Differential Failure Analysis

SERVICE MANUAL
AMT-0445
September 2018
Failure Analysis
Table of Contents
Offset Frosting............................................... 14
Table of Contents Origin Point ................................................... 14
Pitting (Surface Fatigue)................................ 14
Service Notes ...................................................ii Premature Wear ............................................ 14
Asbestos and Non-Asbestos Fibers Warning ......iii Ratchet Marks............................................... 15
Reverse Bending Fatigue (Fatigue Fracture) ... 15
Service Precautions .......................................... v
Root Beam Fatigue (Fatigue Fracture) ............ 15
Introduction to Parts Analysis ........................... 1 Scoring ......................................................... 15
Types of Wear ...................................................1 Scuffing (Galling) .......................................... 15
Premature Wear & Component Failure Causes ..2 Shock Load (Impact Fracture) ........................ 16
Investigative Guidelines ................................... 4 Spalling (Surface Fatigue) ............................. 17
Preparing Parts for Inspection ..........................4 Spinout ......................................................... 17
Inspect Damaged Parts ....................................5 Stress Riser................................................... 18
Surface (Contact) Fatigue.............................. 18
Failure Types and Terminology........................... 6
Torque........................................................... 18
Beach Marks ....................................................6
Torsional Fatigue (Fatigue Fracture) ............... 19
Bending Fatigue (Fatigue Fracture) ...................6
Torsional Vibration ........................................ 19
Black Spots .....................................................7
Witness Marks .............................................. 19
“Blue” Brake Drum ...........................................7
Working Angle ............................................... 19
Brake Compounding.........................................7
Brinelling (Surface Fatigue) ..............................8 Drive Axles .................................................... 20
Bruising (Surface Fatigue) ................................8 Parts Analysis Overview ................................. 20
Burnish (Brakes) ..............................................8 Causes of Drive Axle Component Failure ........ 20
Chevron Wear Pattern.......................................8 Parts Analysis Process .................................. 34
Crack-Pressure ................................................9 Drivelines ...................................................... 64
Crow’s Footing (Surface Fatigue) ......................9 Parts Analysis Overview ................................. 64
Crystalline Wear Pattern ...................................9 Causes of Driveline Component Failure.......... 64
Etching (Surface Fatigue) .............................. 10
Trailer Axles ................................................... 69
Extreme Pressure (EP) Additives .................... 10
Parts Analysis Overview ................................. 69
Fatigue Fracture ............................................ 10
Causes of Trailer Axle Failure ......................... 69
Flank Cracking (Surface Fatigue) ................... 11
Fretting (Surface Fatigue) .............................. 11 Automatic Slack Adjusters ............................. 72
Frosting ........................................................ 11 Parts Analysis Overview ................................. 72
Galling (Surface Fatigue) ............................... 12 Causes of Slack Adjuster Failure .................... 73
Gear Ratio and Torque Multiplication............. 12 Cam & Air Disc Brakes ................................... 75
Gross Axle Weight Rating (GAWR) .................. 12 Parts Analysis Overview ................................. 75
Gross Combined Weight (GCW) ..................... 12 Causes of Cam & Air Disc Brake Failure ........ 75
Gross Combined Weight Rating (GCWR)......... 12 Causes of Brake Component Failure .............. 84
Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW)........................... 12 Causes of Brake Drum Wear .......................... 89
Gross Vehicle Weight Rating (GVWR).............. 12 Transmissions................................................ 90
Heat Checking............................................... 13 Parts Analysis Overview ................................. 90
Hot Spotting (Black Spots) ............................ 13 Causes of Transmission Component Failure ... 90
Hypoid Ring Gear Teeth ................................. 13 Parts Analysis Process .................................. 90
Imbalance (Brake)......................................... 13 Troubleshooting Flowcharts ......................... 119
Impact Fracture............................................. 13
Load Cycle .................................................... 13 Transfer Cases ............................................. 123
Mismatched Tandem Axle Ratios ................... 13 Parts Analysis Overview ............................... 123
Mismatched Tires (Drive Axle) ........................ 13 Causes of Transfer Case Component Failure 123
Normal Wear ................................................. 14 Notes .......................................................... 127
i
Service Notes
Service Notes Updates

For the latest version of this manual, please visit the
This publication provides a parts analysis process to help AxleTech web site at www.axletech.com. AxleTech
you determine why parts failed during operation, what to Customer Service can be reached at 800-540-2794
look for when you inspect parts, and how to help prevent or via email at service.na@axletech.com.
failures from occurring again.
Section 1 is an overview of parts analysis, and Section 2
provides guidelines for using an investigative approach
during the analysis process. Notations
Section 3 contains descriptions of failure types that affect AxleTech International uses the following notation to
parts, as well as parts analysis terminology that’s used in warn the user of possible safety problems and to provide
the field to describe conditions that cause components to information that will prevent damage to equipment and
fail. components:
Section 4, Section 5, Section 6, Section 7, Section 8,

Section 9 and Section 10 include parts analysis informa- DANGER
tion for the following components. A DANGER indicates a procedure that you must follow
• Automatic Slack Adjusters exactly or it will cause death or serious injury.
• Brakes
• Drive Axles WARNING
• Drivelines
A WARNING indicates a procedure that you must follow
• Trailer Axles exactly or it may cause death or serious injury.
• Transmissions
• Transfer Cases
CAUTION
A CAUTION indicates a procedure that you must follow
exactly to avoid damaging equipment or components.
DANGER
Installation, maintenance, and replacement of such prod-
NOTE
ucts requires a high degree of skill and experience. The A NOTE indicates an operation, procedure, or instruction
consequences of improper installation, maintenance, or that is important for proper service. A NOTE can also
replacement (including the use of inferior or substandard supply information that will help to make service quicker
components) are grave and can result in product failure and easier.
and resulting loss of control of the vehicle, possible injury
or death of persons, and/or possible future or additional
product damage.
AxleTech does not authorize anyone, other than highly
skilled and experienced individuals, to attempt to utilize
the instructions contained in this manual for the installa-
tion, maintenance, or replacement of the product de-
scribed herein, and AxleTech shall have no liability of any
kind for damages arising out of (or in connection with) any
other use of the information contained in this manual.
ii
Asbestos and Non-Asbestos Fibers Warning

OSHA* Toxic and Hazardous Substances 29 CFR 1910.1001
Work practices and engineering controls for automotive brake and clutch inspection,
disassembly, repair and assembly -- Mandatory
This mandatory appendix specifies engineering controls (4) A HEPA-filtered vacuum shall be employed to maintain
and work practices that must be implemented by the the enclosure under negative pressure throughout the op-
employer during automotive brake and clutch inspection, eration. Compressed-air may be used to remove asbestos
disassembly, repair, and assembly operations. fibers or particles from the enclosure.
Proper use of these engineering controls and work (5) The HEPA vacuum shall be used first to loosen the as-
practices by trained employees will reduce employees’ bestos containing residue from the brake and clutch parts
asbestos exposure below the permissible exposure level and then to evacuate the loosened asbestos containing
during clutch and brake inspection, disassembly, repair, material from the enclosure and capture the material in
and assembly operations. The employer shall institute the vacuum filter.
engineering controls and work practices using either the
method set forth in paragraph [A] or paragraph [B] of this (6) The vacuum’s filter, when full, shall be first wetted with
appendix, or any other method which the employer can a fine mist of water, then removed and placed immedi-
demonstrate to be equivalent in terms of reducing employ- ately in an impermeable container, labeled according to
ee exposure to asbestos as defined and which meets the paragraph (j)(5) of this section and disposed of according
requirements described in paragraph [C] of this appendix, to paragraph (k) of this section.
for those facilities in which no more than 5 pairs of brakes (7) Any spills or releases of asbestos containing waste
or 5 clutches are inspected, disassembled, reassembled material from inside of the enclosure or vacuum hose or
and/or repaired per week, the method set forth in para- vacuum filter shall be immediately cleaned up and dis-
graph [D] of this appendix may be used: posed of according to paragraph (k) of this section.
[A] Negative Pressure Enclosure/HEPA Vacuum System [B] Low Pressure/Wet Cleaning Method
Method
(1) A catch basin shall be placed under the brake assem-
(1) The brake and clutch inspection, disassembly, repair, bly, positioned to avoid splashes and spills.
and assembly operations shall be enclosed to cover and
contain the clutch or brake assembly and to prevent the (2) The reservoir shall contain water containing an organic
release of asbestos fibers into the worker’s breathing solvent or wetting agent. The flow of liquid shall be con-
zone. trolled such that the brake assembly is gently flooded to
prevent the asbestos-containing brake dust from becom-
(2) The enclosure shall be sealed tightly and thoroughly in- ing airborne.
spected for leaks before work begins on brake and clutch
inspection, disassembly, repair, and assembly. (3) The aqueous solution shall be allowed to flow between
the brake drum and brake support before the drum is
(3) The enclosure shall be such that the worker can clearly removed.
see the operation and shall provide impermeable sleeves
through which the worker can handle the brake and clutch (4) After removing the brake drum, the wheel hub and
inspection, disassembly, repair and assembly. The integri- back of the brake assembly shall be thoroughly wetted to
ty of the sleeves and ports shall be examined before work suppress dust.
begins.
iii
(5) The brake support plate, brake shoes and brake com- [D] Wet Method
ponents used to attach the brake shoes shall be thor-
oughly washed before removing the old shoes. (1) A spray bottle, hose nozzle, or other implement capa-
ble of delivering a fine mist of water or amended water or
(6) In systems using filters, the filters, when full, shall be other delivery system capable of delivering water at low
first wetted with a fine mist of water, then removed and pressure, shall be used to first thoroughly wet the brake
placed immediately in an impermeable container, labeled and clutch parts. Brake and clutch components shall then
according to paragraph (j)(4) of this section and disposed be wiped clean with a cloth. Any wastewater generated
of according to paragraph (k) of this section. must be captured and properly disposed of without allow-
ing it to dry on any surfaces.
(7) Any spills of asbestos-containing aqueous solution or
any asbestos-containing waste material shall be cleaned (2) The cloth shall be placed in an impermeable container,
up immediately and disposed of according to paragraph labeled according to paragraph (j)(4) of the standard and
(k) of this section. then properly disposed of as an asbestos waste, or the
cloth shall be laundered in a way to prevent the release of
(8) The use of dry brushing during low pressure/wet clean- asbestos fibers in excess of 0.1 fiber per cubic centimeter
ing operations is prohibited. of air.
[C] Equivalent Methods (3) Any spills of solvent or any asbestos containing waste
An equivalent method is one which has sufficient written material shall be cleaned up immediately according to
detail so that it can be reproduced and has been demon- paragraph (k) of this section.
strated that the exposures resulting from the equivalent (4) The use of dry brushing during the wet method opera-
method are equal to or less than the exposures which tions is prohibited.
would result from the use of the method described in
paragraph [A] of CFR 1910.1001. For purposes of making [59 FR 40964, Aug. 10, 1994; 60 FR 33972, June 29,
this comparison, the employer shall assume that expo- 1995; 77 FR 17778, March 26, 2012]
sures resulting from the use of the method described in
paragraph [A] of this appendix shall not exceed 0.016 f/ For more information, visit www.osha.gov, or call OSHA at
cc, as measured by the OSHA reference method and as 1-800-321-OSHA(6742), TTY 1-877-889-5627.
averaged over at least 18 personal samples. *References to OSHA, NIOSH, MSHA, and EPA, which
are regulatory agencies in the United States, are made to
provide further guidance to employers and workers em-
ployed within the United States. Employers and workers
employed outside of the United States should consult the
regulations that apply to them for further guidance.
iv
Service Precautions
Service Precautions
WARNING
DANGER FOLLOW THE SPECIFIED PROCEDURES IN THE INDICAT-
ED ORDER TO AVOID PERSONAL INJURY OR EQUIPMENT
•ALWAYS WEAR PROPER EYE PROTECTION AND OTH- MALFUNCTION/DAMAGE.
ER REQUIRED PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
TO PREVENT PERSONAL INJURY WHEN PERFORM- BEFORE STARTING A VEHICLE:
ING VEHICLE SERVICE. • Sit in the driver’s seat
•WORK IN A WELL-VENTILATED AREA. • Place shift lever in neutral
•NEVER USE GASOLINE, OR SOLVENTS CONTAINING • Set the parking brake

GASOLINE. GASOLINE CAN EXPLODE. BEFORE WORKING ON A VEHICLE OR LEAVING THE
•DO NOT USE HOT SOLUTION TANKS OR WATER AND CAB WITH ENGINE RUNNING:
ALKALINE SOLUTIONS TO CLEAN GROUND OR POL- • Place shift lever in neutral
ISHED PARTS. DOING SO WILL CAUSE DAMAGE TO • Set the parking brake
THE PARTS.
• Chock the wheels
•USE HOT SOLUTION TANKS OR ALKALINE SOLU-
WHEN PARKING THE VEHICLE OR LEAVING THE CAB:
TIONS CORRECTLY. READ THE MANUFACTURER’S
INSTRUCTIONS BEFORE USING HOT SOLUTION • Place shift lever in neutral
TANKS AND ALKALINE SOLUTIONS. THEN CAREFUL- • Set the parking brake
LY FOLLOW THE INSTRUCTIONS.
•SOLVENT CLEANERS CAN BE FLAMMABLE, POISON- CAUTION
OUS, AND CAUSE BURNS. EXAMPLES OF SOLVENT
CLEANERS ARE CARBON TETRACHLORIDE, EMUL- •DO NOT RELEASE THE PARKING BRAKE OR AT-
SION-TYPE, AND PETROLEUM-BASED CLEANERS. TEMPT TO SELECT A GEAR UNTIL THE AIR PRES-
READ THE MANUFACTURER’S INSTRUCTIONS SURE IS AT THE CORRECT LEVEL.
BEFORE USING A SOLVENT CLEANER, THEN CARE- •TO AVOID DAMAGE TO THE TRANSMISSION DURING
FULLY FOLLOW THE INSTRUCTIONS. ALSO FOLLOW TOWING:
THE PROCEDURES BELOW.
• Place shift lever in neutral
•PLACE THE VEHICLE ON A LEVEL FLOOR AND CHOCK • Lift the drive wheels off of the ground or
THE WHEELS TO HELP PREVENT THE VEHICLE FROM disconnect the driveline
MOVING. NEVER WORK UNDER A RAISED VEHICLE
SUPPORTED BY ONLY A FLOOR JACK. ALWAYS SUP- •DO NOT OPERATE VEHICLE IF ALTERNATOR LAMP IS
PORT A RAISED VEHICLE WITH SAFETY STANDS. LIT OR IF GAUGES INDICATE LOW VOLTAGE.
CHOCK THE WHEELS AND MAKE SURE THE UNIT
WILL NOT ROLL BEFORE RELEASING BRAKES. A Omissions
JACK CAN SLIP OR FALL OVER. SERIOUS PERSONAL
INJURY CAN RESULT. Every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of all
information in this manual. However, AxleTech makes no
•IMPROPER JACKING AND SUPPORT METHODS CAN expressed or implied warranty or representation based on
CAUSE STRUCTURAL DAMAGE THAT RESULTS IN the enclosed information. Any errors or omissions may be
LOSS OF VEHICLE CONTROL, SEVERE PERSONAL reported to AxleTech, 1400 Rochester Road, Troy, Michi-
INJURY OR DEATH. REFER TO THE VEHICLE MANU- gan, 48083 USA.
FACTURER FOR PROPER JACKING AND SUPPORT
METHODS.
v
Service Precautions
Repair Warnings Damaged Components

• All damaged components must be replaced by new
DANGER components.
• Clean and repair the threads of fasteners and holes.
USE OF OTHER THAN RECOMMENDED TOOLS, PARTS,
Use a die or tap of the correct size or a fine file for this
AND INSTRUCTIONS LISTED IN THIS PUBLICATION MAY
purpose.
PLACE THE SAFETY OF THE SERVICE TECHNICIAN OR
VEHICLE DRIVER IN JEOPARDY. • Replace any fastener if corners of the head are worn.
• Since the cost of a new part is generally a small
DO NOT WELD REPAIR, HEAT, BEND OR RECONDITION
fraction of the total cost of downtime and labor,
AXLE COMPONENTS. THIS WILL REDUCE COMPONENT
avoid reusing a questionable part that could lead to
STRENGTH, VOID AXLETECH’S WARRANTY, AND CAN
additional repairs and expense.
RESULT IN SERIOUS PERSONAL INJURY AND DAMAGE
TO COMPONENTS. ALWAYS REPLACE DAMAGED OR • Always use genuine AxleTech replacement parts.
OUT-OF-SPECIFICATION COMPONENTS.
• When disassembling various assemblies, lay all parts Cleaning
on a clean bench in the same sequence as removed 1. Remove gasket material using a gasket scraper taking
to simplify assembly and reduce the possibility of care not to damage machined surfaces.
losing parts.
• Provide a clean work area. Make sure no dirt or foreign 2. Steam clean or pressure wash the assembly after
material enter the unit during repair and assembly. plugging all breathers and vents.
• Disconnect the vehicle’s battery before removing or NOTE: NEVER direct full pressure at any of the seals (input
installing electronic parts. shaft, wheel hubs, or brakes).
• The location of components varies with each OEM. 3. Use solvent cleaners or alkaline solutions to clean
• The removal and installation procedure described for all metal parts with rough surfaces. Rinse alkaline
each component may vary between vehicles. solution off with water after cleaning.
• Use a rubber mallet for disassembly and assembly 4. Use solvent cleaners and a brush to clean all metal
procedures. NEVER hit steel parts with a steel parts that have ground or polished surfaces.
hammer. Pieces of a part can break off and cause
serious personal injury. NOTE: NEVER clean ground or polished surfaces with
water, steam, alkaline solution, or place in a hot tank.
• Remove nicks, marks, and burrs from parts having
machined or ground surfaces. Use a fine file, India 5. Dry all parts after washing using clean rags or paper
stone, emery cloth or crocus cloth for this purpose. towels.
Torque Specifications 6. Apply a light oil film to all parts to be reused and
reassembled.
• Tightening torque specifications indicated in this
manual must be adhered to at all times. 7. If parts are being stored after cleaning, apply a
• A tightening torque weaker than indicated may lead to corrosion-preventive material to all machined
a shearing stress and may break the bolt. surfaces. Store the parts in a special paper or other
material that prevents corrosion.
• A stronger tightening torque may lead to yielding of
the bolt or an increasing risk of cracking.
vi
Introduction to Parts Analysis

This publication provides a parts analysis process to
determine why parts failed during operation, what to look
for when inspecting parts, and how prevent failures from
occurring again. Figure 1.1, Figure 1.2, and Figure 1.3 are
examples of failed parts.
Most of the time, answers can be found by visually
inspecting a failed component. Sometimes, however, this
process may require specialized knowledge or equipment. )LJXUH
Also, why a product failed can be difficult to determine,

because a failure can vary in appearance from vehicle to
vehicle. Failures in models from the same manufacturer
can also vary, so it is important to use the information pre-
sented here as a guide, not a rule, when performing parts
analysis inspections.
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Types of Wear
Normal Wear
Components that are operated correctly, and inspected
and maintained at recommended intervals, will eventually
wear under normal operating conditions. This is called
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Premature Wear
Components can wear prematurely and fail when a vehicle
is operated under the following conditions.
1
Premature Wear & Component Improper Maintenance Practices

Failure Causes Premature wear and damage to components will result if a
vehicle is not correctly maintained according to AxleTech
A Vehicle is Not Operated Correctly, or is recommended maintenance intervals and lubricant spec-
ifications. For example, the lubricant is not specified by
Operated Abusively AxleTech; the lubricant is contaminated; or there’s insuffi-
When a driver operates a vehicle incorrectly, or operates cient lubricant or no lubricant at all in the system.
it abusively, components can fail immediately. Often,
For example, lubricant contaminated with water, dirt or
however, damaged components will continue to operate,
wear particles will damage the mating surfaces of com-
but fail at a later time — even under normal operating
ponents, particularly bearing surfaces. Other areas of
conditions.
concern are seals and breathers. Figure 1.6.
For example, when a driver speeds up the engine and rap-
idly releases the clutch (“popping the clutch”), or allows 2LOOHYHOPXVWEHHYHQZLWK
a vehicle’s spinning wheel to hit dry pavement, it causes ERWWRP RIILOOSOXJKROH
an immediate load, or force, to the driveline. Component
failure can occur immediately, or at a later time. Figure 1.4
and Figure 1.5.
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2
A Vehicle is Operated Outside Application,

Equipment, and Load Limits Approved by
AxleTech
Components must be operated within the application
guidelines specified by AxleTech. Otherwise, AxleTech must
approve applications for vehicles operated outside these
guidelines.
AxleTech has four application types: line-haul, general ser-
vice, heavy service, and restricted service. The descriptions
in the table below are typical for these types.
Application Miles Per Year Operating Conditions

Line-haul High mileage A vehicle operates on well-maintained major highways of concrete or asphalt
(over 60,000) construction with greater than 30 miles between starting and stopping.
General Service Less than 60,000 A vehicle operates mostly on-road (less than 10% off-road) and averages two
stops and starts per mile.
Heavy Service Less than 60,000 A vehicle operates both on- and off-road (10% or more off-road) with
moderate-to-frequent stops and starts averaging up to 10 stops per mile.
Restricted Service Low mileage Usually these vehicles are not licensed for highway use, are restricted to 15
mph, and average six stops and starts per mile.
3
Investigative Guidelines
Investigative Guidelines About the Vehicle

Determine if the vehicle was towed or driven to a garage
When visually inspecting damaged components, a
for repair. Was it connected to a trailer, or had the vehicle
common error is to assume the first damaged component
just been connected to a trailer?
found is likely responsible for the failure. Instead of being
the cause of the failure, the damaged component may What’s the vehicle’s in-service date and application type?
actually be the result of the failure.
Verify the vehicle’s application and length of service.
A positive way to conduct a failure analysis inspection is Check the vehicle’s mileage.
to use an investigative approach. Below are guidelines to
conduct a failure analysis inspection. What were the vehicle’s static and dynamic loading
conditions? Is there evidence of cyclic loading or torsional
vibration?
Record Findings
Was the vehicle maintained correctly? Check the vehi-
Before beginning, be prepared to record all the results
cle’s service and maintenance logs, as well as the types
obtained from asking questions, observing, and inspect-
and brands of grease and oil used. Are the lubricants the
ing damaged parts.
correct specification approved by AxleTech?
Ask Questions Check the vehicle’s overall condition. Look for grease and
oil leaks. Look for signs of abuse and recent repair. Check
Speak to People tire wear. Where possible, remove inspection plates,
access doors and top covers to find potential component
Try to speak to the vehicle’s operator, the driver who recov- damage in these areas.
ered the vehicle, and the repair technician. If an accident
occurred, try to talk to those people knowledgeable about Is the vehicle covered with mud? Does it look as if it has
the circumstances. A person who’s witnessed the failure recently been powerwashed? If so, the vehicle may have
can provide important information, but it is important to been operated in an application not approved by Axle-
listen objectively to all reports. Tech.
Is the vehicle equipped with a lift axle, and was it in use
About Damaged Parts at the time of the failure? Does the vehicle have multiple
Did components fail over time or instantaneously? Were retarders?
components stressed by cyclic overload?
What component or part failed first? Was the failure a
Preparing Parts for Inspection
result of a vehicle system failure? What’s the torque rating NEVER clean parts before inspecting them. Parts should
of the failed component? be left in their failed condition and position. If possible,
the parts should remain with the vehicle; and if outdoors,
Was the component repaired recently? Is it possible to
protected from rain, contaminants, sand, etc.
speak to the technician who repaired the component?
Verify the weather and road conditions at the time of the
failure. Was the vehicle involved in an accident? If so, is it
possible to see the accident report or talk to witnesses?
4
Investigative Guidelines
Inspect Damaged Parts

Collect the damaged parts. This includes AxleTech compo-
nents, as well as those from other manufacturers. Assem-
ble components into their original working order.
If there’s only one failure point or damaged component,
begin the inspection there. If there’s more than one,
inspect each component individually.
Inspect the areas around components. Try to determine
the failure type. Was it surface or fatigue fracture? Shock
load? Was the failure caused by insufficient lubrication or
an incorrect lubricant? Was the failure caused by spinout?
Thoroughly inspect components for witness marks indi-
cating why a component failed. Check for signs of vehicle
abuse.
When inspecting a gear box that is still assembled, check
the end play, backlash, tooth contact pattern, runout, etc.
5
Failure Types and Terminology
Failure Types and Terminology Bending Fatigue (Fatigue Fracture)

This section provides descriptions of part failure types, Bending occurs when a shaft is subjected to both torsion-
as well as, parts analysis terminology used in the field to al and bending fatigue at the same time. Beach marks
describe conditions causing components to fail. form and usually point toward the origin of the fracture,
which represents fatigue fracture cycles that occurred
before the component failed completely. Figure 3.2 shows
Beach Marks beach marks on an axle shaft as a result of bending
Beach marks result from a fatigue fracture and indicate fatigue.
the progressive positions of an advancing fracture. Beach
Bending fatigue also causes gears to change position,
marks appear as irregular curved rings radiating from
which affects tooth contact patterns. Figure 3.3 shows
one or more origins. They are typically found on fractures
concentrated loading at gear teeth corners instead of over
caused by periodic or prolonged stress from load applica-
the entire surface. Figure 3.4 shows two tooth patterns on
tions.
the ring gear, because bending fatigue caused the gear to
Beach marks represent fatigue cycles that occurred before change position.
the component failed completely. Visually, beach marks
are often compared to the rippling effect of a stone thrown
into calm water. Figure 3.1.
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Figure 3.5 shows what happens when parts are under

bending fatigue. When the load is large, failure can occur
within a few load cycles. As the load becomes smaller,
more load cycles are required before failure will occur.
When the load becomes even smaller, the part can with-
stand load cycles without damage. See “Reverse Bending
Fatigue (Fatigue Fracture)” on page 15.
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Black Spots
See “Hot Spotting (Black Spots)” on page 13.
“Blue” Brake Drum

Very high operating temperatures can cause the inside of
the brake drum to turn a blue color, which usually indi-
cates the drum is damaged.
Brake Compounding
The parking brake and service brake apply at the same
time, which can occur if a vehicle is not equipped with an
anti-compounding valve, or the anti-compounding valve
malfunctions.
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7
Brinelling (Surface Fatigue) Bruising (Surface Fatigue)

Brinelling causes bearing rollers to wear deep grooves into Bruising is a type of surface fatigue similar to brinelling,
the mating surface. Brinelling of a u-joint usually occurs which causes dents in a metal surface. Metal chips or
when load applications exceed the vehicle’s rating, which large particles of dirt circulate in the lubricant and be-
can also cause parts to spall from uneven load applica- come trapped between the bearing cone, cup and rollers.
tion. Figure 3.6. Figure 3.7.
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Brinelling can also be caused by overloads on undersized Burnish (Brakes)

u-joints and by a breakdown of lubricant between the The process of “breaking-in” new brake pads or shoes, so
needle rollers and trunnion. To determine if the condition the linings conform to the disc or drum friction surfaces.
is brinelling, check the trunnions with fingertips. Can deep
grooves be felt? If so, brinelling has occurred.
Chevron Wear Pattern
“False” brinelling, also a type of surface fatigue, causes
the needle rollers to polish the trunnion surface, unlike A chevron pattern contains V-shaped radial marks on a
brinelling, which causes the rollers to wear deep grooves brittle fracture surface, usually on parts whose widths are
into the trunnion surface. To determine if the condition considerably greater than their thickness. Also called a
is “false” brinelling, check the trunnion with a fingertip. herringbone pattern, the points of the chevrons identify
Can deep grooves be felt? If not, the condition is “false” a fracture’s path by pointing toward its origin. A chevron
brinelling, the trunnion isn’t damaged and the u-joint is pattern is easily visible as a result of an instantaneous
still usable. failure, but they can be seen on some fatigue failures as
well. Figure 3.8.
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8
Crack-Pressure
In a brake system, crack-pressure is the amount of air
pressure (in psi) an air valve requires before air is able
to flow through it. A vehicle uses air valves with varying
crack-pressures to maintain brake balance between all
wheel ends.
Crow’s Footing (Surface Fatigue)

Crow’s footing runs lengthwise on hypoid and amboid
bevel gear teeth and occurs when the vehicle operates
with insufficient or incorrect lubricant.
Metal-to-metal contact occurs, which causes friction to
damage parts. Figure 3.9 & Figure 3.10.
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Crystalline Wear Pattern

When a sudden, severe impact load occurs, the wear pat-
tern on the surface of the part resembles crystal facets.
Figure 3.11.
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9
Etching (Surface Fatigue) Extreme Pressure (EP) Additives

Etching corrodes metal and leaves a dull stain on a part’s AxleTech axles require lubricants to contain a GL-5 level
surface, because the lubricant was contaminated with of extreme pressure (EP) additives, which protect heavily
water. Water can enter the carrier through breathers, or loaded parts from surface fatigue, scoring, and galling.
a damaged or worn seal, or as condensation from humid
weather.
Fatigue Fracture
Water in lubricant damages bearing races and cups, and
Types of fatigue fractures include bending, reverse bend-
causes the hypoid gear set to wear prematurely. Figure
ing, torsional fatigue and root beam fatigue.
3.12 shows corrosion on the spigot bearing roller ends.
Figure 3.13 shows etching damage on the bearing rollers, A fatigue fracture can be caused by cyclical torque over-
non-contact surfaces and bearing cage windows. loads on a component, torsional vibration, twisting, and
bending. A fracture begins at one or more points, identi-
fied by the ratchet marks and subsequent beach marks on
the part. Figure 3.14.
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In an axle assembly, a fatigue fracture is a common failure

type. A typical fracture begins when a load cycle is large,
and failure will occur after only a few load applications.
Reducing torque load will postpone imminent failure;
however, repeated load cycles will gradually weaken a
component, and it will fail.
Some common types of fatigue in an axle assembly are
surface (contact) fatigue, which affects bearings and gear
teeth; torsional fatigue, which affects axle shafts; bending
fatigue, which affects gear teeth and axle shafts; and root
beam fatigue, which affects gear teeth.
)LJXUH
10
Flank Cracking (Surface Fatigue)

Flank cracking is a type of surface fatigue similar to spall-
ing, because it causes metal to break into chips or frag-
ments. When flank cracking occurs, initially cracks form
along the length of the gear tooth. Once flank cracking
appears, the tooth begins to crumble, and failure rapidly
occurs. Figure 3.15.
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Frosting
Frosting is a normal wear condition on spur gear teeth that
does not affect performance or gear life. Differences in
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gear tooth manufacturing tolerances cause teeth in a gear
set to have different profiles. During operation, gear teeth
attempt to conform to a common gear tooth profile, and
Fretting (Surface Fatigue) frosting wear occurs.
Fretting is a type of surface fatigue similar to brinelling. Frosting is a grayish or yellowish white color usually found
Fretting, which is caused by torsional vibration, forms at the center of the teeth at the mating gear contact posi-
sludge on a gear at or near the vibration point. The color tion. Light pitting on the gear teeth also may accompany
of the sludge depends on the quality of the lubricant and frosting. As the gear continues to operate, sliding friction
type of iron oxide formed during torsional vibration. “Red eventually removes frosting.
mud” or “cocoa” sludge is abrasive and increases compo-
nent wear. Offset frosting has the same characteristics as frosting,
but appears at one side of the gear face. Offset frosting
Inspect the back of the gear teeth on the forward drive is caused by a difference in the gear tooth contact face
axle carrier. If a contact line is found on the rear side of the from one side to the other, or from a slight shift in gear set
gear teeth on the forward drive axle carrier, fretting has loading. As the gear continues to operate, sliding friction
occurred. Figure 3.16. eventually removes frosting.
11
Galling (Surface Fatigue) Gear Ratio and Torque Multiplication

Galling is a type of surface fatigue occurring when two un- Gear ratio is the relationship between the number of turns
lubricated metal surfaces rub against each other. Galling made by a driving gear to complete one full turn of a driv-
is also called “metal transfer.” Figure 3.17. en gear. If a smaller driving gear has to turn three times to
turn a larger driven gear once, the gear ratio is 3:1.
With a 3:1 ratio and an engine torque of 1,600 lb-ft, the
gears have multiplied torque to 4,800 lb-ft (3:1) to rotate
parts. How much torque is multiplied always depends on
the size relationship between the driving and driven gears.
Gross Axle Weight Rating (GAWR)

The gross axle weight rating (GAWR) is an axle’s maximum
allowable weight-carrying capacity.
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Gross Combined Weight (GCW)
The gross combined weight (GCW) is a vehicle’s total
A similar type of galling is called “scuffing.” Scuffing weight plus fuel, driver, trailer, and payload. Figure 3.19.
causes a bearing to wear prematurely and eventually fail.
Figure 3.18 shows flat spots on the rollers and scoring
on the rest of the assembly, which indicate the scuffing
Gross Combined Weight Rating
damage. (GCWR)
The gross combined weight rating (GCWR) is a vehicle’s
maximum allowable load rating. A vehicle’s GCWR typi-
cally will be higher than its GVWR, because gross vehicle
weight ratings are determined by axle ratings, and a trailer
has its own axles.
Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW)

The gross vehicle weight (GVW) is the vehicle’s total
weight, fuel, fluids, and full payload. Figure 3.19.
Gross Vehicle Weight Rating (GVWR)

)LJXUH The gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) is a vehicle’s max-
imum allowable weight rating, which includes a vehicle’s
total weight, fuel, fluids, and full payload.
12
Hypoid Ring Gear Teeth

The “drive” side, or front side, of the ring gear teeth is
where the tooth contact pattern is checked, because it
is the side of the teeth driving the vehicle down the road
under power.
*9:
The “coast” side, or back side, of the ring gear teeth, only
contacts the pinion when a vehicle is decelerating; for
example, when driving down a hill.
Imbalance (Brake)
*&: Brake imbalance occurs when one or more wheel end
)LJXUH brakes do not perform to its designed capacity. Brake im-
balance can result from pneumatic or mechanical defects
in the brake system.
Heat Checking
Heat checking is fine lines or cracks on the surface of Impact Fracture
a brake drum or rotor. Even though heat checking is a See “Shock Load (Impact Fracture)” on page 16.
normal condition resulting from a friction surface heating
and cooling repeatedly, it is important to recognize when
cracks on the surface of the drum or rotor indicate dam- Load Cycle
age has occurred.
A load cycle is the amount of torque delivered by the en-
Under high temperatures or overload conditions, larger gine to drivetrain components over a period of time.
cracks can develop and extend below the surface. Several
heat checks aligned across the braking surface require Mismatched Tandem Axle Ratios
drum replacement. Cracks that align and approach the
barrel area of the rotor, or lead to the vent area, require To function correctly, the forward and rear axles must
rotor replacement. operate with axle ratios plus or minus one percent of each
other. A mismatched tandem axle pair can cause the
carrier to overheat, lubricant additives to deplete and axle
Hot Spotting (Black Spots) components to wear prematurely.
Hot spotting (black spots) can appear on a brake drum’s
surface uniformly (over the entire surface), on only one Mismatched Tires (Drive Axle)
side or in three equidistant areas. Hot spotting requires
drum replacement. Mismatched tires can cause excessive differential com-
ponent wear. AxleTech recommends matching tires to
within 1/8” (3.175 mm) of the same rolling radius and
3/4” (19.05 mm) of the same rolling circumference. In
addition, the total tire circumference of both driving axles
should be matched to each other as closely as possible.
Figure 3.20.
13
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)LJXUH Light or moderate pitting is a normal wear condition on
transmission spur gear teeth that does not affect perfor-
mance or gear life. As the gear continues to operate, slid-
Normal Wear ing friction eventually removes pitting. However, heavy or
deep pitting requires gear set replacement. Figure 3.22.
Components that are operated correctly, and inspected
and maintained at recommended intervals, will eventually
wear under normal operating conditions. This is called
“normal” wear.
See “Premature Wear” on page 14.
Offset Frosting
See “Frosting” on page 11.
Origin Point
An origin point is the location where a fracture began.
A part can have a single origin point or multiple origin )LJXUH
points.
Pitting (Surface Fatigue) Premature Wear

Pitting is a type of surface fatigue that forms pits, or cav- Premature wear occurs when components are insufficient-
ities, on metal surfaces. Initially, pits may be the size of a ly or incorrectly lubricated. Operating a vehicle outside of
pinhead, or even smaller. If unchecked, pitting will prog- approved equipment, load, and application limits, incor-
ress until pieces of the surface metal break from a compo- rectly, or abusively are other causes of premature wear.
nent (“spalling”) and enter the axle lubrication system.
See “Normal Wear” on page 14.
Cyclic overloading and contaminated lubricant can dam-
age bearing cups and rollers, and hypoid gearing. Local-
ized pitting on drive pinion teeth can sometimes indicate
another axle component is operating out-of-position.
Figure 3.21.
14
Ratchet Marks Root Beam Fatigue (Fatigue

When more than one fatigue fracture occurs, beach marks Fracture)
form and create a raised, rough “ridge” between the ori-
Root beam fatigue causes beach marks to originate at
gins of the fractures. This ridge is called a “ratchet mark.”
or near the base of a gear tooth. These marks start with
In this figure, the ratchet mark can be seen between the
a cracked or damaged tooth by an instantaneous shock
first fracture, (Origin 1), and the second fracture, (Origin
load or repeated torque overloads, which causes localized
2). Figure 3.23.
cracks in the gear tooth roots. As mileage accumulates,
352*5(66,9( 6+($5/,3 initial hairline cracks expand, and gear teeth weaken
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)$67 ture that occurred when shock load was strong enough to
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Reverse Bending Fatigue (Fatigue

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center of the component. Figure 3.24.
Scoring
Scoring is grooves or deep scratches on the surface of a
brake drum caused by metal-to-metal contact from worn
brake pads or shoes, or debris caught between the friction
material and the friction surface.
Scuffing (Galling)
See “Galling (Surface Fatigue)” on page 12.
)LJXUH
15
Shock Load (Impact Fracture)

Shock load, also called an “impact fracture,” is a sudden
and powerful force applied against a component. Shock
load can destroy or damage a component immediately.
Often, however, a component damaged by shock load will
continue to operate, but it will wear prematurely or fail
soon after the initial shock load has occurred.
Torsional shock load results when a rapidly-applied
twisting motion occurs; for example, when an excessive
amount of torque is delivered to an axle shaft.
Some Causes of Shock Load

• An operator backs under a trailer with excessive force.
A vehicle’s spinning wheel hits dry pavement. An
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operator misses a shift.
• An operator speeds up the engine and rapidly releases
Figure 3.28 and Figure 3.29 show an axle shaft damaged
the clutch (“popping the clutch”), which causes an
by shock load that fractured perpendicular to its center-
immediate force, or load, to the driveline.
line, which caused a rough, crystalline surface to form
• An operator locks the inter-axle differential (IAD) when on the shaft. This type of failure is also called “torsional
the wheels are spinning, which can damage the clutch shear.” If the fracture is at a 45° angle to the centerline,
collar and mating shaft splines, and other carrier the damage is called “torsional tensile” failure.
components.
Figure 3.26 shows a pinion gear damaged by shock load.
The fracture has a rough, crystalline appearance and is
broken at a 45° angle.
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Figure 3.27 shows a hypoid gear seat damaged by shock

load. Typically, the first tooth breaks at the heel, the sec-
ond tooth breaks completely, and the third tooth breaks
at the toe. The figure shows how two of the teeth were
damaged by the pinion rubbing against the area where the
teeth broke.
16
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Spalling (Surface Fatigue)

When the metal surface of a component breaks into chips
or fragments as a result of wear fatigue, the condition is
called “spalling.” Spalling is a type of surface fatigue and
is evident in the advanced stages of pitting, which is the
beginning of surface fatigue. On u-joint trunnions, spalling
usually affects those opposite each other. Spalling also
damages transmission spur gear teeth. Starting as small
pitted areas, spalling can progress rapidly.
Some causes of spalling are prolonged stress from exces-
sive load applications; or the components operate with
no lubricant or a lubricant that does not meet the correct
specification. Spalling can also occur when components )LJXUH
are operated beyond the maximum mileage range. Figure
3.30 and Figure 3.31.
Spinout
Spinout, also called “excessive differentiation,” typically
occurs when a tandem axle loses traction, and the IAD is
in the unlocked position.
During spinout, the differential pinions spin at a high rate
of speed, which causes the pinions to be insufficiently
lubricated. Heat created from friction between the differ-
ential pinion gears and cross legs can damage the axle.
Other causes of spinout, or excessive differentiation, are
mismatched tires and mismatched tandem axle ratios.
17
Stress Riser
A stress riser is a condition caused by fatigue that deforms
metal on a component’s surface. For example, welding
on an axle creates intense heat changing the characteris-
tics of the metal surrounding the weld, and the incorrect
weld caused fatigue to occur. In Figure 3.32, one can see
fatigue has created a stress riser, which caused the axle
to fail.
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When the surface (contact) fatigue load is large, failure

can occur within only a few load cycles, as shown by the
breakdown line in Figure 3.35. As the load becomes
smaller, the number of cycles required for the part to fail
7KHFDPVKDIWEUDFNHW increases. However, even smaller load cycles eventually
LQFRUUHFWO\ZHOGHGRQWKLVWUDLOHU will result in a surface fatigue failure. The fatigue charac-
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Surface (contact) fatigue is a broad classification for a
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bearings or gear teeth, and contaminated lubricant can
accelerate surface fatigue. Figure 3.33 and Figure 3.34.
Torque
Torque is a turning or twisting force that may or may not
produce motion. For example, engine power applies
torque to the driveline; the driveline delivers torque to the
drive axles; the vehicle moves. The difference between
torque and horsepower: Torque may or may not produce
motion. However, motion is always required to produce
horsepower. Torque is usually measured in lbs. ft.
)LJXUH
18
Torsional Fatigue (Fatigue Fracture) Torsional Vibration

Unlike bending fatigue, torsional fatigue causes exces- Torsional vibration is a twisting and untwisting action in a
sive twisting that weakens components. Usually, beach shaft caused by the application of engine power (torque)
marks and ratchet marks can be seen at the fracture’s or incorrect driveline phasing or angles. Torsional vibra-
origin point. However, if torsional fatigue occurs on a tion can cause premature wear damage to all drivetrain
splined shaft, one will see the fracture started at the base components.
of each spline. Figure 3.36 shows a driveshaft damaged
by torsional fatigue. As the splines continued to weaken,
the metal formed a star-shaped radial pattern, eventually
Witness Marks
breaking the shaft at the center. Witness marks are evidence of fatigue (beach marks,
ratchet marks, for example), abusive machining, burn
marks, corrosion, wear damage, etc.
Working Angle
When two driveline components intersect at a cardan
u-joint, the angle formed is called a “working angle.”
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19
Drive Axles
Drive Axles
Parts Analysis Overview
DANGER Most of the time, answers can be found by visually

ALWAYS WEAR PROPER EYE PROTECTION AND OTHER inspecting a failed component. Sometimes, however, this
REQUIRED PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT TO process may require specialized knowledge or equipment.
PREVENT PERSONAL INJURY WHEN INSPECTING HEAVY
VEHICLE COMPONENTS. Also, why a product failed can be difficult to determine,
because a failure can vary in appearance from vehicle to
This section provides a parts analysis process to deter- vehicle. Failures in models from the same manufacturer
mine why drive axle components fail during operation, can also vary, so it is important to use the information pre-
what to look for when inspecting parts, and how to prevent sented here as a guide, not a rule, when performing parts
failures from occurring again. analysis inspections.
Causes of Drive Axle Component Failure

Application Operating Conditions
Driver operates a vehicle incorrectly or abusively Fatigue fracture, shock load, spinout, overheated lubricant
Driver excessively “rocks” the vehicle Fatigue fracture, shock load
Vehicle’s spinning wheel hits dry pavement Fatigue fracture, shock load
Vehicle operated outside AxleTech approved application Fatigue fracture, galling, spalling, shock load, overheated
or vocation capabilities lubricant
Driver misses a shift Fatigue fracture, shock load
Driver speeds up the engine and rapidly releases the Fatigue fracture, shock load
clutch (“popping the clutch”)
Driver locks the IAD when the wheels are spinning Fatigue fracture, shock load
Vehicle operated with mismatched tire ratios, Spinout, galling, overheated lubricant
mismatched tandem axle ratios, or both
Driver backs under a trailer with excessive force Fatigue fracture, shock load
Vehicle modified from its original configuration without Fatigue fracture, galling, spalling, shock load, overheated
AxleTech approval lubricant
Improper maintenance practices
Component lubricated with incorrect lubricant Lubricant overheats, fatigue fracture, galling (crow’s footing),
pitting
Contaminated lubricant Pitting, etching, spalling, overheated lubricant
Low lubricant levels Lubricant overheats, fatigue fracture, galling (crow’s footing),
pitting
20
Drive Axles
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Axles operated under conditions exceeding their design
capacity can wear prematurely. Fatigue, which can result
from load cycles that exceed the gross vehicle weight rat-
ing (GVWR) or gross combined weight rating (GCWR), can *$:
cause an axle to fail. Figure 4.1. /2$'
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*9: Axle Fatigue
Three types of fatigue are common to axle components:
surface (contact) fatigue, which affects bearings and gear
teeth; torsional fatigue, which affects shafts; and bending
fatigue, which affects gear teeth and shafts.
*&:
The type of damage that occurs to components depends
on the type of fatigue that occurs. Bearing and gear tooth
damage from surface (contact) fatigue is different than
)LJXUH damage to axle shafts caused by bending fatigue.
Surface (Contact) Fatigue
Exceeding an Axle’s Maximum Gross Axle When the surface (contact) fatigue load is large, failure
Weight Rating (GAWR) can occur within only a few load cycles, as shown by
the breakdown line in Figure 4.3. As the load becomes
Operating a vehicle at a weight exceeding a carrier’s gross
smaller, the number of cycles required to destroy the part
axle weight rating (GAWR) will damage components,
increases.
because a carrier is rated for a specific application. For
example, if a vehicle is operated on an unapproved road However, smaller load cycles will eventually result in a sur-
surface for the application, rolling resistance increases, face fatigue failure. The fatigue characteristics of bearings
and more torque is required to move the vehicle forward. subject to surface loads also follow the breakdown line.
Over a period of time, torque overload occurs and damag-
es components. Figure 4.2. Figure 4.4 shows what happens when parts are under
bending or torsional fatigue. When the load is large, failure
Operational overload is a main cause of axle housing can occur within a few load cycles. When the load be-
damage, which occurs when the vehicle is loaded in ex- comes even smaller, the part can withstand load cycles
cess of its GAWR. When GAW increases, axle housing life without damage.
decreases.
Gears are subjected to both bending and surface loads.
Surface fatigue affects lightly loaded gears. As the load
increases, damage is caused by bending fatigue.
21
Drive Axles
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Bending is a type of fatigue fracture occuring when a shaft
60$// (1'85$1&(/,0,7 is subjected to both torsional and bending fatigue at the
)(: 0$1< same time. Beach marks form and usually point toward
180%(52)&<&/(6 the origin of the fracture, which represents fatigue fracture
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pletely. Figure 4.6 shows beach marks on an axle shaft
Torsional Fatigue (Fatigue Fracture) indicating bending fatigue caused the fracture.
Unlike bending fatigue, torsional fatigue causes excessive Bending fatigue also causes gears to change position,
twisting that weakens components. Usually, beach marks which affects tooth contact patterns. Figure 4.7 shows
and ratchet marks will be seen at the fracture’s origin concentrated loading at gear teeth corners instead of over
point. However, if torsional fatigue occurs on a splined the entire surface. Figure 4.8 shows two tooth patterns on
shaft, one will see the fracture started at the base of each the ring gear, because bending fatigue caused the gear to
spline. change position.
Figure 4.5 shows a shaft damaged by torsional fatigue.

As the splines continued to weaken, the metal formed a
star-shaped radial pattern, eventually breaking the shaft
at the center.
22
Drive Axles
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Figure 4.9 shows what happens when parts are under

bending fatigue. When the load is large, failure can occur
within a few load cycles. As the load becomes smaller, the
number of cycles required to damage the part increases.
When the load becomes even smaller, the part can with-
stand load cycles without damage.
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23
Drive Axles
Driver Locks the IAD When the Wheels In axles without an oil pump, centrifugal force displaces
all of the oil between the cross and pinions, and heat
are Spinning created by friction causes these parts to seize. Sometimes
differential pinions become so hot, they weld to the mat-
Spinout ing surfaces of the differential assembly.
Spinout (also called “excessive differentiation”) typical- Other causes of spinout include loss of traction when
ly occurs when a tandem axle loses traction, and the backing under a trailer, most often on wet and slippery
inter-axle differential (IAD) is in the unlocked position. If pavement, or unpaved surfaces; starting on a slippery
an operator attempts to lock the IAD when the wheels are surface; operating on a slippery surface, especially on a
spinning, severe damage to the clutch collar, mating shaft hill or grade; and mismatched tire and tandem axle ratios.
splines and other carrier components will occur.
Examples of Typical Spinout Damage
During spinout, the differential pinions turn at almost Pinion Cross Failure
twice the speed of the driveshaft, which causes the
pinions to be insufficiently lubricated. Heat created from Figure 4.12, Figure 4.13, Figure 4.14, Figure 4.15 and
friction between the differential pinion gears and cross Figure 4.16 show how spinout caused a pinion cross to
legs can damage the axle. Figure 4.10 and Figure 4.11. fail. Damage progresses from normal wear, to moderate
premature wear, and then to heavy wear; and finally, the
The inter-axle differential (IAD) is more susceptible to pinion cross fails.
damage from spinout than the main differential, which
operates at lower speeds and is submerged in oil.
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Drive Axles
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25
Drive Axles
Helical Gear Journal

Friction from spinout can cause galling at the helical gear
journal and the rear side gear journal. Figure 4.17. If spin-
out damaged the rear side gear, perform this inspection.
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Rear Side Gear Mismatched Tire Ratios

Figure 4.18 shows a rear side gear damaged by spinout. Mismatched tire ratios can cause spinout to occur. Axle-
If the rear side gear bearing fails, signs of overheating on Tech recommends matching tires to within 1/8” (3.175
the outside of the carrier will be found. mm) of the same rolling radius and 3/4” (19.05 mm) of
the same rolling circumference. In addition, the total tire
Spinout also caused the rear side gear to weld to the input circumference of both driving axles should be matched to
shaft, and the bearing is scored. This damage resulted each other as closely as possible. Figure 4.20.
from a spinning rear wheel and a stationary forward axle,
which prevented the forward gear set from lubricating the
rear side gear. Look for localized heat damage and burned
lubricant. Figure 4.19.
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26
Drive Axles
Mismatched Tandem Axle Ratios

To function correctly, the forward and rear axles must
operate with axle ratios within one percent. A mismatched
tandem axle pair can cause the carrier to overheat, the
hypoid gear set to wear, metal debris to collect on the
magnetic drain plug, lubricant additives to deplete, and
the axle to wear prematurely. Mismatched tandem axle
ratios can also cause excessive differential component
wear.
Torsional Vibration
Torsional vibration is a twisting and untwisting action in a
shaft caused by intermittent applications of engine power
or torque. However, severe torsional vibration can cause
premature wear damage to drivetrain components, and
incorrect driveline angles or out-of-phase drivelines can )LJXUH
increase torsional vibration in a drivetrain.
Figure 4.22 shows a pinion gear damaged by shock load.
Excessive Force Resulting in Shock Load The fracture has a rough, crystalline appearance and is
broken at a 45° angle.
Shock load is a sudden and powerful force applied
against a component. Shock load can destroy or damage Figure 4.23 shows a hypoid gear set damaged by shock
a component immediately. Often, however, a component load. Typically, the first tooth breaks at the heel, the sec-
damaged by shock load will continue to operate, but it will ond tooth breaks completely, and the third tooth breaks
wear prematurely or fail soon after the initial shock load at the toe. The figure shows how two of the teeth were
occurred. Shock load causes components to crack and damaged by the pinion rubbing against the area where the
separate from each other. Look for a rough, crystalline teeth broke.
finish on the separated parts. Figure 4.21 shows an axle Figure 4.24 and Figure 4.25 show an axle shaft damaged
shaft damaged by shock load. by shock load that fractured perpendicular to its center-
Shock load causes components to crack and separate line, which caused a rough, crystalline surface to form
from each other. Look for a rough, crystalline finish on the on the shaft. This type of failure is also called “torsional
separated parts. Torsional shock load results when a rap- shear.” If the fracture is at a 45° angle to the centerline,
idly-applied twisting motion occurs; for example, when an the damage is called “torsional tensile” failure.
excessive amount of torque is delivered to an axle shaft.
Some causes of shock load include:
• An operator backs under a trailer with excessive force.
A vehicle’s spinning wheel hits dry pavement. An
operator misses a shift.
• An operator speeds up the engine and rapidly releases
the clutch (“popping the clutch”), which causes an
immediate force, or load, to the driveline.
)LJXUH
• An operator locks the IAD when the wheels are
spinning, which can damage the clutch collar and
mating shaft splines, and other carrier components.
27
Drive Axles
)LJXUH
)LJXUH
Unapproved Vehicle or Powertrain

Modifications
Unapproved modifications to a vehicle’s original con-
figuration — for example, horsepower, torque, vocation,
suspension, transmission ratio, axle ratio, retarders and
tire size — can result in premature wear and damage to
components, as well as unsafe operating conditions.
Improper Maintenance Practices

Premature wear and damage to components will result if a
vehicle is not correctly maintained according to AxleTech
recommended maintenance intervals and lubricant spec-
ifications. For example, the lubricant is not specified by
)LJXUH
AxleTech, the lubricant is contaminated, or there’s insuffi-
cient lubricant in the system.
28
Drive Axles
Incorrect Lubricant
A lubricant not meeting AxleTech specifications will cause
components to wear prematurely. AxleTech axles require
lubricants to contain a GL-5 level of EP additives, which
protect heavily-loaded parts from surface fatigue, scoring,
galling, and welding of moving parts.
Installing a lubricant without EP additives causes hyp-
oid gear teeth to wear to a thin edge. If detected early, a
crow’s footing pattern will form on the gear teeth. Figure
Also, EP additives will deplete when a carrier overheats.
For example, the EP additive in drive axle lubricant begins
to deplete when the carrier’s temperature is consistently
above 250°F (121°C). The higher the temperature, the
)LJXUH
faster the additive depletes. Crow’s footing, a result of
overheating, causes lines and ridges to appear lengthwise
on hypoid and amboid bevel gear teeth.
Figure 4.28, Figure 4.29, Figure 4.30, and Figure 4.31
show drive axle components damaged by burned lubricant
and melted gear teeth.
&52:¶6
)227
3$77(51
)LJXUH
)LJXUH
29
Drive Axles
Low Lubricant Levels

If a vehicle was insufficiently lubricated, damage can
occur shortly afterward. Friction from parts generates heat
and causes temperatures to increase considerably. If a ve-
&52:¶6)227 hicle was operated with no lubricant in the system, there
3$77(51 will be damaged gear teeth, as well as bluing on parts,
which resulted from high operating temperatures due to
friction. Figure 4.32.
Low lubricant levels can result from leaking seals, which
can be caused by a clogged axle housing breather. Figure
4.33.
)LJXUH
)LJXUH
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)LJXUH
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30
Drive Axles
Contaminated Lubricant Inspect the Magnetic Fill/Drain Plug

Lubricant contaminated with water, dirt, or wear particles The magnetic fill/drain plug must be inspected every time
will damage the mating surfaces of components, particu- the oil is changed. Before reusing a drain plug, verify it can
larly bearing surfaces. Figure 4.34 and Figure 4.35. Other still lift at least 20 ounces of low carbon steel. If it can no
areas of concern are seals and breathers. longer lift 20 ounces of low carbon steel, the drain plug
must be replaced.
Remove the magnetic fill/drain plug. Inspect the metal
particles adhering to the plug. Use the guidelines here to
determine if the metal particles found are fine (a normal
condition) or larger (not a normal condition).
During maintenance procedures it is normal to find fine
metal particles adhering to the magnetic fill/drain plug.
These particles are generated under normal operating
conditions, and the magnets attract the particles and
prevent them from passing through the gear mesh or
bearings.
)LJXUH However, larger metal particles adhering to the fill/drain

plug, such as gear teeth, bearing fragments, thrust washer
fragments and metal shavings, are not a normal condi-
tion.
It is important to be able to identify the differences
between fine and large metal particles to determine how
they occurred and what repairs may be required to prevent
component damage.
)LJXUH
31
Drive Axles
How to Inspect the Magnetic Fill/Drain Plug Metal Shavings

Fine Metal Particles Figure 4.38 shows metal shavings which are remnants
The fine metal particles attached to the magnetic plug in from the housing machining process. Metal shavings
Figure 4.36 are normal. Internal components can shed adhere to the magnets and are not detrimental to the
fine metal wear particles at a steady rate, especially operation of the axle. It is not necessary to perform further
during the break-in period. In addition to the magnetic inspections or remove the carrier for cleaning.
plugs, AxleTech axles are also equipped with four to six
magnets in the housing to capture debris generated
during extended maintenance intervals used today.
)LJXUH
Bearing and Gear Tooth Fragments
)LJXUH
Figure 4.39 and Figure 4.40 show bearing and gear tooth
fragments. Both indicate a significant issue resulting in
component damage. Immediately remove the carrier,
Thrust Washer Fragments
inspect it, and perform required repairs.
Figure 4.37 shows a main differential side gear thrust
washer fragment. The loss of a fragment from the thrust
washer is not detrimental to the operation of the axle and
does not require disassembly, inspection and replace-
ment of the axle.
If there is concern about additional fragments or compo-
nent damage, perform an oil sample analysis. If the iron
content of the sample is above 1,000 parts per million
(ppm), inspect and repair the carrier as necessary.
)LJXUH
7+5867
:$6+(5
)5$*0(17
)LJXUH
)LJXUH
32
Drive Axles
Check the Oil Condition

• If the copper level is above 600 ppm: Remove the input
Most drive axle oils are either golden brown or deep red in shaft assembly and inspect the drive helical support
color. If the oil looks “milky brown” or has a “copper” color, thrust washer.
the oil is contaminated. The oil samples in Figure 4.41
• If the copper level is 600 ppm or below: Continue to
show how the lubricant may appear during inspection.
use the oil.
Table B: Used-Oil Analyses (ppm = parts per million)
Iron (Fe) If the level is 1000-1500 ppm,
re-sample the oil.
If re-sampling indicates the iron
level is above 1000 ppm, drain
and replace the oil.
If the level is above 1500 ppm,
)LJXUH drain and replace the oil.
Silicon (Si) If the level is greater than 100
Sample 1: Red
ppm, drain and replace the oil.
Sample 2: Golden Brown Water (H2O) If the level is greater than 0.3%
Both the red and golden brown samples show the typical drain and replace the oil.
appearance of new GL5 EP oils that meet the SAE J2360 Phosphorus (P) If the level is less than 900
specification. They usually are golden brown, but also can ppm, it is possible the oil is
be red in color. not a GL-5 gear oil. Contact
the lubricant manufacturer or
Sample 3: Black
AxleTech Materials Engineering
This black sample is used-oil with significant time and to determine the expected
mileage. The color change from red or golden brown to phosphorus level of a new oil
black is the result of a normal chemical process occurting sample. Only GL-5 type gear oils
as the additive package in the oil degrades. The black are approved for use in AxleTech
color does not necessarily indicate the oil’s useful life has differentials.
been exhausted. Perform a lubrication analysis to verify Toluene Insolubles If the level is greater than 0.100
the oil can still be used in the carrier. wt.%, drain and replace the oil.
Sample 4: “Milky” Brown
Reasons Components Overheat
This “milky” brown sample indicates the oil is contami-
nated with significant moisture well above the allowable • Lubricant is added over the assembly’s fill line during
change specification of >0.3%. Change the oil imme- maintenance procedures.
diately. Also try to determine how the moisture entered
• The engine rating or torque rating was increased from
the assembly and consider extending the breathers on
the vehicle’s original specification.
applications where this occurs.
Copper (Sample Not Shown) • Air flow is restricted, which decreases ventilation
through the system.
A copper color indicates the drive helical support thrust
washer may have disintegrated. Use care when evaluat- • A vehicle is operated with incorrect driveline angles or
ing the oil, as a copper color can be confused with the mismatched tires.
normal color of some oils. Perform a lubrication analysis • A vehicle is operated with a low lubricant level or the
to determine the amount of copper in the lubricant before incorrect lubricant.
performing a physical inspection.
33
Drive Axles
Parts Analysis Process

This section provides a parts analysis process to deter-
mine why drive axle components failed during operation,
what to look for when inspecting parts, and how prevent
failures from occurring again. Failures causing primary
damage are identified under What To Look For.
Bearing Adjusting Ring

Cause of Failure
Root beam fatigue damaged the drive pinion.
What To Look For

Primary Damage: Root beam fatigue caused the drive pin-
ion teeth to fracture and penetrate the gear teeth. Figure
)LJXUH
4.42.
The adjusting ring on the flange side of the carrier pushed
outward at the cap-to-case area and bent the main differ- %(17&277(53,1
ential bearing cap cotter pin. Figure 4.43.
Prevention
Operate the vehicle within its approved application and
weight limits.
675,33('7((7+
)LJXUH
34
Drive Axles
Cause of Failure
Shock load damaged the ring gear.
What To Look For

Primary Damage: Shock load fractured three adjacent
teeth, causing them to penetrate the gear mesh. Figure
4.44.
The adjusting ring pushed out of the carrier cap assembly
and bent the cotter pin 90°. Figure 4.45.
Marks on the adjusting ring are visible where it was
)LJXUH
clamped between the main differential bearing cap and
the carrier case. Figure 4.46.
Prevention
weight limits. Teach drivers how to correctly operate a
vehicle.
)LJXUH
)LJXUH
35
Drive Axles
Drive Pinion Gear

Cause of Failure
The lubricant used did not meet AxleTech specifications.
As a result, metal-to-metal contact of the ring and pinion
gear occurred.
What To Look For

Primary Damage: Ring gear edges are worn thin and knife-
like, and the hardened tooth surfaces no longer mesh with
the pinion gear. Most likely, the lubricant installed did not
meet GL-5 specifications, or high operating temperatures
during operation depleted extreme pressure (EP) addi-
tives. Figure 4.47 and Figure 4.48.
Indications the correct amount of incorrect lubricant was
installed: the gear set is fairly clean with little evidence
of heat, burned lube is not observed, and the lubricant )LJXUH
contains metal particles.
Prevention
Follow AxleTech recommended maintenance practices
and service procedures.
)LJXUH
36
Drive Axles
Cause of Failure
Root beam fatigue damaged the drive pinion gear.
What To Look For

Primary Damage: Ring gear teeth are damaged.
Figure 4.49.
Drive pinion teeth have fractured and broken from the pin-
ion gear, and deep beach marks are visible starting at the
roots. The pinion teeth were moderately overloaded over
a period of time, until a final load caused them to break
from the shaft. Figure 4.50.
Prevention
vehicle. )LJXUH
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)5$&785(
5$7&+(7
0$5.6
0$55('
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%($&+
0$5.6
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37
Drive Axles
Driver-Controlled Main Differential Lock Cause of Failure

(DCDL) Shift Collar An operator locked the DCDL when the wheels are spin-
ning, which caused shock load to occur.
Cause of Failure
An operator locks the DCDL when the wheels are spinning,
What To Look For
which causes shock load and damages the clutch collar Primary Damage: The DCDL collar is broken into many
and mating shaft splines. pieces. Figure 4.53.
What To Look For The shift fork leg is broken, and a rough, crystalline sur-
face formed on the fracture. Figure 4.54.
Primary Damage: Axle shaft splines are twisted and dis-
torted. Figure 4.51. Prevention
The DCDL collar is broken. Figure 4.52. Teach drivers how to correctly operate a vehicle.
Prevention
Teach drivers how to correctly operate a vehicle.
)LJXUH
)LJXUH
)LJXUH
)LJXUH 38
Drive Axles
Flange-Side Main Differential Bearing

Cause of Failure
Cyclic overloading occurred. Recommended maintenance
practices weren’t followed.
What To Look For

Primary Damage: Spalling will be present on the main
differential bearing rollers and race on the outer side of
the rollers. Figure 4.55.
Severe spalling will be present on the under-surface of the
drive pinion teeth. Figure 4.56.
Prevention
Operate a vehicle within its approved application and
weight limits. Follow AxleTech recommended maintenance )LJXUH
practices and service procedures.
)LJXUH
39
Drive Axles
Axle Housings
Cause of Failure
The axles were loaded above specified limits for the appli-
cation.
What To Look For

Primary Damage: The axle housings are fractured at the
10 o’clock position of the differential lock clearance
notch. Figure 4.57.
The fractures originate at the inner rib flange, and run
through the bowl weld and into the axle housing cover.
Figure 4.58. )LJXUH
Prevention
weight limits.
&5$&.
,1',&$7,21
2)+($9<
/2$',1*
)LJXUH
40
Drive Axles
Hypoid Ring and Drive Pinion Gears

Cause of Failure
The vehicle was operated with insufficient lubricant with
depleted EP additives.
What To Look For

Primary Damage: Crow’s footing will be present on both
the ring and drive pinion gears, which indicates a low
lubricant level or lubricant with depleted extreme pressure
(EP) additives. The lubricant is black and has a burned
odor. Figure 4.59 and Figure 4.60.
There will be a large accumulation of burned lubricant on
)LJXUH
non-working surfaces.
Prevention
)LJXUH
41
Drive Axles
Hypoid Ring and Drive Pinion Gears

Cause of Failure (;&(66,9(
7+5867
Coast or reverse side cyclic overloading occurred due to 6&5(:
:($5
misapplication/misuse of the vehicle or excessive/incor-
rect use of the part-time 4x4 or 6x6 capability.
What To Look For )LJXUH
Primary Damage: Gear teeth on the pinion and ring gear

are cracked or broken at the root with damage originating
from the coast side of the gearing. Secondary damage
such as broken gear teeth is present from loose parts
entering the gearing. Figure 4.61.
7+5867
6&5(:
Also, evidence of heavy loading on the coast side of parts :($5
may be seen in the following conditions.
The thrust screw, if equipped, is excessively worn, cracked )LJXUH
or broken. Figure 4.62. The back face of the ring gear
shows excessive contact wear from the thrust screw.
Figure 4.63. Fretting is found between the differential
case-to-case bolt holes. Figure 4.64.
Prevention
weight limits according to AxleTech Axle Application
Guidelines and AxleTech Severe-Duty Operating Guide- )5(77,1*
lines. To obtain this publication, refer to “Service Notes” )LJXUH

on page ii.
(;&(66,9(&2$67
6,'(/2$',1*
'$0$*(
6(&21'$5<
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42
Drive Axles

Drive Pinion Spigot Bearing 63,*27%($5,1*
52//(560,66,1*
Cause of Failure
Coast or reverse side cyclic overloading occurred due to
misapplication/misuse of the vehicle or excessive/incor-
rect use of the part-time 4x4 or 6x6 capability.
6(&21'$5<
'$0$*(

What To Look For )LJXUH
Primary Damage: The spigot bearing is damaged or broken

in pieces. The bearing rollers are deformed or dislodged. (;&(66,9(
Figure 4.65. Closer examination reveals spalling present 7+5867
6&5(:
on the bearing surfaces. The differential case also shows :($5
secondary damage from contact with loose parts. Figure
4.66.
Also, evidence of heavy loading on the coast side of parts
may be seen in the following conditions. )LJXUH
The thrust screw, if equipped, is excessively worn, cracked

or broken. Figure 4.67. The back face of the ring gear
shows excessive contact wear from the thrust screw.
Figure 4.68. Fretting is found between the differential 7+5867
case-to-case bolt holes. Figure 4.69. Secondary gear 6&5(:
:($5
damage such as broken gear teeth is present from loose
parts entering the gearing. Figure 4.70.

Prevention )LJXUH

weight limits according to AxleTech Axle Application
Guidelines and AxleTech Severe-Duty Operating Guide-
lines. To obtain these publications, refer to “Service
Notes” on page ii.
)5(77,1*
)LJXUH
(;&(66,9(&2$67
6,'(/2$',1*
'$0$*('
'$0$*(
63,*27
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6(&21'$5<
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43
Drive Axles
Inner Drive Pinion Bearing

Cause of Failure
The vehicle was operated with insufficient lubricant with
depleted EP additives.
What To Look For

Primary Damage: The inner pinion cage and rollers are
destroyed. Insufficient lubricant or a low lubricant level
caused friction and heat buildup, which depleted EP addi-
tives. Figure 4.71 and Figure 4.72.
Lubricant on the ring gears is black with a burned odor.
Figure 4.71 and Figure 4.72.
)LJXUH
Crow’s footing will be present on both hypoid sets, and
the drive pinion gear is severely distorted. Figure 4.71 and
Figure 4.72.
Prevention
)LJXUH
44
Drive Axles
Cause of Failure
The vehicle was operated with insufficient lubricant.
What To Look For

Primary Damage: The inner pinion bearing cup and cone
are friction-welded together. Severe crow’s footing will be
present on the hypoid set. Figure 4.73.
Lubricant on the surfaces of all interior components is
black with a burned odor.
The drive pinion stem contacts the pinion cover and wears
a hole into it. Figure 4.74.
Prevention
Follow AxleTech recommended maintenance practices )LJXUH
)LJXUH
45
Drive Axles
Inter-Axle Differential (IAD)

Cause of Failure
Spinout damaged the IAD.
What To Look For

Primary Damage: In Figure 4.75, galling will be present on
the first IAD. On the second, excessive spinout damage
will be present possibly caused by mismatched tires axle
ratios.
Primary Damage: In Figure 4.76, the third IAD shows a
bent spider leg, and a gear seized to another spider leg.
The fourth IAD shows the spider legs have broken from the
spline collar.
)LJXUH
Prevention
Teach drivers how to correctly operate a vehicle. Check for
mismatched tires or axle ratios.
)LJXUH
46
Drive Axles
Cause of Failure
Spinout damaged the IAD.
What To Look For

Primary Damage: The drive pinions are excessively loose
on the spider legs. The pinions have worn into the IAD
case. Figure 4.77.
Fatigue fractured the pinion washers. Figure 4.78. Abra-
sive particles from spinout have caused one pinion washer
to become very thin.
The lubricant is contaminated with metal or other abrasive
particles. Fatigue caused the thrust washers to fail. Figure
)LJXUH
4.79.
Prevention
)LJXUH
)LJXUH
47
Drive Axles
Cause of Failure
Spinout, and possibly shock load, occurred damaging the
IAD.
What To Look For

Primary Damage: Galling on the spider legs will be found.
Figure 4.80.
One pinion is missing from the IAD assembly. The IAD’s
inside walls are gouged and scuffed. There is no case
separation. Figure 4.81.
Prevention )LJXUH

)LJXUH
48
Drive Axles
Cause of Failure Cause of Failure

Spinout damaged the IAD spider. Spinout damaged the IAD spider.
What To Look For What To Look For

Primary Damage: Severe scoring will be present on the Primary Damage: Severe galling will be present on the
spider legs, as well as, excessive wear on the three non- spider legs. Two loose spider legs have seized inside the
seized legs. Severe wear damaged one of the spider legs. pinions. Figure 4.84.
Figure 4.82.
The four spider legs were sheared from the spider at the
Primary Damage:Galling, chipping and excessive wear splined hub area. The differential case halves have sepa-
will be present on the pinions. One pinion spins, but won’t rated and are broken. Figure 4.84.
slide off its spider leg. Figure 4.83.
Prevention
Prevention
Teach drivers how to correctly operate a vehicle. Check for mismatched tires or axle ratios.
)LJXUH
)LJXUH
)LJXUH
49
Drive Axles
Main Differential
Cause of Failure
Spinout damaged the main differential spider.
What To Look For

Primary Damage: Several main differential spider legs
have seized gears. Figure 4.85.
Primary Damage: Three legs have broken from the spider.
Two gears have broken legs seized inside. Figure 4.85.
Primary Damage: One thrust washer is distorted and loose
inside the main differential case. Figure 4.85. Three wash-
ers show excessive abrasive wear. Figure 4.86.
)LJXUH
Prevention
)LJXUH
50
Drive Axles
Flange-Side Main Differential

Cause of Failure
Contaminated lubricant was installed, or cyclic overload-
ing occurred.
What To Look For

Primary Damage: The flange-side main differential bearing
rollers are pitted and spalled. Figure 4.87.
Primary Damage: The bearing cage and rollers are missing
from the flange half of the main differential case. Figure
4.87.
Primary Damage: The flange-side differential bearing inner
cone is scuffed and galled. Figure 4.88.
)LJXUH
Prevention
and service procedures. Operate a vehicle within its ap-
proved application and weight limits
)LJXUH
51
Drive Axles
Pinion Nut
Cause of Failure
Loss of pinion bearing preload caused the gear contact
pattern to shift.
What To Look For

Primary Damage: The threads on the end of the drive
pinion show the pinion nut may have lost its specified
preload or was not correctly tightened during assembly
)LJXUH
procedures. It then slowly backed-off, which enabled the
drive pinion shaft to move out-of-position. Figure 4.89.
Primary Damage: The drive pinion spline shows wear from
a loose yoke.
Primary Damage: The drive pinion contact pattern indi-
cates the assembly was operating out-of-position.
There are two different contact patterns on the drive
pinion teeth.
The spigot bearing inner cone is on the shaft and exces-
sively worn. The cage rollers are missing.
Localized spalling will be found on the inside portion of
the bearing rollers and a shifting drive pinion contact
pattern, which indicates the assembly was operating
out-of-position.
Light galling will be found on the bearing contact surfaces.
Prevention
and service procedures to correctly tighten the drive pin-
ion nut to specification.
52
Drive Axles
Plain-Half Differential Case

Cause of Failure
The driver-controlled main differential lock (DCDL) was
used incorrectly.
What To Look For

Primary Damage: The DCDL splines have worn away. Fig-
ure 4.90 and Figure 4.91.
Prevention
)LJXUH
)LJXUH
53
Drive Axles
Main Differential Case-to-Case Joint

Separation
Cause of Failure
Cyclic overloading occurred.
What To Look For

Primary Damage: The case-to-case bolts were broken by
bending fatigue, which was caused by a forward-reverse
motion in the driveline related to heavy loading and rough
surface applications. Figure 4.92.
There is galling between the bolt holes at the main differ-
ential case joint. Notches on the main differential case
halves and bolt holes are often deformed or “wallowed
out” from wear to the inside diameter. Figure 4.93.
)LJXUH
Prevention
Operate a vehicle within its approved application.
)LJXUH
54
Drive Axles
Pump System Screens

Cause of Failure
The lubricant was contaminated, or the vehicle was insuffi-
ciently lubricated.
What To Look For

Screen 1 is in normal condition. Figure 4.94.
Screen 2 is severely contaminated with burned lubricant
including some silicone gasket material, dirt, and parti-
cles. When the screen was removed from the carrier, the
lubricant was black and sludge-like, which could affect the
oil pump. Figure 4.94.
Screen 3 is filled with metal chips and particles. Figure
4.95.
)LJXUH
Prevention
It is important to note when applying silicone gasket
material, the bead must not exceed 0.125” (3 mm), or
the lubrication passages may be blocked and damage
components.
)LJXUH
55
Drive Axles
Rear Side Gear

Cause of Failure
Torsional vibration damaged the rear side gear.
What To Look For

Primary Damage: Excessive wear is found on the rear side
gear bevel teeth. Figure 4.96.
The IAD pinion teeth are excessively worn. Figure 4.97.
Prevention
Inspect the driveline. Check working angles and phasing
are correct. Check suspension air ride height is correct.
)LJXUH
)LJXUH
56
Drive Axles
Ring Gear
Cause of Failure
Cyclic overloading occurred, or the vehicle was operated
under severe conditions.
What To Look For

Primary Damage: The ring gear fractured into many
pieces, which indicates severe operating conditions and
vehicle overloading. There is also evidence an engine
retarder overloaded the coast side of the ring gear teeth
during downhill braking. Figure 4.98.
A distinct tooth contact pattern change will be found on
the drive pinion. All ring gear teeth show fatigue fractures
originating on the coast side of the tooth roots. Figure )LJXUH
4.99.
Prevention
weight limits.
)LJXUH
57
Drive Axles
Cause of Failure
Root beam fatigue or cyclic overloading occurred.
What To Look For

Primary Damage: The ring gear fractured into many
pieces, which indicates severe operating conditions and
overloading. There is evidence an engine retarder, used
)LJXUH
for downhill braking, overloaded the coast side of the ring
gear teeth. This is confirmed by the heavy thrust screw
contact. Figure 4.100 and Figure 4.101.
Primary Damage: Heavy spalling will be found on the main
differential bearing components. Figure 4.102.
The flange of the differential case half separated. Figure
4.103.
The gear-to-case bolts were loose. This condition isn’t
related to the gear failure, because the fracture does not
originate at the bolt hole, but at the root of the teeth.
Heavy thrust screw contact will be found on the backside
of the ring gear.
Prevention
weight limits. )LJXUH
)LJXUH
)LJXUH
58
Drive Axles
Side Gears Axle Shaft & Differential Side Gear Spline

Most likely, shock load occurred when the vehicle’s spin- The sliding fit required in the axle shaft-to-differential side
ning wheel hit dry pavement. gear splined coupling allows for a small amount of angular
misalignment of the two components before hard contact
What To Look For occurs at the spline ends.
Primary Damage: A tooth broke from the main differential Overload conditions cause angular misalignment at the
and side gear. Several other teeth are cracked. axle shaft-to-side gear spline interface. As the load on the
axle housing continues to increase, the angular misalign-
Primary Damage: The side gear teeth next to the broken ment becomes more severe, axle deflection occurs, and
tooth are cracked at the base. Figure 4.104. the increased contact pressure in the differential side gear
Primary Damage: A rough, crystalline finish formed on spline results in rapid wear.
both teeth at the fractures. Figure 4.104.
What To Look For
Carrier noise was reported.
Primary Damage: Premature wear at the axle shaft-to-dif-
Prevention ferential side gear interface caused by unusually heavy
contact at the spline ends. Figure 4.105.
Prevention
weight limits. Follow recommended maintenance practic-
es.
35(0$785(:($5
$77+($;/(
6+$)7726,'(
*($563/,1(
,17(5)$&(
)LJXUH
)LJXUH
59
Drive Axles
Side Gear Thrust Washer Thrust Washers

Spinout damaged the side gear thrust washer. Spinout damaged the thrust washer.

Primary Damage: The thrust washer seized onto the side Primary Damage: One leg broke from the spider and
gear. Figure 4.106. There is burned lubricant and galling seized within the pinion gear journal. Figure 4.107.
areas on the thrust washer.
Primary Damage: There is excessive wear and galling on
all four spider legs. Figure 4.107.
Prevention
The thrust washers are worn. Figure 4.108.
Prevention
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60
Drive Axles
Oil Seals Example 1: The Seal is not Leaking

If there is moisture, wetness, or oil drips on or around Cause of Failure
an axle oil seal, it is important to recognize if the seal is
leaking, or if it only appears to be leaking. None
Recognizing a Leaking Seal What To Look For

Inspect the oil seal and surrounding area for wetness. If The area around the seal is dry. There is no evidence of
the seal and area appear very wet or visibly drip oil, or if displaced packing grease or a leak path.
oil is dripping from the bottom of the output seal retainer, Figure 4.109 and Figure 4.110.
replace the seal.
Prevention
Inspect the yoke for wetness. Check for a leak path lead-
ing to the rear lip of the seal. If there is wetness around the Follow AxleTech recommended maintenance practices
yoke hub or a leak path leading to the rear lip of the seal, and service procedures.
replace the seal.
Recognizing a Seal that Appears to be Leaking

Seals come pre-lubricated with grease that melts at low
temperatures under normal operating conditions. Melted
grease can moisten or wet the area between the lip of the
oil seal. When this happens, there will not be a leak path
leading to the seal. If there is a moist seal and a leak path
is not present, do not replace the seal.
A seal can also become moist from lubricants applied to
the yoke or retainer bolts during assembly. When this hap-
pens, a leak path leading to the seal will not be present. If
there is a moist seal and a leak path is not present, do not
replace the seal.
Seal Test Procedure

1. Thoroughly clean and dry the area around the entire
seal retainer casting, especially at the top.
2. Drive the vehicle for 15-20 minutes at highway )LJXUH
speeds.
3. Check for wetness or moisture on or around the seal.
Also check for oil dripping from the seal. If either of
these conditions is present, replace the seal.
61
Drive Axles
Example 2: The Seal Appears to be Leaking
Cause of Failure
A failure is possible. Inspect the seal. If a failure has oc-
curred, determine its cause.

What To Look For
Seals are pre-lubricated with packing grease that melts at
low temperatures during normal operating conditions. In
Figure 4.111, melted grease will be present at the forward
output through-shaft area.
Check the lubricant level. If the level is low, replace the
seal. If not, monitor the seal for leaks.
Prevention
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62
Drive Axles
Example 3: The Seal is Leaking
Cause of Failure
Most likely, dirt or contaminants have entered the seal, or
the seal’s service life is expended.

What To Look For
Inspect the oil seal and surrounding area for wetness. If
the seal and area appear very wet or visibly drip oil, or if oil
is dripping from the bottom of the output seal retainer, the
seal requires replacement.
Inspect the yoke for wetness. Check for a leak path lead-
ing to the rear lip of the seal. If wetness is present around
the yoke hub or a leak path leading to the rear lip of the
seal, replace the seal.
Figure 4.112, Figure 4.113, and Figure 4.114.
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Prevention
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63
Drivelines
Drivelines &(17(5%($5,1*
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VEHICLE COMPONENTS. &283/,1* $66(0%/< 6/,3$66(0%/<
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This section provides a parts analysis process to deter-

'5,9(/,1(&20321(176
mine why driveline components failed during operation,
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what to look for when inspecting parts, and how to prevent
failures from occurring again.
Most of the time, the answers can be found by visually U-Joint
process may require specialized knowledge or equipment. Cause of Failure
Why a product fails can be difficult to determine, and a Shock load applied a sudden and powerful force to the
failure can vary in appearance from vehicle to vehicle. u-joint, which caused it to fail. For example, the operator
Failures in models from the same manufacturer can also backed under a trailer with excessive force, or the vehi-
vary, so it is important to use the information presented cle’s spinning wheel hit dry pavement.
here as a guide, not a rule, when performing parts analy-
sis inspections. What To Look For
A rough, crystalline surface has formed on the u-joint at
Causes of Driveline Component the fracture point. Figure 5.2.
Failure
Prevention
A typical driveline consists of yokes, tubing, universal
joints — and in some cases, a center bearing. Slip yokes Teach drivers how to correctly operate a vehicle.
enable a driveline to change in length, and u-joints enable
&2$56(&5<67$//,1(
it to operate at a variety of angles. Figure 5.1. Tubing )5$&785(685)$&(
transmits turning torque from one u-joint to another, and
the center bearing provides support for longer drivelines.
The main causes of driveline failure during operation
are shock load, fatigue, torsional vibration and lubricant
issues.
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64
Drivelines

The u-joint failed because it wasn’t maintained according Excessive stress levels caused a bending fatigue fracture
to AxleTech maintenance practices and intervals. Galling, to spread through the trunnion, until the remaining cross
a type of surface fatigue, can also occur when two unlu- section was unable to support the required load.
bricated metal surfaces rub against each other. Galling is
also called “metal transfer.” What To Look For
What To Look For Inspect the fractured area of the trunnion for a smooth
surface and beach marks, which indicate the path of the
Heat and friction caused by insufficient lubricant, or fracture. The coarse crystalline area is where the final
installing an incorrect lubricant, caused a u-joint to wear “instantaneous” fracture was completed. Is the u-joint the
through the side of its bearing cap. A u-joint requires a correct size for the application? Was the vehicle operated
high-quality extreme pressure (EP) lubricant. Figure 5.3. under torque overload conditions? Did the driver operate
the vehicle correctly? Figure 5.4.
Prevention
Prevention
weight limits. Follow AxleTech recommended maintenance Operate a vehicle within its approved application and
practices and service procedures. weight limits. Follow recommended maintenance practic-
es. Teach drivers how to correctly operate a vehicle.
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Drivelines
U-Joint Fasteners Driveshaft Tube

Excessive stress levels caused a bending fatigue fracture Figure 5.6 shows the shock load occurred on a driveshaft
on both u-joint fasteners, which indicates the clamp load tube.
was under specification. This failure is a result of either
under-tightened or overtightened u-joint fasteners during What To Look For
assembly.
The tube is twisted and bent, but didn’t fracture or sep-
U-joint fasteners also can fail as a result of pulling the arate from other components, which is the usual result
u-joint into place with an impact gun. Always seat the of shock load. The driveshaft tube is the only driveline
u-joint by hand. Do not force the u-joint into the locating component affected this way by shock load.
tabs, which can shave material from the tabs. Excess
material can build up between the wing and yoke, prevent Prevention
the u-joint from seating correctly, and cause the fasteners
to loosen during operation. Teach drivers how to correctly operate a vehicle.
What To Look For

Inspect the fractured area for a smooth surface and beach
marks indicating the path of the fracture. The coarse crys-
talline area is where final “instantaneous” fracture was
completed. Figure 5.5.
Prevention 6KRFNORDGVWRGULYHVKDIWVXVXDOO\GRQRW
EUHDNRUFUDFNWKHVKDIWEXWFDXVHLWWRWZLVW
Always tighten fasteners to the manufacturer’s torque )LJXUH
specification. If driveline fasteners are removed for ser-
vice, always replace the removed fasteners with new ones.
es.
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66
Drivelines
Yokes U-Joint Trunnion

Instantaneous shock load applied a sudden and powerful Spalling, a type of wear fatigue that breaks the surface
force to the yoke, which caused it to fracture and fail. For of the components into chips or fragments, caused the
example, instantaneous shock load occurs when an oper- u-joint to fail.
ator backs under a trailer with excessive force, or when a
vehicle’s spinning wheel hits dry pavement. When the metal surface of a component breaks into chips
or fragments as a result of wear fatigue, the condition is
called “spalling.” Spalling is a type of surface fatigue and
What To Look For
is evident in the advanced stages of pitting, which is the
The yoke fracture is a “clean break,” and a rough crystal- beginning of surface fatigue. Spalling can usually be found
line surface has formed at the fracture point. Figure 5.7 on u-joint trunnions that are opposite each other. Starting
and Figure 5.8. as small pitted areas, spalling can progress rapidly.
Prevention What To Look For

Teach drivers how to correctly operate a vehicle. Figure 5.9 shows the effects of spalling on a u-joint trun-
nion which most likely occurred from cyclic overloading.
The surface of the u-joint has broken into chips or frag-
ments.
Prevention
es.
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Drivelines
Cause of Failure Splined Shaft

Brinelling, which is a type of surface fatigue, caused the
needle rollers to wear deep grooves into the trunnion
Cause of Failure
surface, and in some cases, the bearing cap. Torsional fatigue caused excessive twisting weakening the
splined shaft and causing it to fail.
What To Look For
This roller bearing shows the effects of brinelling, which
What To Look For
causes the needle rollers to wear grooves into the surface Torsional fatigue has damaged the splined shaft in Figure
of the trunnion. Figure 5.10. 5.11. The fracture started at the base of each spline. As
the splines continued to weaken, the metal formed a star-
To determine if the condition is brinelling, check the
shaped, radial pattern, which eventually broke the shaft at
trunnion with a fingertip. Are deep grooves present? If so,
the center.
brinelling has occurred.
Prevention Prevention
weight limits. Follow AxleTech recommended maintenance
es.
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68
Trailer Axles
Trailer Axles Causes of Trailer Axle Failure

Shock load, torsional fatigue, bending fatigue, and incor-
Parts Analysis Overview rect welds are the main causes of trailer axle failure.
Shock load can cause a trailer axle to fail immediately,
DANGER or it will fracture the axle, which usually depends on how
fast the trailer is moving and the weight being hauled. If a
ALWAYS WEAR PROPER EYE PROTECTION AND OTHER fracture occurs, the axle will continue to operate and fail
REQUIRED PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT TO at a later time. For example, if a trailer is overloaded and
PREVENT PERSONAL INJURY WHEN INSPECTING HEAVY hits a large pothole, shock load will occur.
VEHICLE COMPONENTS.
AxleTech trailer axles are available in a variety of sizes and
This section provides a parts analysis process to deter- configurations, and are designed and rated for specific
mine why trailer axle components failed during operation, load applications. Figure 6.1. The gross axle weight rating
what to look for when inspecting parts, and how to prevent (GAWR) specifies the maximum load limit for a trailer.
failures from occurring again. Trailer axles operated above their GAWR can be damaged
Most of the time, answers can be found by visually by torsional fatigue and bending fatigue.
process may require specialized knowledge or equipment. 78%8/$5$;/(%($0
Why a product fails can be difficult to determine, and a

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vary, so it is important to use the information presented
sis inspections.
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69
Trailer Axles
Trailer Axle Cause of Failure

Bending fatigue occurred, which was caused by an over-
Cause of Failure loaded trailer axle. Under normal loads, a trailer axle will
The camshaft bracket was welded incorrectly to the trailer flex slightly as it is loaded and unloaded. However, if the
axle. axle’s overloaded and a stress riser is present, beam re-
sistance is reduced, the axle flexes too much, and bending
What To Look For fatigue occurs.
Welding on an axle creates intense heat that changes the What To Look For
characteristics of the metal surrounding the weld, and an
incorrect weld can cause fatigue to occur. In Figure 6.2, Usually, bending fatigue failures are toward the outer edg-
fatigue had created a stress riser, which caused the axle es of the trailer axle. Figure 6.3 shows beach marks begin
to fail. at the initial fracture point and then move away from it.
All axle weld locations and procedures must follow Axle- Operate the vehicle within its approved application and
Tech Welding Guidelines. To obtain this publication, refer weight limits.
to “Service Notes” on page ii.
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70
Trailer Axles

Torsional fatigue twisted the axle, which can occur when Shock load applied a sudden and powerful force to the
certain suspensions apply excessive loads to axle welds. trailer axle. Shock load can destroy or damage a compo-
nent immediately. Often, however, a component damaged
What To Look For by shock load will continue to operate, but it will wear
prematurely or fail soon after the initial shock load has
Beach marks begin at the initial fracture point and then occurred.
move away from it. When torsional fatigue weakens the
axle, the fracture often extends at a 45° angle to the What To Look For
axle’s centerline. Fractures often form as an “S” or “Z”
shape. Figure 6.4. Figure 6.5 shows a trailer axle bent by shock load. The axle
didn’t fail immediately, but flexed too much and didn’t re-
Prevention turn to its original shape as it continued to operate. When
a trailer axle is damaged this way, the bend usually occurs
Operate the vehicle within its approved application and outside the suspension mounts. A bent axle can affect tire
weight limits. wear and how the trailer handles, and must be replaced.
A bent trailer axle is not the same as a trailer axle dam-
aged by bending fatigue.
Prevention
weight limits.
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71
Automatic Slack Adjusters
Automatic Slack Adjusters Automatic Slack Adjuster

A slack adjuster is vital to correct brake operation. As
Parts Analysis Overview linings wear, AxleTech automatic slack adjusters automati-
cally adjust clearance between the brake lining, and brake
DANGER drum, or rotor on cam and air disc brakes. Figure 7.1.
If a slack adjuster is installed at an incorrect angle, the
ALWAYS WEAR PROPER EYE PROTECTION AND OTHER brakes will either have too much clearance, or the brakes
REQUIRED PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT TO will drag. Too much clearance will decrease braking effi-
PREVENT PERSONAL INJURY WHEN INSPECTING HEAVY ciency and cause brakes to be out-of-balance.
VEHICLE COMPONENTS.
The main causes of automatic slack adjuster failure during
This section provides a parts analysis process to deter- operation are incorrect installation, maintenance and
mine why automatic slack adjusters failed during opera- rebuild practices.
tion, what to look for when inspecting the parts, and how
to prevent failures from occurring again.
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72
Causes of Slack Adjuster Failure Automatic Slack Adjuster
Pawl Teeth Cause of Failure

The slack adjuster was insufficiently lubricated, the
Cause of Failure lubricant was contaminated, or the incorrect lubricant was
The pawl teeth are damaged. installed into the slack adjuster.
Figure 7.2 shows damage to pawl teeth occurring when Insufficient lubrication can cause internal friction, difficul-
the adjusting nut is turned in the incorrect direction. ty turning the adjusting nut, and loss of automatic adjust-
ment. If grease is pumped into the fitting at a pressure too
high, it will push the boot off the slack adjuster or rip the
Prevention
rubber boot. Both of these situations will contaminate the
Follow AxleTech recommended maintenance practices grease. Figure 7.3.
Prevention
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73
Automatic Slack Adjuster & Camshaft

Splines
Cause of Failure
The slack adjuster was not correctly lubricated.
What To Look For

Figure 7.4 shows slack adjuster and camshaft splines
corroded due to insufficient lubricant.
Prevention
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74
Cam & Air Disc Brakes
Cam & Air Disc Brakes Causes of Cam & Air Disc Brake
Failure
Parts Analysis Overview Cause Cam & Air Air Disc
Disc Brakes Brakes Only
DANGER Incorrect slack adjuster
angles
√
ALWAYS WEAR PROPER EYE PROTECTION AND OTHER Spring brake didn’t fully √
REQUIRED PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT TO release
PREVENT PERSONAL INJURY WHEN INSPECTING HEAVY Excessive wear √
VEHICLE COMPONENTS.
Air system problems √
This section provides a parts analysis process to deter- High operating √
mine why brake components failed during operation, what temperatures
to look for when inspecting the parts, and how to prevent Lubricant issues √
failures from occurring again. Deep scoring on the rotor √
Most of the time, answers can be found by visually inspect- Paint or corrosion on √
ing a failed component. Sometimes, however, this process caliper slide pins
may require specialized knowledge or equipment.
failure can vary in appearance from vehicle to vehicle.
Cause of Failure
vary, so it is important to use the information presented Automatic slack adjuster angles are not correct.
here as a guide, not a rule, when performing parts analysis
inspections. What To Look For
A slack adjuster is vital to correct brake operation. As
linings wear, AxleTech automatic slack adjusters automati-
cally adjust clearance between the brake lining, and brake
drum, or rotor on cam and air disc brakes.
If a slack adjuster is installed at an incorrect angle, the
brakes will either have too much clearance, or the brakes
will drag. Too much clearance will decrease braking effi-
ciency and cause brakes to be out-of-balance. Figure 8.1.
Prevention
Follow service procedures and install the correct slack
adjuster for the brake type to prevent over-adjustment and
excessive brake clearance. Figure 8.2.
75
Cause of Failure
The spring brake didn’t fully release.
The spring brake applies braking force when the air system
is drained, and it is also used as a parking brake when the
&RORURI 3DUW
7HPSODWH 1XPEHU $SSOLFDWLRQV vehicle is stationary. During operation, air pressure releas-
'DUNEURZQ 73 7UXFNRUWUDFWRUGUXPEUDNH es the spring brake to move the vehicle, and the service
7DQ 73 7UDLOHUGUXPEUDNH brake half of the air chamber controls braking. Figure 8.3.
:KLWH 73 &RDFKGUXPEUDNH
What To Look For

If the spring brake fails to fully release, the brakes will drag
0HDVXUHWKHVODFN and the linings will wear prematurely. Look for damage
DGMXVWHUDUPOHQJWK caused by excessive heat buildup. Check for mechanical
problems with the spring brake and problems in the air
system. Figure 8.4.
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Prevention
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76
Cause of Failure
Corroded or plugged air system valves prevented some
brakes from operating correctly, causing brake imbalance.
1250$/'5,9,1*
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%5$.(65(/($6('%87$/:$<65($'<)253$5.,1*
25(0(5*(1&<$33/,&$7,21
brakes. Figure 8.4. If air valves stick because they’re cor-
roded or plugged with contaminants, the brakes may not
apply, or they’ll apply with too much force. For example,
if a valve malfunctions, the parking brakes and service
brakes can apply at the same time and damage compo-
1250$/6(59,&(%5$.( nents. This is called “compounding.”
635,1*%5$.('2(6127$33/<:,7+1250$/6(59,&(
%5$.($33/,&$7,21$6$,535(6685(.((367+(635,1*
&$*(' Also, incorrect crack-pressure settings on relay valves
in the tractor and trailer cause one half of the vehicle to
brake most often, or all of the time; while the other half
does little or no braking. This imbalance between the trac-
tor and trailer can result in increased brake temperature
(0(5*(1&<%5$.(6
7+(635,1*%5$.(,6,167$//('7223(5$7((,7+(5 and premature lining wear.
$8720$7,&$//<8321727$//2662)$,535(6685(
25%<)2279$/9(02'8/$7('$33/,&$7,21:+(1
7+(5(,6$/2662)35(6685(,17+(35,0$5<$,5 What To Look For
6<67(0
Figure 8.5 shows a brake drum with deep scores and heat
3$5.,1*%5$.(6
$33/,&$7,212)7+('$6+&21752/9$/9((;+$8676 checks caused by an air system problem that kept the air
$,5)5207+(635,1*%5$.(&+$0%(53(50,77,1* chamber partially charged when the trailer brake wasn’t
7+(635,1*)25&(72$33/<7+(6(59,&(%5$.()25
326,7,9(3$5.,1* applied. As a result, the cam didn’t fully release, and
635,1*%5$.(+2/'2))35(6685( brake drag occurred during operation.
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Prevention
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buildup that corrodes air valves. Follow AxleTech recom-
mended maintenance practices and service procedures.
77
Cause of Failure
Excessive wear can occur when a vehicle is overloaded,
or when linings drag against the drum or rotor when the
brakes should be released.
What To Look For

Figure 8.6 shows metal-to-metal contact damage to the
rotor when excessive wear from brake drag removed the
linings from the pads.
Prevention
weight limits.
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78
Cause of Failure
High operating temperatures damaged the brake compo-
nents.
High operating temperature is one of the main causes of
premature lining wear. Some reasons why high operating
temperatures occur: The brakes are imbalanced, applied
often, or they drag against the drum. Premature wear
accelerates as operating temperatures increase.
High operating temperatures will eventually cause brake
components — usually the linings, drums and rotors — to 7KLVEUDNHSDGVKRZVFUDFNLQJRQLWVHQWLUHIULFWLRQ VXUIDFHGXHWR
VHYHUHRSHUDWLQJWHPSHUDWXUHV
warp or fracture. Figure 8.7 shows a brake rotor damaged
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by scoring and heat cracks caused by an air system that
wasn’t functioning correctly.
What To Look For

Figure 8.8 shows a brake pad with heat checks on the
entire friction surface resulting from high operating tem-
peratures.
Prevention
weight limits.
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FRXOGEHUHXVHG
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79
Air Disc Brakes Only

Cause of Failure
Heavy heat checking damaged the rotor surface.
There are two types of heat checking: light and heavy.
Figure 8.9.
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What To Look For /(1*7+
Heavy heat checking are surface cracks that are wide and )LJXUH
deep. Replace the rotor if heat checks have a width of

more than 0.02” (0.5 mm), a depth of more than 0.04”
(1 mm), and extend radially across the surface more than
75%. Figure 8.10.
Light heat checks are fine lines or cracks on the rotor
surface, a normal condition that results when the rotor
friction surface continually heats and cools. A rotor with
light heat checking does not need replacement. Figure
Prevention )LJXUH

)LJXUH
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80
Cause of Failure Air Disc Brake Only

The rotor has deep grooves or scores.
Cause of Failure
What to Look For There’s paint or corrosion on the caliper slide pins.
Inspect both sides of the rotor. If grooves or scores are
What To Look For
present of a depth less than 0.02” (0.5 mm), continue to
use the rotor. If the grooves are greater than 0.02” (0.5 Slide pins enable the caliper assembly to apply braking
mm), the rotor can be resurfaced. If the rotor thickness pressure on both sides of the rotor. If the slide pins are
measured across any groove is less than 1.46” (37 mm), painted, the caliper can corrode and seize, and only the
discard and replace the rotor. Figure 8.13. inboard pad will apply pressure. As a result, the inboard
pad wears prematurely. Figure 8.14.
Prevention
When a caliper assembly is insufficiently lubricated, the
Follow AxleTech recommended maintenance practices slide pins will corrode and cause the brake pads to drag
and service procedures. on the rotor. If a caliper assembly is over-lubricated,
pressure will build up and prevent the brake pads from
retracting. Figure 8.14.
Prevention
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DQGUHGXFHGEUDNLQJDELOLW\7KHVHSDGVVKRZWKHUHVXOWVRIDFRUURGHG
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81
Brake Drums Deep Wear on Only One Side of the Drum

Deep wear on only one side of the drum indicates the
Normal Wear drum is machined out-of-round, or the drum was dropped
Brake drums wear evenly under normal operating con- or bent. No evidence of hot spotting may be evident.
ditions. Use fleet history, if available, to determine the Replace the drum. Figure 8.17.
approximate wear rate of tractor drums. Normal wear is
the usual reason a brake drum is removed from service.
Deep, Uniform Wear

Deep, uniform wear at the edge of the drum where the
lining path begins can result from brake drag, imbalance,
contaminants embedded in the brake lining, no brake
retarder, braking with a hand valve, not down-shifting on
steep grades, and exceeding a vehicle’s braking capacity.
Figure 8.15 and Figure 8.16.
Replace the drum. Install dust shields; or if already in- )LJXUH
stalled, remove the shields and operate the vehicle.
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82
Heat Checking Heat Checking One Side of the Drum Only

Heat checking are fine lines or cracks uniformly covering
What To Look For
the drum surface. Heat checking is a normal condition
resulting from the drum friction surface heating and cool- Look for fine cracks on only one side of the drum surface.
ing repeatedly. However, if the drum operates under high However, cracks 1” (25.4 mm) or more are usually deep
temperatures or overloaded conditions or if the vehicle and require drum replacement. Hot spotting may or may
operates under heavy braking, larger cracks can develop not be evident, and deep wear may be prsent on the same
and extend below the surface. side of the drum.
What To Look For Heat checking on only one side of the drum can indicate
the drum is machined out-of-round, was dropped or bent,
Fine lines and cracks over the entire drum surface less or the drum-to-pilot fit has too much end play. Figure 8.19
than 1” (25.4 mm) in length. and Figure 8.20.
What To Do What To Do
Replace the drum. Replace the drum.
Follow AxleTech recommended operating guidelines, Follow AxleTech recommended operating guidelines,
maintenance practices, and service procedures. maintenance practices, and service procedures.
Figure 8.18.
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83
Causes of Brake Component Failure

Black Spots (Hot Spotting) on Drum
Surface
What To Look For
Black spots are on the entire drum surface (uniform), are
on only one side of the drum surface, or are in three equi-
distant areas of the drum surface.
Some causes of hot spotting are water contacted the
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overheated drum, causing the drum to cool unevenly; the
brake drum’s not centered to the lining; the brake lining
and drum mating surfaces burnished too slowly; brake
drag occurred during operation; the linings are extremely
hard; or the type of lining installed wasn’t approved by
the original equipment manufacturer. Figure 8.21, Figure
8.22, and Figure 8.23.
What To Do
Replace the drum.
Prevention
Follow AxleTech recommended operating guidelines, )LJXUH
maintenance practices and service procedures. Operate
the vehicle within its approved application and weight
limits.
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84
Polished (Glazed) Drum Scoring

What to Look For What To Look For
A polished (glazed) drum has a mirror-like finish on the Look for grooves or scratches (scoring) on the surface
friction surface caused by an incorrect friction material, of a drum deeper than 0.10” (2.54 mm) and wider than
brake imbalance, low-pressure braking or the type of 0.030” (0.076 mm), which was caused by metal-to-metal
lining installed wasn’t approved by the original equipment contact from worn brake pads or shoes, or debris caught
manufacturer. Figure 8.24. between the friction material and the friction surface.
Figure 8.25.
What To Do
What To Do
Replace the drum.
Replace the drum.
Prevention
Prevention
Follow AxleTech recommended operating guidelines,
maintenance practices and service procedures. Operate Follow AxleTech maintenance practices and service proce-
the vehicle within its approved application and weight dures. Operate the vehicle within its approved application
limits. and weight limits.
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85
“Blue” Drum Broken Bolt Flange (Drum Surface Not

Cracked)
What To Look For
Very high operating temperatures can cause the brake What To Look For
drum to turn a blue color, and components are damaged. The bolt flange is broken, but the drum surface isn’t
Some causes of a blue drum are the axle and wheel-end cracked. This situation usually results when an incorrect
imbalance has occurred, the lining wasn’t approved by the drum was assembled onto a hub or spoke wheel. When
original equipment manufacturer, the braking system is in- the fasteners were tightened, the clamping load cracked
correct for the application, or brake drag occurred during the flange. Flanges can also break if both brake shoes
operation. Figure 8.26. don’t contact the drum at the same time. Figure 8.27.
What To Do What To Do
Replace the drum or rotor. Replace the drum.
Follow AxleTech maintenance practices and service proce- Follow AxleTech service instructions for assembly and
dures. Operate the vehicle within its approved application disassembly procedures.
and weight limits.
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86
Broken Bolt Flange (Cracked Drum Cracked Drum

Surface)
What To Look For
What To Look For The drum has cracked, but may not show signs of wear,
High temperatures caused the expanding brake shoes heat checking or hot spotting. A drum can crack when
to separate the bolt flange from the drum with enough the parking brake is set while the brakes are very hot. The
force to crack the drum, but the flange remained intact. A cooling drum contracted on the brake shoes with enough
cracked drum surface occurs from excessive wear, heat force to crack the drum.
checking or hot spotting, or a combination of these condi- Brake drum pilot interference with the hub or wheel pilot
tions. Figure 8.28. also can cause the entire cross section of the drum to
Sometimes, however, the bolt flange breaks, but the drum crack, if the drum was forced onto the pilot. Figure 8.29.
does not crack. This condition usually occurs because the
drum pilot interfered with the hub or wheel pilot, or the What To Do
drum was broken before assembly. Replace the drum.
What To Do Prevention
Replace the drum. Operate the vehicle within its approved application and
weight limits. Follow AxleTech maintenance practices and
Prevention service procedures.
weight limits.
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87
Worn Brake Drum Bolt Holes Oil or Grease Has Penetrated and
Discolored the Drum Surface
What To Look For
Worn bolt holes result because the bolts weren’t tightened What To Look For
to the correct torque specification. Drum pilots also can The brake system has been contaminated with lubricant
be worn and damaged, and runout in the brake drum when the following conditions are evident:
could have occurred. Figure 8.30.
• oil or grease has penetrated the drum surface
What To Do • the brake drum is discolored
Replace the hub and drum.
• lubricant is evident on the components, which resulted
from wheel or hub oil seals that leaked
Prevention
All of these conditions require drum replacement.
Operate the vehicle within its approved application and Figure 8.31.
weight limits. Follow AxleTech maintenance practices and
service procedures.
What To Do
Try to remove the oil or grease from the drum. If it cannot
be removed completely, replace the drum.
Prevention
Follow AxleTech maintenance practices and service proce-
dures.
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88
Causes of Brake Drum Wear

Condition Possible Causes
Brake drag Worn camshaft bushings
Damaged or plugged relay valves or air exhaust ports
Incorrect slack adjuster operation
Bent air chamber push rods
Weak or broken air chamber or shoe return springs
Swelling and growth of new linings
Air system imbalance
Pinched air hoses or tubing
Excessive drum-to-pilot end play Mating hub or wheel pilot machined under size
Hub or wheel pilots not centered to bearing bores
Hub pilots are contaminated or corroded
Drum incorrectly assembled onto pilot
Drum not centered to lining
Drum is incorrectly seated on the hub Corroded mounting surface
or pilot wheel Corroded aluminum hub and drum assembly
Iron or aluminum hub pilot not correctly cleaned prior to installation
Both brake shoes don’t contact Brake drum isn’t centered to the hub
the drum at the same time
Heavy braking Braking system incorrect for the application
Linings not approved by the original equipment manufacturer (OEM)
Operator technique
High-temperature applications (city and construction)
Brake imbalance
Bent spiders
Bent shoes don’t uniformly contact the brake surface
Brake imbalance Pneumatic imbalance between the axles
Plugged or corroded relay valves
Linings not approved by the original equipment manufacturer (OEM)
Incorrect brake power (AL Factor)
Imbalance between the apply and release threshold pressures
89
Transmissions
Transmissions Parts Analysis Process
Parts Analysis Overview Spur Gears

Cause of Failure
DANGER
Heavy or deep pitting damaged the spur gear.
REQUIRED PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT TO Pitting is a type of surface fatigue that forms pits, or cavi-
PREVENT PERSONAL INJURY WHEN INSPECTING HEAVY ties, on metal surfaces. If pitting is heavy, it can progress
VEHICLE COMPONENTS. until pieces of surface metal break, or spall, from a com-
ponent. This is called “spalling.”
This section provides a parts analysis investigative
process to determine why transmission components fail
What To Look For
during operation, what to look for when inspecting the
parts, and how to prevent failures from occurring again. Look for heavy or deep pitting on the entire spur gear tooth
contact surface. Spur gears damaged by heavy pitting
Most of the time, answers can be found by visually
require replacement.
process may require specialized knowledge or equipment. Verify the lubricant installed was the correct specification
and viscosity. Were different types of oil mixed together
and installed in the vehicle? Was the vehicle operated
with sufficient lubricant? Was the vehicle maintained
according to AxleTech recommended maintenance prac-
vary, so it is important to use the information presented
tices?
sis inspections.
Prevention
Causes of Transmission Component Operate the vehicle within its approved application and
Failure practices and service procedures.
Metal mating surfaces wear as a transmission operates.
Transmission oil minimizes spur gear wear, because oil
protects components from metal-to-metal contact. The
most common types of wear conditions on spur gears are
frosting, offset frosting, pitting, spalling, scoring, shock
load and fatigue fractures.
90
Transmissions

Spalling damaged the spur gear. Galling or “metal transfer” damaged the spur gear.
When the metal surface of a component breaks into chips Galling, also called “metal transfer,” occurs when two
or fragments as a result of wear fatigue, the condition is unlubricated metal surfaces rub against each other, usu-
called “spalling.” Spalling is a type of surface fatigue and ally as a result of high operating temperatures caused by
is evident in the advanced stages of heavy pitting. Spur insufficient lubrication.
gears damaged by spalling require replacement.
Figure 9.2 and Figure 9.3 show how metal separated from
the gear teeth and welded to the mating gear teeth. Spur
What To Look For
gears damaged by galling require replacement.
Spalling on spur gear teeth looks similar to heavy pitting,
but the cavities are usually larger in diameter and shallow- What To Look For
er in depth. Figure 9.1. Was the gear overloaded?
Verify the correct lubricant was installed, not multi-viscos-
ity engine oil or extreme pressure (EP) GL-5 oil. Also, were
Prevention
different types of oil mixed together and installed into the
Operate the vehicle within its approved application and vehicle? Was the vehicle operated with insufficient lubri-
weight limits. Teach drivers how to correctly operate a cant and under high operating temperatures?
vehicle.
Were any seals leaking? Was the vehicle maintained
according to AxleTech recommended maintenance prac-
tices?
Prevention
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91
Transmissions
Cause of Failure
Shock load damaged the spur gear.
Shock load occurs when a sudden and powerful force is
applied against a component. Shock load can destroy
or damage a component immediately. Often, however, a
component damaged by shock load will continue to oper-
ate, but it will wear prematurely or fail soon after the initial
shock load has occurred.
Shock load causes components to crack and separate
from each other. Spur gears damaged by shock load
What To Look For

Examine the entire transmission. If teeth have broken from
the gear, check for subsequent damage. Look for a rough,
crystalline finish on the surface of the spur gear. Figure
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9.4, Figure 9.5, and Figure 9.6.
Also try to determine if the operator backed into a load-
ing dock with excessive force, or if the vehicle’s spinning
wheel hit dry pavement. Did the operator miss a shift? Did
the operator speed up the engine and rapidly release the
clutch (“popping the clutch”)?
Prevention
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92
Transmissions
Cause of Failure
Fatigue fracture damaged the spur gear.
Fatigue fracture is caused by cyclic torque overloads on a
component, torsional vibration, and twisting and bending.
A fatigue fracture quickly reduces the overall strength of
a gear, reducing its ability to withstand operating load.
Figure 9.7.
What To Look For

A fatigue fracture begins at one or more points. Look
for ratchet marks and subsequent beach marks on the
part. Beach marks represent fatigue cycles that occurred
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before the component failed completely. Visually, beach
marks are smooth, curved radial lines originating from the
fracture site. At the failure site, however, beach marks are
rough and brittle. Spur gears damaged by fatigue fracture
Prevention
weight limits.
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93
Transmissions
Cause of Failure
Frosting damaged the spur gear.
What To Look For

Frosting is a grayish or yellowish white color usually found
at the center of the teeth at the mating gear contact posi-
tion. Light pitting on the gear teeth also may accompany
frosting. Figure 9.8, Figure 9.9, and Figure 9.10.
Offset frosting has the same characteristics as frosting,
but appears at one side of the spur gear face. Offset frost-
ing is caused by a difference in the gear tooth contact face
from one side to the other, or from a slight shift in gear set
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loading.
Prevention
No action is required. Frosting is a normal wear condition
on spur gear teeth that does not affect performance or
gear life. As the gear continues to operate, sliding friction
eventually removes frosting. If frosting is the only wear
present on the spur gears, do not replace the gears.
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94
Transmissions
Roller Bearings Cause of Failure

Excessive end play loosened the rollers in the bearing
Cause of Failure cage, causing the bearing rollers to damage the cage.
Heavy pitting damaged the roller bearings and most likely
changed bearing adjustment and bearing alignment. What To Look For
Pitting is a type of surface fatigue that forms pits, or cav- Look for wider bearing pockets and “skidding” wear on the
ities, on metal surfaces. Figure 9.11. If pitting is heavy, it cup and cone surface. Figure 9.12 and Figure 9.13. “Skid-
can progress until pieces of surface metal break, or spall, ding” wear occurs when the wider bearing pockets enable
from a component. the rollers to turn at an angle in the pocket, and then snap
back into place. A bearing damaged by excessive end play
What To Look For requires replacement.
Inspect the cup and cone contact areas, cage inner and Prevention
outer surfaces, cage roller pockets, roller body, and roller
end for wear. Verify the lubricant installed was the cor- Follow AxleTech recommended service procedures to
rect specification and viscosity. Were different types of adjust end play.
oil mixed together and installed in the vehicle? Was the
vehicle operated with sufficient lubricant?
If pitting is present on the roller bearing, it indicates fa-
tigue damage had begun, and roller bearing replacement
is required.
Prevention
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95 )LJXUH
Transmissions

Brinelling displaced the metal on the bearing surface of Etching, also called “corrosion”, damaged the roller bear-
the cup and cone. ings because moisture entered the transmission through
a worn seal or by condensation. Etching usually develops
What To Look For before pitting occurs.
Look for machined marks and displaced metal on the What To Look For
bearing cup and cone. Figure 9.14. A bearing damaged by
brinelling requires replacement. Etching is a dark surface stain on the roller bearing. Figure
9.15. A bearing damaged by etching requires replace-
Prevention ment.
Operate the vehicle within its approved application and Prevention

vehicle. Follow AxleTech recommended maintenance practices
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96
Transmissions

The transmission was insufficiently lubricated, which The bearings weren’t correctly aligned, which concen-
caused the bearing to overheat and seize. trated the load onto one side of the bearing, instead of
distributing it evenly across the entire bearing surface.
What To Look For
What To Look For
A bearing damaged by insufficient lubricant will overheat,
and the color has changed from silver to deep blue. If the Look for uneven wear damage on the bearing, as well as
bearing is black, it is an indication it seized and caused spalling on the cup and cone. Both conditions require
metal to separate from the bearing and weld to other mat- bearing replacement. Figure 9.18 and Figure 9.19.
ing components. Figure 9.16 and Figure 9.17. Bearings
damaged by insufficient lubricant require replacement. Prevention
Look for leaking transmission seals and other damaged Follow AxleTech recommended service procedures to
transmission components. correctly align bearings.
Prevention
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97
Transmissions
Main Shaft Washer Try to determine if the driver either coasted with the
transmission in gear and the clutch disengaged, or with
Cause of Failure the transmission in neutral and the auxiliary case in low
range. Was the vehicle towed; and if so, was it towed
Insufficient lubricant caused high operating temperatures correctly?
that damaged the washer. The driver operated the vehicle
incorrectly. Figure 9.20. Shock load occurred, which dam- If the main shaft washer is fractured, was it dropped
aged the transmission. Figure 9.21. during assembly? Figure 9.24. Is there evidence of heat
checking? Did shift lever slip out (not jump out) occur? Is
Shock load occurs when a sudden and powerful force is the snap ring damaged?
or damage a component immediately. Often, however, a Prevention
ate, but it will wear prematurely or fail soon after the initial Teach drivers to correctly operate a vehicle. Follow Axle-
shock load has occurred. Tech recommended maintenance practices and service
procedures.
from each other. Main shaft washers damaged by shock
load require replacement.
What To Look For

Check the main shaft spacing. If it is too tight, met-
al-to-metal contact occurs, which results in high operating
temperatures that damaged the main shaft. Figure 9.22.
Figure 9.20 shows a shift collar forced into gear, because
the driver didn’t use the clutch or synchronize the gear
shift. The mating gear snap ring, washer, and spacer
absorbed the force and caused lubricant between the
washer to displace. High operating temperatures occurred
damaging the main shaft washer; and if enough force is
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applied, the spacer and snap ring could break. Shock load
also causes components to crack and separate from each
other. Look for a rough, crystalline finish on the separated
parts.
Look for fractured teeth on the main shaft gear, which
occurs when the gear does not contact the mating count-
er-shaft gears.
Figure 9.21. The fracture didn’t occur on the entire surface
of the teeth, and the gear will be out-of-position. Check
the sliding shift collars and the teeth on the clutch collar
for fractures and excessive wear, which are signs of grind-
ing gears. Figure 9.23.
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98
Transmissions
Main Shaft Gear Float Clearance

Cause of Failure
The main shaft gear float clearance is not within the cor-
rect specification. The washers and spacers were dam-
aged by insufficient lubricant; or the operator used “float
shifting,” which loaded the washers and spacers. Float
shifting forces lubricant from between the washer and
spacer, which damages these parts.
What To Look For

)LJXUH Gear Float Clearance
Gear float is the clearance between the main shaft gear
mating hubs. New transmissions are factory-set with a
gear float clearance of 0.006 — 0.012” (0.152 — 0.304
mm).
Gear float is important, because when it is correctly set,
it enables lubricant to pass between the mating gears to
lubricate the gear hubs, washers and spacers. If clearance
is too tight, the gear hubs, washers and spacers will score,
gall and burn.
Excessive clearance causes the transmission gears to
rattle from torsional vibration and requires the main shaft
to be rebuilt to the original factory-set clearance.
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Washers and Spacers
It is normal to find wear on washers and spacers in
high-mileage units. Figure 9.25. However, inspect parts
for excessive wear or a “burned” look occurring from insuf-
ficient lubricant and high operating temperatures. Figure
9.26.
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The Transmission Wasn’t Shifted Correctly
Try to determine if the driver shifted the transmission cor-
rectly and didn’t use “float shifting.” During float shifting,
the driver does not use the clutch, but “floats” the shift
collar into gear. Look for scoring, galling, burning, and
fractures on the washers and spacers. Figure 9.27.
If a driver is having difficulty shifting the transmission,
check for correct clutch adjustment and wear in the clutch
linkage, shift linkage, shift tower and top cover. All of these
conditions can damage the shift collars, washers, and
spacers.
99
Transmissions
Prevention
Check the gear float clearance is correct. In-service float
clearance must not exceed 0.024” (0.068 mm), or two
%52.(1
times the maximum factory-set clearance of 0.006” —
0.012” (0.152 — 0.304 mm). Figure 9.28 and Figure
9.29.
Gear float outside of specification is beyond the service
limits. Use new selective washers, snap rings, and spac-
ers to adjust the float. Optimal clearance on a rebuild is
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0.012” (0.304 mm).
Teach drivers to shift a transmission correctly.
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100
Transmissions
Gear Teeth
Cause of Failure
Shock load occurred damaging the gear teeth.
Shock load occurs when a sudden and powerful force is
or damage a component immediately. Often, however, a
ate, but it will wear prematurely or fail soon after the initial
shock load has occurred.
from each other. Gears damaged by shock load require )LJXUH
replacement.
What To Look For

Look for fractures on gear teeth at 180° intervals.
Figure 9.30. If the shock load is severe, damage can
extend to the main shaft and bearing, as well as other
transmission components. Try to determine if the driver )LJXUH
shifted the transmission incorrectly. Figure 9.31, Figure
9.32, Figure 9.33, Figure 9.34, and Figure 9.35.
Prevention
Teach drivers to correctly operate a vehicle.
101
Transmissions
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102
Transmissions
Cause of Failure
The lubricant was contaminated or the transmission was
operated with insufficient lubricant.
What To Look For

Is the lubricant blackened, or has it started to solidify?
If the lubricant looks blackened, does it have a burned
smell? If so, it is an indication the transmission was oper-
ated with insufficient lubricant and under high tempera-
tures. Under these conditions, lubricant breaks down and
becomes blackened and sludge-like.
Remove the top cover. Check the internal walls of the )LJXUH
transmission case for burned lubricant residue, which

bakes into the case when the transmission is operated
with insufficient lubricant. If residue is present, is it con-
taminated with metal particles or debris?
Look for leaking transmission seals. Look for a common
wear pattern on the gear teeth called “apple coring,”
which occurs when metal melts at high temperatures and
leaves a central, concave depression in the gear teeth.
Figure 9.36, Figure 9.37, Figure 9.38, Figure 9.39, Figure
9.40, and Figure 9.41.
If possible, determine if the transmission became difficult
to shift, or if it was grinding or “growling” when in gear.
Gears damaged by insufficient lubricant require replace-
ment.
Prevention
and service procedures. Operate the vehicle within its
approved application and weight limits. Teach drivers how
to correctly operate a vehicle.
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103
Transmissions
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104
Transmissions
Synchronizer Pin
Cause of Failure
Torsional vibration in the drivetrain damaged the synchro-
nizer assembly.
Torsional vibration is a twisting and untwisting action in a
shaft caused by the application of engine power (torque)
or incorrect driveline phasing or angles. Torsional vibration
is most likely absorbed at the transmission synchroniz-
er and causes premature wear damage to all drivetrain
)LJXUH
components.
What To Look For

Check the synchronizer assembly and pins. When torsion-
al vibration occurs, pins can be fractured. Figure 9.42,
Figure 9.43, and Figure 9.44. A synchronizer damaged by
torsional vibration require replacement.
Prevention
Follow AxleTech recommended service procedures to
verify driveline angles and phasing are correct.
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)LJXUH
105
Transmissions
Shift Collar Wear

Cause of Failure
Shift collar teeth are worn and damaged, and full engage-
ment does not occur. Replace the shift collar.
What To Look For

Shift collar teeth surfaces are worn and rounded instead
of flat and trapezoid shape. Figure 9.45. Are the sides of
the teeth surfaces polished? This indicates the collar is 5281'('6+,)7&2//$57227+
fully engaged into the mating gear. If wear does not extend
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to the end of the tooth, the collar isn’t engaging fully into
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Is there a trapezoid shape on the ends of the teeth? Are

teeth surfaces polished? If so, the shift collar is fully
engaging and does not require replacement. Figure 9.46
and Figure 9.47.
It is normal to find shift collar damage in high-mileage
transmissions. However, in lower-mileage transmissions,
damage can occur if the manual shift mechanism mal-
functions, the clutch is out-of-adjustment, or a driver
didn’t shift the transmission correctly.
Check for a bent or twisted shift fork, worn or broken top
cover, worn shift tower or twisted main shaft. Verify the )/$775$3(=2,'6+$3(
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transmission. Worn collars cause raking and grinding
during shifting.
Prevention 32/,6+('
68)$&(

and service procedures. Operate the vehicle within its
approved application and weight limits. Teach drivers to
correctly shift a transmission.
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106
Transmissions
Oil Seals Example 1: Seal is Not Leaking

If moisture, wetness, or oil drips on or around an axle oil
Cause of Failure
seal, it is important to recognize if the seal is leaking, or if
it only appears to be leaking. None
Recognizing a Leaking Seal What To Look For

Inspect the oil seal and surrounding area for wetness. If There is slight moisture from packing grease at assembly,
the seal and area appear very wet or visibly drip oil, or if but the area around the seal is dry. Figure 9.48.
oil is dripping from the bottom of the output seal retainer,
replace the seal. Prevention
Inspect the yoke for wetness. Check for a leak path Follow AxleTech recommended maintenance practices
leading to the rear lip of the seal. If wetness is around the and service procedures.
yoke hub or a leak path leading to the rear lip of the seal,
replace the seal.
Recognizing a Seal that Appears to be Leaking

Seals come pre-lubricated with grease that melts at low
temperatures under normal operating conditions. Melted
grease can moisten or wet the area between the yoke and
the oil seal lip. When this happens, a leak path leading to
the seal will not be present. If the seal is moist seal and a
leak path is not present, do not replace the seal.
A seal can also become moist from lubricants applied to
the yoke or retainer bolts during assembly. When this hap-
pens, a leak path leading to the seal will not be present.
If the seal is moist seal and a leak path is not present, do
not replace the seal.
Seal Test Procedure

1. Thoroughly clean and dry the area around the entire
seal retainer casting, especially at the top.
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2. Drive the vehicle for 15-20 minutes at highway
speeds.
3. Check for wetness or moisture on or around the seal.
Also check for oil dripping from the seal. If either of
these conditions is present, replace the seal.
107
Transmissions
Example 2: Seal Appears to be Leaking Example 3: Seal Appears to be Leaking

A failure is possible. Inspect the seal. If a failure has oc- A failure is possible. Inspect the seal. If a failure has oc-
curred, determine its cause. curred, determine its cause.

Check for an oil path from the speedometer sensor to the Check for an oil path from the cover bolts to the yoke area.
yoke area. If an oil path is present, the seal is leaking. If an If an oil path is present, the seal is leaking. If an oil path
oil path is not present, but oil is around the seal, the seal is not present, but oil is around the seal, the seal requires
requires replacement. Both of these conditions can occur replacement. Both of these conditions can occur at the
at the same time. Figure 9.49. same time. Figure 9.50.
Check the lubricant level. If it is low, replace the seal. If Clean oil and dirt from the carrier. Check the lubricant
not, monitor the seal for leaks. level. If it is low, replace the seal. If not, monitor the seal
for leaks.
Prevention
Prevention
and service procedures. Follow AxleTech recommended maintenance practices
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108
Transmissions
Example 4: The Seal is Leaking Troubleshooting and Diagnostics

Cause of Failure Types of Problems
Most likely, dirt or contaminants have entered the seal, or When checking a problem with a manual transmission,
the seal’s service life is expended. the first thing to do is to verify the service condition. Talk to
the driver, the mechanic or the service manager. If possi-
What To Look For ble, take the vehicle for a test drive.
Inspect the yoke hub for wetness. Look for an oil leak path There are three main types of problems:
leading to the rear lip of the seal, which indicates that the
• Leaks
seal is leaking and requires replacement.
• Noise and/or vibration
The seal requires replacement, even if an oil path is not
present from the speed sensor, shift tower, and retainer • Operating conditions
bolts. Figure 9.51.
Use the diagnostic tables and charts provided in this sec-
Prevention tion as a starting point to diagnose the root cause of the
problem. The information contained in these resources is
Follow AxleTech recommended maintenance practices not completely inclusive. Technicians should call AxleTech
and service procedures. Customer Service at 800-540-2794 or via email at ser-
vice.na@axletech.com for futher assistance.
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109
Transmissions
Leaks Operating Conditions

Check the transmission for transmission oil leaks. If oil is When the transmission is not operating correctly, find out
on or under the transmission, verify the leak is transmis- when the problem occurs.
sion oil and not engine oil, coolant, or other lubricants.
• In neutral or in gear
Noise • During upshifts or downshifts
If a noise is the problem, find out the sound of the noise. • In high range or low range
• Growling or humming, or grinding • In direct range or overdrive range, 13-speed
transmissions only
• Hissing, thumping or bumping
Also, find out what the transmission does during the
• Rattles
problem.
• Squealing
• Does not stay in the selected gear
• Whining
• Does not stay in the selected range
Vibration • Does not select all gears
When checking a noise or a vibration, find out when the • Does not select all ranges
problem occurs.
• Overheats
• When the transmission is in neutral or in gear’
• Does not operate
• During upshifts or downshifts
• In all gears or specific gears
• In the high range or low range
• In direct range or overdrive range, 13-speed
transmission only
• During coast or acceleration
• With the vehicle loaded or unloaded
110
Transmissions
Troubleshooting Other Systems

Verify the transmission is the cause of the problem.
System Check For Repairs

Engine Systems 1. Loose or missing fasteners 1. Replace missing fasteners.
Tighten to the specified torque.
2. Engine idle speed out-of-specifications 2. Adjust the idle speed to the specified range.
3. Loose or damaged engine mounts 3. Tighten the fasteners to the specified torque.
Replace the damaged mounts.
4. Out-of-balance fan 4. Replace the fan.
5. Damaged engine fan 5. Repair or replace as required.
Clutch Systems 1. Loose or missing fasteners 1. Replace the missing fasteners.
2. Clutch out-of-adjustment 2. Adjust the clutch.
3. Clutch assembly out-of-balance 3. Replace the clutch assembly.
4. Worn or damaged pilot bearing 4. Replace the pilot bearing
Driveshaft 1. Driveshaft system requires lubrication 1. Lubricate the driveshaft system.
Systems 2. Worn or damaged u-joints and/or yokes 2. Replace the u-joints and/or yokes.
3. Driveshaft out-of-balance 3. Balance the driveshaft correctly or replace the
driveshaft.
4. Center bearings not installed correctly or 4. Install the center bearings correctly or replace.
damaged
5. Driveline angles not correct 5. Adjust the driveline angles to the manufacturer’s
specifications.
Suspension 1. Loose or missing fasteners 1. Replace the missing fasteners.
Systems Tightened to the specified torque.
2. Damaged suspension components 2. Repair or replace the damaged suspension
components.
3. Driveline touching frame 3. Adjust driveline to not touch frame.
4. Loose or damaged cab mounts 4. Tighten loose fasteners to the specified torque.
Replace any damaged mounts.
5. Leaks in air suspension system 5. Repair the air leaks.
Check all valves for correct operation.
Remote Shift 1. Low lubricant level 1. Fill to the specified level.
Systems 2. Linkage out of adjustment 2. Adjust the linkage.
3. Linkage binding or unable to move 3. Lubricate, repair, or replace the linkage.
111
Transmissions
Troubleshooting Leaks
Before troubleshooting a leak condition, perform the following conditions. Refer to the table below for diagnostics.
1. Clean the outside of the transmission to remove all the dirt.
2. Operate the vehicle to verify the leak is coming from the transmission.
3. Verify the fluid is transmission oil.
4. Verify the transmission housings are not cracked or broken.

Leaks — In-Vehicle Repair 1. Missing fasteners 1. Replace the missing fasteners.
2. Loose fasteners 2. Tighten to the specified torque.
3. High oil level 3. Drain to the specified level.
4. Unspecified oil in transmission 4. Drain the oil. Install the specified oil.
5. Clogged or dirty breather vent 5. Clean the breather vent.
6. Damaged yoke 6. Replace the yoke.
7. Damaged output shaft seal 7. Replace the output shaft seal.1
Leaks — Remove and Disassemble 1. Damage gaskets or sealing material 1. Replace the gaskets or sealing
Transmission material.
2. Cracked or broken housing 2. Replace the housing.
2
3. Oil leaking from breather vent. 3. Replace the piston shaft seal.
1
If the transmission continues to leak and the output shaft seal and the yoke have been replaced, remove and replace the
output shaft assembly.
2
Place the transmission in Low Range and operate the vehicle. If air leaks from the breather vent, the range shaft seal
must be replaced.
112
Transmissions
Troubleshooting Noise
For all noise conditions, check the following before disassembling the transmission.
Refer to the table below for diagnostics and for an explanation of additional repairs that may be required.
1. Check the oil level is even with the bottom of the fill plug hole.
2. Verify the correct oil is used.
3. Verify the driveline angles of the transmission are correct.
4. Verify the transmission is correctly installed.
5. Remove the drain plug. Check for any metal shavings, gasket material, or any other material in the oil.
Condition Cause Repair

Growling, Humming, or Grinding 1 1. Worn or damaged gears 1. Replace the gears.
2. Worn bearings (humming only) 2. Replace the bearings.
Hissing, Thumping, or Bumping 2 1. Damaged bearings (hissing only) 1. Replace the bearings.
2. Damaged gear teeth 2. Replace the gears.
(thumping or bumping only)
Rattles - In-Vehicle Repair 1. Engine idle speed not within 1. Adjust the idle speed to the
specifications specified RPM.
2. Engine does not operate on all 2. Adjust or repair the engine.
cylinders.
3. Clutch intermediate or center plate 3. Repair or replace the intermediate
binding in housing3 or center plate.
4. Other systems 4. Verify the transmission is the source
of the rattle condition.
5. Incorrect shim installation on the 5. Install the correct shims onto the
PTO unit. PTO unit.
Rattles - Remove and Disassemble 1. Damaged washers between main 1. Replace the washers between the
Transmission shaft gears main shaft gears.
Squealing or Whining - In-Vehicle 1. Incorrect shim installation on the 1. Install the correct shims onto the
4
Repair PTO unit PTO unit.
Squealing or Whining - Remove and 1. Damaged bearings 1. Replace the bearings
Disassemble Transmission 4 2. End play of countershafts not within 2. Adjust the countershaft end play
specifications within specifications.
1
Growling and humming are associated with the first stages of the condition. Grinding is associated with the severe
stages of the condition.
2
Hissing is associated with the first stages of the condition. Thumping and bumping are associated with the severe stages
of the condition.
3
If the noise occurs when the clutch is engaged and stops when the clutch is disengaged, the intermediate or center plate
is the cause of the rattle.
4
Whining is a medium-pitched noise. Squealing is a high-pitched noise.
113
Transmissions
Troubleshooting Vibration
Before troubleshooting a vibration, perform the following conditions. Refer to the table below for diagnostics.
1. The engine idle speed is within the specified range.
2. The engine is operating correctly.
3. The u-joints, yokes, and driveshafts are in good condition.
Check the driveline angles. Correct as necessary.
4. The u-joints, yokes, and driveshafts are correctly aligned
and/or balanced. Correct as necessary.
5. Check the air bag height. Correct as necessary.

Vibration — In-Vehicle Repair 1. Fasteners do not remain tight. 1. Tighten the fasteners.
If the fasteners do not remain tight,
replace the fasteners or the housing.
Vibration — Remove and Disassemble 1. Damaged bearings 1. Replace the bearings.
Transmission 2. Cracked or broken housing 1
2. Replace the synchronizer.
1
If the transmission does not shift correctly into the selected range, broken or loose synchronizer pins are the result of the
vibration condition.
114
Transmissions
Troubleshooting Operating Conditions

Refer to the table below to troubleshoot operating conditions.
For all Range Shift System diagnostics, refer to the flowcharts in this section.

Transmission Slips Out of the Selected 1. The air lines and fittings are loose. 1. Tighten the air lines and fittings.
Range - In-Vehicle Repair1 2. Obstructions are in the air lines. 2. Change the routing or replace the air
lines.
3. Check the operation of the filter/ 3. Replace the filter/regulator
regulator assembly assembly if the pressure at the delivery
port is not within specification.
4. The range piston is damaged 4. Replace the range piston.
5. The nut fastening the piston to the 5. Tighten or replace the nut.
shift shaft in the range shift cylinder is
loose or missing
Transmission Slips Out of the Selected 1. The teeth in the sliding clutch are 1. Replace the sliding clutch.
Range — Remove and Disassemble worn
1
Transmission 2. The shift fork is bent or worn 2. Replace the shift fork.
3. The collar on the range shift fork is 3. Replace the collar on the range shift
worn fork.
Transmission is Slow to Shift or Unable 1. The air lines and fittings are loose or 1. Tighten or replace the air lines or
to Shift into the Selected Range — leaking fittings.
In-Vehicle Repair1 2. Obstructions are in the air lines 2. Change the routing or replace the air
lines.
3. The filter/regulator assembly does 3. Replace the filter/regulator
not operate correctly assembly if pressure at the delivery
port is not within specification.
4. The piston or o-rings in the piston 4. Replace the piston or damaged
housing are damaged o-rings
5. The neutral switch is worn or 5. Test and replace the neutral switch
damaged
6. The shift knob is damaged 6. Test and replace the shift knob
Transmission is Slow to Shift or Unable 1. The output shaft is damaged 1. Replace the output shaft.
to Shift into Selected Range - Remove 2. The synchronizer springs or pins are 2. Replace the synchronizer springs or
and Diassemble Transmission1 broken or missing synchronizer
3. The synchronizer is damaged 3. Replace the synchronizer.
4. The shift shaft in the range cylinder 4. Replace the shift shaft.
is bent or broken
5. The shift fork in the range cylinder is 5. Replace the shift fork.
bent or broken
115
Transmissions

Transmission Slips Out of the Selected 1. The clutch is used incorrectly 1. Ensure the driver uses the clutch
Gear - In-Vehicle Repair correctly.
2. The linkage is binding or does not 2. Lubricate, repair, or replace the
move freely linkage.
3. The clutch is out of adjustment 3. Adjust the clutch and ensure it
engages and releases correctly.
4. The remote shift linkage is out of 4. Adjust the remote shift linkage
adjustment
5. The engine or cab mounts are loose 5. Tighten the fasteners on the loose
or damaged mounts to the specified torque.
Replace damaged mounts.
6. The driveline angles are incorrect 6. Adjust the driveline angles
7. The detent spring in the top cover is 7. Replace the detent spring in the top
weak or broken cover assembly.
Transmission Slips Out of the Selected 1. The pads on the shift fork are worn 1. Replace the shift fork.
Gear — Remove and Disassemble 2. The teeth in the sliding clutch are 2. Replace the sliding clutch.
Transmission worn
3. The fork slot on the sliding clutch is 3. Replace the sliding clutch.
worn
4. The key on the main shaft is broken. 4. Replace the key or main shaft.
5. The main shaft is twisted 5. Replace the main shaft.
Transmission is Hard to Shift or Unable 1. The vehicle is operated incorrectly 1. Ensure that the driver operates the
to Shift into the Selected Gear — In- vehicle correctly.
Vehicle Repair 2. The clutch is out-of-adjustment 2. Adjust the clutch. Ensure that the
clutch engages and releases correctly.
3. The remote shift linkage is binding 3. Lubricate, repair or replace the
or unable to move remote shift linkage.
4. The cab or engine mounts are loose 4. Tighten the fasteners of the loose
5. The detent spring is too strong or 5. Replace the detent springs.
broken
Transmission is Hard to Shift or 1. Bent shift shaft in top cover 1. Replace the shift shaft.
Unable to Shift into the Selected assembly
Gear — Remove and Disassemble 2. Burr on the shift shaft in the top 2. Replace the shift shaft.
Transmission cover assembly
3. Cracked top cover assembly 3. Replace the top cover assembly.
4. The main shaft is twisted 4. Replace the main shaft.
5. The key on the main shaft is broken 5. Replace the key or the main shaft.
6. Broken or bent shift fork on the 6. Replace the shift fork.
sliding clutch
116
Transmissions

Transmission Grinds on Initial 1. The driver does not operate the 1. Ensure the driver operates the
Engagement — In-Vehicle Repair vehicle correctly vehicle correctly.
2. The clutch is out-of-adjustment. 2. Adjust the clutch. Verify that the
clutch engages and releases correctly.
3. The clutch brake is worn, damaged 3. Replace the clutch brake. Verify
or missing that the clutch engages and releases
correctly.
4. The clutch or remote shift housing 4. Lubricate, repair or replace the
linkage is binding or unable to move linkage.
5. Worn bushings in side of clutch 5. Replace the bushings in the clutch
housing housing.
Shift Lever Locks or Sticks in Gear — 1. The remote shift linkage is out-of- 1. Adjust the remote shift linkage.
In-Vehicle Repair adjustment
2. The clutch linkage needs adjustment 2. Adjust the clutch linkage.
3. The linkage is binding or unable to 3. Lubricate, repair or replace the
move linkage.
4. The cab or engine mounts are loose 4. Tighten the fasteners on the loose
Replace the damaged mounts.
5. The shift stub lever is not engaged in 5. Reinstall the shift tower and verify
the shift sleeve the engagement of the stub lever into
the shift sleeve.
Shift Lever Locks or Sticks in 1. The shift fork in the top cover is bent 1. Replace the shift fork.
Gear — Remove and Disassemble 2. The shift shaft in the top cover is 2. Replace the shift shaft.
Transmission damaged
3. The main shaft is damaged 3. Replace the main shaft.
2, 3
Transmission Overheats — In-Vehicle 1. The oil level is incorrect 1. Fill the oil to the specified level.
2. Incorrect oil 2. Drain the oil. Use the specified oil.
4
3. The temperature gauge is damaged 3. Replace the temperature gauge.
Transmission Does Not Operate 1. The free running gears are locked 1. Replace the gears.
— Remove and Disassemble 2. The gear sets are mismatched 2. Install the correct gear sets.
Transmission 3. The timing marks on the gears are 3. Align the timing marks on the gears.
not aligned
4. The shafts are broken 4. Replace the shaft.
1
Also refer to the Range Shift System diagnostic flowcharts in this section to troubleshoot all range system problems.
2
If a noise is present along with the overheating condition, also refer to the noise troubleshooting table in this section.
3
If the oil is at the specified level and the specified oil is used, but the transmission overheats and the oil smells burned,
the transmission must be disassembled and inspected.
4
If the oil does not have a burned smell and the temperature gauge indicates overheating, remove and replace the gauge.
117
Transmissions
Range Shift System Diagnostics for

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Platform G Transmissions
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These flowcharts provide diagnostic information for
ZF-FreedomLine Platform G transmission range shift
systems. When using diagnostics to troubleshoot system
faults, it is important to follow these flowcharts step-by-
step and use the diagnostic procedures in the sequence
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118
Transmissions
Troubleshooting Flowcharts
Use the following recommended service procedures to repair and test the system. If a fault still exists, or if a new fault is
found, repeat the mechanical checks and both the low-range and high-range electrical checks until all the faults have been
repaired.
119
Transmissions
Mechanical Checks
Follow the mechanical checks flowchart to verify all mechanical systems function correctly.
Repair all mechanical issues BEFORE performing electrical checks. Figure 9.55.
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120
Transmissions
Low Range Electrical Checks

Follow the low range electrical checks flowchart to verify the low electrical system functions correctly.
Perform low range electrical checks AFTER mechanical checks and BEFORE high range electrical checks. Figure 9.56.
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Transmissions
High Range Electrical Checks

Follow the high range electrical checks flowchart to verify the high range electrical system functions correctly.
Perform high range electrical checks AFTER mechanical checks and low range electrical checks. Figure 9.57.
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122
Transfer Cases
Transfer Cases Causes of Transfer Case Component

Failure
Front Idler Bearing
DANGER
Cause of Failure
REQUIRED PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT TO Incorrect towing from the front of the vehicle without
PREVENT PERSONAL INJURY WHEN INSPECTING HEAVY removing the driveshaft from the rear output shaft of the
VEHICLE COMPONENTS. transfer case to the rear drive axle, or not removing the
rear drive axle shafts on the tires that contact with the
This section provides a parts analysis process to deter- road.
mine why transfer cases failed during operation, what to
look for when inspecting parts, and how to prevent failures What To Look For
from occurring again.
Damage to the front idler bearing is found caused by a
Most of the time, answers can be found by visually lack of lubrication. Figure 10.1.
process may require specialized knowledge or equipment. Damage to the front idler bearing cone and/or rollers is
found caused by heat and/or a lack of lubrication. Figure
Why a product fails can be difficult to determine, and a 10.1 and Figure 10.3.
Failures in models from the same manufacturer can also Damage to the front idler cup is found caused by heat
vary, so it is important to use the information presented and/or a lack of lubrication. Figure 10.2.
sis inspections. The bearing cage is destroyed. Figure 10.3.
The input shaft surface and phosphate coating for the low
gear bearing journal show eccentric wear, which means
wear shows on approximately 180° of the bearing journal,
but not on the 180° of the opposite side of the input shaft
journal. This condition indicates the low gear is rotating,
but the input shaft is not rotating; or the input shaft is
rotating at a slower speed during towing. Figure 10.4.
There could be signs of gear clash wear at the end of the
high/low clutch collar teeth on the high gear side. This
is caused by the inclination of the vehicle as it loses air
during towing. Figure 10.5 and Figure 10.6.
Usually, there are no other signs of heat present on other
bearings. This damage can occur when the transfer case is
rotating, and oil is not flowing from the lubrication pump.
If the input shaft on the transfer case is not rotating, the
oil pump and/or lubricant splash does not reach the bear-
ings during vehicle inclination while towing. Insufficient
lubricant resulting from incorrect towing procedures will
damage the front idler bearing. The transfer case can fail
during towing, or when the vehicle is in operation.
123
Transfer Cases
Prevention
Follow AMT-0155 AxleTech Towing Service Manual. To
obtain this publication, see “Service Notes” on page ii. '(6752<('
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124
Transfer Cases
Front Output Shaft

Cause of Failure
Incorrect towing from the rear of the vehicle without remov-
ing the prop shaft from the transfer case to the axle with
the wheels on the road. This will cause a spinout condition
between the front output helical gear and the front output
shaft.
What To Look For

Front output shaft and gear spinout damage caused from
12:($5
friction welding. Figure 10.7.
Front output shaft rear bearing cup is damaged from heat.
)LJXUH Figure 10.8.
Front output shaft bearing cup and cage is completely
destroyed from heat. Figure 10.8.
There is no damage to the All Wheel Drive (AWD) clutch col-
lar because it was not engaged. Heat from the other parts
caused slight discoloration of the clutch collar. Figure 10.9.
Spinout between the front output shaft journal and the
front output shaft gear caused a friction welding of the two
components as well as damage to the front output shaft
bearing.
No signs of wear on the front input shaft from the oil pump
sealing rings indicate the input shaft was not turning during
towing. Figure 10.10.
This damage is caused by the transfer case turning during
towing. The transfer case may fail during towing or while
driving the vehicle after it has been incorrectly towed.
Prevention
Follow AMT-0155 AxleTech Towing Service Manual. To
obtain this publication, see “Service Notes” on page ii.
125
Transfer Cases
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126
Notes
Notes
127

Customer Service Customer Service Fax Email
877-547-3907 877-547-3987 OE: sales@axletech.com
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+33 (0) 4 77 92 88 92 Aftermarket: aftermarket@axletech.com
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Differential Failure Analysis

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SERVICE MANUAL

Service Notes Updates

Section 4, Section 5, Section 6, Section 7, Section 8,

Asbestos and Non-Asbestos Fibers Warning

•NEVER USE GASOLINE, OR SOLVENTS CONTAINING • Set the parking brake

Repair Warnings Damaged Components

Introduction to Parts Analysis

Also, why a product failed can be diﬃcult to determine,

Premature Wear & Component Improper Maintenance Practices

A Vehicle is Operated Outside Application,

Application Miles Per Year Operating Conditions

Investigative Guidelines About the Vehicle

Inspect Damaged Parts

Failure Types and Terminology Bending Fatigue (Fatigue Fracture)

Figure 3.5 shows what happens when parts are under

7((7+%52.(1 '8(72)$7,*8($7+((/(1' (1'85$1&(/,0,7

“Blue” Brake Drum

Brinelling (Surface Fatigue) Bruising (Surface Fatigue)

Brinelling can also be caused by overloads on undersized Burnish (Brakes)

Crow’s Footing (Surface Fatigue)

Crystalline Wear Pattern

Etching (Surface Fatigue) Extreme Pressure (EP) Additives

In an axle assembly, a fatigue fracture is a common failure

Flank Cracking (Surface Fatigue)

Galling (Surface Fatigue) Gear Ratio and Torque Multiplication

Gross Axle Weight Rating (GAWR)

Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW)

Gross Vehicle Weight Rating (GVWR)

Hypoid Ring Gear Teeth

Pitting (Surface Fatigue) Premature Wear

Ratchet Marks Root Beam Fatigue (Fatigue

Reverse Bending Fatigue (Fatigue

Reverse bending is a type of fatigue that breaks a com- %($&+

Shock Load (Impact Fracture)

Some Causes of Shock Load

Figure 3.27 shows a hypoid gear seat damaged by shock

Spalling (Surface Fatigue)

When the surface (contact) fatigue load is large, failure

Torsional Fatigue (Fatigue Fracture) Torsional Vibration

DANGER Most of the time, answers can be found by visually

Causes of Drive Axle Component Failure

Vehicle Operated Outside its Application $;/(+286,1*/,)(96

Figure 4.5 shows a shaft damaged by torsional fatigue.

Figure 4.9 shows what happens when parts are under

Helical Gear Journal

Rear Side Gear Mismatched Tire Ratios

Mismatched Tandem Axle Ratios

Unapproved Vehicle or Powertrain

Improper Maintenance Practices

Low Lubricant Levels

%851(' /8%5,&$17 21',))(5(17,$/ &$6($1' 2'2535(6(17

Contaminated Lubricant Inspect the Magnetic Fill/Drain Plug

)LJXUH However, larger metal particles adhering to the ﬁll/drain

How to Inspect the Magnetic Fill/Drain Plug Metal Shavings

Bearing and Gear Tooth Fragments

Check the Oil Condition

Parts Analysis Process

Bearing Adjusting Ring

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What To Look For )LJXUH

lines. To obtain this publication, refer to “Service Notes” )LJXUH