the 7. Once the projectile exits the muzzle, the
hammer or the striker. pressure inside the bore and chamber
will rapidly dissipate and the cartridge
2. The hammer strikes the firing pin and case will begin to contract.
the firing pin or striker strikes the cup of
the primer. The priming compound in The process sounds fairly simple, right? But let's
the primer is crushed between the primer take another look at the firing sequence with all
cup and the anvil, creating ignition. of the factors addressed. You will quickly dis-
cover that the process is anything but simple.
3. The flame, spark, and pressure produced
travel through the flash hole(s), igniting Although the process is fairly similar between
the propellant in the case. various cartridges and firearm types, we will dis-
cuss the remainder of the firing sequence as it
4. The burning propellant is converted into applies to an AR-15, striker-fired pistol, pump-
rapidly expanding gas that further pres- action shotgun, and a rimfire revolver.
surizes the case.
The specs* for the firearms include:
5. The cartridge case begins to expand
and seal the chamber at the same time

178
AR-15: • Velocity: 2,900 fps
• Caliber: .223 Remington • Energy: 1,027 ft-lb.
• Bullet weight: 55 grains • Chamber pressure: 50,100 psi
• Bullet diameter: .224 in. • MAP: 55,000 psi
• Bullet length: .745 in. • Barrel length: 16
• Ballistic coefficient: .237 • Throat length (freebore): .085 in.
• Charge weight: 26 grains (Hodgdon BLC-2) • Groove diameter: .224 in.
• Case length: 1.760 in. • Bore diameter: .219 in.
• Cartridge OAL: 2.180 in. • Twist rate: 1 in 8 in.
• Bullet seating depth: .325 in. • Firearm weight: 7 lb.

Figure 2a: AR-15.

Striker-Fired Pistol: • MAP: 35,000 psi

• Caliber: 9x19mm Parabellum • Barrel length: 4 in.
• Bullet weight: 115 grains • Throat length (freebore): .1718 in.
• Bullet diameter: .355 in. • Groove diameter: .355 in.
• Bullet length: .549 in. • Bore diameter: .346 in.
• Ballistic coefficient: .158 • Twist rate: 1 in 10 in.
• Charge weight: 4.8 grains (Hodgdon • Firearm weight: 1.5 lbs.
Titegroup)
• Case length: .754 in.
• Cartridge OAL: 1.169 in.
• Bullet seating depth: .134 in.
• Velocity: 1,140 fps
• Energy: 332 ft-lb.
• Chamber pressure: 32,300 psi

Figure 2b: Striker-fired pistol.

*Figures are averages from www.hodgdonreloading.com reloading data and www. saami.com chamber and cartridge drawings.

179
Pump-Action Shotgun in. • Length unfolded: 2.760 in.
• Caliber: 12-gauge 3 in.chamber, 2¾ in. • Shot seating depth: .986 in.
shell • Velocity: 1,275 fps
• Projectile weight: 7/8 oz. birdshot • Energy: 1,382 ft-lb.
(383 grains) #7.5 • Chamber pressure: 10,200 psi
• Ballistic coefficient: .02 • MAP: l1,500 psi
• Charge weight: 20.5 grains (Hodgdon • Barrel length: 20 in. (smooth bore,
Clays) no choke)
• Case length: 2.405 in. • Forcing cone length: .4272 in.
• Cartridge OAL: 2.405 in. (folded crimp) • Bore diameter: .725 in.
• Firearm weight: 7 lb.

Figure 2c: Pump-action shotgun.

Single Action Revolver: Throat length (freebore): .826 in.

Caliber: .22 Long Rifle Groove diameter: .222 in.
Bullet weight: 40 grains Bore diameter: .217 in.
Bullet diameter: .2255 in. Twist rate: 1 in 16 in.
Bullet length: .5 in. Cylinder length: 1.439 in.
Ballistic coefficient: .138 Cylinder gap length: .006 in.
Charge weight: 1.9 grains (Vihtavouri 3N37) Firearm weight: 2 lb.
Case length: .613 in.
Cartridge OAL: 1 in.
Bullet seating depth: .113 in.
Velocity: 1,110 fps
Energy: 109 ft-lb.
Chamber pressure: 22,500 psi
MAP: 24,000 psi
Barrel length: 5 in.

Figure 2d: Single-action revolver.

180
We will start with the cartridge locked in the dimensions. With a small cartridge and a large
chamber. Because of manufacturing variances chamber, the centerline of the cartridge can be
between the firearm manufacturer and the am- as much as .0075 in. below the centerline of the
munition manufacturer, it is unlikely that the bore.
cartridge is concentric with the chamber and 12-Gauge 2¾ in.:
bore (regardless of how precise each individual
component is). Let’s take four different car- Cartridge case diameter: .777 in.– .797 in.
tridges as examples: the .223 Winchester, the Chamber diameter: .798 in.– .803 in.
9x19mm Parabellum, the 12-gauge birdshot, This means that a 12-gauge cartridge manu-
and .22 Long Rifle. The SAAMI specifications factured to the smallest dimension can be up
for each cartridge are as follows: to .026 in. smaller in diameter than a chamber
manufactured to the greatest dimension. With
.223 Remington: a small cartridge and a large chamber, the cen-
Cartridge case length:* 1.4596 in. – 1.4666 in. terline of the cartridge can be as much as .013
in. below the centerline of the bore. With shot-
Cartridge case diameter: .368 in. – .378 in. shells, case length and chamber length are ir-
Chamber length: 1.4636 in. – 1.4736 in. relevant because the cartridge headspaces off of
Chamber diameter: .3804 in. – .3824 in. the rim. It is quite common to use shorter car-
tridges than the shotgun is chambered for.
This means that a .223 Remington cartridge
manufactured to the smallest dimensions can be
up to .014 in. shorter and .0144 in. smaller in .22 Long Rifle:
diameter than a chamber manufactured to the Cartridge case length: .605 in. – .613 in.
greatest dimensions. Because most shooting is
done with the firearm level or nearly level to the Cartridge case diameter: .222 in.– .226 in.
earth’s surface, we can safely assume the car- Chamber length: .818 in.
tridge is resting on the “bottom” of the chamber. Chamber diameter: .227 in. – .229 in.
With a small cartridge and a large chamber, the
centerline of the cartridge can be as much as This means that a .22 Long Rifle cartridge man-
.0072 in. below the centerline of the bore; how- ufactured to the smallest dimensions can be up
ever, the shoulder of the casing will help align to .007 in. smaller in diameter than a chamber
the centerline of the projectile with the center- manufactured to the greatest dimension. With a
line of the bore. small cartridge and a large chamber, the center-
line of the cartridge can be as much as .0035 in.
below the centerline of the bore. With rimfire
*To point of headspace on shoulder. cartridges, case length and chamber length are
irrelevant because the cartridge headspaces off
of the rim.
9x19mm Parabellum:
Luckily, most manufacturers (firearms and am-
Cartridge case length: .744 in. – .754 in. munition) will meet somewhere in the middle
Cartridge case diameter: .384 in. – .394 in. and most cases will be somewhere around .003
in. – .004 in. undersized, placing the cartridge
Chamber length: .754 in .– .776 in.
around .0015 in. – .002 in. off the centerline of
Chamber diameter: .395 in. – .399 in. the bore. A difference of only a few thousandths
This means that a 9mm cartridge manufac- of an inch is perfectly within spec and will not
tured to the smallest dimensions can be up to strain the cases (too much) when they expand to
.022 in. shorter and .015 in. smaller in diameter seal the chamber. If a small case had to expand
than a chamber manufactured to the greatest to the greatest chamber dimensions, it could

181
 Figure 3: Cartridges sitting in a chamber.

lead to an array of issues from gas blowback to in. (starting .5 in. deep from the breech face, in
split cases. the chamber of the cylinder).
Because the barrel length is measured from the With the shotshell, the projectile(s) (and wad/
bolt/slide face to the end of the muzzle, the cup) will also move through part of the cham-
projectile already has a head start in the barrel. ber when using a 2¾ in. shell in a 3 in. cham-
The position of the projectile is dependent on ber. A crimped shell is roughly 2.405 in. long.
the caliber and the seating depth. The projec- With the crimp unfurled, the case is only 2.760
tile will be seated roughly as deep as the case in. long. In a 3 in. chamber, the projectiles will
mouth, but its position will vary based on the move .24 in. through the chamber (after exiting
depth of its seating in the case. For example, the case) before reaching the forcing cone.
a .223 Remington case is roughly 1.760 in., a Currently the only forces the cartridge and
9mm is .754 in., a 12-gauge is 2.405 in., and a firearm are experiencing are static friction. The
.22 is .613 in. With a .745 in. long bullet seated projectile (or birdshot) experiences static fric-
.325 in. in the case, the .223 bullet will travel tion from the case and crimp, while the case
roughly 14.565 in. (starting 1.435 in. deep from experiences static friction against the bottom
the breech face in the chamber of the barrel) of the chamber. When the trigger is squeezed,
before exiting the muzzle. With a .549 in. long things begin to get interesting.
bullet seated .134 in. in the case, the 9mm bullet
will travel roughly 3.38 in. (starting .62 in. deep SQUEEZING THE TRIGGER
from the breech face, in the chamber of the bar-
rel). The 12-gauge shot is seated roughly .986 All of these forces can create disruptions in the
in. in the case, meaning it must travel 18.581 point of aim (POA)/point of impact (POI) of
in. (starting 1.419 in. deep from the breech face, the firearm. The duration of the ignition se-
in the chamber of the barrel) before exiting the quence can exacerbate these disruptions. The
muzzle. With a .5 in. long bullet seated .113 in. time from which the hammer/striker is released
in the case, the .22 bullet will travel roughly 4.5 from the sear to the point where the firing pin/
striker contacts the primer cup is known as lock

182
 Figure 4: Hammer-fired sequence of events.

time. A longer lock time allows for a greater du- surface of the trigger or the sear itself will begin
ration in which the firearm’s POA can be dis- to move across the hammer’s hooks (shearing,
rupted, while a quicker lock time does not allow sliding friction). The hammer’s hooks exert a
as much disruption. With all things being equal substantial amount of force against the sear sur-
(parts mass, spring rates, travel), striker-fired face because the hammer utilizes either a heavy
firearms will inherently have quicker lock times compressive or torsion spring rated between 4
because there are fewer moving parts. Lock and 16 lb. The sum of all forces typically equates
times vary with firearm type and mechanism, to a trigger “pull” between 3.5 lb. and 6 lb. With
but the average lock time is around 2 – 3 mil- revolvers, other action parts, such as the hand,
liseconds (.002 – .003 seconds), while some of bolt, and associated linkage and springs, are en-
the fastest actions clock in at ~1.4 milliseconds gaged when squeezing the trigger, so there is an
(.0015 seconds). Slower lock times can be as increase in force required.
long as 5 – 6 milliseconds (.006 seconds).1 As the sear surface of the trigger/sear clears the
Squeezing the trigger will yield the same re- hammer’s hooks, the potential energy stored in
sults, regardless of action type, but by different the hammer spring is released, driving the ham-
means. Hammer-fired firearms (AR-15, pump- mer around the hammer pin and into the firing
action shotgun, single-action revolver) utilize pin. The momentum/energy from the hammer
a two-part ignition system, while striker-fired (hammer mass + hammer velocity) is transferred
firearms utilize a one-part system. When the to the firing pin, which begins to move forward.
operator squeezes the trigger on a hammer- The energy of the firing pin is focused on the
fired action, they must overcome several forces point of the firing pin when contacting the
before the hammer is released. First, the op- primer. The firing pin must overcome its own
erator must overcome the trigger return spring. inertia and sliding friction (inside the firing pin
Depending on design, the spring may be a channel) to provide enough energy to properly
coiled, compressive spring, or a torsion spring crush the primer cup/rim. The firing pin may
rated anywhere from .5 – 2 lb. As the trigger also have to overcome the (compressive spring)
rotates around its pin (sliding friction), the sear force of a firing pin return spring.

183
 Figure 5: Striker-fired sequence of events.

When the operator squeezes the trigger on a IGNITION

striker-fired action, they must overcome sev-
eral forces before the striker is released. First, The striker will deform the surface of the prim-
the operator must overcome the trigger return er cup/rim, creating an indentation that will
spring. Depending on design, the spring may crush the priming compound between the cup
be a coiled, compressive spring, or an extension and anvil/rim. Being shock sensitive, the small
(tension) spring rated anywhere from .5 to 2 lb. amount of priming compound detonates. The
As the trigger rotates around its pin, linkage reaction creates flame and spark in the form of
connected to the trigger forces the sear face of molten metal (aluminum, magnesium, zirco-
the linkage or a separate sear to move across the nium, titanium, nickel, zinc or bismuth), with
sear surface of the striker. The striker’s sear sur- flame temperatures reaching 3000º+ F and
face exerts a substantial amount of force against the various metal powders reaching 2,000º+ F
the sear’s surface because the striker utilizes a (1,220º, 1,200º, 3,371º, 3,040º, 2,647º, 787º,
heavy compression spring rated around 4 to 6 and 521 °Fahrenheit respectively2).
lb. The sum of all forces typically equates to a The flame and spark are forced through the
trigger “pull” between 3.5 and 6 lb. flash hole(s) and onto the propellant (or directly
As the sear’s surface clears the sear surface on onto the propellant with a rimfire cartridge).
the striker, the potential energy stored in the The reaction also produces enough gas to be-
striker spring is released, driving the striker for- gin to pressurize the case. This will accelerate
ward into the primer cup/rim. The energy of the propagation and reaction of the propellant’s
the striker is focused on the point of the striker ignition. With centerfire cartridges, the pres-
when contacting the primer/rim. The striker sure created is substantial enough to push the
must overcome its own inertia and sliding fric- primer cup from the primer pocket until it con-
tion to provide enough energy to properly crush tacts the breech/bolt/slide face. The pressure is
the primer cup/rim. also great enough to drive the projectile from
the mouth of the case. The entire reaction lasts
about 200 to 1,500 microseconds (.0002 – .0015
of a second).3

184
BUILDING PRESSURE .05 MILLISECONDS
Once the flame and spark from the priming As each individual kernel ignites and releases
compound contacts the individual granules of its energy, the cartridge case continues to pres-
propellant, they will begin to ignite (exothermic surize and begins to expand. The pressure from
reaction). As the kernel burns or deflagrates, po- the rapidly expanding gas acts equally in all di-
tential (chemical) energy stored in the kernel is rections, pushing against the projectile (or cup/
converted into kinetic energy (expanding the wad) and forcing the case to swell and stretch.
case and moving the projectile), as well as into Because the case is already bottomed out
thermal energy (heat), light energy (flash), and against the forwardmost point of contact with
sound. Smokeless propellant produces roughly the chamber, the case will swell to seal the body
200 – 250 ft-lb. of energy per grain of propel- of the case with the chamber walls and stretch
lant (energy density).4* This means that a .223 to seal the case head against the bolt/breech/
Remington cartridge with 26 grains of propel- slide face. The case’s rate of expansion will vary
lant would have roughly 5,850 ft-lb. of potential based on the case material and wall thickness,
energy.** A 9mm cartridge (4.8 grains) would but polymer cases will expand faster than brass,
have 1,080 ft-lb. of potential energy, a 12-gauge aluminum, and steel respectively.
cartridge (20.5 grains) would have 4,600 ft-lb. So far, roughly .00005 seconds have passed, and
and a .22 LR cartridge (1.9 grains) would have chamber pressure has reached nearly 7,400 psi
428 ft-lb. of energy. Only a fraction of the pro- for the .223 Remington. The .223 bullet has
pellant’s potential energy (20 percent – 30 per- moved roughly .012 in. and is now positioned
cent) will actually contribute to the projectile’s about 1.447 in. (from the breech face) in the
muzzle energy; much more of it will be lost to chamber of the barrel. The bullet is currently
friction, heat, and other parasitic factors (70 moving at a velocity of 38 fps.
percent +).
The 9mm cartridge has a chamber pressure of
*Converted from megajoules per kilogram (MJ/kg) to foot- roughly 8,800 psi. The 9mm bullet has moved
pounds per grain (ft-lb./gr). about .015 in. and is now positioned about .635
in. (from the breech face) in the chamber of
**Using an average energy density of 225 ft-lb. per grain of the barrel. The bullet is moving at a velocity of
propellant. around 51 fps.
The 12-gauge cartridge currently has a cham-
The individual kernel undergoes a phase transi- ber pressure of about 340 psi. The birdshot has
tion known as sublimation, which occurs when moved roughly .006 in. and is positioned about
a solid is converted directly into a gas and by- 1.425 in. (from the breech face) in the chamber
passes the liquid phase. As an individual ker- of the barrel. The birdshot is currently moving
nel is ignited by the primer’s flame and spark, it at about 8 fps.
will begin to ignite surrounding kernels that are
touching through an endothermic reaction. The The .22 LR cartridge’s chamber pressure has
propellant’s load density, the efficiency of the reached nearly 11,300 psi. The bullet has moved
primer, and several other factors, including pro- about .021 in. and is now roughly .521 in. (from
pellant type, positioning, and case volume, will the breech face) in the chamber of the cylinder.
dictate how much of the initial powder charge is The bullet has reached a velocity of about 70 fps.5
ignited by the primer.

185
BURST PRESSURE pressure of roughly 11,600 psi, 7,200 psi for the
9mm and 7,600 psi for the .22.
Depending on case material and wall thick-
Shotshells utilize a hybrid polymer (LDPE)
ness, almost all of the cartridge cases are near
body and a metal (typically mild steel) head.
or beyond their burst pressure. If it were not for
Low density polyethylene has an average ten-
the chamber, many of these cases would have
sile strength of 1,450 psi,8 while mild steel has a
burst before even pushing the projectile from
yield strength of roughly 53,700 psi.9 The head
the crimp. While case brass alloy will vary de-
of a 12-gauge case is .805 in. in diameter with
pending on manufacturer, we will use the alloy
.014 in. walls. The polymer body is roughly .770
C26000 (cartridge brass) as an example.6 Using
in. with .040 in. walls. Using the calculator, we
Barlow’s Formula (calculators available online,
find that the 12-gauge case has a burst pressure
https://www.engineersedge.com/calculators/
of roughly 2,051 psi (1,900 for the head and 151
pipe_bust_calc.htm), we can get a good pic-
for the body).
ture of how much pressure the case can handle.
Barlow’s Formula requires several figures to cal- Luckily, the respective barrels are more than ca-
culate burst pressure: the outside diameter of the pable of handling the immense pressure the car-
case, wall thickness, and allowable stress (mate- tridges produce. Ordnance steel, or “4140, in. is
rial tensile strength). an alloy type commonly used with gun barrels.
The alloy 4140 has a tensile strength of roughly
Depending on the temper, C26000 has an av-
95,000 psi. A .223 barrel roughly 1.005 in. in di-
erage tensile strength of 87,000 psi.7 A .223
ameter with .3125 in. walls has a burst pressure
case is .373 in. in diameter with an average wall
around 59,100 psi. A 9mm barrel roughly .655
thickness of .025 in. A 9mm case is .485 in.
in. in diameter with .130 in. walls has a burst
in diameter with an average wall thickness of
pressure around 37,700 psi. A 12-gauge barrel
.020”. A .22 case is .230 in. in diameter with
roughly 1.258 in. in diameter with .228 in. walls
an average wall thickness of .010 in. Using the
has a burst pressure of around 34,500 psi, while
calculator, we find that the .223 case has a burst
a .22 cylinder (individual chamber) with .142 in.

186
walls and .511 in. diameter (.142 in. walls X2 + .035 x 11,300 = 396 psi
.227 in. diameter chamber = .511”) has a burst This means that the .223, 9mm, 12-gauge, and
pressure of 52,800 psi. .22 cartridges are exerting roughly 437 psi, 704
*X 10,000 psi, 54 psi, and 396 psi respectively on the bolt/
slide face (and locking lugs of locking breech
BACK THRUST actions). This is only a fraction of what the ac-
tion can handle, so there is relatively little strain
The case is now fully sealed against the walls on the locking surfaces (or force against the ac-
of the chamber and the breech/bolt/slide face. tion’s inertia in the case of a blowback firearm).
With semi-automatic pistol action types that Up to this point, most of the energy that has
lock, the locking surfaces of the barrel are forced been released has been lost to the case’s expan-
against the locking surfaces of the slide/receiver. sion and heat through thermal convection. Some
With blowback actions, the mass of the bolt/ of the energy has been converted to kinetic en-
slide and the potential energy of the action/re- ergy in the form of projectile movement, which
coil spring prevents rearward movement of the has been minimal. Some of the energy is also
bolt/slide. The force of the case head pushing being lost to friction in the form of sliding (ki-
against the bolt/breech/slide face is known as netic) friction of the projectile and the case.
back thrust.
Because the expanding gas inside the case acts .1 MILLISECOND
against all surfaces equally, we can calculate the
amount of back thrust a particular cartridge ex- As the pressure inside the case builds, it can no
erts against the bolt/slide. All that is needed is a longer expand as it is now encased by the cham-
known pressure (psi) and the area of the inside ber and the bolt/breech/slide face. The case and
of the case head (in inches). To calculate back chamber walls provide too great a resistance to
thrust, you simply multiply the chamber pres- the growing pressure inside the case, leaving the
sure by the area of the inside of the case head.10 projectile/wad as the “path of least resistance.
For example, we know the .223, 9mm, 12-gauge, in. The increase in chamber pressure begins to
and .22 currently have chamber pressures of push the projectile from the case more rapidly.
roughly 7,400 psi, 8,800 psi, 340 psi, and 11,300 Chamber pressure has reached roughly 13,600
psi respectively. The diameters of the inside of psi for the .223, which is an increase of about 84
the case heads are .275 in., .320 in., .550 in. and percent over .00005 seconds. Distance has also
.210 in. respectively. To calculate the area of the increased by about .053 in., so that the bullet
inside of the case head, multiply Pi (3.14) by the is sitting 1.5 in. in the chamber of the barrel.
radius (squared) of the inside of the case head: The bullet is still in the mouth of the case, but
.275R = .1375, (.1375 x .1375) x 3.14 = .059 is moving farther into the throat. Velocity has
in. jumped to roughly 99 fps, which is an increase
of 161 percent.
.320R = .160, (.160 x .160) x 3.14 = .08 in.
The 9mm cartridge has reached a chamber pres-
.550R = .225, (.225 x .225) x 3.14 = .159 in. sure of 24,900 psi, which is an increase of 183
.210R = .105, (.105 x .105) x 3.14 = .035 in. percent. Distance has also increased by about
.062 in., so that the bullet is sitting .697 in. in
Now multiply the area by the pressure: the chamber of the barrel. The bullet is still in
the mouth of the case but is moving farther into
.059 x 7,400 = 437 psi the throat. Velocity has jumped to roughly 198
.08 x 8,800 = 704 psi fps, which is an increase of 288 percent.
.159 x 340 = 54 psi

187
Chamber pressure has reached roughly 640 psi 32 percent. Back thrust has also peaked at rough-
for the 12-gauge, which is an increase of about ly 788 psi.
88 percent over .00005 seconds. Distance has At roughly .14 milliseconds, the 9mm cartridge
also increased by about .023 in. , so that the shot will also reach peak chamber pressure, 32,300
is sitting 1.448 in. in the chamber of the barrel. psi, which is a 104 percent increase over .00004
The shot is still in the body of the case but is seconds. The bullet has moved another .142 in.,
moving farther into the chamber as the crimp so that the bullet is sitting roughly .839 in. in
begins to unfurl. Velocity has jumped to rough- the throat of the barrel. Velocity is up to 403 fps,
ly 20 fps, which is an increase of 150 percent. which is an increase of 104 percent. Back thrust
There are several factors that contribute to the has also peaked at roughly 2,584 psi.
“sluggish” start of the 12-gauge cartridge. The
low tensile strength of the case materials allow ENTERING THE RIFLING
the case to expand with less force, effectively in-
creasing internal volume, which does not allow At roughly .16 milliseconds, the 9mm bul-
pressure to build. The inertia of the shot also let enters the leade of the rifling after moving
limits how far and fast the expanding gas can another .0868 in., so that the bullet is sitting
push it. roughly .9258 in. in the throat of the barrel.
The .22 cartridge has reached a chamber pres- Chamber pressure is declining, down to 31,220
sure of 21,700 psi, which is an increase of 92 psi (a decrease of 3 percent over .00002 millisec-
percent over .00005 seconds. Distance has also onds). Velocity is still increasing, up to 498 fps
increased by about .086 in., so that the bullet is (an increase of 24 percent). The bullet is now
sitting .607 in. in the chamber of the cylinder. positioned with its nose in the bore of the bar-
The bullet is still in the mouth of the case but rel, its base in the throat of the chamber and
is moving farther into the throat of the chamber its body engaging the leade of the rifling. There
in the cylinder. Velocity has jumped to roughly is a spike in pressure behind the bullet as it is
250 fps, which is an increase of 257 percent. pushed into the bore and forced to conform to
the bore’s dimensions and shape.
At roughly .12 milliseconds, the .22 cartridge will
reach peak chamber pressure, 22,500 psi, which The 9mm cartridge utilizes a bullet that is .355
is 4 percent over .00002 seconds. The bullet has in. in diameter, a .355 in. barrel groove diameter
moved another .057 in., so that the bullet is sit- and a .346 in. bore diameter. This means the
ting roughly .664 in. in the throat of the cylinder. lands dig into the 9mm bullet about .0045 in.
Velocity is up to 330 fps, which is an increase of from opposing sides. This is known as bullet en-
graving. To clear things up, no part of the bullet

Figure 6: 9mm bullet entering the rifling.

188
 Figure 7: A .223 bullet entering the rifling.

is removed; the bullet’s material simply “flows” At this time in the reaction, the heat and pres-
under intense pressure to conform to the shape sure have risen inside cases to a point that the
of the bore. individual kernels of propellant begin to ignite
The pressure behind the bullet essentially without contacting any other grains. This is
“swages” or upsets the bullet so that it match- known as the auto ignition temperature. Modern
es the shape of the bore. The force required to smokeless propellants have an auto ignition
engrave the rifling into the bullet is roughly temperature in the range of 320 – 400° F.12, 13 As
12,000 – 14,000 psi.11 The exact force required the remaining kernels of propellant ignite and
to mold the bullet will vary depending on the begin to release gas into the case, the chamber
bullet’s material, jacket material, dimensions of pressure grows rapidly.
bullet, and the number and size of the lands.
.2 MILLISECONDS
As the projectile conforms to the bore it will also
seal the area behind it. This is known as obtura- Chamber pressure for the 9mm has dropped to
tion. Good obturation will seal the bore tightly 22,800 psi, a decrease of 27 percent in .00004
and allow the gas pressure behind the projectile seconds. Travel and velocity have both increased
to push against it more efficiently. Poor obtura- to 1.246 in. (+ .3202”) and 713 fps (+ 215 fps)
tion will allow an excess of gasses to “blow-by” respectively. Chamber pressure for the 12-gauge
the projectile, which leads to less pressure driv- has increased to 1,880 psi (+ 194 percent in
ing it and in turn less velocity and energy. Gas .0001 seconds). Travel and velocity have also
blow-by can also lead to additional leading and increased to 1.5 in. (+ .052”) and 45 fps (+ 25
copper fouling in the bore. Excessive blow-by fps) respectively. The .22 cartridge’s chamber
can even lead to premature wear of the barrel’s pressure is also declining, down to 14,900 psi
throat and leade. (down 34 percent over .00008 seconds). Travel
Regardless of how well a projectile seals the bar- and velocity have both increased to 1.165 in. (+
rel, there will still be a minimal amount of gas .501 in.) and 650 fps (+ 320 fps).
blow-by. Because the propellant gas is expand- At .2 milliseconds, chamber pressure has reached
ing at a faster rate than the projectile is travel- 34,900 psi for the .223, which is an increase of
ling (roughly 1.25 – 1.75X faster), some of the 157 percent over .0001 seconds. The bullet has
gas is able to move ahead of the projectile. This moved .345 in. to 1.845 in., a 23 percent in-
blow-by usually occurs as the projectile is mov- crease. Velocity is up to 390 fps, an increase of
ing through the throat, before reaching, obtu- 294 percent. The .223 bullet has now entered
rating, and sealing the bore.

189
the leade of the rifling. The bullet is positioned with its nose in the bore, its shoulder engaging the leade
of the rifling, its body in the throat, and its base in the mouth/neck of the case. The .223 cartridge uti-
lizes a .224 in. diameter bullet, a .224 in. groove diameter, and a .219 in. bore diameter. This means that
the “lands” of the rifling dig into the bullet .0025 in. from opposing sides.
The rifling in the bore will force the projectiles to begin to spin. Each caliber will utilize a specific
“twist” rate, used to stabilize the projectile in flight. Longer projectiles require a faster twist rate than
short projectiles. Faster twist rates will force the projectile to make a full revolution in a shorter distance.
For our examples, the .223 bullet utilizes a 1 in 8 in. twist, the 9mm utilizes a 1 in 10 in. twist, and the
.22 utilizes a 1 in 16 in. twist. This means that for a given twist the rifling will make one full rotation in
8 in., 10 in. and 16 in. of travel respectively, regardless of barrel length. With the .223 and a 16 in. bar-
rel, the rifling will make almost two full revolutions (45° of rotation for every inch of travel). Assuming
proper projectile diameter, neither the 9mm or .22 bullets will make a full rotation before exiting their 4
in. and 5 in. barrels respectively. The 9mm bullet rotates 36° for every inch of travel, while the .22 rotates
22.5° for every inch of travel. The 9mm bullet will rotate roughly 144° before exiting the barrel, while
the .22 will rotate only 112.5º. The 12-gauge birdshot will not rotate because it is being fired through
a smoothbore barrel.
The bullet’s rotation upon exiting the muzzle can be calculated in rotations per minute (rpm).14 All that
is needed to calculate rotation is muzzle velocity (mv) in feet per second, and twist rate (T) in inches.
For example, a .223 projectile traveling at 2,900 fps out of a 1 in 8 in. twist barrel would have a rotation
speed of:
MV x 720* (constant)/T = rpm

2,900 x 720/8 = 261,000 rpm

This means if the projectile travels for one minute at a constant velocity, it will make about 261,000
full revolutions around its axis. A 9mm projectile traveling at 1,140 fps out of a 1 in 10 in. twist barrel
would have a rotation speed of:
1,140 x 720/10 = 82,080 rpm
This means if the projectile travels for one minute at a constant velocity, it will make about 82,000 full
revolutions around its axis. A .22 projectile traveling at 1,110 fps out of a 1 in 16 in. twist barrel would
have a rotation speed of:
1,110 x 720 / 16 = 49,950 rpm
*1 foot per second = 720 inches per minute

You can also determine whether or not the correct twist rate is being used for a given projectile. There
are two basic formulas to verify the twist rate’s effectiveness, the Greenhill Formula and the Miller Twist
Rule. The Greenhill Formula requires the projectile's diameter (D), length (L) and varying constants
(125, 150, 180) to provide the MINIMUM twist rate (T) needed to stabilize a projectile of a given size.
The formula also utilizes various constants based upon the expected velocity range:15
• For velocities slower than 1,500 fps, use this formula: 125 x (D)^2 / L = twist rate (T)
• For velocities between 1,500 and 2,800, use this formula: 150 x (D)^2 / L = twist rate (T)
• For velocities faster than 2,800 fps, use this formula: 180 x (D)^2 / L = twist rate (T)
For example, a .224 in. diameter, .223 bullet, .745 in. long would need a twist rate of:
180 x (.224 x .224) / .745 = 12.12

190
This means that, at a minimum, a 1 in 12 in. twist rate is needed to stabilize a 55-grain, .223 bullet. A
.355 in. diameter, 9mm bullet, .549 in. long would need a twist rate of:
125 x (.355 x .355) / .549 = 28.69
This means that, at a minimum, a 1 in 28 in. twist rate is needed to stabilize a 115-grain, 9mm bullet.
A .2255 in. diameter, .22 bullet, .500 in. long would need a twist rate of:
125 x (.2255 x .2255) / .500 = 12.71
This means that, at a minimum, a 1 in 12 in. barrel is needed to stabilize a 40-grain, .22 bullet.
Alternatively, if you already know the twist rate of your specific barrel and you want to know the longest
bullet it will stabilize, you can modify the formula as follows:
125 x (D) squared / T = length (L)

150 x (D) squared / T = length (L)

180 x (D) squared / T = length (L)

The Miller Twist Rule is used to calculate twist rates more precisely than the Greenhill Formula with
the inclusion of mass. The Miller Twist Rule will provide a twist rate that is satisfactory for a wider
range of projectile weights. All that is needed to calculate twist rate is projectile mass (M) in grains,
diameter (D) in inches, length (L) in calibers (length in inches divided by diameter) and the constants
30* and 2.** The answer will be expressed in calibers per turn (T) but can be converted to inches per
turn (T) by multiplying by the diameter (D). To calculate for twist rate, the formula is:
(30 x M) / (2 x D^3 x L) (1 + L^2) = Square Root (SR) of T
For example, a .224 in. diameter (D) bullet, .745 in. (3.33 calibers) long (L) weighing 55 grains (M)
will need a twist rate of:
30 x 55 / (2 x .224 x .224 x .224 x 3.33) (1 + 3.33 x 3.33) = SR of T

1,650 / .075 x 12.08 = SR of T

1,650 / .91 = SR of T 1,813.18

The square root of 1,813.18 is 42.58 or 42.58 calibers per turn. To solve for (T) just multiply by (D)
or .224.
42.58 x .224 = 9.5 or a twist rate of 1 turn in 9.5 in. or 1:9.
A 115-grain, .355 in. diameter 9mm bullet, .549 in. long (1.55 calibers) requires a twist rate of:

30 x 115 / (2 x .355 x .355 x .355 x 1.55)

(1 + 1.55 x 1.55) = SR of T

3,450 /.14 x 3.4 = SR of T

3,450/.48 = 7,188

The square root of 7,188 is 84.8 or 84.8 calibers per turn.

84.8 x .355 = 30.1 or a twist rate of 1 turn in 30 in. or 1:30.

191
A 40-grain, .2255 in. diameter .22 bullet, .500 in. long requires a twist rate of:
30 x 40 / (2 x .2255 x .2255 x .2255 x 2.22) (1 + 2.22 x 2.22) = SR of T
1,200 / .05 x 5.9 = SR of T
1,200 / .295 = 4,067.8
The square root of 4,067.8 is 63.78 or 63.78 calibers per turn.
63.78 x .2255 = 14.38 or a twist rate of 1 turn in 14 in. or 1:14.
*The constant 30 is a product of an average velocity of 2,800 fps, a temperature of 59° F, and a pressure of 750mm mercury and 78
percent humidity.

** The constant 2 is a “safe” number based on a known number that will stabilize a projectile based on the Miller Stability Factor.

The Miller Stability Factor (SF) is a scale that gauges how well a given twist rate will stabilize a specific
bullet.16 An SF of less than 1 will not properly stabilize a bullet. An SF between 1 and 1.4 will offer
marginal stabilization. An SF of 1.5 or greater will be more than adequate to properly stabilize a bullet.
To calculate SF, you need to know bullet mass (M) in grains, diameter (D) in inches, length in calibers
(L) (length in inches divided by diameter), twist length (T) in calibers per twist (twist in inches divided
by bullet diameter) and the constant 30.* To calculate SF use this formula:
30 x M/(T^2) (D^3 x L) (1 + L^2) = SF
For example: a .224 in. diameter (D) bullet, .745 in. (3.33 calibers) long (L), weighing 55 grains (M)
shooting through a 1:8 (1 turn in 8 in. or 35.71 calibers (8 / .224)) (T) will have an SF of:
(30 x 55) / (35.71 x 35.71) (.224 x .224 x .224 x 3.33) (1 + 3.33 x 3.33) = SF

1650 / 1,275 x .04 x 12.08 = SF

1650 / 616 = 2.67

A stability factor of 2.67 means that a 1:8 twist rate is more than capable of stabilizing a bullet .905 in.
long. A .355 in. diameter (D) bullet, .549 in. (1.55 calibers) long (L), weighing 115 grains (M) shooting
through a 1:10 (1 turn in 10 in. or 28.17 calibers (10 / .355)) (T) will have an SF of:
(30 x 115) / (28.17 x 28.17) (.355 x .355 x .355 x 1.55) (1 + 1.55 x 1.55) = SF

3,450 / 794 x .069 x 3.40 = SF

3,450 / 186 = 18.54

Figure 8: A .22 bullet entering the forcing cone of the barrel.

192
 Figure 9: Projectile position at .3 milliseconds.

A stability factor of 18.54 means that a 1:10 diameter bullet (.002 in. larger than the 9mm)
twist rate is more than capable of stabilizing a and much heavier (longer) bullets ranging from
bullet .549 in. long. A .2255 in. diameter (D) 125 to 200 grains with a much slower twist rate
bullet, .500 in. (2.22 calibers) long (L), weigh- (1 in 18 in.). While the slower twist rates will
ing 40 grains (M) shooting through a 1:16 (1 stabilize short, fat projectiles enough to stabilize
turn in 16 in. or 70.95 calibers (16/.2255)) (T) at pistol ranges (~50 yd.), the 9mm cartridge was
will have an SF of: designed to be used in a pistol that utilized a de-
(30 x 40)/(70.95 x 70.95) (.2255 x .2255 x tachable buttstock and could be used at extended
.2255 x 2.22) (1 + 2.22 x 2.22) = SF distances; so a 1 in 10 in. twist was adopted as the
standard. The faster twist rate is used to ensure
1,200/5,034 x .025 x 5.93 = SF the bullet stays stable at greater distances while
the projectile's velocity drops off. The 1 in 10 in.
1,200/746 = 1.61 twist has proven it will stabilize 9mm projectiles
A stability factor of 1.61 means that a 1:16 twist of various weights, so it remains the standard to
rate is more than capable of stabilizing a bullet this day.
.500 in. long. Not only is twist rate important to the stabili-
zation of the projectile, it also plays a big role
*The constant 30 is a product of an average velocity of 2,800
fps, a temperature of 59° F, and a pressure of 750 mm mer- with accuracy/precision and terminal ballistics.
cury and 78 percent humidity. As the bullet moves through the rifling, it ro-
tates around the bore’s axis (invisible centerline
You may notice some inconsistencies with the
from the chamber to the muzzle). Any imper-
results of the 9mm for both the Greenhill and
fection in the construction of the bullet (non-
Miller formulas. While the formulas show the
concentric jacket or core, misalignment in the
9mm should utilize a 1 in 28 in. and 1 in 30 in.
bullet’s center of mass/form) is irrelevant at this
twist respectively, the standard 9mm twist rate
point because the bullet is being guided by the
for the 9x19mm Parabellum cartridge is 1 in 10
barrel. Once the bullet exits the muzzle, these
in. (most other pistol cartridges utilize a 1 in
imperfections reveal themselves in the form of
16 in. twist). To put things in perspective, the
instability in flight.
.357 S&W Magnum cartridge utilizes a .357 in.

193
Two different stability calculators can be found before ever leaving the case or cylinder. The case
online here: and chamber will also serve to direct the pres-
https://bergerbullets.com/twist-rate-calculator/ sure forward along the axis of the bore, like a
thruster. The majority of the gas will continue
and here: to flow in the same direction, while only a small
www.jbmballistics.com/cgi-bin/jbmstab-5.1.cgi amount will be redirected through the cylinder
gap. Regardless of the amount of pressure that
escapes, the high velocity gas entering the am-
At .23 milliseconds, the .22 bullet has entered bient atmosphere creates an initial shock wave
the forcing cone of the barrel. The bullet has ahead of the muzzle blast.
traveled another .274 in. in .00003 seconds, a 24
percent increase. Chamber pressure is down to .3 MILLISECONDS
11,900 psi. Velocity is still climbing to 735 fps
(a 13 percent increase). The bullet is now posi- At roughly .3 milliseconds, the .223 cartridge’s
tioned roughly 1.439 in. from the breech face, chamber pressure has reached about 48,200 psi,
part way between the cylinder and the barrel. a 38 percent increase in .0001 milliseconds. The
The forcing cone will guide and align the bul- bullet has moved an additional .7 in. and is now
let with the bore and ease the bullet into the roughly 2.545 in. deep in the bore of the barrel,
rifling. The .22 utilizes a .223 in. bullet, a .222 a 38 percent increase. Velocity is still rising and
in. groove diameter, and a .217 in. bore diameter. is now roughly 919 fps, a 136 percent increase.
The lands cut into the .22 bullet about .0025 in. The 9mm cartridge’s chamber pressure is still
from opposing sides. on the decline at 9,450, a 59 percent decrease
At roughly .231 milliseconds, the .22 bullet has in .0001 milliseconds. The bullet has moved an
passed completely through the cylinder and is additional 1.049 in. and is now roughly 2.295 in.
now moving into the barrel. As the bullet exits deep in the bore of the barrel, an 84 percent in-
the cylinder, there is some pressure loss through crease. Velocity is still rising and is now roughly
the cylinder gap. The pressure loss is small and 984 fps, a 38 percent increase.
equates to roughly a 7 percent loss in potential The 12-gauge cartridge’s chamber pressure
velocity and energy.17 Part of the reason for such is still rising, up to 4,870 psi, an increase of
a minimal pressure loss is that most pistol/re- 159 percent over .0001 seconds. The shot has
volver cartridges are near or at peak pressure

Figure 10: Barrel harmonics.

194
moved another .085 in. so that the shot is at moving at roughly 20,000 fps 18 (the speed of
roughly 1.585 in. in the chamber. The shot is sound through steel is roughly 20,000 fps) over
still in the case, but the crimp has unfurled the duration of about .003 seconds for the entire
completely. Velocity is now at 106 fps, an in- firing sequence. The area ahead of the bullet will
crease of 203 percent. also swell or stretch as the (slightly oversized)
The .22 cartridge’s chamber pressure has bullet is squeezed through the bore.19,20
dropped to 8,000 psi, a decrease of 33 percent The torque that is created from the projectile
over .00007 seconds. The bullet has moved an traveling through the rifling will also impact its
additional .654 in., sitting at roughly 2.093 in. harmonics. The action of rotating a projectile
in the bore of the barrel. Velocity is still rising, to the right (clockwise) has a counterclockwise
up to 870 fps, an 18 percent increase. torque applied to the barrel as the reaction. As
At roughly .33 milliseconds, the .223 cartridge the projectile travels through the rifling it causes
reaches a peak chamber pressure of 50,100 psi, a the barrel to precess. The circular, writhing mo-
4 percent increase over .00003 seconds. The bul- tion of the muzzle will cause the projectile to
let has moved an additional .387 in., now roughly exit at a different point in its path if there is any
2.932 in. in the bore of the barrel. Velocity has variance in the reaction of the cartridge such as
increased to 1,108 fps, a 21 percent increase. pressure, velocity, burn rate, projectile mass, tim-
Back thrust has also peaked at 2,956 psi. ing, etc.
Even something as small as the hammer striking
HARMONICS the firing pin will transfer sound waves. These
waves will transfer from the action to the barrel
With most of the projectiles moving through and cartridge. The speed of sound through steel,
the bore of the barrel, let us take a minute to copper, brass, and lead is 20,000 fps, 12,800 fps,
discuss what all of this pressure, heat, friction, 11,400 fps, and 3,800 fps respectively. All of
and torque are doing to the barrel (and receiver) the different types of metals will vibrate at dif-
of the firearm. Vibrations in the barrel — the ferent frequencies and amplitudes that bounce
barrel’s harmonics — is one factor that prevents around and affect the barrel and action in vari-
“one hole” accuracy, even when the human factor ous ways.21
is removed. Barrel composition, design, process
of manufacturing, stress and heat treatments,
load, and temperature can all affect the barrel’s *A vibrational wave travelling 20,000 fps will cover 32 in.
(2X barrel length) in roughly .000133 seconds. Over .003
harmonics. seconds the wave will oscillate along the barrel 22.5 times.
When the cartridge is discharged, there is an
array of impulses that move through the bar- .4 MILLISECONDS
rel and receiver. One cause of these impulses
comes from the pressure of the propellant when At roughly .4 milliseconds, the .223 cartridge’s
it ignites and expands. The velocity of the gas chamber pressure is dropping, now at 46,800
expansion can be upwards of 1.75+ times the psi, a 7 percent decrease over .00007 seconds.
muzzle velocity. This means the propellant The bullet has moved an additional 1.082 in.,
gasses behind a 55-grain .223 bullet moving now sitting at roughly 4.014 in. in the bore of
at 2,900 would expand at roughly 5,075 fps the barrel. Velocity has risen to 1,515 psi, a 37
(roughly 4.5X the speed of sound in air). The percent increase. Although the .223 bullet is
rapid expansion of the propellant gasses and moving at supersonic velocity inside the bar-
the pressure causes the barrel to stretch, swell, rel, there is no shock wave (sonic boom) inside
and vibrate. These vibrational waves will oscil- the barrel. The bullet pushes against the “air
late the length of a 16 in. barrel about 20X* be- column” ahead of it and compresses it, increas-
fore the bullet exits the muzzle. The waves are ing the speed of sound in the medium. Because

195
 Figure 11: Projectile position at .4 milliseconds.

of the bullet's obturation, a seal is created that percent over .0001 seconds. The bullet has trav-
separates the propellant gas and the air column. eled 1.084 in. farther, now roughly 3.177 in. in
The bullet's obturation ensures that it cannot the bore of the barrel. Velocity has risen to 1,000
accelerate faster than the air column, which pre- fps, an increase of 15 percent.
vents the creation of a shockwave.22 At roughly .43 milliseconds, the 9mm bullet
The 9mm cartridge's chamber pressure has will reach the muzzle of the pistol after 3.38 in.
dropped to 5,115 psi, a 46 percent decrease over of travel (an additional .472 in.). Chamber pres-
.0001 seconds. The bullet has traveled an addi- sure has dropped to 4,470 psi, a 13 percent de-
tional 1.233 in., sitting at roughly 3.528 in. in crease over .00003 seconds. Velocity has peaked
the bore of the barrel. Velocity is up to 1,112 fps, at 1,140 fps, an increase of 3 percent.
a 13 percent increase. At this point in time, both At .47 milliseconds, the 12-gauge’s chamber
the barrel and slide will begin to recoil back- pressure will peak at 10,200 psi, an increase of
wards a slight distance (~.080 in.). The cham- 12 percent over .00007 seconds. The shot will
ber remains locked as the barrel and slide move have moved an additional .325 in., now roughly
and will remain locked until after the bullet has 2.019 in. in the chamber of the barrel (still in-
left the muzzle and the chamber pressure has side the case). Velocity has increased to 420 fps,
dropped to a safe level. a 62 percent jump. Bolt thrust has also peaked
The 12-gauge cartridge’s chamber pressure has at 1,622 psi.
risen to 9,130 psi, an increase of 87 percent over At .49 milliseconds, the shot will finally clear
.0001 seconds. The shot has moved another the case after roughly 1.341 in. of travel. The
.109 in., now roughly 1.694 in. in the chamber shot is now sitting 2.760 in. deep in the cham-
of the barrel. Velocity has increased to 260 fps, a ber of the barrel and is now moving through the
jump of 145 percent. .24 in. of additional chamber. Chamber pres-
The .22 cartridge’s chamber pressure is still sure has dropped to 10,000 psi, while velocity is
dropping, now at 5,000 psi, a decrease of 38 up to 475 fps.

196
 Figure 12: Projectile position at .5 milliseconds.

.5 MILLISECONDS At .5 milliseconds, the .22 cartridge's chamber

pressure has dropped to 3,500 psi, a decrease of
At .5 milliseconds, the .223’s chamber pressure 30 percent over .0001 milliseconds. The bul-
has dropped to 35,100 psi, a 25 percent decrease let has moved an additional 1.269 in., sitting
over .0001 seconds. The bullet has moved an at roughly 4.446 in. in the bore of the barrel.
additional 2.111 in., sitting roughly 6.125 in. in Velocity is up to 1,070 fps, a 7 percent increase.
the bore of the barrel. Velocity is up to 2,009 fps,
At roughly .54 milliseconds, the .22 bullet will
an increase of 33 percent.
reach the muzzle of the pistol after roughly 4.5
The 12-gauge’s chamber pressure has dropped in. of travel (an additional .554”). Chamber
to 9,880 psi, a 1 percent decrease over .00001 pressure has dropped to 3,100 psi, a decrease
seconds. The shot has finally cleared the cham- of 11 percent over .00004 seconds. Velocity has
ber (3 in.) after 1.581 in. of travel and is now peaked at 1,110 fps, an increase of 4 percent.
moving through the forcing cone. The forcing
At roughly .56 milliseconds, the .223 bullet will
cone acts like the leade of the rifling, guiding
pass the gas port of the barrel after roughly 6.37
the cup into the bore of the shotgun. The diam-
in. of travel. The gas port of an AR-15 with a
eter of the bore is around .725”. Cups and wads
16 in. barrel and carbine length gas system is
are often the same size or slightly undersized
roughly 7.8 in. from the bolt face. The gas port
(.005”) but expand slightly when under load. As
of a carbine length gas system is around .0625
the cup/wad passes through the forcing cone, it
in. in diameter.23 Chamber pressure is down to
is slightly compressed to provide a seal for the
28,100 psi, while velocity is up to 2,247 fps. The
bore. Because the cup/wad is made of very soft
moment the bullet passes the gas port, some of
material (plastic or paper), it creates very little
resistance when entering the bore.

Figure 13: Projectile position at .8 milliseconds.

197
the propellant gasses will begin to bleed off into out of alignment with the slide and unlocks.
the gas port of the barrel, through the gas block The slide begins to move rearward to complete
and into the gas tube. its cycle. The .22 bullet is roughly .80 in. from
the muzzle (1,110 fps at .00006 seconds).
.6 MILLISECONDS
.8 MILLISECONDS
At .6 milliseconds, the .223 cartridge’s chamber
pressure has dropped to 26,200 psi, a decrease At roughly .8 milliseconds, the .223’s chamber
of 7 percent over .00004 seconds. The bullet has pressure has dropped to 15,400 psi, a loss of 41
moved an additional .861 in. and is now sitting percent over .0002 milliseconds. The bullet has
at 8.730 in. in the bore of the barrel. Velocity is moved an additional 6.183 in. and is now sitting
up to 2,362 fps, a 5 percent increase. at 14.913 in. in the bore of the barrel. Velocity
The 12-gauge cartridge’s chamber pressure is has jumped to 2,750 fps, a 16 percent increase.
also dropping, down to 7,740 fps, a decrease At .83 milliseconds, the .223’s bullet has finally
of 22 percent over .0001 seconds. The shot reached the muzzle after 14.565 in. of travel (an
has moved another .85 in., clearing the forcing increase of 1.087 in. in .00003). Chamber pres-
cone and moving through the bore at roughly sure is down to 14,200, a drop of roughly 8 per-
3.85”. Velocity is up to 700 fps, an increase of cent in .00003 seconds. Velocity has peaked at
40 percent. 2,900 fps, an increase of 5 percent.
The 9mm and .22 bullets are now clear of the
muzzle and well on their way to the targets. The .9 MILLISECONDS
9mm bullet is roughly 2.33 in. from the muzzle At roughly .9 milliseconds, the 12-gauge car-
(1,140 fps at .00017 seconds). As the barrel is tridge’s chamber pressure has dropped to 2,750
arrested by the locking block, it begins to move psi, a decrease of 64 percent over .0003 seconds.

Figure 14a: The .223 time chart.

198
 Figure 14b: The .223 travel chart.

Travel and velocity are both still increasing. The .223 is roughly 23.32 in. from the muzzle. The
shot has moved another 3.67 in. and is now 7.52 bolt carrier is still travelling rearward, and the
in. deep in the bore of the barrel. Velocity has bolt is still rotating to unlock the chamber. The
reached 1,020 fps, an increase of 46 percent. 9mm bullet is roughly 14.64 in. from the muzzle.
The .223, 9mm, and .22 bullets are all well on The slide is continuing rearward, still extracting
their way to the targets. The .223 is roughly the empty case from the chamber. The .22 bullet
2.436 in. from the muzzle. The chamber pres- has moved roughly 13.85 in. from the muzzle.
sure has dropped to a safe level and the bolt
carrier is beginning to move rearward, turning 1.8 MILLISECONDS
the bolt and unlocking the chamber. The 9mm At roughly 1.84 milliseconds, the 12-gauge
bullet is roughly 6.43 in. from the muzzle. The birdshot has finally reached the muzzle after
slide is continuing rearward, still extracting the 18.581 in. of travel (an increase of 5.9 in. over
empty case from the chamber. The .22 bullet .00034 seconds). Chamber pressure has dropped
has moved roughly 4.80 in. from the muzzle. to 660 psi, a decrease of 22 percent. Velocity has
reached its peak at 1,275 fps, an increase of 4
1.5 MILLISECONDS percent.
At .9 milliseconds, the 12-gauge’s chamber The .223 is roughly 35.15 in. from the muzzle.
pressure has dropped to 850 psi, a decrease of The bolt carrier is still travelling rearward, and
69 percent over .0006 seconds. Travel and veloc- the bolt is still rotating to unlock the chamber.
ity are both still increasing. The shot has moved The 9mm bullet is roughly 19.29 in. from the
another 6.58 in. and is now 14.1 in. deep in the muzzle. The slide is continuing rearward, still
bore of the barrel. Velocity has reached 1,225 extracting the empty case from the chamber.
fps, an increase of 20 percent. The .22 bullet has moved roughly 17.32 in.
The .223, 9mm, and .22 bullets are still moving from the muzzle.
along their trajectories toward the target. The

199
The entire firing sequence lasts roughly .003 .00249 seconds, the 12-gauge’s (.00184 bar-
seconds from the moment the trigger is pulled, rel time) lasted .00390 seconds, and the .22’s
until the projectile reaches the muzzle. If we as- (.00054 barrel time) lasted .00260 seconds. To
sume a lock time of .002 seconds and a primer put things into perspective, a blink lasts roughly
ignition time of .00085 seconds, the .223’s fir- .1 seconds.24 The 9mm firing sequence could
ing sequence (.00083 barrel time) lasted .00289 theoretically occur roughly 40 times in the
seconds, the 9mm (.00043 barrel time) lasted blink of an eye.

.223 Remington
Time Pressure Increase/ Distance from Increase/ Velocity Increase/
(Milliseconds) (PSI) Decrease/ % Breech (Inches) % (FPS) %
1.435 (Start)

.05 7,400 1.447 .012/1% 38

.1 13,600 6,200/84% 1.5 .053/4% 99 61/161%

.2 34,900 21,300/157% 1.845 .345/23% 390 291/294%

.3 48,200 13,300/38% 2.545 .7/38% 919 529/136%

.33 50,100 1,900/4% 2.932 .387/15% 1,108 189/21%

.4 46,800 -3,300/-7% 4.014 1.082/37% 1,515 407/37%

-11,700/
.5 35,100 6.125 2.111/53% 2,009 494/33%
-25%
.56 28,100 -7,000/-20% 7.869 1.744/28% 2,247 238/12%

.6 26,200 -1,900/-7% 8.730 .861/11% 2,362 115p/5%

-10,800/
.8 15,400 14.913 6.183/71% 2,750 388/16%
-41%
.83 14,200 -1,200/-8% 16 1.087/7% 2,900 150/5%

Figure 15a: The 9mm time chart.

200
 Figure 15b: The 9mm travel chart.

9x19mm Parabellum
Time Pressure Increase/ Distance from Velocity
Increase/ % Increase/ %
(Milliseconds) (PSI) Decrease/ % Breech (Inches) (FPS)

.620 (Start)

.05 8,800 .635 .015/2% 51

.1 24,900 16,100/183% .697 .062/10% 198 147/288%

.14 32,300 7,400/30% .839 .142/20% 403 205/104%

.16 31,220 -1,080/-3% .9258 .0868/10% 498 95/24%

.2 22,800 -8,420/-27% 1.246 .3202/35% 713 215/43%

.3 9,450 -13,350/-59% 2.295 1.049/84% 984 271/38%

.4 5,115 -4,335/-46% 3.528 1.233/54% 1,112 128/13%

.43 4,470 645/-13% 4 .472/13% 1,140 28/3%

201
Figure 16a: The 12-gauge time chart.

Figure 16b: The 12-gauge travel chart.

202
 12-Gauge 2¾”
Time Pressure Increase/ Distance from Increase/ Velocity Increase/
(Milliseconds) (PSI) Decrease/ % Breech (Inches) % (FPS) %

1.419 (Start)

.05 340 1.425 .006/.5% 8

.1 640 300/88% 1.448 .023/1.5% 20 12/150%

.2 1,880 1,240/198% 1.5 .052/4% 45 25/125%

.3 4,870 2,990/159% 1.585 .085/6% 106 61/136%

.4 9,130 4,260/87% 1.694 .109/7% 260 154/145%

.47 10,200 1,070/12% 2.019 .325/19% 420 160/62%

.49 10,000 -200/-2% 2.76 .741/37% 475 55/13%

.5 9,880 -120/-1% 3 .24/9% 500 25/5%

.6 7,740 -2,140/-22% 3.85 .85/28% 700 200/40%

.9 2,750 -4,990/-64% 7.52 3.67/95% 1,020 320/46%

1.5 850 -1,900/-69% 14.1 6.59/88% 1,225 205/20%

1.84 660 -190/-22% 20 5.9/42% 1,275 50/4%

Figure 17a: The .22 time chart.

203
 Figure 17b: The .22 travel chart.

.22 LR

Time Pressure Increase/ Distance from Increase/ Velocity Increase/

(Milliseconds) (PSI) Decrease/ % Breech (Inches) % (FPS) %

.5 (Start)
.05 11,300 .521 .021/4% 70
.1 21,700 10,400/92% .607 .086/17% 250 180/257%
.12 22,500 800/4% .664 .057/9% 330 80/32%
.2 14,900 -7,600/-34% 1.165 .501/75% 650 320/97%
.23 11,900 -3,000/-20% 1.439 .274/24% 735 85/13%
.3 8,000 -3,900/-33% 2.093 .654/45% 870 135/18%
.4 5,000 -3,000/-38% 3.177 1.084/52% 1,000 130/15%
.5 3,500 -1,500/-30% 4.446 1.269/40% 1,070 70/7%
.54 3,100 -400/-11% 5 .554/12% 1,110 40/4%

204
NOTES
NOTES
 Chapter 9 - Recoil and Cycling, Transitional and Exterior Ballistics
RECOIL AND CYCLING 209
Cycling 212
TRANSITIONAL BALLISTICS 213
EXTERIOR BALLISTICS 217
The Projectile 217
Gravity 219
Trajectory and Sights 220
Air 221
Gyroscopic Drift 222
Calculating Drag 224
BALLISTIC TABLES 227
TEMPERATURE, HUMIDITY, ALTITUDE, WIND,
AND OTHER FACTORS 233
Temperature 233
Humidity 234
Altitude 234
Wind 236
CORIOLIS, MAGNUS, AND EOTVOS EFFECTS,
AND VERTICAL ANGLES 241
Magnus Effect 241
Coriolis and Eotvos Effects 241
Vertical Angles 243
Supersonic Projectiles 244
Transonic Problem 244
Shot/Cup Separation and Shot String 245
208
 many factors that can affect free, impulse, and

Recoil and Cycling

felt recoil, including the mass and velocity of the
projectile and firearm, the “jet” effect, the use of
muzzle brakes, compensators and suppressors,
From the moment the projectile begins to move the layout of the grip and stock and the use of
forward in the chamber/bore, there is an equal soft buttpads or other devices used to dampen
force that is driving the firearm in the opposite recoil forces.
direction (Newton’s Third Law of Motion). This The jet effect is caused by the high pressure,
movement is inperceptible to the shooter until high velocity propellant gas exiting the muz-
after the projectile has left the muzzle because zle. The .223’s propellant gasses are exiting
the event occurs so rapidly, and the firearm and at roughly 5,075 fps, the 9mm’s are exiting at
shooter provide enough inertia to resist the im- roughly 1,995 fps, the 12-gauge’s are exiting at
pulse while the projectile is moving through the roughly 2,056 fps, and the .22’s are exiting at
barrel. This force that the shooter feels is known roughly 1,943 fps. The bore of the barrel acts
as recoil. like the thruster of a jet, directing the propellant
Recoil forces can be sorted into three basic gases forward, parallel to the bore’s axis, which
types: free recoil, recoil impulse, and “felt” re- in turn drives the firearm in the opposite direc-
coil. Free recoil is the actual amount of recoil tion. Depending on the caliber and load, the jet
the firearm experiences without any external affect will account for roughly 30 percent of the
factors involved (i.e. the shooter, gravity, fric- total recoil forces.1 The use of light-for-caliber
tion, or any environmental factors). The recoil high velocity projectiles will increase the jet ef-
impulse is how the recoil is delivered, while felt fect over heavier, slower-moving projectiles.
recoil is how the shooter perceives it. There are

209
Recoil forces (free recoil) can be calculated with a few known factors. To calculate recoil, you will need
to first calculate the velocity of the recoiling firearm in feet per second (fps). To calculate recoil velocity,
you will need to know the weight of the projectile (W) in grains, the weight of the propellant (P) charge
in grains, the muzzle velocity (MV) of the projectile in feet per second, the weight of the firearm (M)
in pounds, and the constants 1.25 – 1.75* and 7,000.** The formula for recoil velocity is:
P x MV x (1.25 to 1.75) + W x MV/M x 7,000 = Recoil Velocity (RV) FPS
For example: a .223 cartridge with 26 grains of propellant, firing a 55-grain bullet at 2,900 fps out of a
7 lb. rifle would have a recoil velocity of:
26 x 2,900 x 1.75 + 55 x 2,900/7 x 7,000 = RV

131,950 + 159,50 /49,000 = RV

291,450/49,000 = 5.94 FPS

A 9mm cartridge with 4.8 grains of propellant, firing a 115-grain bullet at 1,440 fps out of a 1.5 lb.
pistol would have a recoil velocity of:
4.8 x 1,140 x 1.5 + 115 x 1,140/1.5 x 7,000 = RV

8,208 + 131,100/10,500 = RV

139,30/10,500 = 13.27 FPS

A 12-gauge cartridge with 20.5 grains of propellant, firing 383 grains of shot + a 43-grain wad (426
total) at 1,275 fps out of a 7 lb. shotgun would have a recoil velocity of:
20.5 x 1,275 x 1.5 + 426 x 1,275/7 x 7,000 = RV

39,206 + 543,150/49,000 = RV

582,356/49,000 = 11.88 FPS

A .22 cartridge with 1.9 grains of propellant, firing a 40-grain bullet at 1,100 fps out of a 2 lb. pistol,
would have a recoil velocity of:
1.9 x (1,110 x 1.5) + 40 x 1,110/2 x 7,000 = R

3,164 + 44,400/14,000 =RV

47,564/14,000 = 3.40 FPS

*The constant will vary by firearm type, propellant charge and type, projectile weight, and muzzle velocity. For long-barreled shot-
guns use 1.25, for normal length shotguns, pistols and revolvers use 1.5, for high powered rifles use 1.75.2 The constant is derived
from the acceleration of the expanding propellant gas.

**There are 7,000 grains in 1 pound.

210
Now that you have calculated recoil velocity, you can use those figures to calculate recoil energy (in ft-
lb. force). To calculate recoil energy all you need to know is the mass (M) of the firearm in pounds, the
recoil velocity (RV) of the firearm, and the constant 64.348.* The formula for recoil energy is:
M x RV^2/64.348 = Recoil Energy (RE)
For example: the AR-15 rifle would have a recoil energy of:
7 x (5.94 x 5.94)/64.348 = RV

7 x 35.28/64.348 = RV

246.96/64.348 = 3.84 ft-lb.

The striker-fired pistol would have a recoil energy of:

1.5 x (13.27 x 13.27)/64.348 = RV

1.5 x 176/64.348 = RV

264/64.348 = 4.1 ft-lb.

The shotgun would have a recoil energy of:

7 x (11.88 x 11.88)/64.348 = RV

7 x 141/64.348 = RV

987/64.348 = 15.33 ft-lb.

The revolver would have a recoil energy of:

2 x (3.40 x 3.40)/64.348 = RV

2 x 11.56/64.348 = RV

23.12/64.348 = .34 ft-lb.

*The constant is twice the acceleration of gravity: 32.174 x 2.

Knowing the recoil velocity of the firearm will also allow you to calculate the recoil impulse.3 The re-
coil impulse is the change in momentum of the firearm over a given time, or how the recoil “feels.” A
quicker recoil impulse will feel like a punch, while a slower impulse will feel like a strong push. Recoil
impulse is expressed in pounds per second (lb-sec.) and requires the firearm’s momentum to be known.
Luckily momentum is a product of the firearm’s mass (in lb.) and recoil velocity (in fps), both we know.
Momentum is expressed in pound-feet-per-second (lb-fps).
AR-15: 5.94 x 7 = 41.58 lb-fps.
Striker-Fired Pistol: 13.27 x 1.5 = 19.90 lb-fps.
Shotgun: 11.88 x 7 = 83.16 lb-fps.
Revolver: 3.40 x 2 = 6.92 lb-fps.

211
Now you just need to divide the firearm’s mo-
mentum by the constant 32.174 (gravitational
acceleration). The AR-15 would have a recoil
impulse of 1.29 lb-sec. The striker-fired pistol
would have a recoil impulse of .62 lb-sec. The
shotgun would have a recoil impulse of 2.58 lb-
sec. and the revolver would have a recoil impulse
of .22 lb-sec. These figures show the two hand-
guns having very quick impulses, with relatively
low force. The shotgun’s recoil impulse is much
longer, with a greater force. The AR-15’s recoil
impulse will be harder than the handgun’s but
sharper than the shotgun’s.

CYCLING
With recoil-operated actions, the energy cre-
ated during discharge will also be used to cycle
the action. With the striker-fired pistol (recoil-
operated), the recoil force acts directly upon the
slide of the pistol and drives it rearward to cycle
the action. In a gas operated system, high pres-
sure gas is tapped from the bore and used to act
against the action parts of the firearm, driving
them rearward and cycling the action.
The striker-fired pistol’s slide will move roughly
3.75 in. (1.875 in. backward and 1.875 in. for-
ward) back into battery. It takes about .050 sec-
onds from the moment one round is fired until
the slide extracts the empty case, ejects it, com-
presses the recoil spring, strips a new round from
the magazine and locks the new round in the
chamber. For the AR-15, the bolt must travel
roughly 7 in. (3.5 in. back and 3.5 in. forward
into battery). It takes about .063 seconds to
completely cycle the AR-15’s action. This means
that the 9mm bullet is roughly 57 ft. from the
muzzle as the slide comes back into battery and
the .223 bullet is roughly 183 ft. from the muz-
zle as the bolt comes back into battery.

212
 Transitional
Ballistics
Now that the projectiles have exited the barrel,
we can begin to discuss their transitional bal-
listics. Transitional ballistics is the study of the
projectile from the moment it exits the muzzle
until the pressure around it has equalized to at-
mospheric conditions. There are several factors
that affect transitional ballistics, including the
projectile, firearm, and atmospheric conditions.
Continuing with the projectile’s journey, let's as-
sume, for example, that all four projectiles (.223,
9mm, 12-gauge, and .22) leave the muzzle at
the same time. The .223 has an exit velocity of
2,900 fps and a remaining chamber pressure of
about 14,000 psi. The 9mm has an exit velocity

213
 Figure 1: Left - Nutation or wobble. Right - Precession.

of 1,140 fps and a remaining chamber pressure from the super-heated, high pressure, fuel-rich
of about 4,470 psi. The 12-gauge birdshot has gas in the bore, mixing with the oxygen in the
an exit velocity of 1,275 fps and a remaining atmosphere and igniting.
chamber pressure of 660 psi, and the .22 has an The exiting propellant gases (moving roughly
exit velocity of 1,110 fps and a remaining cham- 1.75X the speed of the projectiles) and the shock-
ber pressure of 3,100 psi. wave overtake the projectile and envelope it in a
While three out of four of the projectiles (.223, cloud of high pressure, high velocity, turbulent
9mm, 12-gauge) exit the muzzle at supersonic gas. Depending on the volume of gas exiting the
velocity, the propellant gas from all four car- barrel and the velocity of the projectile, the pro-
tridges will exit the muzzle at supersonic veloci- jectile may have to travel several feet to clear the
ties. If we assume the propellant gas is moving propellant gas cloud and the shockwave created
at a (moderate) value of 1.75X the projectile, during the initial release of pressure.4,5 Although
then the .223’s propellant gasses are exiting at the exiting propellant gases may not contribute
5,075 fps, the 9mm’s are exiting at 1,995 fps, the to any additional velocity for the projectile, the
12-gauge’s are exiting at 2,231 fps, and the .22’s gas and shockwave are still acting upon the pro-
are exiting at 1,943 fps. So now we have rela- jectile until it exits the transitional zone.
tively high pressure gas moving at greater veloc- The bore of the barrel acts like the thruster of
ity than the projectiles. a jet, focusing the exiting propellant gas toward
As the projectile exits the muzzle, it will push the base of the projectile. The concentricity of
the air column out in front of it. This also in-
cludes any propellant gasses that may have es-
caped ahead of the projectile or any debris that
may be in the bore. This creates an initial pres-
sure front that disrupts the air in front of the
muzzle. Once the projectile's base clears the
muzzle and enters the turbulent air ahead of it,
it will “uncork” the bore. The shockwave that is
created when the propellant gas enters the sur-
rounding atmosphere is what we recognize as
muzzle “blast,” or the loud noise and flash of the
gunshot. The shockwave radiates 360° from the
firearm's muzzle, creating a “bubble” of turbu-
lent air. The flash or light from the shot comes
Figure 1b: Pitch and yaw.

214
 Figure 2: Exiting the transitional zone.

the muzzle crown* and the shape and concen- wad clears the muzzle and ceases to be propelled
tricity of the base of the projectile are crucial to or pushed by the propellant gas, it will begin to
the initial stabilization of the projectile’s flight. decelerate faster than the shot charge, which
If the muzzle of the firearm is non-concentric, has far greater momentum and aerodynamics.
angled, or is damaged, it will cause the propel- Assuming a transitional zone of roughly 3 ft.,
lant gas to exit the muzzle non-uniformly. The it would take the .223 projectile roughly .001
same is true of the base of the projectile: if it is seconds to reach the external ballistic zone. It
non-concentric, the exiting propellant gas will would take the 9mm projectile, 12-gauge bird-
work against the projectile in a non-uniform shot, and .22 projectiles roughly .002 seconds to
manner. If the exiting propellant gas is uneven clear the transitional zone.
or erratic, it can cause the projectile to nutate, A cartridge’s transitional ballistics will also have
pitch, precess, and yaw. The projectile may remain an effect on how any muzzle device will perform
unstable until exiting the transitional zone, sta- (i.e. flash hider, compensator, brake, or suppres-
bilizing once clear of the turbulent atmosphere. sor). Muzzle brakes and compensators both uti-
However, the projectile will be travelling on a lize the exiting propellant gas to help mitigate
trajectory that differs slightly from the bore’s some of the firearm's recoil. The muzzle brake
axis and its original (or intended) trajectory. will divert some of the propellant gas sideways
The projectile(s) will exit the transitional zone (horizontally) and back toward the shooter
once it clears the shockwave created by the pro- through the use of baffles. This will create a for-
pellant gas. A supersonic projectile (.223, 9mm, ward thrust that will drive the firearm forward,
12-gauge) will clear the initial shockwave while mitigating some recoil. The compensator will
“dragging” a secondary shockwave like the wake divert some of the propellant gas upward (verti-
of a boat. The secondary shockwave also creates cally), using ports and driving the muzzle down-
a loud noise similar to the bore’s “uncorking,” ward to help mitigate muzzle flip. Additionally,
but is indistinguishable from the first shock- the baffles on the compensator will also allow
wave because it occurs almost simultaneously. the escaping gasses a surface to push forward
A subsonic projectile (.22) will clear the ini- on. This will reduce the rearward movement of
tial shockwave but will not create a secondary the compensator and everything it is connected
shockwave like the supersonic projectiles. It is to, thus reducing felt-recoil. Muzzle brakes and
also during the end of the transitional period compensators will perform better with high ve-
that the cup/wad will begin to separate from the locity, light-for-caliber projectiles because the
shot in the case of a shotshell. Once the cup/ volume and velocity of the propellant gas is typi-
cally greater than heavier, slower projectiles.

215
 Figure 3a: How a compressor works. Figure 3b: How a muzzle brake works.

The opposite is true for flash hiders and sup-

pressors. Flash hiders are designed to mix the
exiting propellant gas with the atmosphere
more efficiently than a bare muzzle, brake, or
compensator. When the shockwave from the
exiting propellant gas contacts the atmosphere,
it creates enough heat and pressure to ignite the
remaining fuel in the propellant gas and oxygen
in the air.6 The flash hider works by dividing the
exiting propellant gas into multiple “streams”
that cool the gas rapidly and limit the chance of
ignition. A suppressor works by “trapping” the
exiting propellant gas. The baffles or core inside
the suppressor body create multiple “chambers”
that allow the propellant gas to fill, slow, and Figure 3c: How a flash hider works.
cool. Suppressors and flash suppressors will be
less effective with high velocity cartridges than
with slower, heavy projectiles. Suppressors also
cannot contain the shockwave created by the
supersonic projectile.
*The concentricity of the crown is more critical than its shape.
The 11° crown is touted as the most accurate crown angle, but
if it’s not machined perfectly concentric to the bore, it will still
perform poorly.

216
 All of these factors work negatively on the path
Exterior Ballistics of the projectile, altering its intended point of
impact. This path is known as the projectile’s
trajectory.
The projectiles are now clear of the transitional
zone and have entered “normal” atmospheric THE PROJECTILE
conditions. The study of the projectile from the
The design of the projectile will play a very
moment it clears the transitional period until it
big role in how it performs in flight. The mass,
has impacted the target is known as exterior/
shape, and dimensions of the projectile are all
external ballistics. There are several factors that
critical to the projectile’s exterior ballistic per-
can affect a projectile’s exterior ballistics, both
formance. As previously discussed in the projec-
with the projectile and environment. Depending
tile section of the components of the cartridge,
on how long the projectile is in flight, the rota-
the performance of the projectile can be mea-
tion of the earth may also become a factor.
sured by its ballistic coefficient (BC). Projectiles
The design of the projectile will affect how with greater BCs are better-suited at overcom-
capable it is of overcoming various environ- ing any external force that would try to divert it
mental factors, while internal factors can lead from its intended trajectory. With our example
to instability in the projectile during flight. cartridges, the .223 projectile has a BC of .237,
Environmental factors include both gravity and the 9mm’s is .158, the 12-gauge’s is .027 and the
air. Gravity works perpendicular to the projec- .22’s is .138, none of which are considered high
tile’s path (which is mostly parallel to the earth’s BCs. The low BCs can be contributed to low
surface), affecting its elevation (vertical axis). mass, low SD (sectional density), and less aero-
Air, or more so the resistance it creates (drag), dynamic forms.
will work parallel to the projectile’s travel and
Any variance in the projectile’s form or dimen-
affect its velocity (horizontal axis, parallel to the
sions caused by the manufacturing process or
projectile’s path). Wind can act parallel, perpen-
damage can lead to a projectile that is non-con-
dicular, and diagonally to the projectile’s path.
centric. This is true of both the jackets and cores

Figure 4: The projectile's center of form, gravity, and pressure.

217
of pistol and rifle bullets and all types of shot. instability from outside forces and will not be
Non-concentric jacket walls, a core that is non- able to recover. This is why we often see a con-
concentric, or shot that is not perfectly round dition known as “keyholing.” A projectile that is
can lead to an imbalance of the projectile’s cen- unstable will begin to wobble before tumbling
ter of gravity (mass) and the center of form. end-over-end and hitting the target sideways. A
The projectile’s center of gravity is the focal properly stabilized projectile will overcome any
point that gravity acts upon or the projectile’s outside force and restabilize thanks to its rota-
balance point. The projectile’s center of form is tional inertia and angular momentum (a product
the center of the overall shape of the projectile. of its mass and angular velocity rotating around
Of the two centers, the center of gravity is the its center of mass along its rotational axis).
only point of the projectile that aligns with its The projectile’s angular momentum will resist
trajectory.8 As the projectile is spun (or just pro- any change in the orientation of its rotational
pelled like with shot), any imbalance can lead axis and velocity until acted upon by outside
to a wobble in flight. As the projectile moves forces. Like a spinning top, as long as it has
through the bore of the firearm, any imperfec- enough angular momentum, it will remain up-
tions in the projectile are irrelevant as they fol- right with the position of its axis unchanged
low the path of the bore’s axis; but as soon as the until acted upon by an outside force (friction,
projectile has cleared the support of the barrel, gravity). Even if you were to push against the
any imbalance is immediately magnified. top, as long as it still has enough momentum it
This is why the rifling of the barrel is so im- will only wobble for a moment and return to its
portant. A properly stabilized projectile may stable position. It is not until the momentum
momentarily become unstable then quick- has dissipated that the top begins to wobble and
ly stabilize once again. A projectile that has eventually fall.
not been properly stabilized will experience It is at this point in the projectile’s trajectory
(roughly 10 ft. – 15 ft. from the muzzle) that
“muzzle energy” has been (traditionally*) mea-
sured. Muzzle energy, or the kinetic energy of
the projectile, is a product of its mass and veloc-
ity. The projectile's muzzle energy can be easily
calculated with only two known factors: mass
(M) (in grains) and velocity (V) (in feet-per-
second) and the constant 450,436.** Here is the
equation for muzzle energy:†
M x V^2/450,436 = Muzzle
Energy (ME in ft-lb.)

The muzzle energy for our example cartridges

would be:
.223 Remington
55 x 2,900 x 2,900/450,436 = 1,027 ft-lb.

9x19mm Parabellum
115 x 1,140 x 1,140/450,436 = 332 ft-lb.
Figure 5: Keyholing.

218
 12-gauge down, altering its path from the bore’s axis. If
383 x 1,275 x 1,275/450,436 = 1,382 ft-lb. ‡ the firearm were discharged in the vacuum of
space, the projectile would continue along the
same path, following the bore’s axis forever.
.22 Long Rifle Gravity acts on all things at a rate of 32.174
40 x 1,110 x 1,110/450,436 = 109 ft-lb. feet-per-second-per-second (fps/S) regardless
if they are free-falling or propelled parallel or at
an angle to the earth’s surface. Gravity also only
*Traditionally, the chronograph has been used to measure pro- acts upon objects in an axis perpendicular to
jectile velocity. Newer technology, such as the Doppler radar
the earth’s surface, meaning gravity only works
and the magnetic chronograph, are not sensitive to muzzle
blast. in a vertical axis as a downward acceleration.
To put this into perspective, an object that is
**The constant comes from a product of gravitational accelera- dropped and allowed to free-fall for one second
tion (32.174 fps) x 2 x 7,000 (grains in a pound). will travel roughly 16.08 ft.* If two bullets of
identical mass were dropped and fired from the
†The formula can be used to calculate projectile energy at any same height, they would contact the ground at
distance as long as velocity is known.
the same time, regardless of the fired projectile’s
‡The figure is a culmination of the energy of all the pel-
velocity. The propelled projectile would just be a
lets. Seven-eighths ounce of #7.5 birdshot contains roughly greater distance from its starting position.
263 pellets (at 1.46 grains each), with each pellet producing *The first second the object would be accelerating from 0 fps to
around 5.2 ft.lb. of energy. 32.174 fps, with an average velocity of 16.08 fps. An object
travelling 16.08 fps for one second would travel 16.08'. The
next second the object would be accelerating from 32.174 fps
GRAVITY to 64.348 fps with an average velocity of 48.261 fps. Travel
would increase to 64.341 ft. (16.08 ft. + 48.261').
Immediately upon exiting the barrel, the projec- Let’s use our four flying projectiles as examples.
tile will begin to be dragged down to the earth’s The four firearms are held with the axis of the
surface by gravity. Up to this point the projectile bore 5 ft. off the ground, with the axis parallel
was supported by the barrel, with gravity hav- to the earth’s surface (level). A fifth projectile
ing little to no effect on the projectile’s trajec- is held 5 ft. off the ground, level with the other
tory. Once the projectile clears the edge of the projectiles. If fired and dropped simultaneously,
muzzle, gravity will begin pulling the projectile

Figure 6: The effects of gravity.

219
all five projectiles would hit the ground at the along its trajectory, the upward velocity will slow
exact same moment. to zero (at the top of its arc) as the force of grav-
A projectile held 5 ft. off the ground will take ity overcomes the projectile’s upward velocity.
roughly .558 seconds to hit the ground. The Once the projectile has reached the peak of its
equation for the amount of time an object takes trajectory, it will begin to accelerate downward.
to free-fall is:9 The angle the barrel is held at is known as the
line of departure.10
T = √ (2H / G)
TRAJECTORY AND SIGHTS
Where:
Most new shooters believe that the projectile
T = Time in seconds rises when exiting the barrel. We know this is
H = Height of the object in feet not true because gravity acts immediately on
G = Acceleration of gravity (32.174) the projectile after exiting the barrel, pulling it
down to the earth’s surface. The misconception
T = √ (2 x 5)/32.174 comes from the way sights and optics are de-
T = √ (10/32.174) signed. Sights and optics are designed to create
a “line of sight” that is at a negative angle to
T = √ .311 the bore’s axis. When the sights are aligned with
T = .558 seconds the target, the barrel is being pointed at a slight
positive angle.
With no other forces acting upon the projec- As the projectile follows its line of departure, it
tiles but gravity, the .223 bullet will be roughly will intersect with the line of sight of the sights.
1,618.2 ft. from its starting point after .558 sec- This is known as a “point of zero.” The point
onds of travel at 2,900 fps. With a muzzle veloc- of zero is the distance from the muzzle of the
ity of 1,140 fps, the 9mm bullet will be 636.12 firearm at which the projectile intersects with
ft. from its starting point, while the 12-gauge the line of sight. Depending on the firearm type,
(1,275 fps) will be 711.45 ft. away and the .22 caliber, and sight dimensions, there may be one
(1,110 fps) will be 619.38 ft. away.* To calcu- or two points of zero.
late the rough distance a projectile would travel Firearms with relatively short effective ranges,
before hitting the ground, all you need to do is like pistols and shotguns, may typically only
multiply its time of travel (.558 seconds) by its have one point of zero. The sight arrangement
initial velocity. will only angle the barrel slightly. As the projec-
*Note that these figures are only for a projectile being acted tile exits the muzzle following its line of depar-
upon by gravity. The addition of drag and other factors will ture, the projectile will rise into the line of sight
alter these numbers. of the sights. The top of the arc of the projectile
will intersect with the line of sight, creating a
Now let’s angle the barrel so that the bore's axis zero point and then begin to fall below the line
is at a positive angle to the earth’s surface. When of sight. Firearms like rifles, with much longer
fired, the projectiles will follow a path shaped effective ranges, will typically have two points of
like a parabolic arc. Upon exiting the barrel, zero. The sight arrangement will angle the bar-
the projectile will begin to travel upward and rel slightly steeper than a pistol or shotgun. As
away from the muzzle. Although the projectile the projectile exits the muzzle following its line
is moving upward, it will never rise above the of departure, the projectile will rise into the line
bore’s axis. The upward angle of the barrel cre- of sight of the sights forming the “near zero.”
ates a vertical (upward) velocity component that Because of the steeper angle of the barrel, the
immediately experiences a downward accelera- projectile will continue to rise above the line
tion force from gravity. As the projectile moves of sight (but not above the bore’s axis). As the

220
 Figure 7: Single point of zero versus near/far zero.

projectile reaches the top of the arc of its trajec- its density, the projectile will experience varying
tory, it will begin to fall and intersect the line amounts of drag. If the air is less dense, the pro-
of sight again. This is the “far zero.” Most rifle jectile will experience less drag and, in turn, fly
sights and all optics can be adjusted to adjust the farther than a projectile flying through air that
point of zero to suit the needs of the situation. is denser. Even the air directly around the pro-
jectile will vary in pressure as it creates various
AIR high pressure areas and shockwaves if it is su-
personic. As well, projectiles that are travelling
Of all of the forces acting upon the projectile’s at subsonic velocities may experience supersonic
flight, air is the greatest variable. Although air is flow as the air around them accelerates to move
a mixture of gas and vapor, its flow is similar to over its body.11
a liquid. This is why aerodynamics is a subscience
of fluid dynamics. Air currents are continuously Pressure on the nose of the projectile, parallel to
changing, with any variance in temperature, hu- its rotational axis, is known as drag, while pres-
midity, and altitude changing how a projectile sure acting upon any part of the projectile not in
performs in flight. Changes in atmospheric con- line (parallel) with its rotational axis is known
ditions will result in fluctuations in air density. as lift. These pressures create a new center on
Wind can also act upon the projectile from any the projectile called the center of pressure. The
direction. A projectile traveling far enough may center of pressure is the average location of a
experience wind from several different directions. sum of various pressures against a projectile in
flight. Pressure will vary around the projectile,
As the projectile flies through the air it is basi- with most being focused on the nose and under
cally penetrating a fluid with a very low density. the tip. Of the three centers (form, gravity, and
The friction created by this low-density fluid is pressure), the only center that will vary is the
what we know as drag. If the fluid the projec- center of pressure. As the projectile decelerates
tile is moving through is continuously changing from drag, pitches, yaws, precesses, and nutates,

221
 Figure 8: Drag and lift.

the center of pressure will continuously change. spinning object will move perpendicular to the
The projectile’s flight is more stable when the direction of force, in the direction of its rota-
center of pressure is close to or in line with the tion. With a projectile that is being pulled to
center of gravity. The farther the two points are, the earth by gravity, the force causes a projectile
the more likely that the projectile will become with a clockwise (when looking from the back
unstable and begin to wobble. of the projectile) rotation to drift right. This is
The amount of drag and lift the projectile ex- known as gyroscopic or “spin” drift.
periences is based on its velocity, the flow of air The force of gravity (pulling down) on the pro-
around it, and its orientation to its direction of jectile and its (clockwise) spin create a slight
travel. The projectile's rotational axis in rela- yaw (yaw of repose), which forces its rotational
tion to its trajectory is known as the angle of at- (longitudinal) axis to point slightly to the right.
tack. If the angle of attack is not in line with the The oncoming air acts upon the left side of the
projectile’s trajectory, the nose of the projectile projectile and forces it to the right. The projec-
will experience lift, causing the axis of the pro- tile is also basically rolling or skidding across a
jectile to point at a positive angle (pitch up) to “surface” of high pressure air. All of these con-
its trajectory. This is more prevalent with long, tributing factors lead to an amount of drift that
pointed bullets where the projectile's mass is the can be significant out to 500 yd. and beyond.12
lowest and pressure is the highest. As the pro- The shape of the projectile, its rotational veloc-
jectile flies through the air, variances in pressure ity, and flight time all contribute to the amount
and the angle of attack can make the nose of of drift it may experience. We can roughly calcu-
the bullet pitch up and down. Because most of late spin drift (D) (in inches). All that is needed
the pressure on the projectile is on the tip and is the projectile’s time of flight (T) and stability
underneath, the tip tends to point upward in re- factor (S). We know our time of flight is .558
lation to its trajectory. seconds. We can use our Miller stability factors
we calculated earlier (.223 - 2.67, 9mm - 18.54,
GYROSCOPIC DRIFT .22 - 1.61) or we can use one of several calcula-
A weird phenomenon occurs when applying tors online: https://bisonballistics.com/calcula-
force to a spinning object. Instead of the object tors/stability or https://www.jbmballistics.com/
moving in line with the direction of force, the cgi-bin/jbmstab-5.1.cgi. The online calculators

222
 Figure 9: Spin drift.

do a better job of providing more accurate fig- This means that a 9mm projectile will drift
ures with the introduction of temperature and roughly 6.30 in. to the right after .558 seconds
pressure. Our .223 bullet would have a stability of travel. The spin drift of a .22 LR projectile is
factor of roughly 2.9, our 9mm would be 13.5,* roughly:
and the .22 bullet would be 1.15. Here is the D = 1.25 x (1.15 + 1.2) x .558^1.83
formula for calculating spin drift:13
D = 1.25 x 2.35 x .343

D = 1.25** x (S + 1.2**) X T^1.83** D = 1.01 in.

The spin drift of a .223 projectile is roughly: This means that a .22 LR projectile will drift
D = 1.25 x (2.9 + 1.2) x .558^1.83 rough one inch after .558 seconds of travel.
D = 1.25 x 4.1 x .343
D = 1.76 in. *A stability factor greater than about 2.5 means that a pro-
jectile is over-stabilized. This means that the 9mm projectile,
although stable, is spinning much faster than needed to prop-
erly stabilize.
This means that a .223 projectile will drift
roughly 1.76 in. to the right (assuming a right- **Constants.
hand twist) after .558 seconds of travel. The
spin drift of a 9mm projectile is roughly:
D = 1.25 x (13.5 + 1.2) x .558^1.83
D = 1.25 x 14.7 x .343
D = 6.30 in.

223
CALCULATING DRAG
The deceleration of the projectile due to drag can be roughly calculated with a few known factors. The
calculations are “rough” because drag forces will vary with velocity. Our calculations will only be based
on the projectile’s initial (muzzle) velocity. Now that we have established a baseline atmosphere for our
projectiles to fly through, let us find out how much air density and the shape of the bullet will contribute
to drag forces.
There is no standard temperature or atmospheric pressure anywhere on earth. Atmospheric conditions
are constantly changing and cycling. For scientific purposes, many scientific governing bodies have es-
tablished “standard” or “baseline” measurements for both temperature and pressure. The International
Standard Atmosphere (ISA)14 has set a standard for temperature at 59° F and an atmospheric pressure of
~14.7 psi* (14.6959) at sea level. Let us adopt 59° F, an atmospheric pressure of 13.43 psi (atmospheric
pressure at 2,500'),15 an air density of .06977 lb/cu.ft.16, as well as a relative humidity of 50 percent and
an average altitude of 2,500 ft. above sea level with no wind as our “standard” atmospheric conditions.

*Atmospheric pressure is a measurement of an air column 1 in. x 1 in. square that extends from sea level to the end of the atmosphere.
This figure is a representation of the mass of this column of air and how much pressure is applied to the area.

To calculate drag, we need to know the density (D) of the air (in lb/cu.ft.) and the projectile’s velocity
(V) (in fps), the cross-section surface area (A) (in ft.^2), mass (M) (in lb.) and coefficient of drag (C)
(which differs from the projectile's BC). To calculate the projectile's surface area, you will need to use
the following formula:
3.14* x R^2** = A/144†

The .223 bullet (.224 in.) has a surface area of .00027 ft.^2. The 9mm bullet (.355 in.) has a surface area
of .00069 ft.^2. The total surface area for the 12-gauge shot charge is roughly .0023 ft.^2, measured
from the inside of the cup (.650 in.). The .22 (.2255 in.) has a surface area of .00027 ft.^2.
*Pi.

**Radius. Half the diameter in inches.

†Constant. Converts inches ^2 to feet^2.

The only factor we still don’t know is the drag coefficient of the projectile. The drag coefficient differs
from the projectile’s BC in that BC derives its figures from drag models of other projectiles, while drag
coefficient derives its figures from various other shapes. While most projectile manufacturers only list
bullet BC, we can assume our example bullet’s drag coefficient based on proven examples.17 For the
9mm and .22 bullets, we will adopt the drag coefficient of .295. For the shot, we will use .47. For the
.223 bullet, we will use a drag coefficient of .15.18
Now that we have all of our figures, we can begin to calculate a rough trajectory with the inclusion of
drag. We will utilize a “standard” density (Dn) of .06977 lb/cu.ft. and our example projectile’s initial ve-
locities (V), surface area (A), mass (M), and drag coefficients (C). We will also include our time of flight
(.558 seconds) later in the equation. Initially we will calculate the drag force deceleration. To calculate
the deceleration due to drag (DD) in feet-per-second-per-second (fps/S), use the following formula:
Dn x V^2 x C x A / 2 x M = DD

224
The deceleration due to drag of a .223 projectile is:
.06977 x 2,900 x 2,900 x .15 x .00027/2 x .0078 = DD
23.76/.0156 = 1,523.07 fps/S
Based on the .223 projectile’s initial velocity, mass, surface area, and coefficient of drag, it will experience
a force of deceleration at a rate of 1,520 fps. This means that if allowed to fly long enough, drag would
slow the projectile’s velocity to 0 in roughly 1.9 seconds. Again, these factors are rough because the
amount of drag the projectile experiences varies with velocity. To roughly calculate how much the force
of drag deceleration affects the projectile’s trajectory over a given time (DT) (expressed in feet), simply
multiply the deceleration from drag (DD) by time of flight squared (T^2), which is .311 (.558 x .558).

DD X T^2 = DT
1523.07 x .558 x .558 = 474.23 ft.

This means that a .223 projectile traveling for .558 seconds will lose 474.23 ft. of trajectory due to drag.
Subtract this figure from the gravity only trajectory (1,618.2') and you get a rough trajectory (in feet)
based on gravity and drag.

1,618.2 – 474.23 = 1,143.97 ft.

So, a .223 bullet fired horizontally, 5 ft. off of the earth’s surface, with an initial velocity of 2,900 fps
and a mass of 55 grains, will fly roughly 1,144 ft. after .558 seconds of travel before hitting the ground.
It will also deflect roughly 1¾ in. to the right of its intended trajectory. Now let us calculate the drag
forces on a 9mm bullet.
The deceleration due to drag of a 9mm projectile is:
.06977 x 1,140 x 1,140 x .295 x .00069/2 x .016 = DD
18.45/.032 = 576.56 fps/S
Based on the 9mm projectile’s initial velocity, mass, surface area, and coefficient of drag, it will experi-
ence a force of deceleration at a rate of 575 fps. Now, let us calculate how drag will affect the 9mm’s
trajectory.

576.56 x .558 x .558 = 179.52 ft.

636.12 – 179.52 = 456.6 ft.

So, a 9mm bullet fired horizontally, 5 ft. off of the earth’s surface, with an initial velocity of 1,140 fps
and a mass of 115 grains, will fly roughly 457 ft. after .558 seconds of travel before hitting the ground.
It will also deflect roughly 6 in. to the right of its intended trajectory. Now, let us calculate the drag
forces on the collective shot charge of the 12-gauge #7.5 shot. As stated previously, these are very rough
calculations as the shot charge consists of hundreds of pellets that are all behaving differently as they
encounter varying degrees of drag and lift. The trailing pellets may not experience as much drag as the
leading pellets but will face more turbulent air as the leading pellets disrupt the flow of air.

.06977 x 1,275 x 1,275 x .47 x .0023/2 x .055 = DD

122.60/.11 = 1,114.55 fps/S

225
Based on the 12-gauge shot charge’s initial velocity, mass, surface area, and coefficient of drag, it will
experience a force of deceleration at a rate of 1,115 fps. Now, let us calculate how drag will affect the
shot's trajectory.

1,114.55 x .558 x .558 = 347.03 ft.

711.45 – 347.03 = 364.42 ft.

So, a 12-gauge #7.5 shot charge fired horizontally, 5 ft. off of the earth’s surface, with an initial velocity
of 1,275 fps and a mass of 383 grains, will fly roughly 365 ft. after .558 seconds of travel before hitting
the ground. Now let us calculate the drag forces on a .22 LR projectile.

.06977 x 1,110 x 1,110 x .295 x .00027/2 x .0057 = DD

6.84/.0114 = 600 fps/S

Based on the 12-gauge pellet’s initial velocity, mass, surface area, and coefficient of drag, it will experi-
ence a force of deceleration at a rate of 600 fps. Now, let us calculate how drag will affect the shot's
trajectory.

600 x .558 x .558 = 186.81'

711.45 – 186.81 = 524.64 ft.

So, a .22 LR projectile fired horizontally, 5 ft. off of the earth’s surface, with an initial velocity of 1,110
fps and a mass of 40 grains, will fly roughly 255 ft. after .558 seconds of travel before hitting the ground.
It will also drift roughly 1 in. to the right of its intended trajectory.

226
 at various points of its trajectory and takes all of

Ballistic Tables
the “guess work” out of point of impact.
The downside to the ballistic table is that it will
only get you close. The calculations are only for a
This was a lot of calculating just to give us a specific cartridge, velocity, zero, and atmospher-
“basic” trajectory. What happens if we need to ic condition. If your specific firearm/cartridge
know where the projectile will be in relation to combination does not match the tables exactly,
the sight’s line-of-sight at various distances? Or you will see variances with your results. Verifying
what happens if we add variables like wind, or your trajectories against the tables will allow you
change our atmospheric conditions? Luckily, to create your own tables based on your results.
mathematicians and ballisticians have been Here is an example of a basic table for a .223
working on calculating the trajectory of the Remington cartridge with a 55-grain bullet, an
projectile for over a century. Their research and initial velocity of 3,150 fps, a BC of .237, a 1 in
calculations are what we now know as ballistic 9 in. twist rate, a zero of 100 yd., and “standard”
tables. atmospheric conditions out to 600 yd.
Based on all of the variables that we used to cal- We also need to consider the height of the sights
culate a basic trajectory, plus several more, bal- above the axis of the barrel. This will dictate our
listicians created “spread sheets” to plot the tra- trajectory based on our zero. This means that if
jectory of a given projectile based on a set zero the sights are 1.5 in. above the bore's axis, we
of the sights. These tables are often broken up will have to angle the barrel so that the projec-
into rows and columns with the various distanc- tile gains 1.5 in. in elevation so that it meets the
es for the rows and muzzle velocity, and energy sight's line of sight at 100 yd. You can see the
and projectile “drop” in various measurements path of the trajectory rise to meet the sights and
for columns. The columns will sometimes also fall back down. At 0, the projectile will be 1.5 in.
feature figures for wind or even “windage” (hori- (-1.5) below the line of sight.
zontal adjustment) for spin drift and other envi-
As you can see from the chart, the .223 projec-
ronmental factors, as well as time of flight. This
tile starts off strong, but because of its low BC
allows the shooter to see where the projectile is
it quickly begins to shed speed and energy. This

.Remington Ballistic Table

Distance Windage (Inches to
Velocity* (FPS) Energy (FT-LB.) Drop (Inches)
(Yd.) the Right)
0 3,150 1,212 -1.5 0
50 2,950 1,063 -.3 0
100 2,750 923 0 .1
150 2,550 794 -.9 .1
200 2,375 689 -3.1 .1
250 2,200 591 -6.9 .2
300 2,025 501 -12.5 .2
350 1,850 418 -20.2 .3
400 1,700 353 -30.4 .3
450 1,575 303 -43.6 .4
500 1,450 257 -60.3 .5
550 1,325 214 -81.2 .5
600 1,225 183 -107.1 .6
*Rounded to the nearest 25 fps.

227
 .223 Remington Ballistic Table
Distance Velocity* Energy Windage (Inches to the
Drop (Inches)
(Yd.) (FPS) (FT-LB.) Right)
0 2,900 1,027 -1.5 0
50 2,700 890 -.2 0
100 2,525 778 0 .1
150 2,350 674 -1.2 .2
200 2,150 564 -4 .4
250 2,000 488 -8.7 .6
300 1,850 418 -15.5 .9
350 1,675 343 -25 1.3
400 1,550 293 -37.5 1.8
450 1,425 248 -53.6 2.5
500 1,300 206 -74.1 3.3
550 1,200 176 -99.7 4.2
600 1,120 153 -131.4 5.4

*Rounded to the nearest 25 fps.

table does a fantastic job of providing a point You may also have noticed that both of these
of reference for a 55-grain projectile moving trajectories only had one point of zero. The an-
at 3,150 fps; but our example .223 projectile is gle of the trajectory was so slight that the pro-
only moving at 2,900 fps —250 fps slower than jectile never rose above the line of sight.
our first example. Let us look at the trajectory Let’s look at one more table with the only change
for our example .223 cartridge. being the zero. Instead of a 100 yard zero, we
Although our example cartridge started with a will utilize a 300 yard zero. The 300 yard zero
250 fps disadvantage, from 0 to 200 yd., the tra- is very popular with the AR platform carbine
jectory is fairly similar. The slower .223 projec- chambered in .223 Remington because from
tile has only dropped about 1 in. more than the point blank to 300 yd. the trajectory only varies
faster moving projectile. It isn’t until after 250 about 8 in. for a projectile moving at 2,900 fps.
yd. that we start to see significant differences. Utilizing a zero farther away causes the projec-
The faster moving projectile is also still super- tile to rise several inches above the rifle's line
sonic out to 600 yd. while the slower moving of sight. The steeper angle of the 300 yard zero
projectile has become subsonic at 600 yd. You creates a trajectory that sees only 6 in. of drop
will also notice that when switching from a 1 in out to 350 yd. as opposed to 25 in. with the 100
9 in. twist to a 1 in 8 in. twist, we have signifi- yard zero. Even when considering the projectile
cantly more spin drift because the projectile is rises roughly 6 in. above the line of sight, that is
spinning faster. If we were to use the first table only 12 in. of vertical adjustment out to 350 yd.
for our example cartridge, we would miss our At distances past 25 yd., the shooter will need
target by over 7 in. at 400 yd. and even more at to hold their sights below the target; at 25 and
greater distances. This is why it is important to 300 yd., the shooter will hold the sights directly
find a ballistic table that closely matches your on target; and at distances below 25 yd. and af-
setup and test fire the setup to verify the table. ter 300 yd., the shooter will need to hold the

228
 .223 Remington Ballistic Table (300 Yard Zero) *
Distance Velocity Energy Windage (Inches Time of Flight
Drop (Inches)
(Yd.) (FPS) (FT-LB.) to the Right) (Seconds)
0 2,900 1,027 -1.5 0 0
25 2,827 957 .5 0 .026
50 2,744 890 2.2 0 .053
100 2,584 778 4.7 .1 .109
150 2,429 674 6 .1 .169
200 2,279 564 5.7 .4 .233
250 2,135 488 3.8 .6 .301
300 1,996 418 0 .9 .374
350 1,862 343 -6 1.3 .451
400 1,735 293 -14.5 1.7 .535
450 1,614 248 -25.9 2.3 .625
500 1,501 206 -40.7 3 .721
550 1,396 176 -59.3 3.8 .825
600 1,302 153 -82.3 4.8 .936

*Conditions: 59° F, 27.344 in. hg pressure (inches of mercury), 50 percent humidity, 2,500 ft. altitude.

sights above the target. You can see here how If you would like to follow along as we calcu-
one small change in any one of the factors in- late the remaining trajectories, please keep in
volved can create a drastic change in the results. mind that the calculator will only provide an
Without ballistic tables to provide a baseline or approximate trajectory based on several factors.
rough trajectory, it would be almost impossible Depending on the calculator used, there may be
for the average shooter to calculate their projec- slight variances in the figures produced.
tile's trajectory in the field, especially under pres- With a few known factors you can plot the tra-
sure (while hunting) or with unknown factors. jectory of any projectile.* This calculator will
Luckily, the modern shooter is very spoiled. We even allow you to adjust environmental condi-
have very powerful computer software that can tions to see how the projectile will perform in
plot the trajectory of a given projectile on an app various environments. Let us use a calculator
on our cell phones. There are also several ballistic to plot the trajectory of our remaining example
calculators online, available for free. Several very cartridges. First, we will need to establish a few
good, free calculators can be found here: base parameters. For now, we will leave the en-
www.jbmballistics.com/cgi-bin/ vironmental factors alone. To keep the examples
jbmtraj_drift-5.1.cgi simple, we will only change the fields that we
have figures for. Starting with the 9mm, let's cal-
www.hornady.com/team-hornady/ culate the trajectory for a 25 yard zero, in 5 yard
ballistic-calculators/#!/ increments and a maximum range of 100 yd.

http://gundata.org/ballistic-calculator/ *You may need to convert the air pressure figures from psi
to inches of mercury (in. hg). A calculator can be found here:
www.shooterscalculator.com/ballistic-trajecto- www.google.com/search?q=inches+of+mercury+to+psi&oq=inc
hes+of+mercury+to+psi&aqs=chrome.69i57j6j0l4.7106j0j7&
ry-chart.php sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8

229
 9x19mm Parabellum Ballistic Table
(25 Yard Zero)
Distance Velocity Energy Windage (Inches to
Drop (Inches) Time of Flight (Seconds)
(Yd.) (FPS) (FT-LB.) the Right)
0 1,140 332 -1.5 0 0
5 1,136 329 -1.1 0 .013
10 1,127 324 -.7 0 .026
15 1,118 319 -.4 .1 .040
20 1,109 313 -.2 .1 .053
25 1,101 309 0 .1 .067
50 1,062 287 -.3 .5 .136
75 1,029 270 -2.5 1.1 .208
100 999 254 -6.8 1.9 .282

Now let us calculate the trajectory of the Finally, let us calculate the trajectory of a .22 LR
12-gauge cartridge with a 50 yard zero, in 10 yard cartridge with a 100 yard zero in 10 yard incre-
increments and a maximum range of 100 yd. For ments and a maximum distance of 150 yd.
caliber, utilize the figure .650 in. (the diameter of Before we get into any changes in environmental
the inside of the cup). For bullet length, utilize factors, let us take a quick look at what the tra-
the figure .986 (the depth of the shot in the cup). jectory of the .223 Remington would look like if
You will also want to uncheck the “spin drift” we used a projectile with a higher BC. A higher
box to exclude these calculations as the shot is BC often means more mass and, in turn, length.
not spinning. These calculations are going to be Let us take a look at a .223 projectile weighing
very rough as we are using single figures for the 77 grains, 1.065 in. long, with a BC of .420. To
mass of the whole shot charge and its dimen- keep things as fair as possible, we will lower the
sions. In reality, the shot charge will begin to muzzle velocity to 2,450 fps so that it has the
disperse and lengthen the moment it leaves the same muzzle energy of the 55-grain projectile.
barrel. Each individual pellet would experience
varying levels of drag, lift, and deflection.

12-Gauge 2¾ in. #7.5 Birdshot

Distance Velocity Drop
Energy (FT-LB.) Time of Flight (Seconds)
(Yd.) (FPS) (Inches)
0 1,275 1,382 -1.5 0
10 1,154 1,132 -.6 .024
20 1,029 900 .1 .052
30 946 760 .5 .082
40 882 661 .5 .115
50 829 584 0 .150
60 783 521 -1 .187
70 740 465 -2.5 .227
80 701 417 -4.7 .268
90 665 376 -7.6 .312
100 630 337 -11.3 .359

230
 .22 Long Rifle Ballistic Table (100 Yard Zero)

Distance Velocity Energy Drop Windage (Inches to

Time of Flight (Seconds)
(Yd.) (FPS) (FT-LB.) (Inches) the Right)
0 1,110 109 -1.5 0 0
10 1,097 106 .1 0 .027
20 1,078 103 1.3 0 .055
30 1,061 100 2.3 0 .083
40 1,046 97 3 .1 .111
50 1,031 94 3.3 .1 .140
60 1,017 92 3.4 .1 .169
70 1,003 89 3 .2 .199
80 991 87 2.4 .2 .229
90 979 85 1.4 .3 .260
100 968 83 0 .3 .290
110 957 81 -1.7 .4 .322
120 946 79 -3.9 .5 .353
130 936 77 -6.4 .5 .385
140 926 76 -9.3 .6 .417
150 917 74 -12.6 .7 .450

.223 Remington Ballistic Table (55-Grain .237 BC/77-Grain .420 BC)

Distance Drop Windage (Inches Time of Flight
Velocity (FPS) Energy (FT-LB.)
(Yd.) (Inches) to the Right) (Seconds)

0 2,900/2,450 1,027/1,026 -1.5 0 0

25 2,827/2,412 957/995 .5/1 0 .026/.031
50 2,744/2,370 890/960 2.2/3 0 .053/.062
100 2,584/2,286 778/893 4.7/6 .1 .109/.127
150 2,429/2,204 674/830 6/7.3 .1/.2 .169/.193
200 2,279/2,123 564/770 5.7/6.9 .4/.3 .233/.263
250 2,135/2,044 488/714 3.8/4.5 .6/.5 .301/.335
300 1,996/1,967 418/661 0 .9/.7 .374/.410
350 1,862/1,892 343/612 -6/.6.7 1.3/.9 .451/.487
400 1,735/1,818 293/565 -14.5/-15.9 1.7/1.2 .535/.568
450 1,614/1,747 248/522 -25.9/-27.6 2.3/1.5 .625/.652
500 1,501/1,677 206/480 -40.7/-42.3 3/1.9 .721/.740
-59.3/-
550 1,396/1,610 176/443 3.8/2.4 .825/.831
60
600 1,302/1,546 153/409 -82.3/-81.1 4.8/2.9 .936/.926

231
You can see that even though the 77-grain pro-
jectile started off with 550 fps less in velocity,
its higher BC was able to overcome the effects
of drag and drift better than the 55-grain pro-
jectile. In fact, the 77-grain projectile was so ef-
ficient at defeating drag that it retained more
of its velocity and even surpassed the 55-grain
projectile’s velocity at 350 yd. The 77-grain
projectile was even able to reach 600 yd. before
the 55-grain. The higher BC and mass of the
77-grain projectile also resisted deflection from
spin drift better than the 55-grain, with roughly
1.9 in. less deflection (to the right) at 600 yd.
Although the 77-grain projectile was launched
from a slightly steeper angle, both projectiles
have a fairly similar trajectory, with the 77-grain
rising 1.3 in. higher and dropping 1.2 in. lower
than the 55-grain projectile.

232
 circumstances, i.e. 0° F and 120° F. First, let us

Temperature,
see how temperature affects air density. We can
use this density calculator, www.omnicalculator.

Humidity, Altitude, com/physics/air-density, and altitude calculator,

www.omnicalculator.com/physics/air-pressure-

Wind, and Other at-altitude, to see the change in density from

0° F to 120° F.* At our “standard” temperature

Factors (59° F) and altitude (2,500 ft.), the density of

the air is .06977 lbs/ft^2 (27.344 in. hg pres-
sure). When we lower the temperature to 0° F
Now that we have established a baseline trajec- (13.275 psi/27.03 in. hg pressure), the density
tory for each of our example cartridges, let us increases to .07793, an increase of roughly 12
see how they react when we begin to alter their percent. When we raise the temperature to 120°
environment. Temperature, humidity, and alti- F (13.558 psi/27.665 in. hg pressure), the den-
tude will all affect the density of the air. Wind sity decreases to .06238 lbs/ft^2, a decrease of
is unpredictable in magnitude and direction of roughly 11 percent. Let’s see how the change
force and can cause drag, lift, and drift of the affects the trajectory of our example projectiles.
projectile. For the following examples, we will
only examine how environmental changes af- *Use the altitude calculator to find out the air pressure at var-
fect the .223 projectile’s trajectory, as it has the ious temperatures, and then use the density calculator to find
greatest range. This will allow us to see the ef- out the air density. The air pressure at sea level is 14.7 psi.
fects over a greater range and period of time. You can see from the table that an increase in
air density means that there is more drag on the
TEMPERATURE projectile. This means that the barrel will need
Let us start with temperature and see how it to be held at a slightly steeper angle to achieve
affects our projectile. For example purposes the same 300 yard zero. There is also much
we will examine the effects under extreme more vertical deflection out to 600 yd. for the

.223 Remington Ballistic Table (0 F)

Distance Velocity (FPS) at Velocity (FPS)
Drop (Inches) at 59 F Drop (Inches) at 0 F
(Yd.) 59 F at 0 F
0 2,900 2,900 -1.5 -1.5
25 2,827 2,820 .5 .5
50 2,744 2,729 2.2 2.3
100 2,584 2,555 4.7 4.9
150 2,429 2,387 6 6.2
200 2,279 2,226 5.7 6.0
250 2,135 2,071 3.8 4
300 1,996 1,922 0 0
350 1,862 1,780 -6 -6.4
400 1,735 1,644 -14.5 -15.5
450 1,614 1,517 -25.9 -27.8
500 1,501 1,398 -40.7 -44
550 1,396 1,290 -59.3 64.5
600 1,302 1,194 -82.3 -90.3

233
colder temperature at 96.5 in. versus 88.3 in. exception. We will turn the humidity down to 0
for the warmer temperature. Now let’s see what percent and up to 100 percent. You also use the
happened when we increase the temperature to density calculator to see how humidity affects
120° F. the air density. At 50 percent humidity, the den-
You can see from the table that a decrease in air sity of air is roughly .06977 lb/cu.ft. At 0 percent
density means that there is less drag on the pro- humidity, the density of air is roughly .06989
jectile. This means that the barrel will need to lb/cu.ft. At 100& humidity, the density of air is
be held at a slightly more acute angle to achieve roughly .0694 lb/cu.ft.
the same 300 yard zero. There is also much less You can see from the table that a decrease in
vertical deflection out to 600 yd. for the warmer humidity created slightly more drag on the pro-
temperature at 80.9 in. versus 88.3 in. for the jectile. The deflection from humidity is only
colder temperature. That is over 15 in. of ad- marginal, with only .3 in. of additional drop out
ditional drop at 0° F than at 120° F. Now let’s to 600 yd. Now, let’s see what happens when we
see what happens when we adjust the environ- increase humidity to 100 percent.
ment’s humidity. Again, you can see from the table that an in-
crease in humidity created slightly less drag on
HUMIDITY the projectile. The deflection from humidity
Now we will examine humidity’s effects on the is still only marginal, with only .3 in. less drop
projectile. The microscopic water droplets in the out to 600 yd. Of all of the factors that affect
air will alter the air’s density and the amount of air density, humidity has the smallest impact.
drag the projectile experiences. Although water Deflection from humidity is only relevant for
as a liquid is denser than air, water vapor does long-range shooting (1000+ yd.).
not make air denser. In fact, the opposite is true.
Water vapor displaces air molecules, creating a ALTITUDE
“fluid” that is less dense because there is less mat- Now, let us look at how altitude impacts the
ter occupying a given space.19 We will return to projectile’s trajectory. At our standard altitude of
our “standard” atmospheric conditions with one 2,500 ft. above sea level, air pressure is roughly

.223 Remington Ballistic Table (120 F)

Distance Velocity (FPS) Velocity (FPS) Drop (Inches) Drop (Inches)
(Yd.) at 59° F at 120° F at 59° F at 120° F
0 2,900 2,900 -1.5 -1.5
25 2,827 2,834 .5 .4
50 2,744 2,759 2.2 2.1
100 2,584 2,613 4.7 4.5
150 2,429 2,471 6 5.7
200 2,279 2,334 5.7 5.5
250 2,135 2,201 3.8 3.6
300 1,996 2,072 0 0
350 1,862 1,948 -6 -5.7
400 1,735 1,830 -14.5 -13.6
450 1,614 1,717 -25.9 -24.2
500 1,501 1,610 -40.7 -37.7
550 1,396 1,510 -59.3 -54.5
600 1,302 1,418 -82.3 -75.2

234
 .223 Remington Ballistic Table (0 percent Humidity)
Distance Velocity (FPS) Velocity (FPS) at Drop (Inches) at 50 Drop (Inches) at 0
(Yd.) at 50 percent 0 percent percent percent
0 2,900 2,900 -1.5 -1.5
25 2,827 2,826 .5 .5
50 2,744 2,744 2.2 2.2
100 2,584 2,582 4.7 4.7
150 2,429 2,427 6 6
200 2,279 2,277 5.7 5.7
250 2,135 2,132 3.8 3.8
300 1,996 1,992 0 0
350 1,862 1,859 -6 -6
400 1,735 1,731 -14.5 -14.6
450 1,614 1,610 -25.9 -26
500 1,501 1,497 -40.7 -40.8
550 1,396 1,392 -59.3 -59.5
600 1,302 1,298 -82.3 -82.6

.223 Remington Ballistic Table (100 percent Humidity)

Distance Velocity (FPS) at Velocity (FPS) Drop (Inches) at 50 Drop (Inches) at 100
(Yd.) 50 percent at 100 percent percent percent
0 2,900 2,900 -1.5 -1.5
25 2,827 2,827 .5 .5
50 2,744 2,745 2.2 2.2
100 2,584 2,585 4.7 4.7
150 2,429 2,430 6 6
200 2,279 2,281 5.7 5.7
250 2,135 2,137 3.8 3.8
300 1,996 1,999 0 0
350 1,862 1,866 -6 -6
400 1,735 1,738 -14.5 -14.5
450 1,614 1,618 -25.9 -25.9
500 1,501 1,505 -40.7 -40.5
550 1,396 1,401 -59.3 -59.1
600 1,302 1,306 -82.3 -82

235
 .223 Remington Ballistic Table (Sea Level)
Distance Velocity (FPS) at Velocity (FPS) Drop (Inches) at
Drop (Inches) at 0 FT.
(Yd.) 2,500 FT. at 0 FT. 2,500 FT.
0 2,900 2,900 -1.5 -1.5
25 2,827 2,812 .5 .6
50 2,744 2,714 2.2 2.4
100 2,584 2,523 4.7 5.2
150 2,429 2,340 6 6.5
200 2,279 2,165 5.7 6.3
250 2,135 1,998 3.8 4.3
300 1,996 1,838 0 0
350 1,862 1,687 -6 -6.8
400 1,735 1,547 -14.5 -16.7
450 1,614 1,418 -25.9 -30.2
500 1,501 1,303 -40.7 -48.1
550 1,396 1,204 -59.3 -71.1
600 1,302 1,123 -82.3 -100

13.43 psi (27.344 in. hg) and has a density of in. hg) and density drops to .05317 lb/cu.ft. At
.06977 lb/cu.ft. At sea level, air pressure increas- 10,000 ft. the projectile will gain roughly 750
es to 14.7 psi (29.93 in. hg) and a density of fps velocity and experience 44.2 in. less drop.
.07637 lb/cu.ft., an increase of roughly 10 per- Now let’s take a look at how wind will affect the
cent. At 5,000 ft. above sea level, air pressure is projectile's trajectory.
roughly 12.27 psi (24.98 in. hg) and a density of
.06373 lb/cu.ft., a decrease of roughly 9 percent. WIND
You can see from the table that the projectile Of all the factors acting on the projectile, wind
will experience more drag at sea level than at may be the most unpredictable. Wind can affect
our standard altitude of 2,500'. At sea level, the both the horizontal and vertical components of
projectile will lose roughly 180 fps and experi- the projectile’s trajectory. Under our “standard”
ence over 17 in. more drop at 600 yd. Now let’s conditions, we did not account for wind, but
see what happens when we climb to 5,000 ft. there was still some horizontal deflection due to
above sea level. spin drift (4.8 in. to the right for a right-hand
At 5,000 ft. above sea level, the projectile ex- twist rate). Our first table shows what happens
periences much less drag as the air is thinner. when the wind is perpendicular to the projec-
The projectile gains roughly 200 fps more ve- tile’s trajectory. We will examine both left-hand
locity and experiences 12 in. less drop at 600 yd. (from the shooter's right to left) and right-hand
From sea level to 5,000', those numbers jump (from the shooter's left to right) winds work-
to an increase of nearly 380 fps velocity and a ing 90° from the projectile’s trajectory. This is
decrease of nearly 30 in. of drop at 600 yd. Of known as a “full value” wind because it is work-
all of the factors that affect air density, altitude ing exactly 90° from the projectile’s trajectory.
is the greatest contributor. At 10,000 ft. above Winds working at any other angle than 90° are
sea level, air pressure drops to 10.24 psi (20.85 calculated in percentages of a full value.

236
 .223 Remington Ballistic Table (5,000 FT.)
Distance Velocity (FPS) Velocity (FPS) at Drop (Inches) at Drop (Inches) at
(Yd.) at 2,500 FT. 5,000 FT. 2,500 FT. 5,000 FT.
0 2,900 2,900 -1.5 -1.5
25 2,827 2,839 .5 .4
50 2,744 2,770 2.2 2
100 2,584 2,635 4.7 4.4
150 2,429 2,504 6 5.5
200 2,279 2,377 5.7 5.3
250 2,135 2,254 3.8 3.5
300 1,996 2,134 0 0
350 1,862 2,018 -6 -5.4
400 1,735 1,906 -14.5 -13
450 1,614 1,792 -25.9 -22.9
500 1,501 1,694 -40.7 -35.5
550 1,396 1,595 -59.3 -51.2
600 1,302 1,502 -82.3 -70.3

.223 Remington Ballistic Table (20 MPH Perpendicular Wind)

Distance Velocity Left Hand Wind Right Hand Wind
Drop (Inches)
(Yd.) (FPS) (Inches to the left) (Inches to the Right)
0 2,900 -1.5 0 0
25 2,827 .5 .1 .1
50 2,744 2.2 .5 .6
100 2,584 4.7 2.1 2.3
150 2,429 6 5 5.4
200 2,279 5.7 9.1 9.9
250 2,135 3.8 14.7 15.9
300 1,996 0 21.8 23.6
350 1,862 -6 30.7 33.2
400 1,735 -14.5 41.5 44.9
450 1,614 -25.9 54.3 58.9
500 1,501 -40.7 69.4 75.4
550 1,397 -59.3 86.9 94.6
600 1,302 -82.3 106.9 116.6

237
For example, a wind blowing at 45° would have a to the right, while the tail turns to the left. For a
three-quarter value, meaning the wind will only right-hand wind, the nose of the projectile will
cause three quarters of the drift as it would if it turn slightly to the left, while the tail turns to
were blowing 90° perpendicular to the path of the right. As the nose of the projectile turns into
the projectile. This means that a 20 mph wind the wind, the projectile is being pushed “down-
blowing at 45° would only deflect the projec- wind” in the direction of flow. Now let’s see
tile 87.45" at 600 yd. (for a right-hand wind). what happens when the wind is acting parallel
A wind blowing at 30° would have a half value to the projectile’s trajectory.
and wind blowing at 15° would have a quarter You can see from the tables how headwind and
value. With these calculations, a headwind and tailwind can affect the projectile's velocity, which
tailwind would be considered no value and be affects drop. A headwind slows the projectile’s
factored as 0 (even though we can see there is velocity while a tailwind decreases the projec-
a slight deflection). There are several methods tile's deceleration from drag. Although the ef-
for calculating wind drift based on direction, fects from the head and tailwinds are only min-
but unless you have some type of equipment to ute, at greater distances (1,000+ yd.) they can
measure the wind’s direction in relation to the mean the difference between a hit and a miss.
projectile’s trajectory, a safe bet is to calculate all
wind that is not perpendicular to the projectile’s Although each factor that contributes to a pro-
trajectory as a half value because it is easiest to jectile’s drift and drop may seem marginal or
calculate quickly. insignificant, all factors involved have a cumula-
tive effect. For example, a hunter from the coast
From the table we can see that a 20 mph wind (east, west, or gulf ) who was planning a hunt in
(although extreme) causes severe drift for the the Rocky Mountains and zeroed his rifle be-
projectile in either direction. You can also see fore the trip, would have to account for changes
the difference between a right-hand and left- in temperature (typically colder), altitude (pos-
hand wind and how the spin drift offsets some sibly 10,000+ ft.) and humidity (typically dryer).
of the left-hand wind drift. The right-hand This is even before wind is taken into account.
wind also magnifies the right-hand spin drift. The cumulative effect of all of these factors
This occurs because most spitzer-shaped (long could lead to a miss that can be measured in
and pointy) projectiles act like weather vanes in feet, not inches. We have not even taken into
the wind. The nose of the projectile will try to account other factors that can cause drift at dis-
align with the direction of wind. For a left-hand tances beyond 1,000 yd.
wind, the nose of the projectile will turn slightly

238
 .223 Remington Ballistic Table (20 MPH Tailwind)
Distance Velocity No Wind Velocity Tailwind Drop Tailwind
Drop No Wind (Inches)
(Yd.) (FPS) (FPS) (Inches)
0 2,900 -1.5 2,900 -1.5
25 2,827 .5 2,828 .5
50 2,744 2.2 2,747 2.2
100 2,584 4.7 2,589 4.7
150 2,429 6 2,437 5.9
200 2,279 5.7 2,290 5.6
250 2,135 3.8 2,148 3.7
300 1,996 0 2,011 -.1
350 1,862 -6 1,880 -6
400 1,735 -14.5 1,755 -14.4
450 1,614 -25.9 1,637 -25.6
500 1,501 -40.7 1,527 -40
550 1,397 -59.3 1,424 -58.1
600 1,302 -82.3 1,332 -80.5

.223 Remington Ballistic Table (20 MPH Headwind)

Distance Velocity No Wind Velocity Headwind Drop Headwind
Drop No Wind (Inches)
(Yd.) (FPS) (FPS) (Inches)
0 2,900 -1.5 2,900 -1.5
25 2,827 .5 2,825 .5
50 2,744 2.2 2,741 2.2
100 2,584 4.7 2,578 4.8
150 2,429 6 2,421 6
200 2,279 5.7 2,268 5.8
250 2,135 3.8 2,121 3.9
300 1,996 0 1,980 0
350 1,862 -6 1,844 -6
400 1,735 -14.5 1,714 -14.7
450 1,614 -25.9 1,590 -26.3
500 1,501 -40.7 1,475 -41.4
550 1,397 -59.3 1,368 -60.5
600 1,302 -82.3 1,271 -84.3

239
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY BLANK

240
 pressure area under the nose of the projectile,

Coriolis, Magnus, causing it to “skid” across the high pressure area,

resulting in slightly less drop. The projectile will
and Eotvos Effects, be positioned with its nose pointed (pitched)
slightly up (from the Magnus effect) and (yaw)
and Vertical Angles to the left (pointing into the wind), while being
pushed to the right. The same projectile being
acted upon by a left-hand wind (blowing from
the right to the left) will experience a negative
MAGNUS EFFECT lift component in the form of its nose pointing
down. This will cause a high pressure area on top
Outside of air and gravity, there are other en- of the nose of the projectile, resulting in more
vironmental effects that can alter the projec- drop. The projectile will be positioned with its
tile’s trajectory. The Magnus effect is a phenom- nose pointed (pitched) slightly down and to the
enon that occurs with spinning objects moving right while being pushed to the left. Compared
through fluids with flows perpendicular to their to other factors influencing the projectile, the
rotational axis, meaning crosswinds. Unlike wind Magnus effect is marginal, causing only a cou-
drift, the combination of the projectile’s spin ple of inches of deflection out to 1,000 yd.
and the direction of the crosswind will create a
vertical displacement. The effect is completely CORIOLIS AND EOTVOS
dependent on the direction of the projectile’s EFFECTS
spin (right-hand or left-hand), the direction
of wind, and the acceleration or deceleration Depending on the time of flight of the projec-
of air flow around the projectile. The Magnus tile, the rotation of the earth can cause the target
effect creates a deflection that is perpendicular to move far enough that you miss your intended
to both the projectile’s trajectory and the direc- target. There are two effects that are caused by
tion of wind.20 For example, a projectile with a the rotation of the earth, the Coriolis effect and
right-hand spin (clockwise from the shooter’s the Eotvos effect. The Coriolis effect impacts
perspective) that is acted upon by a right-hand the projectile on a horizontal plane when shoot-
wind (blowing from the left to the right) will ing north or south. The Eotvos effect impacts
experience a positive lift component in the form the projectile on a vertical plane when shooting
of its nose pointing up. This will cause a high east or west.

Figure 10: Magnus effect.

241
The Coriolis effect occurs when a projectile At latitude 45° (north or south), the surface of
is fired in a right angle (north or south) to the the earth is moving at roughly 1,075 fps. At
earth’s rotation. The deflection caused by the latitude 80° (north or south), the surface of the
rotation will vary depending on whether you earth is moving at roughly 265 fps. At the poles,
are shooting from the northern hemisphere or the speed of rotation is 0.
southern hemisphere. In the northern hemi- When shooting in the northern hemisphere,
sphere, the deflection will ALWAYS be to the the deflection will always be to the right be-
right, regardless if you are shooting from north to cause when shooting north to south (from the
south or south to north. The opposite is true of north pole to the equator), the target is rotat-
the southern hemisphere. The deflection in the ing faster to the east than you are, which makes
southern hemisphere will always be to the left.21 you miss to the right. When shooting south to
The Coriolis effect is a result of not only the north (from the equator to the north pole), you
earth’s rotation but the shape of the earth as well. are moving faster to the east than the target, re-
Because the earth is basically a giant ball spin- sulting in a miss to the right. The opposite is
ning to the east (counterclockwise when viewed true of the southern hemisphere.
from the north pole), the surface of the center of The Eotvos effect causes deflection in two ways,
the earth (equator) is moving faster than either both along the vertical plane of the projectile’s
of the poles because it must cover more distance trajectory. The first, because the earth is a gi-
in the same time period. The speed of the earth’s ant spinning ball, when shooting east or west,
rotation at the equator is roughly 1,037 mph or the target is rising and falling (in relation to the
1,521 fps. Any point above or below the equa- projectile) because of the curvature of the earth.
tor is rotating slower because there is less dis- The Eotvos effect is strongest at the equator
tance to move before completing a revolution. and weakest at the poles.

Figure 11: Coriolis effect.

242
 Figure 12: Eotvos effect.

The curvature of the earth is roughly 8 in. per VERTICAL ANGLES

mile. When a projectile is fired to the west, the
target will move toward the projectile and rise in When shooting at vertical angles, or uphill or
relation to its trajectory. If the earth is moving downhill, it may seem like there is some hid-
at roughly 1,521 fps, the target will rise roughly den force that is deflecting the projectile’s tra-
2 in. (due to curvature) after one second of pro- jectory. There is no additional force acting on
jectile flight time. This results in a low impact. the projectile when shooting at vertical angles;
When a projectile is fired to the east, the tar- there is only an incorrect estimation of distance.
get will move away from the projectile and fall The reason for this is that gravity only works
in relation to its trajectory. A projectile fired to (relatively) perpendicular (square) to the earth's
the east with one second of flight time will hit surface. When shooting uphill or downhill, it
roughly 2 in. high. may appear like the target is a certain distance
away, but gravity will only be working against it
The second manner in which the Eotvos effect
for a fraction of that distance.
causes deflection is in the form of the earth’s
centrifugal force. There is a perceived change in For example, if we assume that we know our line
gravitational force for projectiles that are fired of sight distance (300 yd.) from the target and
with the earth’s spin than ones that are fired our elevation (200 yd.), we can calculate the dis-
against it.22 Projectiles fired with the earth’s ro- tance gravity is actually acting on the projectile.
tation will impact higher than ones fired against Using a variation of the Pythagorean Theorem
the earth rotation because of the increase in (A^2 + B^2 = C^2), where we already know A
angular momentum and centrifugal force. (elevation) and C (line of sight), we can calcu-
Projectiles fired against the earth’s rotation are late for B (distance gravity is acting):
working against the centrifugal force and will 200^2 + B^2 = 300^2
experience more drop. Like the Magnus effect,
40,000 + B^2 = 90,000
the Eotvos effect will only account for around 2
in. – 3 in. of deflection at 1,000 yd. B^2 = 50,000

243
 Figure 3: Vertical angles.

The square root of 50,000 is 223.6, or roughly apart behind the projectile. This is known as the
224 yd. This means that if you were aiming for a Doppler effect. An example of the Doppler effect
300 yard trajectory, you would miss high because is when a car is blaring its horn as it drives past
gravity is only acting on the projectile for roughly you. When the car is approaching, the sound
220 yd. The defection is always high, regardless if of the horn seems to be a higher pitch as the
you are shooting uphill or downhill. The effect is sound waves stack in front of the car. As the
more prevalent at steeper angles.23 car passes, the sound of the horn seems to be a
lower pitch because the sound waves are spread
SUPERSONIC PROJECTILES farther apart.

Supersonic projectiles face their own set of is- The continuous shockwaves the projectile
sues when exterior ballistic factors are con- produces form a cone-shaped wave that trails
cerned. The biggest factor the supersonic pro- the projectile. The trailing wave resembles the
jectile faces is the shockwave it is continuously wake of a speedboat. The angle of this “wake”
creating and moving through. The shockwave is known as the Mach angle. The more acute the
is a result of the air ahead of the projectile be- angle, the faster the projectile is moving. Slower
ing rapidly compressed. When the projectile is projectiles will produce a more obtuse angle.
moving at supersonic velocities, the air cannot You can use the Mach angle to roughly calcu-
move around the projectile fast enough. The air late the speed of the projectile, but you would
is compressed forming a high pressure shock- still need very sophisticated cameras to capture
wave.24 At supersonic speeds, this “wave” is the an image of the projectile and the shockwave.25
primary drag force acting on the projectile.
TRANSONIC PROBLEM
The shockwave is actually a series of continuous
shockwaves that radiate from the nose of the The transonic problem occurs with supersonic
projectile. As the projectile continues to fly at projectiles that drag has slowed to subsonic ve-
supersonic speed, the waves begin to stack up locities. The transonic region ranges from about
near the front of the projectile and spread farther 788 fps – 1,340 fps (Mach .70 – Mach 1.2). As

244
drag slows the projectile to subsonic velocities, Pellet dispersion occurs because every single
the force of the drag decreases. This forces the pellet of shot is not completely round or uni-
center of pressure to shift further forward, away form. Any variance in the shape of the pellets
from the center of gravity. This causes an imbal- can lead to a slight change in BC. The more
ance in the projectile and forces it to wobble.26 aerodynamic pellets will remain in the head of
Additionally, as the projectile begins to move the string, while the deformed pellets begin to
slower, it will spend more time in the turbulent form a tail as they trail behind. Depending on
air created by the shockwave. This creates more the time of flight, the string may extend sev-
instability in the flow of air around it. If the pro- eral feet (6 – 8) as the more aerodynamic pellets
jectile is not properly stabilized, it will continue gain ground more rapidly.27 The trailing pellets
to wobble and drift off of its intended trajectory. are not left completely behind as they “draft” the
A properly stabilized projectile will wobble for a leading pellets. The trailing pellets do not expe-
moment and then recover. rience as much drag as the leading pellets but
do experience more turbulent air as the leading
SHOT/CUP SEPARATION AND pellets disrupt the flow ahead of them.
SHOT STRING
Up to this point, all of our figures for the #7.5
birdshot have been calculated with the assump-
tion that the shot charge is travelling as a single
entity. The shot charge and wad/cup will remain
together until shortly after passing the transi-
tional ballistic region. The “petals” of the cup
act like spoilers on an airplane wing and begin
to open to increase drag. The cup begins to de-
celerate rapidly as the shot charge continues on
and begins to disperse.

245
NOTES
NOTES
NOTES
 Chapter 10 – Terminal Ballistics
TERMINAL BALLISTICS 251
Penetration vs Perforation 251
Wounding: Temporary Cavity and Permanent Cavity 253
Fragmentation and Tumbling 254
TERMINAL BALLISTIC FACTORS 257
Material and Design 257
Sectional Density and Energy 258
REAL WORLD TERMINAL BALLISTICS 261
Terminal Ballistic Testing 265
250
 Terminal Ballistics
By now, the projectile is nearing the target and
the completion of its journey. The study of the
projectile when impacting a target is known as
terminal ballistics. There are several factors that
affect the projectile’s terminal ballistic perfor-
mance, including the design and makeup of the
projectile and the target material.

PENETRATION VS
PERFORATION
There are two performance standards that must
be considered when discussing the terminal
performance of a projectile: the ability to pen-
etrate and to perforate. When a projectile pen-
etrates a material, it is only entering to a cer-
tain depth. If the projectile were to perforate

251
 manner in which a projectile prevents perfora-
tion is by increasing its frontal surface area. This
increases drag against the target material and
slows it to a stop.
Depending on your intended purpose, both of
these qualities can be very desirable or unde-
sirable. Let us take a second to re-examine the
various reasons firearms are used. For shoot-
ing sports like plinking and the various types
of competition and trap, skeet, and sporting
clays, terminal ballistics is not a concern when
selecting a projectile/cartridge. With shooting
sports, the biggest concern is the projectile’s ex-
ternal ballistics as it flies to the target. As long
as the projectile impacts where it was supposed
Figure 1: Penetration vs. perforation.
to, there is no concern for what happens to the
projectile on impact. In most cases the projectile
will just perforate the soft paper and cardboard
targets with little loss of energy or deformation.
When shooting clay pigeons, the shot will sim-
the target, it would travel completely through ply destroy the brittle clay disks with little loss
it and continue to travel until hitting something of energy and distortion. When shooting steel
else. Depending on your intended target, each targets (competition or plinking), the projec-
quality can be beneficial. If the projectile were to tile’s terminal ballistics are rarely ever consid-
only penetrate its target, most of the energy the ered as long as it makes the desired “ding” when
projectile carried with it will be transferred to impacting.
the target, creating shock waves. If the projectile When hunting or for self-defense or military
were to perforate a material, it would lose some or law enforcement use, terminal ballistics is
energy to the target, but would also retain some typically the main concern when selecting a
of its energy as it continued to travel onward. projectile/cartridge. When hunting, the goal is
To perforate a target, the projectile will need to to harvest game as humanely as possible. This
cut through or displace the target material with means that you will want the projectile to dis-
little to no distortion to the projectile (although patch the animal as quickly as possible without
heavily deformed projectiles and fragments can causing any unneeded suffering. This is mostly
perforate with enough remaining energy). As dependent on shot placement but is also heavily
long as the projectile is harder than the material reliant on the projectile’s terminal ballistics. For
it is travelling through and the thickness of the hunting applications, we want to deliver all of
target is not so great that it slows the projec- the projectile’s energy to the target to increase
tile to a stop, it will perforate the target. Basic the chances of an instantaneous and humane
jacketed ball projectiles are well suited for per- kill. This is why deep penetration is preferred by
foration. To penetrate a target, the projectile will hunters. If the projectile were to perforate the
need to “brake” or stop inside the target by some target, it would carry any remaining energy with
means. This is accomplished through material it, limiting the amount of damage incurred by
composition and projectile design. The basic the animal and possibly only injuring it.

252
When shooting for self-defense, the intent is to the military are of the “ball” or FMJ variety.
incapacitate the attacker and prevent injury or Because of the design of the projectile, per-
death to yourself or others. This is mostly de- foration is more likely than penetration. Also,
pendent on shot placement but is also heavily because of the nature of modern warfare, the
reliant on the projectile’s terminal ballistics. For target may be behind barriers or wearing ar-
self-defense applications, we want to deliver all mor, which makes perforation the desired result.
of the projectile’s energy to the target to increase This means that a military projectile may need
the chances of instantaneous incapacitation. to perforate through masonry and other hard
This is why penetration is preferred for self-de- barriers, glass, and steel plates, and still retain
fense. If the projectile were to perforate the at- enough energy to penetrate and perforate flesh
tacker, it would carry any remaining energy with and bone. This is why most military projectiles
it, limiting the amount of damage delivered and utilize carbon steel, hardened steel, or tungsten
possibly hitting an unintended target. carbide penetrators to increase the ability of the
The major differences between projectiles used projectile to perforate.
for hunting and self-defense are the distance of
the target, the materials of the target, and the TEMPORARY CAVITY AND
firearm used to fire them. Self-defense projec- PERMANENT CAVITY
tiles are used at relatively short ranges (~25 yd.)
When we evaluate the capabilities of projectiles
compared to most hunting projectiles that are
used for hunting, self-defense, LE, and mili-
used from 100 to 600+ yd. This means that a
tary use, we have to consider how they perform
hunting projectile needs to be aerodynamic and
against flesh. Projectiles incapacitate and kill by
be able to penetrate effectively. A self-defense
damaging and destroying the central nervous
projectile only needs to focus on penetration. A
system and causing massive blood loss, depriv-
self-defense projectile may also have to perfo-
ing the brain of oxygen. This is accomplished by
rate various layers of different materials (cloth-
cutting or damaging and displacing flesh, mus-
ing and various barriers) before penetrating into
cle, arteries, organs, and bone (skull/spinal cord),
flesh (and bone). Typically, a hunting projectile
leaving a cavity that traces the projectile’s path.
will only need to penetrate hide, flesh, and bone.
This is known as the permanent wound cavity.
Lastly, most hunting is done with rifles and
The larger the cavity, the greater the chance of
shotguns (although some handguns are used),
damaging one of these vital areas.
while people who carry firearms for self-defense
utilize handguns (although rifles and shotguns When a projectile impacts flesh, the flesh does
are used for home defense). The qualities of the not simply give like the projectile is just pok-
self-defense projectile are mirrored by the law ing a hole. Flesh is extremely elastic and acts
enforcement (LE) projectile. like a liquid when impacted by a projectile.1
When impacting soft tissue, the flesh begins to
The performance of the military projectile is
stretch and a wave is formed like ripples in wa-
dictated by the rules of war set forth by inter-
ter.2 When the flesh is stretched beyond its yield
national law. The Hague Convention of 1899
point, it will rip and tear, displacing outward,
dictates that no expanding (or fragmenting)
away from the projectile. The projectile will
projectiles can be used in international warfare.
continue to stretch and tear flesh, muscle, and
This means that almost all projectiles used by

253
 Figure 2: Temporary and permanent wound cavities.

organs, displacing soft tissue outward and away FRAGMENTATION AND

from the projectile. Being extremely elastic, the TUMBLING
flesh rebounds back into its static position. The
cavity created when the soft tissue is displaced There are other ways that a projectile can dam-
outward is known as the temporary wound cavity. age soft tissue: fragmentation and tumbling.
Like the permanent wound cavity, the larger the Fragmentation occurs when a projectile is dis-
temporary wound cavity, the greater the chance torted beyond its yield and breaks or tears apart.
of damaging one of these vital areas. These fragments, varying in shape and mass, will
The size of the permanent wound cavity is de- create additional wound channels as they travel
pendent on the diameter of the projectile, in- in various directions.3 These fragments can be
cluding its diameter after expansion. The size beneficial in that they increase the chances of
of the temporary wound cavity is dependent on destroying vital organs and tissue but can also
the projectile’s kinetic energy (mass and veloc- increase the risk of excessively damaging and
ity). The temporary cavity may be several inches ruining meat while hunting. Fragmentation oc-
in diameter as well as several inches deep, but curs more frequently with soft projectiles, ex-
the soft tissue will contract to roughly the size panding projectiles, and projectiles impacting at
of the hole the projectile cut or slightly larger. high velocities. Similar to a fragmenting projec-
While there is some tissue damage from the tile, shot (bird and buck) will also create mul-
temporary cavity, the elastic nature of soft tis- tiple wound channels and increase the chances
sue prevents severe damage when it is stretched of damaging vital organs.
out by the projectile’s impact. High velocity pro- Tumbling occurs when a projectile’s velocity and
jectiles create larger temporary wound cavities, spin rate are slowed to the point of instability.
increasing the chance of the soft tissue stretch- The deceleration combined with a shift in the
ing beyond its yield and causing more tissue center of pressure causes the projectile to pitch
damage. Although some tissue is damaged dur- and yaw in the soft tissue. The projectile acts like
ing the expansion of the temporary cavity, the a top on a table, with its base precessing around
majority of the damage exerted on soft tissue the tip. If the yaw or pitch is severe enough, the
comes from the permanent cavity. projectile will begin to flip end-over-end inside

254
Figure 3a: Wound channels of fragmenting projectiles. Figure 3b: Wound channels of tumbling projectiles.

the soft tissue. This creates a wound channel

with a narrow entry that opens up to several
roughly projectile-long (caliber-wide) cavities.
Although not the intended result, tumbling
can prevent perforation and limit the penetra-
tion of FMJ-style projectiles. Tumbling is more
prevalent with long, pointed bullets whose base
is much heavier than the nose and the center
of pressure and gravity are farther apart. With
some jacketed projectiles, tumbling can also
lead to fragmentation. As the projectile flips
end-over-end, the friction the soft tissue exerts
against the jacket as it deforms is greater than
the bond of the jacket and the core. This causes
separation of the jacket and core and possible
fragmentation of both.

255
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256
 Copper is used in various ways to try to control
Terminal Ballistic the deformation of the projectile. Because cop-
per is harder than lead, it will experience less
Factors deformation when contacting flesh or hard tar-
gets but will also deform to an extent because it
is still on the softer side when considering other
There are several factors that dictate the ter- metals. Copper jacketed or FMJ projectiles are
minal ballistic performance of the projectile, more likely to perforate flesh than a solid lead
including its material(s), design, sectional den- ball projectile because the copper jacket will
sity (SD), and energy (mass and velocity). All help the projectile retain its shape as it passes
of these factors will contribute to how energy though muscle and organs. The copper jacket
is transferred to the target. The target material can also be used to control the rate of expansion
will also change how the projectile performs. and depth of penetration for expanding projec-
tiles (hollow point, soft point, and tipped). By
MATERIAL AND DESIGN varying the thickness of the jacket from base
(thicker) to tip (thinner), the front part of the
The materials used in the construction of the
projectile can expand, while the rear remains
projectile and its design play a big role in its ter-
intact. Bonding the jacket and the core, either
minal performance. Various material types will
chemically or mechanically, will prevent jacket
perform differently when impacting targets of
separation, even when impacting hard surfaces
varying materials. The material used (along with
or bone. The jacket can also be used to sepa-
design and shot placement) will dictate whether
rate the core into multiple sections so that the
the projectile will perforate or penetrate. Softer
frontal section can expand while leaving the tail
materials like lead and copper will deform when
section whole.
impacting most target materials, while harder
materials will retain their shape. The design of Solid copper or brass “monometal” projectiles
the projectile will also determine whether it will can be designed to penetrate, perforate, expand,
penetrate or perforate, regardless of material. fragment, and tumble. Solid, ball-style projec-
tiles will perforate soft tissue easily and shatter
Let’s start with lead. As we discussed in the pro-
bone with little to no distortion or deflection.
jectiles section, lead is a soft, dense metal that is
Ball-style projectiles will also have a tendency
very malleable. These properties make lead an
to tumble because they are typically longer than
ideal choice for a projectile that penetrates rath-
jacketed lead core projectiles. The increased
er than perforates. When soft lead projectiles
length is to increase mass because of the de-
impact flesh, they deform dramatically, increas-
crease in density compared to lead core projec-
ing their surface area and, in turn, drag. This is
tiles. This increases the distance from the center
regardless of bullet design; both ball and hollow
of gravity and the center of pressure when the
point projectiles will deform (although the hol-
projectile impacts soft tissue. Even when im-
low point will experience more deformation).
pacting hard surfaces, solid copper or brass pro-
Increasing the hardness of the lead (with the
jectiles will experience much less distortion than
addition of antimony and tin) does not decrease
lead or jacketed lead projectiles.
the amount of deformation the projectile expe-
riences by much but does make the lead more Solid copper or brass hollow points and tipped
brittle and increases the chances of fragmenta- and fragmenting monometal projectiles rely on
tion. When lead impacts hard target materials design rather than material to initiate expan-
like concrete (or other masonry) or steel, the sion. Most expanding monometal projectiles
amount of deformation will be extreme and in utilize scoring or slitting around the nose and
most cases the projectile will fragment. cavity to aid in expansion. When the cavity fills

257
with soft tissue (hydraulic fluid) and the mouth These projectile types often utilize copper or
of the projectile begins to expand outward, the lead in their construction. When impacting soft
nose of the projectile will begin to shear apart tissue, the steel component of the projectile will
at the score lines/slits, forming individual pet- experience little to no distortion, even when im-
als. With polymer-tipped, solid copper hollow pacting bone. When impacting hard surfaces,
points, the tip drives back into the cavity like a like masonry or steel plates, the steel component
wedge, causing the same expansion and shear- will experience little to no distortion (depend-
ing. As the petals begin to expand outward, they ing on the steel’s hardness), even though the lead
will begin to experience dramatically more drag, and copper components may have distorted or
which forces them to expand outward and roll fragmented from the steel component.
backward. With hollow point and tipped solid
projectiles, the base of the petals is thicker than SECTIONAL DENSITY AND
the area near the mouth. This allows the petals ENERGY
to roll backward without shearing and fractur-
ing. With monometal projectiles designed to Two other factors that have great effect on a
fracture, the area near the base of the petals is projectile’s terminal ballistic performance are
scored or slit so that the petals shear off and cre- sectional density (SD) and energy (mass and
ate an additional wound channel. This design velocity). We previously discussed SD in the
utilizes multiple petals to create multiple wound projectiles section: section density is a ratio of a
channels, while the base continues forward like projectile’s mass to its diameter. The higher the
a ball projectile or FMJ. SD number, the greater the projectile's mass is
in relation to its diameter. A greater mass-to-
Steel tipped, steel jacketed, and steel and tungsten
diameter ratio is beneficial for one purpose:
core projectiles are almost always designed for
deep penetration and (eventually) perforation,
perforation, with little concern for penetration.
regardless of medium.

Figure 4: Various projectiles with lead, copper, and steel construction.

258
When talking about SD in relation to terminal You can see from the formula that higher amounts
ballistics, the medium being penetrated will vary. of KE are more dependent on velocity than
A projectile with a high SD features a smaller mass. Because KE is proportional to the velocity
cross-section compared to its mass, focusing drag squared, an increase in velocity has an exponen-
onto a smaller area on the front of the projectile tial effect on KE.5 While doubling a projectile’s
while carrying more mass. A projectile with a mass will double its KE, doubling the projectile’s
high SD will perforate through soft tissue, bone, velocity will quadruple its KE. Let’s take a look
and hard targets (projectile material dependent) at two projectiles with the same KE, but by dif-
better than a projectile with a low SD (and all ferent means. The first projectile utilizes mass to
other factors being equal). Although a high SD achieve its KE: 200 grains moving at 1,000 fps.
is extremely beneficial when external ballistics The second projectile utilizes velocity: 2,000 fps
is considered, it may be detrimental in some as- and 50 grains. Both projectiles produce roughly
pects of terminal ballistics. First, if perforation is 444 ft-lb. of energy. You can see that even though
not the desired result, a high SD projectile will the larger projectile is 4X heavier than the light
need to be designed to expand. As the efficien- one, the 50-grain projectile produces the same
cy of penetration increases, the ability to slow KE by moving twice as fast.
and stop it must also increase (when desired). The way the energy is delivered to the target will
Second, the design of most high SD projectiles differ with light and heavy projectiles delivering
places the centers of gravity and pressure farther the same KE. Just as a light projectile will suffer
apart, increasing the chances of tumbling. the effects of drag greater than a heavy projectile
The projectile’s energy can also significantly in air, the same is true in other mediums. When
affect how it performs. The projectile’s energy impacting soft tissue, a light, fast-moving pro-
comes from a combination of its mass and ve- jectile will shed velocity rapidly, transferring
locity. This means the same amount of energy a massive amount of energy to the target in a
can be delivered in two ways: by a heavy, slow- short duration (distance and time).* This rapid
moving projectile or by a lightweight projec- transfer of energy results in a massive tempo-
tile moving at high velocity (even though the rary wound cavity, but a relatively small (di-
lighter projectile will have less momentum*). ameter) and shallow wound cavity. With light,
Before we move any further, let us discuss the fast-moving projectiles, almost all of their KE
term “energy.” is delivered to the target because the projectile
will almost never perforate. Light, high velocity
*Although both products of mass and velocity, kinetic energy projectiles are also more likely to yaw, fragment,
(KE) (muzzle/projectile energy) and momentum are not the
and tumble. The increased velocity increases the
same. Momentum is a vector — it has both magnitude and
direction. KE is a scalar quantity. KE only has magnitude rate of deformation of soft projectiles.
with no spatial reference.4 A heavy, slow moving projectile will retain more
of its energy due to its momentum. Although
Energy describes the ability of an object to per-
the projectile is shedding velocity through drag,
form “work.” The work the projectile performs is
its mass is maintaining its momentum, which
penetration, perforation, expansion, fragmenta-
resists drag to a greater degree than a light pro-
tion, and transferring energy. When discussing
jectile. This allows the heavier projectile to pen-
projectiles, we often express their energy (KE)
etrate deeper into the target and possibly even
as foot-pounds (ft-lb.) of energy, or the ability
perforate it. The heavier projectile may not cre-
to move a one pound object a distance of one
ate as large a temporary wound cavity but will
foot. As previously discussed, we can calculate
produce a larger and deeper permanent wound
the projectile’s KE with mass (M) (in grains)
cavity. If the heavier projectile were to only
and velocity (V) (in fps). The formula is:
penetrate the target, all of its energy would be
KE = M x V^2

259
transferred; but with the higher risk of perfora- This means that for every second the projec-
tion, some of this energy may be lost. tile acts upon the target, it will exert 128 lb. of
force over an area one inch square. Let us look
at the momentum of the lightweight projectile,
*Dependent on projectile and target material. 50 grains/ 2,000 fps.
((50/7,000)/32.174) x 2,000 = P x 144
Another way to look at a projectile’s ability to (.0071/32.174) x 2,000 = P x 144
do “work” is by looking at its momentum. You
.00022 x 2,000 = .44 x 144
can look at the projectile’s momentum as an im-
pulse, or an amount of force over a given time. P = 63.36 in-lbf/sec.
In America, momentum is expressed in slug-
feet-per-second. One slug is equal to 32.174 lb.
The lighter projectile only exerts 63 pounds
(equal to one force of gravity). We want to con-
of force on the same 1 in. square. You can see
vert those units of measurement to inch-pound-
with momentum, mass and velocity are treated
force-per-second (in-lbf/sec.). To calculate a
equally. This occurs because of the conservation
projectile’s momentum you only need its mass
of momentum. In a closed system, like a cartridge
(M) (in grains) and velocity (V) (in fps). We
inside a firearm, the entire system has a given
also need to convert mass from grains to lb. and
momentum. When an event occurs, like the
then to slugs by dividing mass by 7,000 (grains
cartridge discharging, the momentum of the
in a pound) and 32.174 (pounds in a slug). The
projectile moving forward and the momentum
basic formula for momentum (P) is P = MV, but
of the firearm recoiling backward will be equal
to convert to our desired units we will use the
to the original “potential’ energy of the fire-
following formula:
arm and cartridge. The projectile, being much
((M/7,000)/32.174) x V = P x 144* lighter than the firearm, requires a much greater
Using our heavy projectile, velocity to achieve the same momentum as the
200 grains/1,000 fps: heavier firearm recoiling at a moderate velocity.6
((200/7,000)/32.174) x 1,000 = P x 144 Although we can try to quantify the perfor-
mance of a projectile based on its calculated
(.0286/32.174) x 1,000 = P x 144
KE and momentum, there are too many factors
involved to say that one is better suited for in-
.00089 x 1,000 = .89 x 144 capacitation than the other. In fact, we already
know that incapacitation or death occurs from
P = 128.16 in-lbf/sec.
destruction of vital organs (brain, spine, heart,
etc.) and blood loss. No amount of KE or mo-
*Constant converts square feet to square inches. mentum can make up for poor shot placement.
A small, low energy projectile placed directly in
a vital organ will be more effective at incapaci-
tating than a large, high energy projectile placed
in just muscle or even bone.

260
 and continues through the soft tissue. Harder
Real World Terminal projectiles will experience less deformation as
they destroy the bone. Depending on the thick-
Ballistics ness and density of the bone and material and
energy of the projectile, it may fragment as
it passes through. If the impact is at an angle
Up to this point, all of our discussion of ter- to the surface of the bone, the projectile may
minal ballistics has been under ideal situations ricochet, or deflect, changing its intended path.
where the projectile performs as designed. In If the projectile were to strike the edge of the
reality, real world terminal ballistics can be un- bone, it would chip the bone or simply deflect.
predictable, especially when self-defense, mili- Deflection or deformation from striking the
tary, and LE applications are concerned. Let’s bone can cause the projectile to yaw and tumble.
look at a more realistic picture of a projectile’s Passing through muscle and other soft tissue
journey through flesh and bone. The anatomy can cause yawing and tumbling from the change
of most animals and man is remarkably similar, in center of pressure as the projectile moves
with most of the vital organs in the chest cavity through various densities of matter.
and abdomen, the brain in the top portion of
The chaotic nature of a self-defense encounter
the skull, and the spinal cord running along the
or war makes terminal ballistics even more un-
back. The only difference is the size and propor-
predictable. Layered or heavy (winter) clothing
tions of the various bones and organs. To de-
can prevent some hollow point designs from
stroy vital organs or the brain, the projectile has
properly expanding, making them perform
to perforate hides, bones, and muscles of vary-
similarly to an FMJ. We also have to consider
ing thicknesses and densities before reaching
the projectile impacting belt buckles, jewelry,
the brain or heart, lungs or liver.
phones, or even bibles carried in pockets. There
In most cases, if the projectile impacts bone, are many stories of layers of heavy clothing stop-
square to its surface, the projectile will experi- ping low velocity, large caliber projectiles. There
ence some distortion as it fractures the bone are also countless stories of people surviving a

Figure 5: Projectile stopped by cell phone.

261
gunshot because the projectile was stopped by a pieces of the original projectile will reach soft
lighter or a coin or some other object they were tissue. This is why most “ball” projectiles used
carrying. by militaries around the world utilize a steel or
Now let’s introduce a modern urban environ- tungsten spike in their construction. When im-
ment. What factors are introduced to the equa- pacting hard targets or armor, the jackets and
tion if the self-defense incident occurs inside soft lead core of these projectiles may fragment
a home, or even in a vehicle? Inside the home or be stripped from the hardened core when im-
there are walls (sheetrock, studs, insulation, pip- pacting hard targets, but the harder spike will
ing), furniture, appliances, and other obstruc- continue through with little to no deformation.
tions. In a vehicle there are glass, sheet metal, These hardened spikes will typically perforate
and various plastic and composite components, soft tissue with little to no deflection.
not to mention the various thick metal com- Let’s take a look at our previous four example
ponents of the engine, drivetrain, and wheels. cartridges (.223, 9mm, 12-gauge, and .22 LR)
Impacting any of these “barriers” can cause dis- and the end of the projectile's journey. For these
ruption in the projectile’s form and intended examples we will be looking at the projectile's
path. The results are projectiles that deform, de- effects through soft tissue alone, without any
flect, fracture, ricochet, and tumble before ever other factors. In our previous examples, the
reaching vital organs. If the projectile used is not projectile type was unimportant, but for these
armor piercing, it may fail to perforate any of examples we will examine what four different
the thicker metal components. wound cavities would look like. For example
Hard barriers (cement, brick, and other mason- purposes, our .223 projectile will be an FMJ
ry) and armor present unique challenges for a (lead core, copper jacket), our 9mm projectile
projectile’s terminal ballistic performance. Soft will be a jacketed hollow point, the #7.5 bird-
projectiles (lead and jacketed) stand little chance shot will be solid lead, and the .22 projectile will
against these hard targets. Although a soft pro- be a solid lead hollow point.
jectile may destroy a brick or cinder block upon We will assume the target for the .223 projec-
impact, the projectile will lose so much energy tile is 200 yd. away. From the ballistic table in
that it may fail to penetrate soft tissue on the the previous section (.223, 300 yard zero, stan-
other side. The projectile will also be heavily dard conditions) we know that the .223 projec-
deformed or fragmented, meaning only small tile is moving at roughly 2,279 fps at 200 yd.

Figure 6: .223 Remington wound cavity.

262
 Figure 7: 9x19mm Parabellum wound cavity.

At this distance the .223 round has roughly ft-lb. of energy. As the projectile penetrates the
564 ft-lb. of energy remaining. The small di- flesh, the cavity of the projectile will fill with
ameter of the projectile will allow it to easily soft tissue, which initiates expansion. Because
penetrate the soft tissue. Because of the velocity of the velocity of the projectile, the temporary
of the projectile, when impacting the soft tis- wound cavity is slightly smaller than the .223
sue it will create a massive temporary wound round. The projectile will expand to a maximum
cavity as the projectile displaces soft tissue near diameter when the petals fully unfurl and are
the entry point. Because of the mass of the pro- perpendicular to the body of the projectile. As
jectile, the temporary cavity will begin to taper the projectile continues through the soft tis-
down as the projectile loses velocity from drag. sue, the petal will roll back toward the body of
Although there may be slight deformation of the projectile, reducing its maximum diameter
the projectile upon impact, its shape will remain to slightly larger than its unexpanded diameter.
fairly unchanged. In most cases the small diam- In most cases, the projectile’s moderate diam-
eter, high velocity FMJ will perforate 16+ in. of eter, low velocity, and expansion will limit it
soft tissue, unless it tumbles. As the soft tissue to less than 14 in. of penetration. The entry to
contracts, it will leave a wound channel that is the permanent wound channel will be slightly
roughly caliber diameter upon entry that opens larger than caliber diameter but will increase in
up in diameter where the temporary cavity was diameter as the projectile expands to maximum
at its largest, before tapering back down to just diameter. The wound channel will then taper off
over caliber diameter upon exit. Because of the as the petals of the projectile roll backward but
length of the projectile (.745 in.), there is a good will still be larger than the entry wound. There
chance it will tumble or, at a minimum, yaw and will also be significant tissue damage from the
divert from its original path. Depending on the petals slicing through the soft tissue because
jacket thickness, the jacket may fragment when the projectile is still spinning as it penetrates.
impacting at higher velocities. Depending on the thickness of the jacket, the
Let us assume the target for the 9mm projec- projectile may remain intact or fragment as the
tile is 25 yd. away. From the table in the pre- petals break apart from the main body.
vious section, we know that the 9mm projec- Now, let us assume the target for the 12-gauge
tile is moving at roughly 1,100 fps at 25 yd. At #7.5 birdshot is 25 yd. away. From the table
this distance the 9mm round has roughly 309 in the previous section, we assume that the

263
 small, shallow, permanent wound channels, but
the energy transfer from the accumulated pel-
lets can leave a fairly large, temporary wound
channel. Because of the low velocity of the pel-
lets and the soft lead construction, the pellets
will only penetrate 2 in. – 4 in. Most pellets will
never make it through the first layers of flesh
and muscle, let alone make it to any vital organ.
Finally, let us assume the target for the .22 LR is
50 yd. away. From the table in the previous sec-
tion, we know that the .22 projectile is moving
at roughly 1,030 fps. At this distance, the .22
LR round has roughly 94 ft-lb. of energy. As the
projectile penetrates the flesh, the cavity of the
projectile will fill with soft tissue, which initiates
expansion. Because of the low velocity and small
Figure 8: 12-gauge #7.5 birdshot wound cavity. diameter of the projectile, the temporary wound
cavity is slightly smaller than the 9mm round.
The projectile will expand to a maximum diam-
eter when the hollow cavity unfurls outward. As
birdshot is moving at roughly 1,000 fps. At this the projectile continues through the soft tissue,
distance, the shot string has increased to a di- the mouth of the projectile will roll backward
ameter of roughly 40+ inches. If we assume that onto itself, reducing its maximum diameter to
half of the roughly 263 pellets impact the soft slightly larger than its unexpanded diameter. In
tissue target, that is roughly 131 pellets .095 in. most cases, the projectile’s small diameter, low
in diameter. Each pellet would have a remain- velocity, soft material, and expansion will limit
ing energy of 3.3 ft-lb. of energy (432 ft-lb. to- it to less than 10 in. of penetration. The entry to
tal). As each individual pellet enters the flesh, the permanent wound channel will be slightly
the soft lead will immediately deform. The low larger than caliber diameter but will increase in
mass and energy of the shot pellets will leave diameter as the projectile expands to maximum

Figure 9: .22 LR wound cavity.

264
diameter. The wound channel will then taper 6 in. wide by 6 in. tall and 16 in. deep, contain-
off as the mouth of the projectile rolls backward ing 10 percent gelatin by weight.7 The test is
but will still be larger than the entry wound. completed at various distances (10 ft. and 20
Because of the use of soft lead, there may also yd.) into bare gel and gel blocks behind various
be a chance of the projectile fracturing near the barriers (heavy clothing, sheet metal, wallboard,
hollow cavity. plywood, and glass).
Similar tests can be done by the average shooter
TERMINAL BALLISTIC TESTING with the many ballistic gel recipes available on-
So, how do we test our projectile's terminal bal- line. There are also many stores selling ready-
listic performance in the real world. Luckily, we to-go gel blocks online. Many of these blocks
can simulate soft tissue using ballistic gelatin are made from synthetic gel and can be melted
blocks. These blocks closely represent soft tis- and reformed several times. Please note that the
sue in density and behavior. The procedure for “clear” synthetic blocks are not the exact same
testing a projectile’s terminal ballistics has even density as the natural gel blocks and will pro-
been standardized by the Federal Bureau of duce slightly different results. Make sure to fol-
Investigation (FBI). The test utilizes gel blocks low all shooting safety rules when performing
your own tests.

Figure 10: Gel block testing.

265
NOTES
 ENDNOTES

Chapter 1 3. Peterson Cartridge Company “Drawing Brass” www.petersoncar-

tridge.com/our-process/drawing-brass (Accesses 1/3/2019)
1. Ammunitions Store “History of Ammunition from Origin to the
Modern Cartridge” http://ammunitionstore.com/pages/news/history- 4. Starline Brass “Starline Brass: Process to Perfection | Starline Brass
of-ammunition-from-origin-to-the-modern-cartridge/ (Accessed "The Brass Facts" Episode 1” Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube,
11/03/2018) 4/19/2013. Web. 1/4/2019

2. PBS “Gun Timeline” http://www.pbs.org/opb/historydetectives/tech- 5. 22Plinkster “How is 22LR Ammunition Made? Tour of CCI and
nique/gun-timeline/ (Accessed 11/03/2018) Speer.” Online video clip. YouTube, 8/2/2016. Web. 1/4/2019

3. “Gun Timeline” www.pbs.org 6. Made for the Outdoors “Made for the Outdoors (2015) Episode 8
“Federal Shotgun Shells’” Online video clip. YouTube. 8/25/2015. Web.
1/6/2019

Chapter 2 7. John Taylor “How it’s Made: Exploring Rio Ammunitions New Texas
Facility” www.wildfowlmag.com/editorial/how-its-made-exploring-
rio-ammunitions-new-texas-facility/280158 Accessed 1/6/2019
1. Engineers Edge “Molybdenum Disulfide (MoS2) Coatings
Lubrication Review” www.engineersedge.com/lubrication/molybde-
num_disulfide_characteristics.htm (Accessed 10/17/2018) 8. Federal Premium Ammo “How They’re Made: Paper Shotshell Hulls”
Online video clip. YouTube, 8/3/18. Web. 1/6/2019

2. WS2 Coatings “A Comparison of Tungsten Disulfide and

Molybdenum Disulfide” www.ws2coating.com/blog/a-comparison-of-
tungsten-disulfide-and-molybdenum-disulfide/ (Accessed 10/17/2018)
Chapter 4
3. Dr. Dmitri Kopeliovich “Boron Nitride as a Solid Lubricant”
www.substech.com/dokuwiki/doku.php?id=boron_nitride_as_solid_lu- 1. SAAMI. (2015). American National Standard Voluntary Industry
bricant (Accessed 10/17/2018) Performance Standards for Pressure and Velocity of Rimfire Ammunition
for the Use of Commercial Manufacturers. Retrieved January 7, 2019,
4. Bob Beers “Sectional Density for Beginners” from https://saami.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Z299-1_ANSI-
www.chuckhawks.com/sd_beginners.htm (Accessed 10/18/2018) SAAMI_Rimfire.pdf#page=8

5. Chuck Hawks “The Sectional Density of Rifle Bullets” 2. SAAMI. (2015b). American National Standard Voluntary Industry
www.chuckhawks.com/sd.htm (Accessed 10/20/2018) Performance Standards for Pressure and Velocity of Centerfire Rifle
Ammunition for the Use of Commercial Manufacturers. Retrieved
January 7, 2019, from https://saami.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/
6. Fr. Frog “A Short Course in External Ballistics” SAAMI-Z299.4-Centerfire-Rifle-Approved-12-14-2015.pdf#page=13
www.frfrogspad.com/extbal.htm (Accessed 10/22/2018)

3. SAAMI. (2015c). American National Standard Voluntary

7. Berger Bullets “Form Factors: A Useful Analysis Tool” Industry Performance Standards for Pressure and Velocity of Shotshell
http://www.bergerbullets.com/form-factors-a-useful-analysis-tool/ Ammunition for the Use of Commercial Manufacturers. Retrieved
(Accessed 10/23/2018) January 7, 2019, from https://saami.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/
Shotshell-Reference-Ammunition-Supplemental-Information-Table-
Revised-10-10-2016.pdf

Chapter 3 4. SAAMI. (2015d). American National Standard Voluntary Industry

Performance Standards for Pressure and Velocity of Centerfire Pistol
and Revolver Ammunition for the Use of Commercial Manufacturers.
1. SAAMI “American National Standard Voluntary Industry
Retrieved January 7, 2019, from https://saami.org/wp-content/
Performance Standards for Pressure and Velocity of Centerfire Rifle
uploads/2019/01/SAAMI-Z299.3-Centerfire-Pistol-Revolver-
Ammunition for the Use of Commercial Manufacturers”
Approved-12-14-2015.pdf#page=10
https://saami.org/technical-information/cartridge-chamber-drawings/
(Accessed 12/19/2018)
5. Metal Supermarkets “Which Metal Conducts Heat the Best”
www.metalsupermarkets.com/which-metals-conduct-heat-best/ (Accessed
2. Sturmgewehr.com “RWS SINOXID Primers” www.sturmgewehr.
1/28/2019)
com/bhinton/Misc_Pics/BerdanPageOWS1989.jpg (Accessed
12/20/2018)
 ENDNOTES

6. The Engineering Toolbox “ Youngs Modules – Tensile and Yield Botelho, Galante, Mendes “Characteristics and Manufacture of Spherical
Strength for Common Materials” www.engineeringtoolbox.com/young- Smokeless Powders” http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?lng=en http://www.
modulus-d_417.html (Accessed 1/30/2019) scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S2175-91462015000400398
(Accessed 3/4/2019)
7. The Engineering Toolbox “Metals – Melting Temperatures” www.en-
gineeringtoolbox.com/melting-temperature-metals-d_860.html (Accessed 6. Firearms History, Technology and Development, http://firearmshis-
1/30/2019) tory.blogspot.com/2010/06/propellants-smokeless-powders.html

8. Ronald B. Standler “Shotshell Cartridge History” 7. Chuck Hawks “Smokeless Powder”

www.rbs0.com/shotshell.htm (Accessed 2/7/2019) www.chuckhawks.com/smokeless_powder.htm (Accessed 3/5/2019)

9. Tom Beckstrand “True Velocity’s New Polymer-Cased Ammunition” 8. Firearm Examiner Training “Making Ball Propellant”
www.gunsandammo.com/editorial/true-velocitys-new-polymer-cased- https://projects.nfstc.org/firearms/module05/fir_m05t04_04.htm
ammunition/247607 (Accessed 2/12/2019) (Accessed 3/6/2019)

10. Omnexus by SpecialChem “Thermal Insulation”

https://omnexus.specialchem.com/polymer-properties/properties/thermal-
insulation (Accessed 2/14/2019) Chapter 6

11. International Ammunition Association Inc. “Cartridge of the Month 1. www.nrafamily.org/articles/2018/4/3/ammunition-science-all-

June 2010 – O’Connor Steelhead .30-06 Dummy” www.cartridgecol- about-primers/(Accessed 3/27/2019)
lectors.org http://cartridgecollectors.org/cmo/cmo10jun.htm (Accessed
2/14/2019)
2. Bev Fitchett “Priming Compounds and Primers Introduction” https://
www.bevfitchett.us/ballistics/primingcompounds-and-primers-introduc-
12. Soldier Systems “AUSA 18 – SIG SAUER Unveils Belt-Fed tion.html (Accessed 3/27/2019)
Machine Gun, Carbine and Hybrid Ammunition – Next Generation
Squad Weapon Candidates” http://soldiersystems.net/2018/10/08/
ausa-18-sig-sauer-unveils-belt-fed-machine-gun-carbine-and-hybrid- 3. Fitchett, www.bevfitchett.us/ballistics/primingcompounds-and-
ammunition-next-generation-squad-weapon-candidates/ (Accessed primers-introduction.html
2/16/2019)
4. NRA Staff “Ammunition Science: All About Primers”www.nrafamily.
13. Art Merrill “Goodbye, Brass?” org/articles/2018/4/3/ammunitionscience-all-about-primers/ (Accessed
www.ssusa.org/articles/2017/2/13/goodbye-brass/ (Accessed 2/16/2019) 3/27/2019)

5. Fitchett, www.bevfitchett.us/ballistics/priming compounds-and-

primers-introduction.html

Chapter 5
6. John B. Snow “Everything You Never Knew About Primers, and the
New Technology That’s Revolutionizing Them” www.outdoorlife.com/
1. The Firearms Blog “The More You Know: Black VS Smokeless cartridge-primer-technology-developments (Accessed 3/27/2019)
Powder: www.thefirearmblog.com/blog/2016/11/02/black-vs smokeless-
powder/ (Accessed 2/28/2019)
7. Snow, www.outdoorlife.com/
cartridge-primer-technology-developments
2. Heather Whipps “How Gunpowder Changed the World”
www.livescience.com/7476-gunpowder-changed-world.html (Accessed
2/28/2019) 8. NRA Staff, www.nrafamily.org/ articles/2018/4/3/ammunition-
science-all-about-primers/
9. Snow, www.outdoorlife.com/
3. Randy Wakeman “The Problems of Black Powder” cartridge-primer-technology-developments
www.chuckhawks.com/problems_blackpowder.htm (Accessed 3/2/2019)

10. Recreational Software Inc. “Load Density”

4. Firearm Examiner Training “Disadvantages” , https://projects.nfstc. www.shootingsoftware.com/loadens.htm (Accessed 3/28/2019)
org/firearms/module03/fir_m03_t04_01_b.htm (Accessed 3/4/2019)

5. Firearms History, Technology and Development“Propellants:

Smokeless Powders” http://firearmshistory.blogspot.com/2010/06/
propellants-smokeless-powders.html (Accessed 3/4/2019)
 ENDNOTES

Chapter 7 11. White and Siewert 5,6,7. Final report of the Rifling Profile Push
Test. VT: Arrow Tech Associates, 2007. https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/full-
1. Chuck Hawks “Matching the Gun to the Game” text/u2/a469801.pdf. (Accessed 8/21/2019)
www.chuckhawks.com/gun_game.htm (Accessed 4/14/2019)
12. Winchester Smokeless Propellants. Ball Powder Propellant Safety
2. Hawks, www.chuckhawks.com/gun_game.htm Data Sheet. KS: Winchester Smokeless Propellants, 2018, winchester-
smokelessballpowders5-23-18.pdf. (Accessed 8/22/2019)

3. Hawks, www.chuckhawks.com/gun_game.htm
13. Western Powders, Inc. Material Safety Data Sheet.MO: Western
Powders, Inc, 2007. www.ilrc. ucf.edu/powders/documents/powder
4. Hawks, www.chuckhawks.com/gun_game.htm percent2000000179/AccurateDoubleBasePropellant.pdf. (Accessed
8/22/2019)

14. Accurate Shooter “Calculating Bullet RPM: Spin Rates and

Chapter 8 Stability” http://bulletin.accurateshooter.com/2008/06/calculating-bullet-
rpm-spin-rates-and-stability/ (Accessed 8/28/2019)
1. Chuck Hawks “Locktime” www.chuckhawks.com/locktime.htm
(Accessed 7/31/2019) 15. Karl W. Kleimenhagen “A Calculator for Barrel Twist Rate” http://
kwk.us/twist.html (Accessed 8/28/19)
2. All Metals and Forge Group “Melting Point of Metals and Alloys”
www.steelforge.com/literature/metal-melting-ranges/ (Accessed 16. Bison Ballistics “Gyroscopic Stability Calculator” https://bisonbal-
8/1/2019) listics.com/calculators/stability (Accessed 8/30/2019)

3. John B. Snow “Everything you Never Knew About Primers, and the 17. Ballistics by the Inch “Cylinder Gap” www.ballisticsbytheinch.com/
New Technology That’s Revolutionizing Them: A Look at the Latest gaptests.html (Accessed 8/23/2019)
Developments for the Mysterious Piece of the Cartridge Recipe” www.
outdoorlife.com/cartridge-primertechnology-developments/ (Accessed 18. Gun Tweaks “What are Barrel Harmonics?” www.guntweaks.com/
8/2/2019) barrel-harmonics.html (Accessed 9/10/2019)

4. Lu, Gui-e et al. “Study on the energy density of gunpowder heat 19. Philip Massaro “Ballistics: Understanding Barrel
source.” 2011 International Conference on Materials for Renewable Harmonics and Accuracy” https://gundigest.com/more/howto/
Energy & Environment 2 (2011): 1185-1187 ballistics-understanding-barrel-harmonics-and-accuracy

5. Wayne Van Zwoll. Shooters Bible Guide to Rifle Ballistics. New York, 20. Recreational Software Inc “Barrel Harmonics, Pressure and Timing
NY. Skyhorse Publishing, 2011. Print. (Expanded 12/24/04)” www.shootingsoftware.com/barrel.htm (Accessed
9/11/2019 (Accessed 9/10/2019)
6. Accurate Shooter “Cartridge Brass Alloy Revealed by X-Ray
Spectrometers” http://bulletin.accurateshooter.com/2011/09/cartridge- 21. Varmint Al “Rifle Stocks- Barrel Vibration and Accuracy”
brass-alloys-revealed-by-x-ray-spectrometers/ (Accessed 8/20/2019) www.stocks-rifle.com/harmonics.htm (Accessed 9/11/2019)

7. AZO Materials “Cartridge Brass UNS C26000” www.azom.com/ 22. Cler, Chevaugeon, Shephard, Flaherty and Remacle. Page 2.
article.aspx?ArticleID=6341 (Accessed 8/20/2019) Computational Fluid Dynamics Application to Gun Muzzle Blast- A
Validation Case Study. United States, US Army Armament Research
8. Designer Data “LDPE (EN)” www.designerdata.nl/plastics/ Development and Engineering Center, 2003. DTIC., https://apps.dtic.
thermo+plastics/LDPE (Accessed 8/20/2019) mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a417311.pdf (Accessed 9/16/2019)

9. AZO Materials “AISI 1018 Mild/Low Carbon Steel” www.azom. 23. Gun Tweaks “Mid-Length vs. Carbine Gas Systems in AR-pattern
com/article.aspx?ArticleID=6115 (Accessed 8/20/2019) Rifles” https://www.guntweaks.com/mid-length-vscarbine-gas-systems.
html (Accessed 8/30/2019)
10. Bob Jourdan “Pressure, Case Strength and Back Thrust”
www.longrangehunting.com/articles/pressures-casestrength-and-back- 24. Gabriella Munoz “How Fast is a Blink of an Eye?” https://sciencing.
thrust.396/ (Accessed 8/14/2019) com/fast-blink-eye-5199669.html (Accessed 9/3/2019)
 ENDNOTES

Chapter 9 14. Steve Arbogast “International Standard Atmosphere: How it Affects

Flight- Understanding the Basics” www.universalweather.com/blog/
1. Major Rob Robinette “Gun Recoil Calculator” https://robrobinette. international-standardatmosphere-how-it-affects-flight-understanding-
com/Gun_Recoil_Calculator.html (Accessed 9/10/2019) thebasics/(Accessed 10/10/2019)

2. SAAMI “Gun Recoil – Technical” https://saami.org/wpcontent/ 15. Omni Calculator “Air Pressure at Altitude Calculator” www.omni-
uploads/2018/07/Gun-Recoil-Formulae-2018-07-9-1.pdf (Accessed calculator.com/physics/airpressure-at-altitude (Accessed 10/10/2019)
9/9/2019)
16. Omni Calculator “Air Density Calculator” www.omnicalculator.com/
3. Robinette, https://robrobinette.com/Gun_Recoil_Calculator.html physics/air-density (Accessed 10/10/2019)

4. Gary S. Settles “High-speed Imaging of Shockwaves, Explosions and 17. Glenn Research Center “Shape Effects on Drag”www.grc.nasa.gov/
Gunshots” www.americanscientist.org/article/high-speed-imaging-of- www/k-12/airplane/shaped.html (Accessed 10/15/19)
shock-waves-explosions-and-gunshots (Accessed 9/17/2019)
18. Harry Stine “Model Rocketry’s New Look- May 1961 American
5. Glen R. Moore. Projectile Environment During Intermediate Modeler” www.airplanesandrockets.com/rockets/model-rocketry-new-
Ballistics. United States, Naval Weapons Laboratory, 1974. DTIC. look-american-modelermay-1961.htm (Accessed 10/16/2019)
PDF Download, https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a061475.pdf
(Accessed 9/17/2019) 19. Ryan Cleckner “Ballistic Basics: The Effects of Humidity on Bullet
Trajectory” https://gundigest.com/more/how-to/training/humidityeffects-
6. Robert Silvers “How Flash Suppressors Work” https://vuurwapen- bullet-trajectory (Accessed 11/1/2019)
blog.com/technical-issuesnotes/how-flash-suppressors-work/ (Accessed
9/19/2019) 20. Akash Peshin “What is the Magnus Effect”www.scienceabc.com/
pure-sciences/what-is-the-magnus-effectswerve-ball-basketball.html
7. NRA “Shotshell Ballistics for 7 ½, 8, & 9 Shot Maximum Distance, (Accessed 11/5/19)
Angle and Height of Travel” https:// rangeservices.nra.org/media/4074/
shotshell-ballistics.pdf (Accessed 10/9/2019) 21. Jeremy S. “ Coriolis Effect for Beginners (Extreme Long Range
Shooting Beginners)”www.thetruthaboutguns.com/coriolis-effect-for-
8. Allesio Baldi “Long Range Shooting: External Ballistics – Bullet beginnersextreme-long-range-shooting-for-beginners/ (Accessed 11/5/19)
Shape” https://loadoutroom.com/thearmsguide/long-range-shooting-
external-ballisticsbullet-shape/ (Accessed 10/4/2019) 22. Guns Save Life “Eotvos and Coriolis Effects on Long-Range
Shooting” www.gunssavelife.com/eotvoscoriolis-effects-on-long-range-
9. Ron Kurtus “Effect of Gravity on Sideways Motion” htm https:// shooting/ (Accessed 11/5/19)
www.school-for-champions.com/science/gravity_sideways_motion.htm#.
XZOSyShKjb2 (Accessed 9/30/2019) 23. Chuck Hawks “Shooting Uphill and Downhill” www.chuckhawks.
com/shooting_uphill.htm (Accessed 11/6/19)
10. Hornady “External Ballistics” www.hornady.com/team-hornady/
ballistic-calculators/ballistic-resources/external-ballistics (Accessed 24. Shooting Range Industries LLC “Shooting Terms; What is Bullet
10/2/2019) Drag, Bow Shockwave, Mach Speed Number, Boat Tail & More” www.
shootingrangeindustries.com/shooting-terms-what-isbullet-drag-bow-
11. Smarter Every Day Shockwave Shadows in Super shockwave-mach-speed-number-boattail-more/ (Accessed 11/7/2019)
Ultra Motion (Bullet Schlieren) – Smarter Every Day
203. YouTube. Uploaded 10/31/2018. www.youtube.com/ 25. Georgia Tech College of Engineering School of Aerospace Engineering
watch?time_continue=168&v=BPwdlEgLn5Q “Mach Angle and Mach Number” http://seitzman.gatech.edu/classes/
ae3450/machanglenumber.pdf (Accessed 11/7/2019)
12. Allesio Baldi “Long Range Shooting: External Ballistics – Spin
Drift” https://loadoutroom.com/thearmsguide/long-range-shooting- 26. Accurate Shooter “Transonic Effects on Bullet Stability and BC”
external-ballisticsspin-drift-13-theory-section/ (Accessed 10/28/2019) www.accurateshooter.com/ballistics/transonic-effects-on-bullet-stability-
bc/ (Accessed 11/14/2019)
13. Jean Asta “How to Calculate Spin Drift”https://goneoutdoors.com/
calculate-spin-drift-7660060.html (Accessed 10/28/2019) 27. Phil Bourjaily “Measuring a Shot String with a High-Speed Video”
www.fieldandstream.com/blogs/gunnuts/2011/08/measuring-shot-
string-high-speed-video/ (Accessed 11/14/2019)
 ENDNOTES

Chapter 10

1. Hornady “Terminal Ballistics: Energy on Target” www.hornady.com/

team-hornady/ballistic-calculators/ballistic-resources/terminal-ballistics
(Accessed 11/18/2019)

2. The Everyday Marksman, Matt “Terminal Ballistics: How Bullets

Wound and Kill” https://www.everydaymarksman.co/marksmanship/
terminal-ballistics/ (Accessed 11/19/2019)

3. The Everyday Marksman, Matt “Terminal Ballistics: How Bullets

Wound and Kill” https://www.everydaymarksman.co/marksmanship/
terminal-ballistics/ (Accessed 11/19/2019)

4. The Physics Classroom “Scalars and Vectors” www.physicsclassroom.

com/class/1DKin/Lesson-1/Scalars-and-Vectors (Accessed 11/20/2019)

5. Joe Fore “Ways to Increase Kinetic Energy” https://sciencing.com/

https://sciencing.com/ways-increase-kinetic-energy-8459476.html
(Accessed 11/20/2019)

6. Real World Physics Problems “The Difference Between Momentum

and Kinetic Energy” www.real-world-physics-problems.com/difference-
between-momentum-and-kinetic-energy.html (Accessed 11/21/2019)

7. Dayton Brown Inc. “Ballistic Assessment FBI Test Protocols” www.

dtbtest.com/eLibrary/ballistics-FBIprotocol.pdf (Accessed 11/22/2019)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF THE RISK: I fully recognize that there are dangers and risks to which I and others may be exposed to aris-
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