From Hunter-Foragers

to Settled Societies

take ages to be borne to settle and to grow

—-fernard Bravde4e '4 htstory of

chieving an understanding of early human history is difficult. But

even though prehistoric peoples did not have a written language, tlw•y left
evidence of how they lived in their bones and in their artifacts, objects made
by people in the past. For example, the size and composition of skeletons can
suggest how well nourished people were. Chipped stones inclicaie they made
tools with sham edges. The remains of burnt logs show they used fire. And
since prehistoric people often buried their dead with jewelry and religious
tokens, thcy left clues about what they considcted valuable. By studying
thesc physical remains. people today can trace the movements of the earliest
humans across the glolx•, undetstand how they traded with each other, and
learn about the new technologies they developed.

Migrating Across the Globe

Ntodero humans, the group Ilojno sapiens sapiens. first appeared in Enst
Africa between 200.000 and years ago, They survived by hunting
animals and foraging for seeds. nuts, fruits. and edible roots, so they are
labeled as hunter-foragers or hunter-gatherers. Always on the search for
food. they migrated from place to place, gradually expanding the region of
human settlement If the population too dense in one atea or if the
climate shifted. they might be pushed to move, Other times, they might be
pulled to a new region by new sources of food or fresh water. As rx•ople
encountered new climates and environments, they developed new cultural
patterns and new fortns of technology.
One force pushing migration was climate change- As the climate warmed
and cooled. animal and plant habitats shifted. People adjusted by following
the animals and plants. Each time the climate cooled—a dip in the average
daily temperature of several would shift toward the
equator and glaciers would grow. covering up land. As the climate warmed,
habitats would shift away from the equator and more land would up for
occupation. As the animals and plants moved. so did people,

2 WORLD HSSTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMEta• EXAM

 one cooler so much water front into ice [hat (hc ocean
levels fell as much feet below level. The was low enough
land connected northe4ste/'11 Asia what is now Alaska- This
now submerged under lhe Bering Strait, ppovided bridge between Asia and
(Ine Anterieas. Nomadic hunters followed hoes Of animals

this land. When temperatures increws•ed and oeenfi levels rose. these
people, first Americans, were off from their Asian anecstots Over
time, they slowly moved fanher south along the
By 10,000 Ex:jssihly far earlier, humans lived on every continent
except Antaleüca, l" each region, people developed distinctive cultures.

The Paleolithic Period

early ycars af history are part of the Paleolithic Period which
2.5 million yeurs ago and ended aboul 10,000 years ago 0811.10 B.CÆJ,
Because humans wed stone tools weapons in this often called
the Stone Age. In addition 10 stone, people made from wood. animal
bones, and antlers, 'Many of their included sharp point or blade. For
example, they had digging sticks for uncovering rtxpts they could e,'it, and
they had Spears, hat'POOlis, and attCnvs for killing animals,

Adapting to the Environment As people rnigratcd in search of ajjitnals

and edible p]anls, they found LO particularly useful in
new environment they encountered, Forexample. as they moved
climates as as the they needed scrapers for cleaning flesh
oil' of animals" skins they wore t"' warmth. In the warmer regions such as the

tropics. nets for fish were panicularly valuublc. As they reached the

coasts of thc Sea and the Pacific Ocean, they built strong rafts
to venturc out onto the water. In forested they used to cut down
trees to make shelters, People udapted technology to new conditions.

MIGRATION OUT OF AFRICA

i.

iET7LEo 3
 Control of Fire One of the greatest accomplishments of people in the
Paleolithic Period was to learn to Control It changed their lives by providing

• light to allow them to see better after the sun went clown
• heat so they could live in colder climates than before

• protcction against wild animals

• smoke to pacify bees. which made obtaining honey easier

• help in hunting by •caring animals to race to their death over a cliff

Possibly the most influential use of was 10 prepare food. Cooking

fire

made protein-rich and starchy (both hunted and foraged) easier to digest
and. hence, more nutritious.

Iluntcr-Foragcr Society As early humans (Le•.eloped new technology,

they also established more complex social structures. At the center of M)Ciety
was the nuclear family, which then ex1Ntnded outward to include ties between
related families. Several related families that moved togethct in search of food
were called a kinship group. A typical group might include 20 to 40 IX>ople,
Smallcr groups might have difficulty finding enough food, Larger groups
would use up the food supply of an area more quickly. which would require
tnore frequent moving. Kinship groups were often nearly self-sufficient. 'Imey
could make most of all of what they needed to survive.
Though kinship groups traveled on their own and were close to self-
sufficient, they were not isolated. They were of a larger group of
often part
relatives called a clan. And sometitnes multiple clans combined into still larger
units called a tribe. An individual did not have to bc related to other menibers
to be considered part of a tribe. The tribes were formed for purposes of group
hunting or mutual defense from enemies and were usually led hy chiefs and
priests,
Between gtoups at each level of group, clan, and
tribe—people were also tied together by goods such as
trade. Besides trading
tools and clothing, they also traded people. A person from one group might join
another group to help balance out the size of eah group. 'Ihrough these trades
in gcX)ds and people, ideas spread. People learned new methods for making
tools, new thoughts about religion, and new infomation about the world,

Roles in Society Since early people did not leave written records, tnost
modern knowledge of them comes frotn the study or artifacts. However, in
modern times, anthropologists have also studied hunter-forager groups whose
way of life probably resembles that of earlier nomads. FJXjm these tnodern
studies, scholars have inferred that Paleolithic groups probably were relatively
egalitarian. They did not have many layer, of leaders, and only small differences
separated the poorest and the wealth icst individuals in a kimship group.
Functions in hunter-forager societies were often divided by gender: These
societieswere patriarchal, ones dominated by men, Paleolithie males took
charge of hunts, warfare, and heavy labor. Paleolithic women gathered and

4 WORLD H}STORY: PREPARING THE AOVANCEO PLACEMENT• EXAM

 The ob.3ext known sainting-s were crated 8tOut 40.CCO years

prepared food and looked aftcr thc children. Anthropologists bclicve that the
women breast-fed their children for as long as five years, a practice that pro-
vided high nutrition for the children as well as a very rudimentary form Of
family planning, (Test Prep: Write a paragraph connecting early hunter-forager
groups with such groups in Russia, Read about the Slavic peoples on page 137)
Religion and Art Anthropologists believe that people of the Paleolithic
developed a system of religious beliefs centered around the worship of gods
that were associated with the forces of nature. Ritual sacrifices to these gods
and archeological cvidcnce of burial practices suggest a belief in the afterlife
that dates back years. Evidence of artistic expression has also been
found in the form of cave paintings, which date back to years ago,
and musical instruments. such as flutes, dating to 30,000 years ago. Artistic
expression in the Paleolithic may have bcen connected to religious ceremonies.

FROM HUNTER-FORAGERS TO SETTLED SOCIET)ES

Neolithic Revolution
Around years ago B.C-E.), us the climate was wanning up
from an lee Age, collection of social and political developments coalesced
into whal is called the Neolithic Revolution, a sot of dramatic changes in
haw people lived based on the development of agriculture. These changes
are Sometimes called the i'\gricultoral Rcvolution- This "revolution" did
happen instantaneously, nor did il 002 ur eve:rYWherc at the same. time, did it
affect everyone directly For exacnpk. the Neolithic Revolution in China dales
to 5000 whereas in the Middle East, it c.an he dated to around 8000
B,C.E. It can be charae.te.rizcd by several major developments:

agriculture

2. pastoralism
3. specialization of labor

4. towns and cities

5, governments
6, religions

7, technological innovations

Agriculture Taking advantage of a warmer global climate following the

of the Age, some hunteA0rager cultures learned to grow crops by
lust lee

seeds of wild plants into the ground. They gave up their nomadic way
of to stay in one Place and Lake up the practice Of raising crops
or livesLcx:I on continual and controlled basis. As they learned 10 plant,
and harvest crops, people found they often had a surplus, or than they
needed for themselves. The development of agriculture occurred first in lands
just east Of the Mediterranean -Sea. It also occurred independently at several
otther placesand from these places spread throughout the world.
These early farmers domesticated the crops 1114t were already growing
wild in their region; wheat and barley in Southwest Asia, millet in Northern
China, rice in Southeast Asia, and maize {com) in Mesoamerica. As cultivation
of these Clops spread, natural diversity of plants in a region decreased.
With that change came reductions in the diversity of insects and animals that
depended 00 the other clops.
The availability of these farmed crops also made the diets of people Jess
diveasified- Usually people in an area would grow just one Ot' two erups, and
they would eat foods prepared with those crops at every meal, People continued
to hunt animals and 10 gather wild and nuts when seasonably available,
fruits

but overall the farmers' diets laekvd the variety Of full-time hunter-foragers. By
cultivating just one or two plants, It',ey eliminated Other plants that had
part oi people's diets.

Pastoralism Even before people selLlcddown as fanners, people in Africa.

Europe, and Asia had begun to tame wild animals so they could be brought
up to live with humans, process called The firs( animal that

6 HISTOÜ:
people domesticated was the doe. Initially, humans ernvloyed dogs to assist
with hunting provide warnings about the approach of dangerous
to
animals. Coats were clumestie.atel neit. They provided both meat and milk.
Other animals were soon after—cattle, horses, sheep. pigsf and
chick-coy—that provided labor or food, As people to keep larger herds
of animals, they began to lead them from one grazing land to another- 'Their
way af tife is nomadic pastoralismi or simply pastoralisnu because it
called
was based On people moving herds Of animals from pasture to pasture. Like
and loragers, pastoraliw,s were mobile. Like farmers.. pastoralists
their food supply, Pastoralism first en•terged in gru.;sland regions
of Africa and

Domestication of Plants and Animals

Area

•12,000 9,001)
g.CE. J.C.E. o.c.i. S.C.E. B.C„E.

Europe • Sheep

• Figs

Goals

Middle r_30öts

• Sheep
• Wheel:

ASia • Millet

Americas • Maue • dears

Like farmers, postorkEists made the Shift away from hunting-foraging

hoping to Creete a dcpcndable food supply for themselves. And like
pustora[ists affected lhe environment dramalica]ly. At limes,
Pastoralists would allow their animals to graze an so heavily that the
animals would destroy the grass. When rains came, without grass to hold the
soil in place, soil would 'evash away the laud became infertile.
Ilowever, pastorulisls Were unlike farmexs in une important 'Way: While
farmers settled in one place, pestota]ists moved regulady- Hence, while
farmers accumulated belongings, pastoralists usuully owned very little. And
farmers had only a little contact wirh people in other communities.
Pastoralists were in contact with new items end new ideas, Over the past

TO SETTLEOSOCIETIES 7
 10.000 years pitstoralists have pluyed an important tole in spreading ideas and
trading goods among people, (Test Create t chart COmparing Paleolithic
pastcnalists with later pastoralists as thc Mongols„ See page 241
Specialization Of Labor The growth of agriculture and pastoralism may
reduced and anim al dive but the surpluses Of food lhey pvadljecd
brought enormous changes to how people lived- The productivity or the new
ways of IW0Llucine up sorne people to focus on Other roles i n scvictyv
Some people Ixe;unearfisuns, people made objects people needed, Of
merchants, people who buy and sell goods for a living. Others Frec.ame soldiers,
religious leaders, or politicul leaders. This process of allowing people to focus
on limited tasks is called the of labor,
The impact of specialization of labor was far-reaching, Frccd from work
on made weapons, 100s, and jewelry'. A merchant class,
the farms, artisans
engaged with trading these objects, emerged. The surplus of food and goodst
combined with the needs Of rctigious ecremonics and a rudimentary system
of taxation, led to the invention of writing, which was first used io keep
records trades and tax payments, People later to use writing to
communicate with one another, to record descriptions of evenL}S and to write
down religious stories. The development Of writing marked the transition from
pehistory to history-

Growth or Villages, Towns, and Cities The food surplus encouraged

bolli a growth in population and an opportunity to do work not welated to
producing fcyad, Permanent dwellings and villages and towns multiplied as
tribesabandoned their nomadic lifestyles eventually, some cities emerged,
With the Changc in food production carne social stratifieafiort. means that
some people a:cumtilated weulth in the form Of jewelry and other coveted
items and 'by LVliiding larger and The idea of private
better decorated tlOLlSCS,
propeny incu•asingly imponant, People with mole ueallh oc more
By-wet' to the surplus formed an elite. In general. the elites were
-One Of humankincltq first cities was Jericho, which •was built on the west
bank Of the Jordan River, The oldest evidence of human settlement there dates
from atunut 91110 B.C-EL Another ancient city. Huyuk, ili present-day
Turkey, was founded in 7500 B.C.E, along a river that hus since dried up. The
city existed for about 2.(YYJ years, but its well-preserved Jemains h:we helped
modern txyople undcn€lüljd life long ago. Although t:nnh cities werc significant
population centers, and while Jericho has tremendous significance in lhe Judeo-
Christian tradition, neither city became a major site of an emerging civilization,
Governments The surplus offaod also led to the creation of governmenud
institutions, People had to work together Lo clear land and, in many places,

provide irrigation to water the crops, To coordinate (hcse effons required

govejnmcnl. And if the community produced a surplus powerful leaders were
required to supenise how iL was used, and soldiers were nccvled to protect
itfrom other groups, Priests were needed, got only to supervise religious
ceremonies, bot also to explain how the behavior and rulings of leaders were
based on religious doctrine,

8 WOftLO HISrORY•. THE PLACEMENT* EXAM

 The leaders of farming communities aj7d towns dcvclopcd the curliest
of govemment. Those who owned the most land or livestock became
wealthiest the most ['x•werful- They became the leaders Of local

governments.
Rqligions Given the unptedictable nature of weather and longer-term
climate changesf Neotithie experienced temporary interruptions
probtemsjugt 2s farmers do today. Mmeover, agricultural land could lose its
feltilily through overfnrming unless was left fallow' Or' it was fertilized* usually
it.

by the spreading manure, Pastures could erode due to overgrazing. or

the continual eating of grasses or their roots, without allowing to regjow.
As people tried the spirits of nature to help with their and
herds, religious ceremonies became more elaborate. These ceremonies became
so important and elaborate, svecjal class of pries's and priestesses
10 conduct them,

In some religious beliefs became highly organized before

600 B.C.E. For example.. alone the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea.
[he I lebje.ws emerged under the leadership of Abraham, -lhcy were urnong
dipst relig groups to worship only one deity. a practice called monotheism,
In South Asia, the Vedic religion included a variety of deities and a heavy
emph,uis on rituals, whit is IrilT1, teacher tutmed Zotaastcr inspired
the religion of which focused on the eternal battle two
one good onc cvil,

IOhnological Innovations Societies adlÆnce.l as people adopted new

tools skills. In some cases, advunces were probably made in one
place. In other cases. they were made in several places independently. EiLher
way, most people learned about new technology through trade, or oLher
fot:ns of contact with other societies:

• To score audcany water, they invented watc.rpraofclay pots, Pcwp]e

shaped pots out of wet clay and then hardened. them in Sometimes
people decorated the pots before firing by etching designs on them, Since
these pots ate one of the artifacts that has lasted thousands years,
they provide insight into how people lived and what they thought was

• People improved on Lhe chilling stick, creating a plow, The plow could
he pulled by oxen or animals, which made culcivating crops much
easier, In addition. turning over the soil disrupted the growth of weedsi
which enabled crops to grow better and increased their yield.

• Thedevelopmcnt of the whecr with an axle Ivvolulioniå,ed transportation

and trade. A
wheeled curt coold transport a loud with about percent
of the effort ncedcd to drag it, People could transport cvcrythir,e
easily, grain for ovct'seas (fade to stones for building monumental
"rchitecture. Adding wheels to a plow made planting crops easier,

SOCI ETIES 9
 • The production of tea,'ijes, items made of cloth, included several steps.
Weavers. who were usually Women. learned to spin hair from animals
or fibers from plants into threads and then weave the tluvad.s into cloth.
Workers would often decorate the textiles by dying the threads and make
ing patterns. All of this work was usually done in the home.

• People gradually learned metallurgy, the science of the study of metals.

They replaced their stone tools and weapons with ones made from metal,
a process made easier as they learned to heat metals with fire. They first
used copper, which they found in a pure state in the ground. Through
experimentation, they learned that Jnelting tin and copper together made
a stronger metal, bronze. This metal mati•ed such an advance that it gave
the rx•riod a new name: the 13mnze Age, which began at different loca-
tions at different times but generally between 3300 and 2300 B.C-E.

The First Civilizations

•ne seven developments of the Neolithic Revolution that began around 8000
B.C.E. created the foundation for a new fonn of human society to emerge over
several thousand years. This new form is civilization, a large SKEiety with cities
and powerful states. In early civilizations, many people continued to hunt and
forage, oftenmixing those activities with farming or hetdrng.
Trends that began to emerge in the Neolithic Revolution became
even stronger in the early civilizations, For example, society became more
stratified into clearly different socio-economic classes, human impact on the
environment became more intense, government and religious and military
institutions became larger and more cotnplex, and grew
trade increased. Elites
more powerful as they lx•came increasingly wealthy, The gap l*tween the
rich and the poor grew wider. and the relative power of men and women in
scRicty diverged more noticeably. (Test Pmp: Write a paragraph comparing
the Neolithic Revolution with the Industrial Revolution. Sec pages 421—433.)
The first four civilizations that grew out of the Neolithic Revolution
developed indelx•ndently in river valleys seattcred around the earth. The first

one was Southwest Asia. in the valleys of the Tigris and the Euphrates,
in
a region called Mesopotamia. The next three wcre in the Nile River valley
in Egypt, the Huang He (Yellow) River valley in China, and the Indus River
valley in India. envo other early civilizations, in Mesoamerica and the Andes
Mountains. were not tied closely to a major river valley
All six of these civilizations developed ways of life. such as language,
religious beliefs, and economic practices, would heavily influence
that
successor civilimtions in their regions. Because of their influence, they arc
examples of core andfoundational

10 WORLD HISTORY: PREPARING FOR THE ADVANCED PLACEMEto• EXAM

 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES: WAS FARMING A MISTAKE?

Scholars of prehistoric life disagrcc about the bcncfits and costs of the
development of agriculture and pastoralism. Biologist and geographer
-JaredDiamond called the development of agriculture the "worst mistake
in the history of the human race." He argued that reducing the variety of
food in people's diets increased malnourishment- Relying on fewer food
sources made peoptc more susceptible to famine. Living in concentrated
scttlemcnts increased cvcryone's risk for disease. Together, Diamond
concluded, these changes reduced the average life span.
In contrast. psychologist Steven Pinker argued
evolutionary
that agriculture and pastoralism reduced violence. He cited studies
that suggest that hunter-forager societieshad high murder rates and
frequent warfare, These societies were dangerous because they iackcd
governments strong enough to maintain peace,
Evolutionary anthropologist Jay Stcck saw both negatives and
positives in the Neolithic Revolution. From a study of 9,000 skeletons
from ancient Egypt, he found that hunter-foragers who lived before the
agricultural revolution averaged 5 feet, 8 inches tall. However, those
who lived in the first sevcral thousand years after the dcvelopmcnt of
(arming averaged 4 inchcs shortcr. Still. he noted the long•tcrm benefits
of agriculture: "Without the surplus of food you get though farming.
we couldn't have the runaway technological innovation we see today."

KEY TERMS BY THEME

ENVIRONMENT STATE-BUILDING SOCIAL STRUCTURE

overfarming Jericho kinship group
overgrazing Catal Huyuk clan
tribe
CULTURE ECONOMICS patriarchal
artifacts textiles artisans
Homo sapiens sapiens specialization of labor merchants
Paleolithic Period copper social stratification
Neolithic Revolution bronze priests
monotheism hunter-forager priestesses
Bronze Age agriculture
civilization surplus
core and foundational domestication
nomadic pastoralism

FROM HUNTER-FOR-AGERS TO SErtLED 11