Г.Е.Мірам, В.В.Дайнеко, Л.А.

Тарануха,
Guennadi E. Miram, Valentyna V. Daineko,
М.В.Грищенко, О.М.Гон
Lyubov A. Taranukha, Maryna V. Gryschenko,
Oleksandr M. Gon

ОСНОВИ ПЕРЕКЛАДУ
BASIC TRANSLATION Курс лекцій з теорії та практики перекладу
для факультетів та інститутів
міжнародних відносин
A course of lectures on translation theory
and practice for institutes and departments Редактор англійського тексту Н. Брешко
of international relations

English text editor: Nina Breshko Рекомендовано Міністерством освіти і науки України
як навчальний посібник для студентів факультетів
та інститутів міжнародних відносин

Ж32
ю Мірам
ш Основи перекладу
 Kyiv Київ
Elga Ельга
Nika- Ніка-Центр
Center 2002
2002
УДК 81(075.8)
ББК81я73

PREFACE
Рецензенти:
Доктор філологічних наук, професор В.І.Карабан (Київський
національний університет ім. Тараса Шевченка) When a language is taught to students of non-linguistic specialities -
Кандидат філологічних наук, доцент К.С.Серажим (Київський so-called Language for Special Purpose (LSP) - this fact is usually taken
національний університет ім. Тараса Шевченка) into account by the authors of language manuals and results in special
manuals either intended for a particular profession (for example, English
Навчальний посібник «Основи перекладу» є першою частиною
for Law Students) or covering a range of similar occupations (e. g.,
курсу лекцій з теорії та практики перекладу, призначеного для
Technical English, Financial English, etc.). As a rule, LSP Manuals focus
стедентської аудиторії відповідних факультетів вищих навчальних
students' attention on peculiar professional vocabulary and phrasing,
закладів, враховує мовну та комунікативну специфіку підготовки
comprise training text materials pertaining to particular profession and
спеціалістів широкого гуманітарного профілю, зокрема, explain grammar rules and stylistic patterns conspicuous for certain
міжнародних відносин, міжнародного права, міжнародної professional speech variety. Also, LSP Manuals include numerous
інформації, міжнародних економічних відносин. translation exercises involving texts of specific professional orientation.
Посібник підготовлено кафедрою іноземних мов Інституту Although translation is part and parcel of any LSP Manual,
міжнародних відносин Київського національного університету however, with several rare exceptions (e. g., Military Translation Manual
імені Тараса Шевченка. Колектив авторів: д.ф.н., проф. Мірам Г.Е., by L. Ne-lyubin et al.) there are no translation manuals specifically
к.ф.н. доц. Дайнеко В.В., викл. Тарануха Л.А., викл. Грищенко М.В., intended for students of non-linguistic specialties and this Manual is an
к.ф.н., доц. Гон О.М. attempt to fill the gap. We think that there are several reasons that might
БІБЛІОТЕКА justify our venture. First and most of all, translation is an effective tool
Луганського державного that assists in matching language communication patterns of the speakers
Гриф надаШШГШтЄ§Є*вЧ!й»?й6№Я"Щауки України. of different languages in a specific professional field, especially such
Лист № 14ІЛЖЇЙ1^і] communication-dependent one as international relations. This aspect of
translation teaching becomes even more important under the language
development situation typical of New Independent States such as
Ukraine. Besides, general linguistic subjects related to translation are not
in the curriculum of the international relations students and we included
in our Manual several lectures that would improve general linguistic
awareness of the students, moreover that we consider this information a
necessary prerequisite for proper understanding of translation. Last, but
not the least the Manual comprises in its training part (exercises after
each lecture and the Appendix) English vocabulary and speech patterns
© Г.Е.Мірам, В.В. Дайнеко, Л.А.Тарануха, with their Ukrainian equivalents which are in standard circulation in
ISBN 966-521 -160-9 М.В.Грищенко, О.М.Гон, 2002 diplomatic practice, international law and international finance areas.
© Оригінал-макет. Видавництво "Ніка-
Центр", 2002

5
 The theoretical approaches to translation that we use in our Manual are Lecture 1. LANGUAGE AND EXTRALINGUISTIC
based on the most widely accepted modern translation theories, both Western
and of the former Soviet Union. An attempt was made, however, to present them
WORLD
to the readers in a concise and simplified form, which in our opinion is justified
by the purpose and target audience of the Manual. Special accent is made,
This Lecture:
however, on communicational theory since it highlights those aspects of
• _ introduces the notions of a linguistic sign, a concept and a denotatum;
translation process which are of vital significance for translation teaching. The
• establishes relations between the above sets of elements;
Manual discusses both translation and interpretation since both skills are desired
• shows the difference between the denotative and connotative meanings of
from international relations specialists. a linguistic sign;
The Manual is targeted to the audience of translation teachers and students • describes the mental concept of a linguistic sign;
of non-linguistic higher educational establishments and international relations • describes the relations of polysemy and synonymy, and
institutes and faculties, in particular. • explains some causes of ambiguity of translation equivalents.

* * x-
It is worthwhile to begin lectures on translation with a short introduction to
the phenomenon of language, since not knowing the relationship between
Acknowledgments language and extralinguistic world one can hardly properly understand
translation.
We are grateful to the Foreign Languages Chair of the
Institute of International Relations (Kyiv Taras Shevchenko
National University) for discussions and valuable comments on •* The relation of language to the extralinguistic world involves three
the Manual. We are thankful to Mr. A. Kobzarenko for style- basic sets of elements: language signs, mental concepts and parts of the
editing of Ukrainian translations. extralinguistic world (not necessarily material or physically really
We would like to thank Prof. V. Karaban and Ass. Prof. existing) which are usually called denotata (Singular: denotatum).
K. Serazhim for reading and suggesting valuable comments on
the Manual.
We highly appreciate and gratefully acknowledge the The language sign is a sequence of sounds (in spoken language) or
support of the Administration of the Institute of symbols (in written language) which is associated with a single concept in the
International Relations. minds of speakers of that or another language.
It should be noted that sequences smaller than a word (i.e. morphemes) and
those bigger than a word (i.e. word combinations) are also language signs rather
Authors than only words. Word combinations are regarded as individual language signs
if they are related to a single mental concept

6 7
 which is different from the concepts of its individual components (e. g. best The relationship between similar concepts and their relevant language signs
man).1 may be different also in different languages. For example, among the words of
The signs of language are associated with particular mental concepts only in different languages corresponding to the concept of a women mentioned above:
the minds of the speakers of this language. Thus, vrouw, Frau, femeie, and vrouw, Frau, femei, and kobieta, the first two will include in the concept of a
kobieta are the language signs related to the concept of a woman in Dutch, woman that of a wife whereas the last two will not.
German, Romanian and Polish, respectively. It is important to note that one can The differences in the relationship between language signs and concepts
relate these signs to the concept of a woman if and only if he or she is a speaker (i.e*. similar concepts appearing different to the speakers of different languages
of the relevant language or knows these words otherwise, say, from a dictionary. and even to different speakers of the same language) may explain many of the
One may say that language signs are a kind of construction elements translation difficulties.
(bricks) of which a language is built. To prove the necessity of knowing the
language sign system in order to understand a language it is sufficient to run the
ШЬ The mental concept of a word (and word combination) usually
following test: read with a dictionary a text in a completely unknown language
consists of lexical meanings, connotations, associations and
with complex declination system and rich inflexions (say, Hungarian or
grammatical meanings. The lexical meanings, connotations, and
Turkish). Most probably your venture will end in failure because not knowing associations relate a word to the extralinguistic world, whereas the
the word-changing morphemes (language signs) of this language you won't find grammatical meanings relate it to the system of the language.
many of the words in a dictionary.
The mental concept is an array of mental images and associations related
to a particular part of the extralinguistic world (both really existing and
For example, the German word haben possesses the lexical meaning of to
imaginary), on the one hand, and connected with a particular language sign, on
have with similar connotations and associations and in its grammatical meaning
the other.
it belongs as an element to the German grammatical system of the Perfect
The relationship between a language sign and a concept is ambiguous: it is
Tense. One may note similar division of the meanings in the English verb to
often different even in the minds of different people, speaking the same
have or in the French verb avoir.
language, though it has much in common and, hence, is recognizable by all the
members of the language speakers community. As an example of such Thus, a lexical meaning is the general mental concept corresponding to a
ambiguity consider possible variations of the concepts (mental images and word or a combination of words.2 To get a better idea of lexical meanings lets
associations) corresponding to the English word engineer in the minds of take a look at some definitions in a dictionary3. For practical pur-
English-speaking people when this word is used, say, in a simple introductory
phrase Meet Mr. X. He is an engineer.
2
It is, of course, a simplified definition but we think it serves the purpose of
this Manual. In order to read more on this complex subject you may refer to:
' In this as well as in many other instances we make use of definitions which Salomon L.B. Semantics and Common Sense. - New-York, 1966; Chafe W.L.
seem the most suitable for the explanation of translation but might be considered Meaning and the Structure of Language. - Chicago; London, 1971.
oversimplified should they be kept to in a comprehensive semantic analysis. 3
Hornby A. S. Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English. -
8 Oxford, 1982.
9
poses they may be regarded as descriptions of the lexical meanings of the The concepts being strongly subjective and largely different in
words shown below: different languages for similar denotata give rise to one of the most
mercy - 1. (capacity for) holding oneself back from punishing, or difficult problems of translation, the problem of ambiguity of
from causing suffering to, somebody whom one has the right or power to translation equivalents.
punish; 2. piece of good fortune, something to be thankful for, relief; 3.
exclamation of surprise or (often pretended) terror.
noodle - 1. type of paste of flour and water or flour and eggs Ш* Another source of translation ambiguity is the polysemantic
prepared in long, narrow strips and used in soups, with a sauce, etc.; 2. nature of the language signs: the relationship between the signs
fool. and concepts is very seldom one-to-one, most frequently it is one-to-
blinkers (US = blinders) - leather squares to prevent a horse from many or many-to-one, i.e. one word has several meanings or several
seeing sideways. words have similar meanings.
A connotation is an additional, contrastive value of the basic usually
designative function of the lexical meaning. As an example, let us compare
the words to die and to peg out. It is easy to note that the former has no
connotation, whereas the latter has a definite connotation of vulgarity. These relations are called polysemy (homonymy) and synonymy,
An association is a more or less regular connection established between accordingly. For example, one and the same language sign bay
the given and other mental concepts in the minds of the language speakers. corresponds to the concepts of a tree or shrub, a part of the sea, a
As an evident example, one may choose red which is usually associated compartment in a building, room, etc., deep barking of dogs, and reddish-
with revolution, communism and the like. A rather regular association is brown color of a horse and one and the same concept of high speed
established between green and fresh {young) and (mostly in the last corresponds to several language signs: rapid, quick, fast.
decade) between green and environment protection. The peculiarities of conceptual fragmentation of the world by the
Naturally, the number of regular, well-established associations
language speakers are manifested by the range of application of the
accepted by the entire language speakers' community is rather limited -
the majority of them are rather individual, but what is more important for lexical meanings (reflected in limitations in the combination of words
translation is that the relatively regular set of associations is sometimes and stylistic peculiarities). This is yet another problem having direct
different in different languages. The latter fact might affect the choice of relation to translation - a translator is to observe the compatibility rules of
translation equivalents. the language signs (e. g. make mistakes, but do business).
The relationship of language signs with the well-organized material
world and mostly logically arranged mental images suggests that a
Ш* The most important fact, however, to be always born in mind in language is an orderly system rather than a disarray of random objects.
translation is that the relation between words (language signs) and The language system and its basic rules are the subject of the next
parts of the extralinguistic world (denotata) is only indirect and lecture.
going through the mental concepts4.

For more information see, for example, a classical work of Ogden C.K., 11
Ivor A. Richards. The Meaning of Meaning. - London, 1949.
10
 Ex. 3. Consider regular associations between English words (concepts) in the
03 QUESTIONS word combinations given below, suggest Ukrainian equivalents of the latter.
1. What are the basic elements of the relationship between a language Observe similarity or difference of the associations in the Ukrainian
and extralinguistic world? equivalents.
2. What is a language sign, a concept and a denotatum? Give white knight; white heat; yellow press; common sense; die hard; soft
definitions. Show the relation between them? (hard) figures; pipe dream; red tape
3. What is a lexical meaning, a connotation and an association? Give
definitions and examples. Ex. 4. Suggest the missing parts of the expressions below; say where the
4. What is the range of application of a word? Give examples. associations are similar in English and Ukrainian.
5. What are the main sources of translation ambiguity stemming from " .... Tom, ... Tom; ... Rouges, ... Rouge; ... sky, .... sky; .... apple; ...
the sign-concept relationship? Apple, apple ..., apple ...., Apple ..., Apple, apple ..., apple ...

Ex. 5. Take three homonyms and synonyms in Ukrainian, translate them

into English, point to the cases of similar and different use.
(§J EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Using a dictionary define the lexical meanings of the following words
and word combinations. Find Ukrainian or English equivalents. Compare
the lexical meanings of the English words and their Ukrainian equivalents
and vice versa.
a) anticlimax; arms; bottom; bout; concert; concoct; date; detail;
end; engineer; fulcrum; fun; the gist; give and take; world; worldly; peer
pressure; peer-bonded; rapport; task force; track record; power broker;
odds; home; war.
b) аматор - любитель - дилетант; аналізувати - розглядати -
розбирати; банкір - фінансист; засновник - основоположник -
фундатор - батько; малий - невеликий - нечисленний - обмежений
- мізерний - нікчемний; неймовірний - неправдоподібний - дикий
- парадоксальний - анекдотичний; простий - щирий - простодушний
- грубий - звичайний.

Ех. 2. Describe connotations of the following words and word combinations.

Suggest Ukrainian translations with similar connotations.
malady - disease - illness; unusual - off-beat; efforts - travails; work
- toil, gun - piece; corpse - stiff; rich - well-to-do; quit - buzz off; liqui
date - iron out.

12 13
 •* In any language system two general planes are usually distinguished: the
Lecture 2. LANGUAGE SYSTEM: PARADIGMS formal plane, comprising spoken or written language signs (words and word
combinations as well as minor elements, morphemes) and the semantic,
AND SYNTAGMAS comprising mental concepts (meanings) the language signs stand for.

This Lecture: - As a simplified example one may again take words from a dictionary
• introduces the concepts of a system; {formalplane) and their definitions (semanticplane):
• introduces the notion of language as a system existing in formal and corps - 1. one of the technical branches of an army; 2. - military force made
semantic planes; up of two or more divisions
• attributes linguistic signs to morphological, lexical or syntactic levels;
correct - 1. true, right; 2. - proper, in accord with good taste and
• depending on meaning or function, defines what paradigm a unit belongs;
conventions.
• analyzes syntactic and semantic valence;
• shows how different syntagmas are activated in English and Ukrainian in This example is, of course, simplified since the real semantic content
the course of translation; corresponding to a word is much more complex and not that easy to define. The
• gives a definition of translation as a specific coding-encoding process. general relationship between these planes has been described in the previous
lecture.

So, there is a system underlying seemingly random signs of a language.

One may note, for instance, that not all the words are compatible with each •► A language system is traditionally divided into three basic levels:
other, their range of application has certain limitations, and through their lexical morphological (including morphs and morphemes as objects), lexical
meanings and associations they may be united into individual groups. (including words as objects) and syntactic (comprising such objects as
For example, to take an extreme case, in English speech one will never find elements of the sentence syntax such as Subject, Predicate, etc.)
two articles in a row or in an official obituary an English speaker will never say
that the minister pegged out. An evident example of grouping by meaning and
association gives the group of colors in which even a little child will easily
include black, red, blue, etc. For example, -tion, -sion are the English word-building morphemes and
Thus, one may conclude that there is some order organizing hundreds of belong to objects of the morphological level, book, student, desk as well as any
thousands of words making it easier to memorize and properly use them in other word belong to objects of the lexical level, and the same words (nouns)
speech. This order is called the system of a language. Any system is an book, student, desk in a sentence may become Subjects or Objects and thus
organized set of objects and relations between them, but before discussing belong to the set of syntactic level objects of the language.
objects and relations in the system of a language it is worthwhile to describe the
traditional approach to language system descriptions.

14
15
 The following paradigms were used to form these sentences and the
•► At each language level its objects may be grouped according to following paradigm elements were activated in syntagmas during their
their meaning or function. Such groups are called paradigms. formation (viz. Table below)

Names of Paradigms Used Elements Activated in the Sentence

to Form the Sentences English Ukrainian
For example, the English morphemes s and es enter the paradigm of
Personal Pronouns Paradigm he він
Number (Plural). Words spring, summer, autumn, and winter enter the
Verbs Paradigm Verb Tense used, come приїздив
lexico-semantic paradigm of seasons. All verbs may be grouped into the
syntactic (functional) paradigm of Predicates. Paradigm Particles Paradigm Past Indef. минулий час
One may note that one and the same word may belong to different Prepositions Paradigm Noun to none
levels and different paradigms, i.e. the language paradigms are fuzzy sets Paradigm Adjectives to до
with common elements. As an example, consider the lexico-semantic Paradigm Adverbs Paradigm Italy, spring Італія, весна
paradigm of colors the elements of which {black, white, etc.) also belong Noun Cases Paradigm each кожний
to the syntactic paradigms of Attributes and Nouns. Adjective Cases Paradigm none зазвичай
It is important to note that the elements of language paradigms are Common Case род. відм.
united and organized according to their potential roles in speech (text) none род. відм.
formation. These roles are called valences. Thus, words black, white, red,
Comparing the paradigm sets used to form the above English and
Ukrainian sentences and paradigm elements activated in the syntagmas
of these sentences one may easily note that both the sets used and the set
elements activated are often different.
They are different because English and Ukrainian possess different
language systems. It goes without saying, that this fact is very important
for translation and explains many translation problems.
etc. have a potential to define colors of the objects (semantic valence)
and a potential capacity to serve as Attributes in a sentence (syntactic
valence).

•► The paradigms of the language brought together form the system

of the language which may be regarded as a kind of construction
material to build sentences and texts. Language paradigms are
virtual elements of the language which are activated in syntactically
interdependent groups of sentence elements called syntagmas.

master-servant relationship5
In simple language a syntagma is a pair of words connected by the As an example, consider sentences in English and in Ukrainian:
He used to come to Italy each spring and Зазвичай кожної весни він ШЬ Any language has a particular multi-level organization: its
приїздив до Італії. elements are organized in sets (paradigms) at various levels and a
language speaker is using the elements of these sets to generate a
message intended for communication with other speakers of this
language and entirely incomprehensible for those who have no
command of this language.

Б І Б Л і З "і 6КЙ
7?2№
5
This is an approach typical for Immediate Constituents (IC) Grammar.
16
P Луганське! о
державного
ЦЗГОГІЧНОГО
університету мені Тараса
Шевченка
 The latter fact is easy to illustrate by a sentence in a language Ј?3 QUESTIONS
presumably unfamiliar to the readers of this Manual. Consider Dutch
1. What are the two main planes of a language? What is the
sentence: Dat vat ik niet. One will understand it if he knows that:
relationship between them?
ik is a Personal Pronoun, first person singular (English I); 2. What levels are traditionally distinguished in a language? Give
vat is the first person singular of the verb vatten (English catch, get); examples of the objects of each level.
niet is the negation (English not, no); 3. What is a language paradigm? Give examples of lexico-semantic and
dat is a Pronoun (English it, this). grammatical paradigms.
Then being aware of the relevant English words (paradigm 4. -What is a syntagma? Qive a definition.
elements) one may render this sentence in English as I do not get it. 5. What is the language system? fiive a definition.
From the above one may conclude that a language is a code
understood only by its users (speakers)6. Then, may be, translation is a
process of decoding a message in one code and encoding it in another (§} EXERCISES
which is understood by another group of users using a different code.
However, this is the subject of the next lecture. Ex. 1. Give the elements ofthe following lexico-semantic paradigms.
a) furniture, colors, time, times of the day, seasons
b) вибори; судова система; переговори; фінанси

Ех. 2. Compare the grammatical paradigms which enter the following

English words and their Ukrainian equivalents.
house, man, easy, do-little, easy-going, white

Ex. 3. In the text below, name as many lexico-semantic and grammatical

paradigms as you can find.

BOTH SIDES WILL MAKE SURE AMERICAS CULTURE WARS

CONTINUE The Internaitonal
Herald Tribune. April 12, 2001. ByNeal Gahler.
The culture wars that so enlivened the 1980s and 1990s in America
are said to be over. The savage fights that raged full-scale as recently as
two years ago over gay rights, abortion, gun control, environmental
protection and general permissiveness, and that culminated in the
Antietam of culture battles, Bill Clinton's impeachment and trial, seem to
have just petered out.
6
This viewpoint is widely accepted by computational linguistics (viz., e.;
Grishman R. Computational Linguistics: An Introduction - Cambridge, 1987). 19
18
 Pundits say the combatants, exhausted from all the verbal shelling, have Lecture 3. LANGUAGE AS A MEANS
accepted compromise rather than press on for total victory, and this has led to a
new spirit of accommodation. One observer writes that the «crackle of cultural
OF COMMUNICATION
gunfire is now increasingly distant.»
It makes you wonder what country they're living in.
This Lecture
• introduces the concepts of:
Ex. 4. Compare the paradigm sets used to form the following English and
_• (a) communication;
Ukrainian sentences and paradigm elements activated in the syntagmas of these
• (b) components communication consists of (message, message
sentences.
sender, message recipient);
Jack is an early riser. Джек рано встає. • (c) ways of communicating;
• shows the difference between bilingual communication and translation;
• shows which tools are helpful in coping with ambiguity of messages and
gives their definitions.

Thus, a language may be regarded as a specific code intended for

information exchange between its users (language speakers). Indeed, any
language resembles a code being a system of interrelated material signs
(sounds or letters), various combinations of which stand for various messages.
Language grammars and dictionaries may be considered as a kind of Code
Books, indicating both the meaningful combinations of signs for a particular
language and their meanings.
For example, if one looks up the words (sign combinations) elect and
college in a dictionary he will find that they are meaningful for English (as
opposed, say, to combinations ele or oil), moreover, in an English grammar he
will find that, at least, one combination of these words: elect college is also
meaningful and forms a message.

Ш* The process of language communication involves sending a message

by a message sender to a message recipient - the sender encodes his
mental message into the code of a particular language and the recipient
decodes it using the same code (language).

20 21
 The communication variety with one common language is called the the Bible, a code,a book, etc. as a noun) but one will easily and without
monolingual communication. any doubt understand this message:
If, however, the communication process involves two languages 1. as Book tickets! in a situation involving reservation of tickets or
(codes) this variety is called the bilingual communication. 2. as Give that book! in a situation involving sudden and urgent
Bilingual communication is a rather typical occurrence in countries necessity to be given the book in question
with two languages in use (e. g. in Ukraine or Canada). In Ukraine one So, one of the means clarifying the meaning of ambiguous messages
may rather often observe a conversation where one speaker speaks is the fragment of the real world that surrounds the speaker which is
Ukrainian and another one speaks Russian. The peculiarity of this usually called extralinguistic situation.
communication type lies in the fact that decoding and encoding of mental Another possibility to clarify the meaning of the word book is
messages is performed simultaneously in two different codes. For provided by the context which may be as short as one more word a (a
example, in a Ukrainian-Russian pair one speaker encodes his message book) or several words (e.g., the book I gave you).
in Ukrainian and decodes the message he received in Russian. In simple words a context may be defined as a length of speech (text)
necessary to clarify the meaning of a given word.

•► Translation is a specific type of bilingual communication since ^ The ambiguity of a language makes it necessary to use situation
(as opposed to bilingual communication proper) it obligatory and context to properly generate and understand a message (i. e.
involves a third actor (translator) and for the message sender and encode and decode it) Since translation according to
recipient the communication is, in fact, monolingual. communicational approach is decoding and encoding in two
languages the significance of situation and context for translation
cannot be overestimated.

Translation as a specific communication process is treated by the 7

See also: Kade O. Kommunikationswissenschaftliche Probleme
communicational theory of translation discussed in more detail der Translation // Grundfragen der Uebersetzungwissenschaft. - Leipzig, 1968.
elsewhere in this Manual7. 22
Thus, a language is a code used by language speakers for
communication. However, a language is a specific code unlike any other
and its peculiarity as a code lies in its ambiguity - as opposed to a code
proper a language produces originally ambiguous messages which are
specified against context, situation and background information.
Let us take an example. Let the original message in English be an
instruction or order Book!. It is evidendy ambiguous having at least two
grammatical meanings (a noun and a verb) and many lexical ones (e. g.,
 There is another factor also to be taken into account in
communication and, naturally, in translation. This factor is background
information, i. e. general awareness of the subject of communication.
To take an example the word combination electoral college will mean
nothing unless one is aware of the presidential election system in the
USA.
Apart from being a code strongly dependent on the context, situation
and background information a language is also a code of codes. There
are codes within codes in specific areas of communication (scientific,
technical, military, etc.) and so called sub-languages (of professional, age
groups, etc.). This applies mosdy to specific vocabulary used by these
groups though there are differences in grammar rules as well.
23
 As an example of the elements of such in-house languages8 one may (??) QUESTIONS
take words and word combinations from financial sphere (chart of
accounts, value added, listing), diplomatic practice {credentials, charge 1. What is language communication? What actors does it involve?
d'affaires, framework agreement) or legal language (bail, disbar, plaintiff). 2. What is monolingual communication? What is bilingual
All said above is undoubtedly important for translation and will be communication? Give examples.
3. Describe translation as a special kind of bilingual communication.
discussed in more detail elsewhere during this lecture course, however, it
Why is it called special?
is high time to answer the seemingly simple question «What is 4. What is peculiar about a language as a code? Which factors specify
translation?». And this is the subject of the next lecture. the meaning of a message?
5. What is context, situation and background information? Give
definition of context. Give examples of extralinguistic situations and
items of background information that would clarify a message.
6.

(§] EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Suggest the elements of the context that clarify the meanings of the
italicized words in the following phrases (messages). Translate into
Ukrainian and English, accordingly.
a) You are doing well\ Water is deep down the well. Top-to-bottom
structure. The submarine lies on the sea bottom. College vote. University
college. Drugs plague modern society. The drug is to be taken with meals.
b) Він пишався своєю рідною землею, що дала світу так багато
видатних людей. У цій частині країни всі землі придатні для
вирощування пшениці. На чорній землі біла пшениця родить. На
чиїй землі живеш, того й воду п'єш. Колос плідний до землі гнеться,
а пустий - вгору дереться. Земля багата - народ багатий.

Ех. 2. Describe situations and/or items of background information that

clarify the meanings of the italicized words in the following phrases
(messages). Translate into Ukrainian.
Bottoms up! Her Majesty man-o'-war 'Invincible'. Bugs in the room.
Global net.

1
The term used by some scholars for sub-languages. 25
24
Ex. 3. Describe situations and/or items of background information that gime. There have been gripping soap operas, none more so than the
clarify the meanings of the following Ukrainian words. Suggest English double resignations of Peter Mandelson. But the damage done has been
equivalents. to the actors, not to the country at large. There has not been the economic
презентація, КВН, бомж, зачистка, прем'єріада, ЖЕК. calamity or civil crisis which destroys governments and wrecks
countries.
Ex. 4. Translate the text into Ukrainian. Suggest items of background
The Blair government has not inflicted upon us a Suez, a Three Day
information necessary for its proper translation.
week or a Winter of Discontent. There has not been the vicious social
HAS THIS BEEN A TERM OF ENDEARMENT? The conflict of the inner-city riots and the miners' strike in the Eighties. There
Observer, Sunday April 29, 2001. Andrew Rawnsley, columnist of the year. has not been anything approaching the ruinousness of Thatcher's poll tax
Tony Blair's government has made history. What it has yet to or Major's Black Wednesday. Just by being reasonably adept at ruling,
demonstrate is the capacity to change the country's destiny. the Blair administration is lifted above the average run of postwar
A week is a long time in politics; 48 months is an eternity. Four years governments.
ago this Wednesday, Tony Blair stood before the black door on his sun- The next test of any government is whether it has been true to its
dappled first day in office. 'Enough of talking,' said the man of action. 'It promises. Generally, the so-distant People's Prime Minister has fulfilled
is time now to do'. 'Strip off the hype which has gushed from Number 10 the rather low expectations the people had of him. Blair was elected on a
ever since; blow away the froth of the daily headlines. How has his paradoxical prospectus. The subtext of his campaign was: everything is
government actually done? Let us try, as clinically as is possible, to assess appalling; we will change it very slowly. The Conservatives may have left
the performance of New Labour. office in May 1997, but their term of power did not properly end until
The starter test of any government, I would suggest, is that it is just two years ago, when Gordon Brown finally released the Government
reasonably accomplished at governing. This sounds an undemanding from the Tory spending corset. Transformed schools and hospitals await
hurdle, but it is a first fence many previous governments have failed to realisation. If not delivered in the second term, the punishment of the
surmount. The Blair government has made serious, self-inflicted electorate may be terrible.
mistakes -the Millennium Dome blasts them still. The unexpected has Blair's most reckless pledge was to restore faith in public life. Back
come close to blowing them over. Foot and mouth has not been - I am on May Day 1997, even the most cynical observer did not anticipate they
being charitable - a textbook example of how to handle an emergency. would have quite so much sleaze in them. In other respects, this
The Government teetered on, the lip of the abyss during last autumn's government has delivered more than it promised. The last manifesto
fuel protests. It is natural that we should curse their blunders more than pledged nothing about child benefit - it has actually risen by 25 per cent.
we offer credit for the mistakes they have avoided. But the Blair They did not claim to be able to create full employment, yet they have
government has eschewed perpetrating any spectacular errors. achieved that historic goal of Labour.
The novices to red boxes who took office four years ago have Any set of rulers with an eye on claiming a large place in posterity
broadly run a competent government. Its life has been punctuated by must aspire to be more than competent deliverers. The superior rank of
crises, which have been invariably generated not by dissident government is occupied by those which make changes lasting beyond
backbenchers or off-message Ministers, but erupted from the inner core t h ei r lifetime. It is not conceivable that the Conservatives could unravel
of the re-
26 27
devolution to Scotland and Wales, an aspiration of progressive Blunkett and Alistair Darling, along with the Institute for Public Policy
governments dating back to Gladstone. Research and the Fabian Society, all claim paternity over baby bonds.
One of the ironies of Blair is that, for all his relentless emphasis on When one good notion has to be spread around four Cabinet Ministers
the modern, his bigger achievements have been based on ambitions set and two think tanks, it tells us that New Labour is not bursting with bold
by long-dead predecessors. A settlement in Ireland has eluded every and innovatory ideas.
premier since the nineteenth century. The minimum wage was a Labour This brings me to the last and most demanding test. The outstanding
goal when Keir Hardie founded the party. The Tories have been governments are those which alter the country's destiny. The project to
compelled to accept it, just as they have been forced to support secure the exclusion of the Conservatives from power for a generation
independence for the Bank of England. This government could come to a has withered as Blair's enthusiasm for changing the Westminster voting
full stop today - and would leave enduring legacies. system has shrivelled. In terms of the private goals he set for his
There are other elements of the Blair record which the Right accepts premiership, the most evident failure has been Europe. Towards Europe
because they are as amazed as many on the Left are disgusted that they as a whole, and towards the single currency especially, public opinion is
have been enacted by a Labour government. more aggressively hostile than ever.
Which takes us to my next test of a government: has it permanently The greatest wrangling between the Prime Minister and the
altered the framework of political choice? The verdict here is mixed. Chancellor about the next manifesto is not over what it says about tax,
With a little help from the grisly pantomime that is William Hague's but about the warmth of the phraseology towards the single currency.
Conservative Party, New Labour commands the centre ground and The fiercest struggle about that is within Mr Blair himself. Will he hedge
swathes of territory on both flanks. Harold Wilson's unrequited dream of his self-perceived destiny with deadening qualifications or will he
making Labour'the natural party of government' is closer to realisation by articulate the belief that his epochal role is to make Britain a fully
Tony Blair than under any previous Labour Prime Minister. engaged partner in Europe?
But he has achieved it more by following the consensus than by The Blair government has demonstrated that it can make history.
challenging the status quo. His government has pandered to illiberality Only in its second term will we discover whether it has the capacity to
more often than it has confronted prejudice. It has become a little less change the future.
bashful about making the case for the active state and a fairer society, but
remains coy of full candour.
Since the Third Way was giggled to death, it has become ever clearer
that this is a government which moves by inches rather than leaps. There
is nothing intrinsically wrong with that: small steps, provided there are
enough of them, can take you on a long journey.
Baby bonds are an eyecatching device to give the poor an asset stake
in society. But this is the safest sort of radicalism. The first beneficiaries
of the scheme will not come into possession of their modest endowments
until Mr Blair is eligible for his pension. He, Qordon Brown, David

28 29
 In translation we deal with two languages (two codes) and to verify
the information they give us about the extralinguistic objects (and
Lecture 4. TRANSLATION DEFINITION
concepts) we should consider extralinguistic situation, and background
information.
Having considered all this, we shall come to understand that as an
In this Lecture the reader will:
object of linguistic study translation is a complex entity consisting of the
• find the definition of translation as an object of linguistic study in terms
following interrelated components:
of process and outcome;
• find the definitions of languages translated from and into.
-a. elements and structures of the source text;
The lecture also describes:
b. elements and structures of the target language;
• stages of the translation process;
c. transformation rules to transform the elements and structures of
• the role of verification process.
the source text into those of the target text; systems of the languages involved
in translation;
Usually when people speak about translation or even write about it e. conceptual content and organization of the source text;
in special literature they are seldom specific about the meaning. The f conceptual content and organization of the target text;
presumption is quite natural - everybody understands the meaning of the g. interrelation of the conceptual contents of the source and target
word. However, to describe translation intuitive understanding is not texts.
sufficient - what one needs is a definition.
Translation means both a process and a result, and when defining In short, translation is functional interaction of languages9 and to
translation we are interested in both its aspects. First of all, we are study this process we should study both the interacting elements and the
interested in the process because it is the process we are going to define. rules of interaction.
But at the same time we need the result of translation since Among interacting elements we must distinguish between the
alongside with the source the translated text is one of the two sets of observable and those deducible from the observables. The observable
observed events we have at our disposal if we intend to describe the elements in translation are parts of words, words, and word combinations
process. In order to explain translation we need to compare the original of the source text.
(source) text and the resulting (target) one. However, translation process involves parts of words, words, and
However, the formation of the source and target texts is governed by word combinations of the target language (not of the target text, because
the rules characteristic of the source and target languages. Hence the when we start translating or, to be more exact, when we begin to build a
systems of the two languages are also included in our sphere of interest. model of future translation, the target text is yet to be generated). These
These systems consist of grammar units and rules, morphological and translation components are deducible from observable elements of the
word-building elements and rules, stylistical variations, and lexical source text.
distribution patterns (lexico-semantic paradigms). In other words, one may draw the following conclusion:
Moreover, when describing a language one should never forget that
language itself is a formal model of thinking, i.e. of mental concepts we
use when thinking.

The definition suggested by V.Komissarov. See: Комиссаров В.Н. Линг-

вистика перевода. - M., 1981.
30
31
 standing the way translation is done. In the case we have just discussed
Ш* During translation one intuitively fulfills the following the translation model is verified against the relevance of the concepts
operations: corresponding to the word chips in all its meanings to the concept of the
a. deduces the target language elements and rules of equivalent word frying (Is it usually fried? or Is it worth frying?).
selection and substitution on the basis of observed source text
elements;
b. builds a model consisting of the target language elements se Ш* Verification against semantic and grammatical contexts is
lected for substitution; performed either simultaneously (if the grammatical and semantic
c. verifies the model of the target text against context, situation references are available within a syntagma) or the verification against
and background information; semantic context is delayed until the availability of a relevant
d. generates the target text on the basis of the verified model. semantic reference which may be available in one of the following
rather than in one and the same sentence. Cases when the
grammatical, semantic or situational references are delayed or missing
present serious problems for translation.
Thus, the process of translation may be represented as consisting of
three stages:
1. analysis of the source text, situation and background
information, The examples of specifying contexts are given in Table below.
2. synthesis of the translation model, and
long stick - long run grammatical and semantic context
3. verification of the model against the source and target context
in one syntagma
(semantic, grammatical, stylistic), situation, and background information
resulting in the generation of the final target text. The results are shown in the table - grammatical and semantic context
Let us illustrate this process using a simple assumption that you Put this book on the table in one sentence
receive for translation one sentence at a time (by the way this assumption The tanks were positioned in semantic context in different
is a reality of consecutive translation). specially built shelters and the tank sentences
For example, if you received: operation proved successful. The
«At the first stage the chips are put on the conveyer» as the source enemy could not detect them from
sentence. Unless you observe or know the situation your model of the the air.
target text will be: With these simple examples we want to stress a very important fact
«На першому етапі стружку (щебінку) (смажену картоплю) for translation: the co-occurring words or the words situated close to each
(нарізану сиру картоплю) (чіпи) кладуть на конвеєр». other in a source text have invisible pointers indicating various kinds of
Having verified this model against the context provided in the next grammatical, semantic, and stylistic information. This information is stored
sentence (verification against semantic context): in human memory, and the principal task of a translator is to visualize all
«Then they are transferred to the frying oven» you will obtain: «На of this information.
першому етапі нарізану сиру картоплю кладуть на конвеєр». In the examples with chips that were just discussed we used so called
It looks easy and self-evident, but it is important, indeed, for under- deduction modeling, that is we built our translation on the basis of our
knowledge about the languages involved in translation and the knowl-

32 33
edge of «the way things are in life» (e.g. that it is hardly reasonable to fry fried J??) QUESTIONS
potatoes or fragmented stones). We intuitively formulated hypotheses about
translation of certain words and phrases and then verified them. 1. What interrelated components does translation include as an object of
So, speaking very generally, when we translate the first thing we do is linguistic study?
analyze the source text trying to extract from it all available information 2. Give short definition of translation (after Komissarov).
necessary for generating the target text (build the intermediate model of the 3. What are the interacting elements in translation? What elements are
target text), then verify this information against situation and background observable? What elements are deducible?
knowledge and generate the target text. 4. What interrelated operations does one fulfill in the process of translation?
For example, let the source text be: 5. What three stages does one distinguish in translation?
Europe's leaders trust that these criticisms will pale into insignificance
when the full import of expansion begins to grip the public mind {§} EXERCISES
Then, omitting the grammatical context which seems evident (though, of
course, we have already analyzed it intuitively) we may suggest the following Ex. 1. Suggest situation and/or background information necessary to clarify the
intermediate model of the target text that takes into account only semantic meanings of the italicized words in the following sentences. Suggest Ukrainian
ambiguities: equivalents for the italicized words and explain your choice. Translate the texts
Європейські лідери/лідери європейської інтеграції/ вважають/ вірять/, into Ukrainian and English, respectively.
що ця критика вщухне/поступово зійде нанівець/, коли важливість 1. He stopped for gas at an all-night Texaco with a clerk who seemed
поширення (Євросоюзу) почне завойовувати громадську думку/, коли uncommonly friendly.
суспільство почне краще усвідомлювати важливість розширення 2. Here was the most powerful country on earth in suspended animation: in
Євросоюзу/. the age of Internet, the age of instant information, the race between Al Gore and
On the basis of this model we may already suggest a final target text George W. Bush was frozen by a laborious manual recount.
alternative10: 3. All that the unsuspecting Bilbo saw that morning was an old man with a
Лідери європейської інтеграції вважають, що ця критика поступово staff.
зійде нанівець, коли суспільство почне краще усвідомлювати важливість «Good morningl» said Bilbo, and he meant it. The sun is shining, and the
розширення Євросоюзу. grass was very green. But Gandall looked at him from under his long bushy
It is important to bear in mind that in human translation (unlike automatic) eyebrows that stuck out further than the brim of his shady hat.
the intermediate representation of the target text will comprise on the conscious «What do you mean?» he said. «Do you wish me a good morning, or mean
level only the most problematic variations of translation which one cannot that it is a good morning whether I want it or not; or that you feel good this
resolve immediately. morning; or that it is a morning to be good on?
We seldom notice this mental work of ours but always do it when «All of them at once,» said Bilbo. And a very fine morning for a pipe of
translating. However, the way we do it is very much dependent on general tobacco out of doors, into the bargain. (Tolkien)
approach, i.e. on translation theories which are our next subject. 4. Як поет, він вперше серйозно заявив про себе під час
«відлиги». Час минає, гласність стала асоціюватися з конкретним
історичним періодом перебудови, на зміну їй прийшов термін про-
It goes without saying that this target text alternative is not the only one -
10
35
many other alternatives are possible.
34
зарість. Спілкуючись з іноземцями, дізнаєшся, що для багатьох із it houses the National Archives, the Departments of State and
них Україна - це Чорнобиль і Шевченко, зробимо паузу ... Commerce, and the Internal Revenue Service. The grand neo-classical
футболіст. faces of these huge, foursquare buildings hark back to a time before
federal bureaucracy became a term of contempt.
Ех. 2. Build an intermediate model of translation and suggest final target The project began with an idealistic vision. The concept was to pull
text for the source text below. together beneath one roof a cultural center and agencies for international
He could almost feel the campfire glow of the screen, an trade. What a wonderful idea: a government building dedicated to the
international sameness of news that must accompany businessmen historical and continuing interaction between global trade and cultural
everywhere. exchange. Sadly, the cultural components, mainly performance spaces,
were largely eliminated from the project in 1992. As realized, the Reagan
Ex. 3. Translate into Ukrainian. Suggest elements of the context that helped Building houses some small government agencies, private business
you choose the Ukrainian equivalents. offices, shops, restaurants and the Woodrow Wilson Center. Essentially,
it is a speculative real estate venture built on public land. The major
WASHINGTONS NEW SALUTE TO COMPROMISE disappointment is that the building itself makes no cultural contribution.
New York Times September 6, 1998, by Herbert Muschamp The site is a vast irregular space, just south of the Post Office
Bad things happen to good architects. James Ingo Freed is the man Building, left vacant when work on the Triangle was halted in the late
who designed the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, one of the 1930s. For decades, the lot was used for parking. In plan, it looks
most powerful buildings of our time. It gives me no pleasure to report something like a guitar after a mad rock star has smashed off part of the
that Freed's most recent project, the Ronald Reagan Building, is a handle. Like the Holocaust Museum, this building has a dual personality.
disappointing piece of work. The building has intermittent merit. It is an Its neo-classical limestone exterior belies the modern spaces within. At
impressive feat of urban planning. It also offers some fine interiors and the Holocaust Museum, however, Freed subverted the classical
an excellent outdoor space. Its flaws are mostly the result of the design vocabulary to create a gaunt, hauntingly sinister facade, an image that
constraints under which Freed was compelled to operate. He was evokes the official face of a totalitarian regime.
expected to design a neo-classical edifice of stone, as if in 1998 that Here, he gives us neo-classicism straight, without even a whiff of
concept were still able to fill anything larger than a Bart Simpson frame postmodern irony. There are rusticated stone bases, ionic columns,
of values. As someone once said, the scariest sentence in the language is, arches both round and square, two little round tempietti, windows with
«Everyone has their reasons.» This building is such an overwhelming triple-layered stone reveals. This overwrought classicism is the kind that
monument to compromise that one comes away resenting the talent, Louis Sullivan, in 1893, predicted would set American architecture back
intelligence, materials, time and space absorbed by its creation. by 50 years. Do I hear 100? Inside the building, Freed has attempted to
Officially called the Ronald Reagan Building and International Trade realize the modernist ideals of structure and clarity that have guided most
Center, this edifice is second in size only to the Pentagon among federal of his work. Beyond the main entrance, on 14th Street, is the building's
buildings. It fills in the last empty plot of ground in the Federal Triangle, main public space, a vast atrium with an exposed metal framework that
the 70-acre urban slice that fans out between the Mall and Pennsylvania rises toward a glass roof in the form of a half-cone.
Avenue. Physically and symbolically, the Triangle both joins and The arrangement is similar to Cesar Pelli's Winter Garden at Battery
separates the executive and legislative branches of government. Park City: glazed atrium; palatial staircase; a ring of shops and
The area is slightly larger than Vatican City, though its turn-of-the- restaurants; art gallery. But instead of looking out toward the Hudson
century image did not occupy high moral ground. A century ago, the River,
Triangle was called the Hooker District for the many brothels there. Now
36 37
 ceptance. The city has been denied the knowledge Freed has gained in a
this atrium faces an imposing mezzanine adorned with a brilliant neon
lifetime of distinguished work, integrity and intellect. As a former dean
sculpture by Keith Sonnier.
of the Illinois Institute of Technology, once headed by Mies van der
Freed's other major departure from beaux arts precedent is the
Rohe, Freed needs no architecture critic to remind him that Mies was the
interior circulation. Instead of axial symmetry, the organization of halls
heir to neo-classicism in this century, and that the Reagan Building was
and corridors reflects the site's irregular shape. Imagine the diagonal
an opportunity to rethink neo-classicism in the light of that history. All
crisscross of an airports runways and you gain some impression of the
those pilasters and cornices are just so much fireworks, easy applause.
effect. The plan is mildly disorienting but never boring. This is not a
This should have been a glass building, a literal and metaphoric
bureaucratic Kafkaland. What remains of the buildings initial program of
reflection on Classicism and the City Beautiful movement. It would have
performing arts is a small but exquisite auditorium, its walls festooned
taken courage to insist on a modern building - or maybe just a serious
with swags of copper-colored fabric, acoustically functional and visually
phone call to Sen. Daniel Patrick Moynihan, whose influence on public
ravishing. A large illuminated grid of white opaque glass - an Adolf Loos
works is potent. What is most deplorable about this building is that it
marquee - rises two stories in the hall outside the theater.
pitches Classicism back into exhausted debates over Traditional vs.
Behind the building is a large plaza, the most successful element of
Modern, Conservative vs. Progressive, debates that debased esthetic
the design. Fronting upon the grand hemicycle of the Post Office
currency in the 19th century and have certainly not created architectural
Building, the design counters this curve with a long diagonal wall to
value in the comic post-modern mimicry of historical styles.
create a dynamic public space. The Reagan Building reaches out toward
As Freed must know, his design for the lavits Center in New York is
the hemicycle with a pavilion that will house the Woodrow Wilson
more authentically classical, in the principles it conveys of structure,
Center. The pavilion's attentuated curve is balanced in the center of the
clarity, detail and proportions, in its relationship to context and urban
plaza by a two-story tempietto designed for an upscale restaurant. The
history, in its expression of personal conviction. Or if Moynihan was
space offers a grand procession toward a Metro stop and is adorned by a
otherwise indisposed and a masonry building had to be the order of the
perfectly scaled sculpture by Martin Puryear.
day, Freed might have modeled this structure on the radical Classicism of
The work resembles at once an exclamation point and a punching
Boullee and Ledoux, and thus enriched the Federal Triangle with an
bag: a fine symbol of the emotions evoked by a government of, by, for
architectural reminder of our country's roots in the Enlightenment. Those
and against the people. Best of all is a long arcade facing out on the
abstracted, 18th-century designs are also among the historical sources of
courtyard, and stretching its full length. It is divided into shallow bays,
Freed's architecture.
each outfitted with a lamp of exaggerated length. The spatial proportions
In the Holocaust Museum, Freed, who was born in Nazi Germany,
may remind visitors of a first childhood trip to Washington. Recently, I
rose to the great creative challenge of drawing upon his intense personal
listened to the recording of Maria Callas Juilliard master class in which
experience of history's greatest evil. With greater fidelity to his own sense
she says good-bye to her students. Callas tells them that it makes no
of architectural diction, phrasing and feeling, Freed might have created a
difference whether she keeps on singing or not. They are the younger
building that assured modern democracy's capital city of its own place in
generation, they must keep on going in the proper way, with courage,
time.
phrasing and diction: not with fireworks, or for easy applause, but with
the expression of the words, and with feeling.
If I hear her correctly, what she is saying works to take the measure
of this building. External authority - a musical score, an urban context,
the classical tradition - can be properly grasped only by an artists
courageous acceptance of her internal authority. This building lacks that
ac- 39

38
 According to this interpretation a transformation starts at the syntactic level
when there is a change, i.e. when we alter, say, the word order during
Lecture 5. BASIC TRANSLATION THEORIES translation. Substitutions at other levels are regarded as equivalencies, for
instance, when we substitute words of the target language for those of the
source, this is considered as an equivalence.
The lecture discusses: In the transformational approach we shall distinguish three levels of
• transformational approach; substitutions: morphological equivalencies, lexical equivalencies, and syntactic
• denotative approach: equivalencies and/or transformations.
• communicational approach; In the. process of translation:
and shows both the strength and limitations of each. ♦ at the morphological level morphemes (both word-building and word-
changing) of the target language are substituted for those of the source;
In this lecture we shall discuss the most common theoretical approaches to ♦ at the lexical level words and word combinations of the target language
human translation paying special attention to their limitations and ability to are substituted for those of the source;
explain the translation process. ♦ at the syntactic level syntactic structures of the target language are
Roughly, the human translation theories may be divided into three main substituted for those of the source.
groups which quite conventionally may be called transformational approach, For example, in the process of translation, the English word room is
denotative approach, and communicational approach. transformed into Ukrainian words кімната or простір or French words
The transformational theories consist of many varieties which may have chambre or espace or German words Zimmer or Raum.
different names but they all have one common feature: the process of translation The syntactic transformations in translation comprise a broad range of
is regarded as transformation. structural changes in the target text, starting from the reversal of the word order
in a sentence and finishing with division of the source sentence into two and
more target ones.
•^ According to the transformational approach translation is viewed as the The most common example of structural equivalencies at the syntactic
transformation of objects and structures of the source language into those of level is that of some Verb Tense patterns, e.g. English to German: (shall (will)
the target. go —> werde/werden/wird gehen).
The above examples of transformations and equivalencies at various levels
are the simplest and, in a way, artificial because real translation transformations
are more complex and often at different levels of languages involved in
Within the group of theories which we include in the transformational
translation.
approach a dividing line is sometimes drawn between transformations and
This kind of transformation is especially frequent when translation
equivalencies11.
involves an analytical and a synthetic language, e. g. English and Ukrainian.
From the above you may conclude that according to the transformational
See, e. g.: Бархударов Л. С. Язьік и перевод. - M., 1975; Латьішев Л.К.
1
approach translation is a set of multi-level replacements of a text in one
Курс перевода. - М., 1981; Латьішев Л.К. Текст и перевод. - М., 1989; Рец-
кер Я.И. Теория перевода и переводческая практика. - М., 1974; Ширя-ев language by a text in another governed by specific transformation rules.
А.Ф. Синхронний перевод. - М., 1979; Марчук Ю.Н. Методн моделиро-
вания перевода. - М., 1985; Марчук Ю.Н. Проблеми машинного перевода. - 41
М., 1983.
40
 vidual components (words and word combinations): sea - море, tonight-
However, the transformational approach is insufficient when the original сьогодні ввечері, is warm — тепле.
text corresponds to one indivisible concept which is rendered by the translator In the second instance, however, equivalence between the original sentence
as a text in another language also corresponding to the relevant indivisible and its translation is occasional (i.e. worth only for this case) and the concept,
concept. pertaining to the whole sentence cannot be divided into individual components.
For instance, the translation of almost any piece of poetry cannot be The indivisible nature of the concept pertaining to the second example may
explained by simple substitution of target language words and word be proved by literal translation of both source and target sentences - Тільки
combinations for those of source language. персонал and Service room. Service - Тільки or room -персонал are hardly
This type of translation is characteristic of any text, written or spoken, regular equivalencies (i.e. equivalencies applicable to other translation
rather than only for poetry or high-style prose and the denotative approach is an instances).
attempt to explain such translation cases.
The communicational theory of translation was suggested by O. Kade and
Though denotative approach to translation is based on the idea of
is based on the notions of communication and thesaurus. So, it is worthwhile to
denotatum (see above the relationship of signs, concepts and denotata), it has
define the principal terms first.
more relevance to that of a concept.
Communication may he defined as an act of sending and receiving some
information, which is called a message
It should go without saying that this definition is oversimplified and not all
•► According to denotative approach the process of translation is not just communication terms used here are standard terms of communication and
mere substitution but consists of the following mental operations: information theories. Our purpose, however, is to describe the act of
♦ translator reads (hears) a message in the source language; communication in the simplest possible terms and to show translation as a part
♦ translator finds a denotatum and concept that correspond to this of this act.12
message; Information, which is sent and received (communicated) may be of any
♦ translator formulates a message in the target language relevant to the kind (e.g. gestures, say, thumbs up), but we shall limit ourselves to verbal
above denotatum and concept. communication only, i.e. when we send and receive information in the form of a
written or spoken text.
Naturally enough when communicating we inform others about something
we know. That is in order to formulate a message, we use our system of
It should be noted that, according to this approach during translation we
interrelated data, which is called a thesaurus11.
deal with similar word forms of the matching languages and concepts deduced
We shall distinguish between two kinds of thesauruses in verbal
from these forms, however, as opposed to the transformational approach, the
communication: language thesaurus and subject thesaurus.
relationship between the source and target word forms is occasional rather than
regular.
To illustrate this difference let us consider the following two examples: See more in: Естественннй язьік, искусственнме язьїки и информа-
(1) The sea is warm tonight- Сьогодні ввечері море тепле. ционньїе процессьі в современном обществе. - М.. 1988; Попов З.В. Об-
(2) Staff only - Службове приміщення. щение с ЗВМ на естественном язьіке. - М.,1982.
In the first instance the equivalencies are regular and the concept, See more on thesauruses in: Нариньяни А.С. Лингвистические про-
pertaining to the whole sentence may be divided into those relating to its indi- цессорьі и представление знаний. - Новосибирск, 1981; Никитина СЕ.
Тезаурус по лингвистике. - М., 1978.
42
43
 Language thesaurus is a system of our knowledge about the However, it is difficult to overestimate the importance of the
language which we use to formulate a message, whereas subject communicational aspect in the success of translation.
thesaurus is a system of our knowledge about the content of the message. To understand this better let us consider an example of message
Thus, in order to communicate, the message sender formulates the formulation (encoding), message translation (encoding/decoding), and
mental content of his or her message using subject thesaurus, encodes it message receipt (decoding).
using the verbal forms of language thesaurus, and conveys it to the Let the original message expressed by a native speaker of English
message recipient, who decodes the message also using language thesaurus (encoded using the English language as a code to convey the mental
and interprets the message using subject thesaurus as well. This is a content of the message) be:
simple description of monolingual communication. Several new schools appeared in the area.
It is very important to understand that the thesauruses of message Let us assume then that the message sender, being a fisherman and
sender and recipient may be different to a greater or lesser degree, and using relevant subject thesaurus, by schools meant large number of fish
that is why we sometimes do not understand each other even when we swimming together rather than institutions for educating children, and
think we are speaking one and the same language. the correct translation then had to be:
So, in regular communication there are two actors, sender and У районі з'явились нові косяки риби whereas the translator who
recipient, and each of them uses two thesauruses (Although they use the presumably did not have relevant information in his subject thesaurus
same language their underlying knowledge bases may differ). translated schools as institutions for educating children:
In special bilingual communication (i.e. translation), we have three У районі з'явились нові школи, which naturally lead to
actors: sender, recipient, and intermediary (translator). misunderstanding (miscommunication).
The translator has two language thesauruses (source and target one) The above example shows a case of miscommunication based on the
and performs two functions: decodes the source message and encodes the insufficiency of extralinguistic information. However, there are also cases
target one to be received by the recipient (end user of the translation). of miscommunication caused by the insufficiency of linguistic
information.
This example is, of course, an exaggeration, but it clearly illustrates a
Ш* O. Kade's communicational theory of translation describes the dividing line between linguistic and extralinguistic information in
process of translation as an act of special bilingual communication in translation as visualized by the communicational approach to translation.
which the translator acts as a special communication intermediary, Thus, the communicational approach to translation, though saying
making it possible to understand a message sent in a different little about translation as such, highlights a very important aspect of
language. translation.

•^ According to communicational approach translation is a message

One may note that the communicational approach pays special sent by a translator to a particular user and the adequacy of translation
attention to the aspects of translation relating to the act of depends on similarity of their background information rather than only
communication, whereas the translation process as such remains on linguistic correctness.
unspecified, and one may only presume that it proceeds either by a
transformational or denotative path (see their relevant descriptions
above).

44 45
 Ex. 3. Translate into Ukrainian using both transformational and denotative
1??J QUESTIONS approaches. Suggest reasons for your choice of a particular approach.
1. What are the basic theoretical approaches to translation? SPRING-CLEAN
2. What is translation according to the transformational approach? The Times, March 162001
3. What are the steps involved in translation according to the denotative
approach? The Clinton foreign policy is in for an overhaul For a President who
4. What are the principal differences between transformational and took office with the reputation of being almost exclusively interested in
denotative equivalencies? domestic policy, George W. Bush has moved with remarkable speed and
5. What is translation according to the communicational approach? concentration to distance his Administration's foreign and security
What is the key to successful translation according to this approach? policies from those of the Clinton era. Almost every major aspect of
America's international profile is under intensive scrutiny. Even on
missile defence, where there is no doubting President Bush's
f§) EXERCISES determination to press ahead, if possible with the assent and co-operation
of America's allies and of Russia but if need be without, analysts have
Ex. 1. Compare the Ukrainian text and its English translation, find been sent back to the technical and diplomatic drawing boards. But it is
mismatching text elements. Suggest the approach used by the translator. already clear how different will be the priorities and style of this
Слово може обманути. Очі, руки, ритм серця - ніколи... Задля Administration.
цієї правди якась дитина сьогодні вперше одягне пуанти і стане до It will be scrupulously polite, as Tony Blair found, but on substance
станка... І з тої миті, якщо вистачить їй волі і бажання, кожен день it will be a good deal less emollient than the Clinton White House. It will
власним різцем на власному тілі буде годинами «відсікати все have a preference for the bilateral over the multilateral; and it is deeply
зайве»... sceptical of the Clintonite mantra of «constructive engagement» with
Words deceive, while the eyes, hands and heart never do... Learning governments, such as China's, North Korea's or even Russia's, which in
this simple truth, another youngster dons her toe shoes and approaches the words of the Secretary of State, Colin Powell, «do not follow
the bar for the first time... From this very moment, if she has enough will international standards of behaviour». The new Administration may also,
and desire, she will start shaping her body several hours a day... although the Bush team does not yet, and may not in future, speak with
one voice, be more reliable to deal with than the Clinton White House,
Ex. 2. Translate into Ukrainian using the transformational approach and which was disconcertingly prone to abrupt policy shifts.
observing syntactical transformations of the italicized text fragments. This is no «new look» team. Mr Bush has drawn his biggest hitters
No bail for South African police. from his fathers generation, and in so doing has created a novel variation
Bail should be denied for six white police officers arrested after a on the tensions, familiar from the days of Henry Kissinger, between the
videotape showed them setting dogs on alleged illegal immigrants, beating State Department, Defence and the National Security Adviser. Both
them and shouting racial slurs, Justice Minister said Wednesday General Powell at State and, to a lesser extent, Condoleezza Rice at
National Security are finding themselves outpaced by the formidable
duo of Donald Rumsfeld at Defence and Richard Cheney, who shows no
sign of settling into the conventional near-anonymity of the vice-
presidency. Both
46 47
men view the present through the prism of the Cold War and its immediate Lecture 6. TRANSLATION RANKING
aftermath and are more at home assessing «the true threats facing America» than
they are with the rhetoric of opportunity. Those threats are, in the new
conspectus, heavily concentrated in Asia, where China is seen not as a «partner» The lecture deals with:
• various ranks of translation;
but a potential strategic challenge and North Korea - with which Mr Bush has
• means to ensure adequate translation which have been suggested by
cancelled plans for talks and in effect told Pyongyang that the road to different scholars and translation ranks;
Washington lies through Seoul - as an unpredictable, unreformed menace. • fields of application and hierarchy of transformational, denotative and
Chinas conciliatory reaction goes some way towards proving the wisdom of communicational approaches depending on type of translation;
this more sceptical approach. Time was when Beijing would have taken loud • priorities in training translators;
offence at being told that its Foreign Minister must wait in the White House • meaning, equivalence and extralinguistic information as three basic
queue behind Japans lame duck Prime Minister; instead, yesterday, it hastened to components of translation;
issue its own invitation to Mr Bush. Its chief arms negotiator, Sha Zukang, has • the use of different approaches depending on translation variety.
even announced that China will not contest US plans to deploy a missile defence
system in Asia to protect US troops there - a with its hitherto shrill opposition to
Even in routine translation practice one can see that there are different
missile defence in any form. With Russia showing interest in missile defence and ranks of translation, that one rank of translation consists of rather simple
European Union resistance slackening, China fears being left out in the cold. substitutions whereas another involves relatively sophisticated and not just
Above all, it wants to dissuade the US from equipping Taiwan, as it is inclined to purely linguistic analysis.
do, with anti-missile defence systems. Several attempts have been made to develop a translation theory based on
There is some risk that Europeans will misinterpret Washington's different translation ranks or levels as they are sometimes called. Among those
intentions. On European defence, a muted tone should not be mistaken for one of the most popular in the former Soviet Union was the «theory of
assent to EU plans for a rival military structure to Nato; the US will accept no translation equivalence level (TEL)» developed by V. Komissarov14.
such thing. A second mistake would be to see «realism» towards Russia as any; According to this theory the translation process fluctuates passing from
formal inter-language transformations to the domain of conceptual
there is more intense US scrutiny of Moscow in Washington than there has been
interrelations.
for some time. US foreign policy is undergoing a thorough spring-cleaning.
V. Komissarov's approach seems to be a realistic interpretation of the
Foreign governments would do well to turn out their own attics.
translation process, however, this approach fails to demonstrate when and why
one translation equivalence level becomes no longer appropriate and why, to get
a correct translation, you have to pass to a higher TEL.

See: Комиссаров В.Н. Слово о переводе. - M., 1973; Комиссаров В.Н.

14

Лингвистика перевода. - М., 1981.

48 49
 Ideas similar to TEL are expressed by Y. Retsker'3 who maintains that any Besides, you may observe evident similarity between the transformational
two languages are related by «regular» correspondences (words, word-building approach and primary translation ranks within theories suggesting the ranking of
patterns, syntactical structures) and «irregular» ones. The irregular translation (Komissarov, Retsker, Catford and others).
correspondences cannot be formally represented and only the translators As you will note later, the transformational approach forms the basis of
knowledge and intuition can help to find the matching formal expression in the machine translation design - almost any machine translation system uses the
target language for a concept expressed in the source principle of matching forms of the languages involved in translation. The
language. difference is only in the forms that are matched and the rules of matching18.
According to J. Firth16, in order to bridge languages in the process of
translation, one must use the whole complex of linguistic and extralin-guistic
information rather than limit oneself to purely linguistic objects and structures. •* The denotative approach treats different languages as closed systems with
J. Catford17, similar to V. Komissarov and J. Firth, interprets translation as a specific relationships between formal and conceptual aspects, hence in the
multi-level process. He distinguishes between «total» and «restricted» translation process of translation links between the forms of different languages are
- in «total» translation all levels of the source text are replaced by those of the established via conceptual equivalence.
target text, whereas in «restricted» translation the substitution occurs at only one
level.
According to T. Catford a certain set of translation tools characteristic of a This is also true, especially in such cases where language expressions
certain level constitutes a rank of translation and a translation performed using correspond to unique indivisible concepts. Here one can also observe similarity
that or another set of tools is called rank bound. We have borrowed this with higher ranks within the theories suggesting the ranking of translation.
terminology and call the theories that divide the translation process into different
levels theories with translation ranking.
Generally speaking, all theories of human translation discussed above try to ^ The communicational approach highlights a very important aspect of
explain the process of translation to a degree of precision required for practical translation - the matching of thesauruses. Translation may achieve its
application, but no explanation is complete so far. ultimate target of rendering a piece of information only if the translator
knows the users' language and the subject matter of the translation well
enough (i.e. if the translator's language and subject thesauruses are
Ш* The transformational approach quite convincingly suggests that in any sufficiently complete). This may seem self-evident, but should always be
language there are certain regular syntactic, morphological, and word- kept in mind, because all translation mistakes result from the insufficiencies
building structures which may be successfully matched with their analogies of the thesauruses.
in another language during translation.

15
Рецкер Я.И. Теория перевода и переводческая практика. - М., 1974. See, e. g. Staples Ch. The LOGOS Intelligent Translation System //
16
Firth J.R. Linguistic Analysis and Translation // For Roman lakobson. Proceedings of Joint Conference on AI. - Karlsruhe, 1983; SYSTRAN
Linguistische Beschreibung. - Berlin, 1990; Hiroaki Kitano. Speech-to-speech
The Hague. - 1956.
Translation: A massively parallel memory-based approach. - Boston, 1994.
17
Catford J. A Linguistic Theory of Translation. - London, 1967.
50 51
 Moreover, wholly complete thesauruses are the ideal case. No translator So, to put it differently, what you can do in translation is either match
knows the source and target languages equally well (even a native speaker of individual words and combinations of the two languages directly
both) and even if he or she does, it is still virtually impossible to know (transformational approach), or understand the content of the source message
everything about any possible subject matter related to the translation. and render it using the formal means of the target language (denotative
Scientists and translators have been arguing and still do about the priorities approach) with due regard of the translation recipient and background
in a translators education. Some of them give priority to the linguistic knowledge information (communicational approach).
of translators, others keep saying that a knowledgeable specialist in the given The hierarchy of these methods may be different depending on the type of
area with even a relatively poor command of the language will be able to provide translation20. Approach priorities depending on the type of translation are given
a more adequate translation than a good scholar of the language with no special in Table below.
technical or natural science background.
In our opinion this argument is counter-productive - even if one or another Translation Type Translation Method Priorities
viewpoint is proved, say, statistically, this will not add anything of value to the Oral Consecutive Denotative, Communicational
understanding of translation. However, the very existence of this argument Oral Simultaneous Transformational,
underscores the significance of extralinguistic information for translation19. Communicational
Summing up this short overview of theoretical treatments of translation we Written (general & technical) Transformational
would again like to draw your attention to the general conclusion that any theory
Written (fiction & poetry) Denotative
recognizes these three basic components of translation, and different approaches
differ only in the accents placed on this or that component. So, the basic
components are: Thus, in oral consecutive translation priority is given to denotative method,
Meaning of a word or word combination in the source language (concept or because a translator is first listening to the speaker and only after some time
concepts corresponding to this word or word combination in the minds of the formulates the translation, which is very seldom a structural copy of the source
source language speakers). speech.
Equivalence of this meaning expressed in a word or word combination of In simultaneous translation as opposed to consecutive priority is given to
the target language (concept or concepts corresponding to this word or word direct transformations since a simultaneous interpreter simply has no time for
combination in the minds of the target language speakers). conceptual analysis.
Extralinguistic information pertaining to the original meaning and/or its In written translation, when you seem to have time for everything, priority
conceptual equivalent after the translation. is also given to simple transformations (perhaps, with exception of poetic
translation). This is no contradiction, just the path of least resistance in action -
it is not worthwhile to resort to complex methods unless simple ones fail.
19
This viewpoint is also shared by, e. g.: Batori I. Paradigmen der It should be born in mind, however, that in any translation we observe a
maschineller Sprachuebersetzung // Neue Ansaetze in maschineller
combination of different methods.
Sprachbearbeitung. - Tuebungen, 1986; Новиков А.И., Слюсарева Н.А. Линг-
вистические и зкстралингвистические аспектьі семантики текста. - М.,
L982.
See, e. g.: Ревзин И.И., Розенцвейг В.Ю. Основи общего и
52
машинного перевода. - М., 1964.
53
 From the approaches discussed one should also learn that the E?| QUESTIONS
matching language forms and concepts are regular and irregular, that
1. What is the main idea of Komissarov's theory of 'translation
seemingly the same concepts are interpreted differently by the speakers equivalence level'?
of different languages and different translation users. 2. What is translation according to Retsker, Catford and Firth?
Now, having discussed briefly the main theoretical treatments of 3. What is translation ranking?
human translation, we pass over to basic translation parameters being the 4. What translation ranks do you know?
subject of the following lectures. 5. What relationship is there between the approaches to translation and
types of translation?
6.

0D EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Translate into Ukrainian. Divide translation equivalents into regular

and occasional.
Only those who have talent and willpower can make the most daring
dreams come true. Many of us thought that we already knew all about
the professional abilities of Bogdan Stupka, People's Artist of Ukraine
and winner of numerous prizes. However, the news again held quite a
surprise. The news of his tremendous success and the international
recognition heaped on him this year reached us quickly and shattered all
the long established clichiis in one big bang. Bogdan Stupka won his
latest victory in the movie With Sword and Fire. Jerzy Hofman's film
shown in Poland, the United States and Australia raised the Ukrainian
actor to the level of international film star. It was indeed his finest hour.

Ex. 2. Translate into Ukrainian using appropriate ranks (levels) of

translation as required by the source text content and style. Comment on
your decisions. 1) «I am trustworthy, loyal, and helpful. But I struggle
with obedient.»
Tripp smiled faintly. «I am not looking for a boy scout,» he said.
«Next best thing,» I said.
«Well» Trip said, «Lieutenant Quirk said you could be annoying, but
you were not undependable.
«He's always admired me,» I said.

55
54
 «Obviously you are independent,» Tripp said. «I understand that. Animals also throw up historical «what-ifs». What if Richard III had
I've had my moments. 'He who would be a man must be a traded his kingdom for a horse, Dick Whittington not been so bounteous
nonconformist.'» (R.B.Parker). with his cat, or Catherine the Great been less pony crazy? In the
multimedia age pets can win the ultimate prizes and emerge as global
2) ANIMALS HAVE TRADITIONALLY SHAPED HUMAN EVENTS. mega-stars. The orbit of Sputniks dog, Laika, made him the fantasy
Leading article The Times, April 27, 2001 comrade of the worlds youth.
There everyone is, caught between horror at the ghastly enormity The Prime Minister's personal intervention as Phoenix's saviour is a
that is foot-and-mouth and ennui that it has dragged on for so long, when bow to the electoral beasts of the apocalypse. It is a case of chicken, but
suddenly from the ashes there rises the sacred calf, Bambi reincarnate. the public will see only a happy ending to The Calfs Tale.
With her fluffy white fur, ox-eyed gaze and perfect pink pout Phoenix is
the prettiest page 3 star Fleet Street has had in years. Suddenly amid the Ex. 3. Translate into Ukrainian. Suggest the ranks (levels) of translation
big, ugly world of slaughter trip the words «tiny», «white» and and explain your decision.
«innocent». Ministers quail and policy is made on the hoof. The first plant you will notice by the glass doors of the terminal will
People talk about causes needing a human face, but on the whole be a tangerine tree with tangerines «for real». The aroma, the color of
prefer an animal countenance. Mute bestial appeal is considered easier on their warm peel and even tiny dimples on the surface are so attractive
the ear than, say, the guttural petition of asylum-seekers. We can be that you, sick and tired of stony winter landscapes, will feel very much
fairly indifferent to our own kind; it takes an animal to make us human. like putting some tangerines in your pocket. This country is fun already!
Phoenix's life would have been pretty dreadful under normal
circumstances, but no matter. She has assumed the symbolic status of
The Cow That Changed History.
Animals have altered the course of events more often than might be
imagined. Many's the time when mankind has felt himself to be sturdily
at the helm, when in fact matters have been bunted along by beak or
snout. Europe itself began this way when Europa was carried off into the
ocean by a bullish Zeus, kicking and flailing before submitting to
become a continent. For Christians the instigating beast is the serpent,
worming his way into Eve's confidences with sinuous insinuations.
Ancient history is a positive bestiary of cloven goings on. The
noblest incidence of animal magic came in the form of the sacred geese
whose cackling alerted their masters to a stealthy advance upon the Capi-
toline Hill. Caligula's bestowal of a consulship upon his horse was rather
less successful, being one of all-too-many final straws that broke the
populace's back and led to his being dispatched at the Palatine Games.
Cleopatra's exit pursued by an asp showed far better judgment.

56 57
 In other words, in translation equivalent means indirectly equal, that is
equal by the similarity of meanings. For example, words table and стіл are
Lecture 7. TRANSLATION EQUIVALENCE equivalent through the similarity of the meanings of the Ukrainian word стіл
AND EQUIVALENTS and one! of the meanings of the English word table. In general sense and in
general case words table and стіл are not equal or equivalent - they are
This Lecture: » introduces the notion of equivalence and equivalent only under specific translation conditions.
translation units; This simple idea is very important for the understanding of translation: the
» shows: words that you find in a dictionary as translations of the given foreign language
• how the notion of equivalence can be applied to translation at
word are not the universal substitutes of this word in your language. These
syntactic, semantic and pragmatic levels;
• how dictionary equivalents can be used in translation; translations (equivalents) are worth for specific cases which are yet to be
• how translation equivalence is related to that of units of translation; determined by the translator.
• discusses: Let us recall now the relationship between signs of the language, mental
• the optimal length of text for translation; concepts and denotata (see Lecture 1). As you might remember the relation
• to what extent the idea of full equivalence is adequate; between a language sign (word or word combination) and the fragment of the
• how and how often translators deal with partial equivalents; real world it denotes is indirect and intermediated by the mental concept. You
• the importance of semantic and pragmatic similarity. might also recall that the mental concept of a given language sign is usually
rather broad and complex, consisting of a lexical meaning or meanings, a
Translation equivalence is the key idea of translation. According to A.S. grammatical meaning or meanings, connotations and associations. It is also
Hornby21 equivalent means equal in value, amount, volume, etc. What does it worth reminding that the mental concept of a word (and word combination) is
mean if applied to translation? This lecture is an attempt to answer this question almost never precisely outlined and may be different even in the minds of
which - you will see it yourself - is not so simple.
different speakers of the same language, not to mention the speakers of different
The principle of equivalence is based on the mathematical law of
languages.
transitivity that reads: if A is equal to C and В is equal to C, then В equals A.
All this naturally speaks for the complexity of finding the proper and only
translation equivalent of the given word. Moreover, considering all just said, one
•* As applied to translation, equivalence means that if a word or word may conclude that translation equivalence never means the sameness of the
combination of one language (A) corresponds to certain concept (C) and a meaning for the signs of different languages.
word or word combination of another language (B) corresponds to the same
concept (C) these words or word combinations are considered equivalent
(connected by the equivalence relation). Ш* Translation equivalents in a dictionary are just the prompts for the
translator. One may find a proper equivalent only in speech due to the
context, situation and background knowledge.
 Hornby A.S. Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English
21 59

Oxford, 1982.
58
 Let's take an example. English word picture is generally considered and the clicheed expressions are commonly used in similar situations. The
equivalent to Ukrainian word картина. However, already in the context to take general rule of translation reads: the longer is the source text, the bigger is a
pictures {фотографувати) this equivalent is no longer correct and the word chance to find proper and correct translation equivalent11.
picture seems to have here no equivalent (zero equivalent); in another context
English in pictures because of the situation (pictures in the book are small)
equivalent картина acquires a diminutive suffix англійська в картинках; in a Ш* Traditionally and from practical viewpoint the optimal length of text for
different situation, that of a painters studio or gallery it is полотно that becomes translation is a sentence.
the Ukrainian equivalent of the English word picture and this equivalent, as well
as others, disappears again in the context put me in the picture (введіть мене в
курс справ). Being a self sustained syntactic entity a sentence usually contains enough
Even in case of terms and geographical names one cannot say for sure that syntactic and semantic information for translation. However, there are cases
their meanings in different languages are universally equivalent. Again one can (and not so rare ones) when a broader stretch of the source text (called
discourse25) is required. It supplies additional information necessary for
say this only in relation to a specific context, situation and piece of background
translation.
information. For example, such seemingly unambiguous chemical term as zinc
Let's consider the sentence: Partisans do not always play to type. One can
diethyl dithiophosphate is translated in special texts as протизадирна присадка obtain its proper Ukrainian equivalent Члени партії не завжди діють
but not always as діетилдитіо-фосфат цинку. То take another example, відповідно до типового уявлення про цю партію only having considered the
Africa is not always translated as Африка, one may also find чорний information supplied by the discourse (that George W. Bush after the election
континент as its equivalent and this again means that translation equivalence might not behave as a typical Republican).
depends on the context, situation and background knowledge. Thus, put with certain degree of simplification, equivalence is a similarity
of meaning observed in the units of different languages and used for translation.
The units of the target language with meanings similar to the relevant units of
•► The idea of translation equivalence is strongly related to that of the unit the source language are called translation equivalents. Modern translation
of translation, i. e. the text length required to obtain proper equivalent. theory suggests two basic grades of translation equivalents.

a) Full Translation Equivalents

From our previous discussion we already know that one word is hardly a From the previous discussion (bearing in mind differences in mental
common unit of translation. It is especially true for so called analytical images standing for the equivalent words in different languages and context
languages like English in which the words are usually polysemantic and their dependence of equivalents) it may be righteously presumed that one can hardly
meaning strongly depends on the environment. find truly full and universal equivalents for a word. However,
One is more likely to find a universal equivalent for a word combination, in
particular for a clicheed one (e. g. hands up, ready made, good riddance, etc.), This makes so hard the task of a simultaneous interpreter who deals with
because a word combination is already a small context small speech fragments.
23
A discourse is a text fragment united by common topic, author and style
60 (Нелюбий Л.Л. Переводческий словарь - M., 1999).
61
as you all know practical translation dates back to ancient times and since then and the pragmatic aspect of this equivalent (the message intent and target
translations are commonly regarded and used as full-pledged substitutes of the audience reaction) coincides with that of the English word. Thus, книга is
relevant source texts. That is why despite contradicting theoretical evidence full conventionally regarded as a full equivalent of the word book16.
equivalence is commonly accepted as a convenient makeshift. Strictly saying, however, the Ukrainian word протестувати, for example,
is a partial equivalent of the English word protesting (say, in the sentence
Protesting is a risk - Протестувати ризиковано) because of different
•► For practical purpose full equivalence is presumed when there is grammatical meanings (a Gerund and a Verb), the semantic and pragmatic
complete coincidence of pragmatic meanings of the source and target aspects being similar.
language units24. To take another example of partial equivalence consider the English saying
Carry coal to Newcastle. If one translates it as Возити вугілля до Ньюкасла it
would lack the pragmatic aspect of equivalence (The intent of this message
This rule applies both to individual words and their regular combinations. Bring something that is readily available locally would be lost, because the
Speaking generally, translation equivalents of all words and word combinations Ukrainian audience could be unaware of the fact that Newcastle is the center of a
one finds in a good dictionary are full because the translation practice reflected coal-mining area). If, however, one translates it їхати до Тули з власним
in dictionaries shows them as complete substitutes universally accepted by the
самоваром' it would lose the semantic similarity, but preserve the pragmatic
speakers' community of the target language (i. e. as pragmatically equivalent).
intent of the message, which, in our opinion, is the first priority of translation.
Of them the stylistically neutral words with reference meanings25 (terms,
geographical and proper names, words denoting physical objects and processes) Anyway, both suggested translation equivalents of this saying are considered
are more likely to have full translation equivalents because semantic and partial.
pragmatic parts of their meaning are less ambiguous.

b) Partial Translation Equivalents 9Ґ Partial equivalence is, as a matter of fact, the absence of one or more of
equivalence aspects, i. e. of syntactic, semantic or pragmatic aspect.
To understand the partiality and incompleteness of translation equivalence
let us consider the syntactic, semantic and pragmatic aspects of equivalence,
because the partiality of equivalence is, as a matter of fact, the absence of one or
more of these aspects. It should be born in mind, however, that syntactic equivalence of
Let us start from examples. Книга as an equivalent of the English word translation units longer than several words is a rare case, indeed, if one deals
book is full in all equivalence aspects because it has similar syntactic functions with two languages having different systems and structures (English and
(those of a Noun), its lexical meaning is also generally similar, Ukrainian are a good example). Moreover, it is hardly a translator's

" By pragmatic meaning of a translation equivalent we understand the 25

Reference (or direct) meaning directly refers a word to the fragment of the
reaction of the translation user to the verbal message in target language. reality (Zgusta L. Manual of Lexicography. - Prague: Academia, 1971).
62 26
It should be noted, however that the complete formal equivalence between
the English and Ukrainian language units is, of course, missing in this case* as
well as in all other translation cases - because all paradigmatic forms in the two
languages never coincide.
63
 target to preserve the structure of the source texts and in many instances [??! QUESTIONS
this means violation of syntactic and stylistic rules of the target language.
1. What is translation equivalence? Define it.
Semantic similarity between the source and target texts is desirable, 2. What helps to find proper translation equivalents?
but again it is not an ultimate goal of a translator. More often than not
3. What is a unit of translation? What are the optimal units for practical
slight differences in meaning help to adapt the idea of the original
translation?
message to the target audience.
4. What is full and partial translation equivalence? Give definitions.
What is really important for translation adequacy is the pragmatic 5. What are syntactic, semantic and pragmatic aspects of translation
equivalence. When the original message is lost for the target audience it is "equivalence? Which of them is the most important for adequate
a failure of the translation and translator and no semantic or syntactic translation?
similarity will redress the damage.
Let us take several examples of semantic and/or pragmatic
equivalents to illustrate the idea; (JO EXERCISES
зелений - green; (недосвідчений) verdant; зелений горошок - green Ex. 1. Translate into Ukrainian. Define translation equivalence conditions
peas; зелений театр - open-air stage; зелений хлопчисько - greenhorn; (context, situation, background information) that helped you find proper
зелена вулиця - green, go; давати зелену вулицю - to give open passage, equivalents. Divide the text into translation units and prove your choice of
to give the go-ahead; туга зелена - utter boredom; зелене будівництво - units.
laying out of parks, etc.; зелений борщ - sorrel soup; потопати в зелені - BUSH PUSHES RESEARCH ON GLOBAL WARMING
to be buried in verdure Washington Post Service; Monday, June 11, 2001
Thus, one may suggest that translation equivalence partiality is more Europe to Get Offer of Alternative to Kyoto
a translation tool than a flaw in translator's ability to render the content President George W. Bush plans to tell European allies this week
of the source message in its full. This evidently does not apply to the that he wants to spend millions of dollars on research into the causes of
pragmatic equivalence which is a universal prerequisite of good global warming and the technologies to reduce it, but he will not back
translation. down on his opposition to mandatory controls on emissions of
greenhouse gases, administration officials say. .The research and
technology initiatives, which the president plans to outline in a speech on
Monday before leaving Washington for Europe, constitute the
administration's first detailed response to the criticism from Europe and
Asia that followed Mr. Bush's decision to abandon the Kyoto global
warming treaty. White House officials said Mr. Bush plans to emphasize
how seriously he regards the problem of global warming, even as he
remains adamant in his rejection of the 1997 accord reached in Kyoto,
Japan..That agreement committed the United States and 167 other
nations to the first binding limits on carbon dioxide and other heat-
trapping gases that scientists say may cause catastrophic changes in the
planet's climate.
64 65
 Ex. 2. Translate into Ukrainian. Indicate missing aspects of translation work. A «Girl's World» was a ghoulish dummy's head on which to
equivalence, if any. experiment with make-up.
a) Chief justice; justice of the peace; court is in session; take the lead; Then came the bra-burning, banner-wielding, placenta-eating Sixties
take shape; to hold at arm's length; closed matter; harbor hopes; take a and suddenly Jane got herself some options. Wimmin needed men like
dim view; exit polls; gender gap; popular vote. fish needed, well, any form of transport, sisters were revolting and nights
b) Keep off the grass; in the exact middle; floors tiled and carpeted; were reclaimed. Everywhere was insurrection and the flap of dungaree.
for time out of mind; to throw caution with the wind; to collect one's But it took another couple of decades to realise that the next generation
wits. of Janes should be dragged to their parent's work-places to alert them to
c) He felt very weak and wobbly in the legs; a crown of leaves; to be a the -professional choices before them. «Take Our Daughters to Work
little way ahead; it looks as if my dreams were coming true; there was Day» was born and today is the latest outing for these loitering Lolitas.
nothing to be done to tighten the belt round the empty stomachs, and And what dazzling monsters feminism has created. Little girls used
trudge along without any great hope of ever getting to the end before they to be made of sugar and spice. These days they are made out of an
lay down and die of starvation. Dead silence fell in the middle of the indestructible combination of stamina and ambition. Girls outshine boys
world. I suppose hobbits need some description nowadays, since they at all stages of their development from thumb-sucking to number-crunching.
have become rare and shy of the Big People, as they call us. They are And at last these Amazons are reaching adulthood ready set to head butt
inclined to be fat in the stomach; they dress in bright colours (chiefly the glass ceiling. Backlash was inevitable. An American academic called
green and yellow) wear no shoes because their feet grow natural leathery Christina Hoff Sommers has published a polemic entitled «The War
soles and thick warm brown hair like the stuff on their heads (which is Against Boys» in which she argues that it is males who have become the
curly); have long clever brown fingers, good-natured faces and laugh «second sex», while girls continue to be cosseted by positive
deep fruity laughs (especially after dinner, which they eat twice if they discrimination.
can get it). (Tolkien) Certainly too many boys loaf around in a state of affable fecklessness
- skate-boarding, girl-watching and navel-gazing their way through
Ex. 3. Translate into Ukrainian, suggest units of translation and types of school, pickling themselves at university and slacking through their careers.
equivalents used in translation. Pay special attention to the italicized text The only statistics in which young men consistently beat girls are those
and suggest background information required for translation. for criminality and suicide.
With this in mind, forward thinking organisations might choose to
BOY POWER Lock up your daughters and extend tomorrow's invitations to the less fair sex. Boys can get a taste of
unleash your sons Leading article, The Times, APRIL 26, the feminine work ethic. Girls can stay at home to witness the one
2001 spectacle that would promise them a more optimistic future - the
Life used to be so straightforward. Father made a daily trek to the phenomenon of fathers participating on the domestic scene in any way at
office, while Mother held the fort at home, cooking, sewing and popping all.
the odd tranquilliser. Their 2.2 children watched and learnt. Peter wanted
to be an engine driver when he grew up, but would end up in middle
management like his father. Jane wanted to be just like Mummy, but
better dressed. The only thing their upbringings had in common was a
shared affection for Pat the dog. It was a man's world and that world
meant

66 67
 Stylistic peculiarities are rendered in translation by proper choice of the
target language translation equivalents with required stylistic coloring. This
Lecture 8. TRANSLATION AND STYLE choice will depend both on the functional style of the source text and the
individual style of the source text author.
The types of texts distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of communication
This Lecture are called functional styles. Modern stylistics distinguishes the following
• deals with the style as an essential component of adequate translation; varieties of functional styles28
• introduces: 1. belles-lettres (prose, poetry, drama);
• major styles: belles-lettres (prose, poetry, drama); publicistic style; "2. publicistic style;
newspaper style; scientific style; official documents style;
3. newspaper style;
• stylistic devices and expression means (metaphor, metonymy, pun,
4. scientific style;
irony, transferred qualifier, zeugma, paraphrase, overt and covert
quotations and allusion). 5. official documents
Any comparison of the texts belonging to different stylistic varieties listed
above will show that the last two of them (scientific style variety and official
The problem of translation equivalence is closely connected with the
documents) are almost entirely devoid of stylistic coloring being characterized
stylistic aspect of translation - one cannot reach the required level of equivalence
if the stylistic peculiarities of the source text are neglected. Full translation by the neutrality of style whereas the first three (belles-lettres (prose, poetry,
adequacy includes as an obligatory component the adequacy of style, i. e. the drama), publicistic and newspaper style) are usually rich in stylistic devices to
right choice of stylistic means and devices of the target language to substitute for which a translator ought to pay due attention.
those observed in the source text. This means that in translation one is to find
proper stylistic variations of the original meaning rather than only meaning
itself. Ш* Special language media securing the desirable communication effect of
For example, if the text You'll see... everything will be hunky-dory27 is the text are called stylistic devices and expression means.
translated in neutral style (say, Побачиш...усе буде добре) the basic meaning
will be preserved but colloquial and a bit vulgar connotation of the expression
hunky-dory will be lost. Only the stylistically correct equivalent of this
First of all a translator is to distinguish between neutral, bookish and
expression gives the translation the required adequacy: (e. g., Побачиш...усе
colloquial words and word combinations, translating them by relevant units of
буде тіп-топ).
the target language. Usually it is a routine task. However, it sometimes is hard
to determine the correct stylistic variety of a translation equivalent, then - as in
^ The expression of stylistic peculiarities of the source text in translation is almost all instances of translation - final decision is taken on the basis of
necessary to fully convey the communication intent of the source text. context, situation and background information.
Greene G. The Captain and the Enemy. - London: Penguin Galperin I.R. Stylistics. - M., 1981.
Books. 69
68
 For example, it is hard to decide without further information, which •► Metonymy is similarity by association, usually one of the
of the English words - disease, illness or sickness - corresponds to the constituents of an object replaces the object itself
Ukrainian words хвороба and захворювання. However, even such short
contexts as infectious disease and social disease already help to choose
appropriate equivalents and translate the word disease as інфекційне As a rule translators keep to literal translation when translating the
захворювання and соціальна хвороба, accordingly. cases of metonymy. For example, crown (meaning the royal family) is
This example brings us to a very important conclusion that style is usually translated as корона, hand - рука (є. g. in: He is the right hand of
expressed in proper combination of words rather than only in stylistic the president), etc.
coloring of the individual words.

•* Irony is expressed through words contradicting close text

•* Stylistic devices are based on the comparison of primary environment.
(dictionary) meaning and that dictated by the contextual
environment; on the contradiction between the meaning of the given
word and the environment; on the association between words in the
minds of the language speakers and on purposeful deviation from Cases of irony do not present serious problems for translation and
accepted grammatical and phonetic standards. the approaches similar to those mentioned above (semantic or pragmatic
equivalence) are commonly used. For example, the ironical expression
paper war may be translated as паперова війна or війна паперів.

The following varieties of stylistic devices and expression means are Ш* Semantic and syntactic irregularities of expression used as
most common and frequently dealt with even by the translators of non- stylistic devices are called transferred qualifier and zeugma,
fiction texts. respectively.
 Ш* Metaphor is the transfer of some quality from one object to A good example of a transferred qualifier is he paid his smiling
another. attention to... - here the qualifier smiling refers to a person, but is used as
an attribute to the state {attention). Translator's task in this case consists
in rendering the idea in compliance with the lexical combination rules of
Usually the metaphors (especially trite29 ones) are rather easy for the target language. For instance, in Ukrainian it may be expressed as
translation: they are translated either by keeping to semantic similarity Посміхаючись, він звернув увагу...
(e. g. ray of hope - промінь надії) or by choosing an appropriate Zeugma is also a semantic irregularity, e. g. if one and the same verb
pragmatic equivalent (e. g. flood of tears - море сліз). is combined with two or more nouns and acquires a different meaning in
each of such combinations. For example, He has taken her picture and
Trite - commonplace, not new. 71
70
another cup of tea. Here again the translator's task is to try to render this ironical Special attention is to be paid by a translator to overt and covert quotations.
comment either by finding a similar irregularity in the target language or, failing Whereas the former require only correct rendering of the source quotation in the
to show a zeugma (and irony of the author), stick to regular target language target language (Never suggest your own homemade translation for a quotation
means (i. e. separate the two actions Він зробив її фото і випив ще одну чашку of a popular author!), the latter usually takes the shape of an allusion and the
чаю or try to render them as a zeugma as well Він зробив її фото і ще один pragmatic equivalence seems the most appropriate for the case. For example,
ковток чаю з чашки). «the Trojan horse raid» one may translate as напад, підступний, як кінь
A pun (so called 'play of words') is righteously considered the most difficult троянців (i.e. preserving the allusion) or as підступний напад (loosing the
for translation. meaning of the original quotation).
A translator is to be ready to render dialect forms and illiterate speech in
the target language forms. It goes without saying that one can hardly render, say,
•* Pun is the realization in one and the same word of two lexical meanings cockney dialect using the Western Ukrainian dialect forms. There is no universal
simultaneously. recipe for this translation problem. In some cases the distortions in the target
grammar are used to render the dialect forms but then again it is not 'a cure-all'
and each such case requires an individual approach.
A pun can be translated only by a word in the target language with similar Thus, any good translation should be fulfilled with due regard of the
capacity to develop two meanings in a particular context. English is stylistic peculiarities of the source text and this recommendation applies to all
comparatively rich in polysems and homonyms, whereas in Ukrainian these text types rather than only to fiction.
word types are rather rare. Let's take an example30 of a pun and its fairly good
Ukrainian translation.
- What gear were you in at the moment of impact?
- Gucci's sweats and Reebok.
- На якій передачі ви були під час зіткнення?
- «Останні новини».
Another stylistic device is a paraphrase. Its frequent use is characteristic of
the English language. Some of the paraphrases are borrowed from classical
cources (myths and the Bible); others are typically English. To give an example,
the paraphrases of the classical origin are «Beware Greeks...», «Prodigal son»
{Війтеся данайців...», «Блудний син») whereas «Lake Country» («Озерна
країна») is a typically English paraphrase. As a rule paraphrases do not present
difficulties for translation, however, their correct translation strongly depends on
situation and appropriate background information.

30
Cited from: Мирам Г. Профессия - переводчик. - K.: Ника-Центр, 73
1999.
72
 When riches take wings, and reputation falls to pieces, he is as constant in his
ЦЗ QUESTIONS love as the sun in its journey through the heavens.
1. What is the relation between translation equivalence and style? If fortune drives the master forth an outcast in the world, friendless and
homeless, the faithful dog asks no higher privilege than that of accompanying
2. Define functional style. What functional styles are distinguished by modern
him, to guard him against danger, to fight against his enemies. And when the
linguistics? last scene of all comes, and death takes his master in its embrace and his body is
3. What are the stylistic devices and expression means?
laid away in the cold ground, no matter if all other friends pursue their way,
4. What is metaphor, metonymy, irony, transferred qualifier, zeugma, there by the graveside will the noble dog be found, his head between his paws,
paraphrase, quotation? Give definitions. Suggest translation approaches. his eyes sad, but open in alert watchfulness, faithful and true even in death.
5. What is pun? What are the ways of translating a pun? (Scoff not at 'Tribute to the Dog.'
The New York Times Magazine, June 1, 1999. By WILLIAM SAFIRE)

QU EXERCISES b) EMBASSY OF UKRAINE TO THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 3350

M Street, NW Washington DC 20007-27 December 1998
Ex. 1. Define the style of the following texts. Translate into Ukrainian preserving For immediate released
stylistic colouring. [Press, Releases Homel atu
a) The best friend a man has in the world may turn against him and become Statement of the Ministry Of Foreign Affairs Of Ukraine
his enemy. His son or daughter that he has reared with loving care may prove On December 25, 1998, the State Duma of the Russian Federation's
ungrateful. Those who are nearest and dearest to us, those whom we trust with Federal Assembly ratified the Treaty on Friendship, Cooperation and
our happiness and our good name may become traitors to their faith. The money Partnership between Ukraine and Russia. CO.&*H*IJ- y^f°pЈ^
that a man has, he may lose. It flies away from him, perhaps when he needs it A long-awaited-for ratification of the Treaty, the bedrock of the legal
most. A man's reputation may be sacrificed in a moment of ill-considered action. basis of the relations between the two sovereign states, will permit in- '■'
The people who are prone to fall on their knees to do us honor when success is creasing relationships between Ukraine and Russia to a qualitative new
with us may be the first to throw the stone of malice when failure settles its cloud level and opening up new opportunities for further comprehensive de
upon our heads. velopment of Ukrainian-Russian relations. This is exactly for what lead
The one absolutely unselfish friend that man can have in this selfish world, ers and peoples of the two fraternal nations are striving. « tTЈe*Ј-
the one that never deserts him, the one that never proves ungrateful or Ratification of the Treaty by the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine on., January 14,
treacherous is his dog. A man's dog stands by him in prosperity and in poverty, 1998 and its ratification by the Russian State Duma con- ' d firmed that both Ukraine
in health and in sickness. He will sleep on the cold ground, where the wintry and. the Russian Federation legally recognized the inviolability of the "existing
winds blow and the snow drives fiercely, if only he may be near his master's between them borders^ as well as their sovereignty and territorial integrity. They have
side. He will kiss the hand that has no food to offer; he will lick the wounds and also pledged to develop their further relations on the basis of universally recognized
sores that come in an encounter with the roughness of the world. He guards the standards of international law.
sleep of his pauper master as if he were a prince. When all other friends desert, Ratification of the Treaty on Friendship, Cooperation and Partner-ship
he remains. between Ukraine and the Russian Federation constitutes a landmark

74 75 f^^n.
 '
(
, r

о historic event not only in their bilateral relations, but also in a broader context of please, on a range of issues, and if the world doesn't like it - tough. So, not
European and global security. It testifies to the.fact that both Ukraine and Russia are surprisingly, when the members of this U.N. commission got a chance to vote
well" aware of their role and responsibility in building up a new European security anonymously on whether the U.S. should be a member, they stuck it to us.
architecture and maintaining stability and security not only in Europe but also in the People with power often don't think about it; people without power think about
world as a whole. t _ * , it all the time.
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine expresses its satisfaction with (The New York Times, May 29, 2001
the ratification by the State Duma of the major political Treaty between the two By THOMAS L. FRIEDMAN)
states, as well as its confidence that the,Treaty's entering into force will provide
for further development of 'equal Ukrainian-Russian cooperation for the benefit
Ex. 3. Translate into Ukrainian preserving the stylistic coloring of the source
of the peoples of the two states.
text.
a) She made an embarrassed laugh, though there was nothing funny.
Ex. 2. Define the underscored stylistic devices and means of expression in the She laughed again, an extraneous laugh, something to punctuate the
following text. Translate the text into Ukrainian preserving its stylistic silence. The word [she uttered] was almost nonexistent, squeezed out in the
smallest of voices. Her Barbie doll face, devoid of character lines, showed no
colouring.
sign of the adult struggle she was waging. It remained placid, hidden behind the
Ever since the U.S. got voted off the island at the U.N. Human Rights
affectless makeup. (R.B.Parker).
Commission three weeks ago, Congress has been hopping mad and the U.N.-
haters have been on a tear. So I have an idea: Let's quit the U.N. That's right, let's b) It was a Babylon of glass and chrome and spandex, where per
just walk. Most of its members don't speak English anyway. What an insult! sonal trainers trained up people on politically correct way to tone up and
Let's just shut it down and turn it into another Trump Tower. That Security be better.
Council table would make a perfect sushi
bar.
No? You don't want to leave the U.N. to the Europeans and Russians? Then
let's stop bellyaching about the U.N., and manipulating our dues, and start taking
it seriously for what it is - a global forum that spends 95 percent of its energy
endorsing the wars and peacekeeping missions that the U.S. wants endorsed, or
taking on the thankless humanitarian missions that the U.S. would like done but
doesn't want to do itself. The U.N. actually spends only 5 percent of its time
annoying the U.S. Not a bad deal.
The vote that got the U.S. booted off the Human Rights Commission was to
the U.N. what Senator Jim Jeffords's vote to leave the Republican Party was to
the Senate - a wake-up call, a signal that the world will push back against radical
Bush policies just as Senator Jeffords did.
When President Bush trashed the Kyoto treaty on climate change, the
message the world got was that the Bushies will do whatever they

76
77
 of syntactic structures is a rare (and generally hardly desirable) case, which
means that in English-Ukrainian translation we often observe transformations.
Lecture 9. TRANSFORMATIONS IN TRANSLATION One should note, however, that the majority of syntactic transformations in
English-Ukrainian translation are occasional, i. e. the translator transforms the
source syntactic structures on case-by-case basis, each case being dependent on
This Lecture the context, situation, pragmatic intent and many other factors some of which
• introduces the notion of: are unknown and the translator's decisions relevant to the ease are often
• transformation as a change of the source text at the syntactic level intuitive.
during translation, To put it differendy, it is impossible to formulate the rules for the
• discusses: overwhelming majority of such occasional transformations and one simply
• the conditions under which regular and occasional transformations cannot list all occasional transformations that are observed in English-Ukrainian
take place in English Verbal Complexes; translation.
• Pluralia and Singularia Tantum;
• Gender Forms;
• Sequence of Tenses. •► In English-Ukrainian translation occasional transformations are often the
matter of translator's individual choice and, in general, strongly depend on
stylistic peculiarities and communication intent of the source text.
Speaking about translation equivalence we mentioned that there were three
basic types of it - syntactic, semantic and pragmatic. The students might
remember that syntactic equivalence meant the structural similarity of the source
Yet, in English-Ukrainian translation there are also cases of regular
and target texts. If the syntactic similarity is missing we observe a
syntactic transformations, where a translator is expected to observe certain
transformation^.
transformation rules more or less stricdy.32

•* Transformation is any change of the source text at the syntactic level

during translation.

Ш* Regular syntactic (grammatical) transformations are the matching rules

On the one hand, even for the languages of different structure general for the grammars of the two languages involved in translation
structural similarity in translation is common enough. Just compare any English
text and its translation into Ukrainian and you will see much in common at the
syntactic level (e. g. Subject-Predicate-Object sequences, Attribute-Noun
structures, etc.). On the other, total similarity

difference of certain modeling representation, e. g. of syntactic models.

31
It is worth saying that any formal identity of the signs of different
78
languages is out of the question and one may speak only about similarity or
 32
Even in case of regular trasformations certain deviations from regular
transformation patterns are possible. For example, in certain situation and/or
context one may translate 'I saw him running' as 'Я подивився і побачив:
біжить' rather than ' Я бачив, як він біг ' as required by the rule
79
 Detailed description of regular English-Ukrainian grammatical Gerund
(syntactic) transformations one can find in any English manual for Gerund is a peculiar English language phenomenon missing in
Ukrainian audience (for example, the matching system of English and Ukrainian. As a rule Gerund is translated into Ukrainian by Infinitive or
Ukrainian Verb Tenses, Noun Numbers and Cases, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbal Nouns (see more below).
etc.)33.
We think that the readers and users of this Manual are generally
aware of these matching rules and that it is hardly a goal of a translation Pluralia and Singularia Tantum
manual to duplicate the information of the language manuals for the
"In English-Ukrainian translation the cases of missing Plural or
beginners. Moreover, we consider that the goal of a translation manual is
Singular Noun Forms are also worth paying attention to because of their
to show (where possible) how and why the matching rules (regular
frequent mismatch with the corresponding Ukrainian words. These cases
transformations) of the grammatical systems of the two languages involved in are, of course, shown in the dictionaries that is why several examples
translation are violated. seem to be sufficient to illustrate this minor translation problem: oats -
However, there are certain unique elements of the English and овес, onions - цибуля.
Ukrainian grammar systems which, because of their uniqueness deserve
special attention as translation problems. The most common of those are
mentioned below. Gender Forms
The category of Noun Gender is known to be expressed in English
English Verbal Complexes indirectiy: either through pronouns or by lexical means. This information
is to be born in mind by translators when translating from Ukrainian into
A verbal complex is a unique structure of the English language
English. Again an example will do to illustrate the problem: кіт - tom-
system missing in Ukrainian. The complex includes a predicate verb, an
cat, he-cat
object and an object predicate comprising either Infinitive or Participle I
(e. g. I saw him run or I saw him running).
Depending on the predicate verb and type of the object predicate
Sequence of Tenses
there may be several alternatives of the verbal complex translation into
Ukrainian, the most important thing for translation into Ukrainian, As the readers of this Manual might know from their language
however, is the necessity of the inner partitioning of the source sentence. course the Sequence of Tenses is a peculiar system of correlation between
Usually, the object subordinate clauses with що and як are the Ukrainian the Verb Tenses in the main and subordinate clauses. Since similar
substitutes of the verbal complexes in the target sentence. system is missing in Ukrainian it may present a problem for translation,
For example, especially from Ukrainian into English.
John watched Larry jump over the rails and disappear - Джон
Speaking generally, however, this problem hardly belongs to the
дивився, як Ларрі перестрибнув через паркан і зник.
most critical problems of translation similar to all other regular
transformations including those mentioned above in this lecture.
3
It is worth reminding that the grammatical transformations in translation
are, as a matter of fact, the matching patterns of the paradigm systems of two
81
languages described in Lecture 3 of this Manual.
80
 9Ь Regular transformations do not present a serious problem for 82
translation because of their regularity and predictability: what is
needed is to know the relevant rule and use it in translation practice,
unlike occasional transformations and equivalents which require
individual and sometimes unique solutions

The issue of regular and occasional transformations is related to

different translation devices and variations which are dealt with in the
lectures that follow. Besides, regular grammatical transformations in
translation of official documents (diplomatic, legal, and economic) are
explained in more detail below in this Manual.
 QUESTIONS

1. What is a transformation?
2. What types of transformations do you know?
3. What is an occasional transformation? Give examples.
4. What regular transformations are typical for English-Ukrainian
translation?
5. Which type of transformations presents major translation
problems and why?

EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Translate into Ukrainian. Observe regular transformations in

translation.
KING OF THE STAGE

9ТлСи£'(
Only those who have talent and willpower can make the most daring
dreams come true. Many of us thought that we already knew all about
the professional abilities of Bogdan Stupka, People's Artist of Ukraine
and winner of numerous prizes. However, the news again held
quite*УУ££ surprise. The news of his tremendous success and the
international recognition heaped on hiin this year reached us quickly and
shattered all theM#*** long established clichns in'one big bang. Bogdan
Stupka won his latest victory in the movie «With Sword and Fire». Jerzv
Hofman's film shown in Poland, the United States and
Australia'raised'the Ukrainian actor to the level of international film star.
It was indeed, his finest hour.

Ex. 2. Translate into Ukrainian. Observe regular and occasional

transformations in translation.
THE TROUBLE WITH THE SONS OF ENGLAND IS THEY
HAVE NO
FOUNDING FATHERS
The Times, July 6, 2001. PHILIP HOWARD
We are the people of England that never have spoken yet.
Accordingly, after this water(slurry?)shed of an election it behoves
us to speak
83
up for our nation. But it is difficult to decide what our nation is. We lack tion of his poems reminds us that Longfellow was technically jolly good,
a foundation myth that defines what it means to be English. in spite of having missed the modernist boat and the Ark of the
In the Middle Ages King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table Covenant. My grandfather used to adore Hiawatha in the Albert Hall,
were described as the Matter of Britain. But they are improbably with a feathered cast of thousands chanting, «By the shores of Gitche
cosmopolitan heroes for the British National Party or the UK Idiots' Gumee,/ By the shining Big-Sea-Water».
Party. At a literary level, they are anachronistic medieval freelances from Longfellow was a skilful versifier when poems still rhymed and
an EU elite of bullies. On a historical level (if they existed), their scanned. «This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the
descendants survive in the wild west of Wales. «Lancelot» came from hemlocks,/ Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the
Brittany, and Tristram from Celtic Atlantis in the West. If he is more twilight...» Not even Tennyson wrote such good English hexameters.
than legend, you can imagine Arthur leading the last stand of the And as many of Longfellow's tags have entered the American quotation
armoured cavalry of the legions against the alien English asylum-seekers. bank as Tennyson's have the English. «Under a spreading chestnut-tree,/
In other words, he was a Roman. St George was a Levantine?/ Roman?/ The village smithy stands». «I shot an arrow into the air,/ It fell to earth,
Jew?/ Peculant pork butcher? Definitely not British. I knew not where.» «Ships that pass in the night.» «Footprints on the
Other nations have less problematic foundation myths. Italians can sands of time.» «When she was good, she was very, very good.» «Life is
choose Horace or Garibaldi as their national hero, according to taste. The but an empty dream.»
French have Charlemagne, Joan of Arc or Asterix. The Germans, Longfellow spoke up against slavery long before Emerson and Tho-
Hermann or Arminius. The Dutch, snatching a living on land from the reau. From youth he was a Unitarian, a follower of William Ellery Chan-
sea, make the most of the references in Tacitus to die Batavians, who ning, who believed that human beings are basically good. Longfellow's
splashed a living in their watery world. Their cavalry were good at narrative poetry and visionary preaching are unfashionable. But he is
swimming across rivers with their horses. But the Old Testament is an still a ghost in the background of American identity. Kipling and
even more powerful foundation myth for the Dutch. Their Calvinist Tennyson are not so influential for English nationalism. Shakespeare is
pastors taught them that they were the Chosen People, saved from the too elusive. Perhaps the nationalists of our old and mongrel race should
Flood, threatened on all sides by monarchs, Papists, and the other hosts follow the foundation myths of the Dutch and the Americans by
of Midian, who prowl and prowl around. adopting the Old Testament as their manifesto.
Foundation myths come more easily to nations that sprang from Come to think of it, we have. The lost ten tribes of Israel were
carried away into Assyria in 721BC, about 140 years before the
revolution, like the Dutch. Or the Americans, who left the Old World to
Babylonian captivity exiled the tribes of Judah. Since at least 1649
seek religious and political liberty in the West. Their New England
various religious and nationalist nutters have suggested that the English
preachers also used the Old Testament as a myth to validate their Chosen
are the lost tribes. This is as dotty as the first verse of Blake's Jerusalem,
People.
which opens with three questions, the answer to each of which is,
Political correctness has censored the Western movie, the foundation
«Certainly not: don't be silly.» But that does not stop Jerusalem being a
myth and art form of the past century. Dim drums can no longer throb in
battle hymn of True English nationalism. Just as Gideon, Joshua and
the hills half heard, as the Comanche appear over the crest. The heroic Noah were once seen as Dutch or New England patriots.
latter-day Joshuas and Davids no longer stand silent in the white sunlight
of their empty midday streets, waiting for the enemies of Zion.
The American bard of the noble savage and the last frontier is even
more rubbished than McGonagall as national prophet. But the new edi-

84 85
 The Convention on Biological Diversity (also called the
Ex. 3. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the infinitive or «Convention on Life») is not only a legal instrument to protect and
infinitive constructions. manage endangered species and habitats, but it also includes the far-
The Security Council is so organised as to be able to function reaching consequences of modern biotechnology.
continuously.
Recently the Conference of the Parties agreed to start negotiations
The Trusteeship Council is composed of members of the United on a protocol on biosafety.
Nations administering Trust Territories, permanent members of the
Security Council which do not administer Trust Territories and enough „We urge the United States to ratify the Basel Convention that
members to make an equal division between countries which administer regulates the export and import of dangerous waste.
Trust Territories and countries which do not.
In so doing, we are simply trying to shoulder the responsibility that
The function of the Trusteeship Council is to supervise the we all share for our common future.
administration of Trust Territories.

Subsidiary and ad-hoc bodies are set up to fulfill a special task and Ex. 4. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the gerund or
are dissolved after completion of the job. gerundial constructions:
Should the president falter in these races, some politicians speculate,
The increasing population of the world creates unprecedented waste he might step aside as Lyndon Johnson did after running into trouble in
and the methods used to dispose of it - burying it, burning it, or
early 1968.
discharging it into streams or lakes - have further polluted the
environment. If a business cannot make a profit, the government cannot prevent it
from declaring bankruptcy.
Members of the Organisation, whether developed or developing,
should undertake to lend their assistance towards the success in settling The result is a complicated interaction of business and society, and
economic difficulties. the key to understanding this interaction is the systems theory.
United Nations efforts to rectify this issue have been ineffective Disregarding feedback has led to the demise of many once-powerful
because some nations disregard its decisions. companies.
In the Charter of the United Nations, the peoples express their Basic research is aimed at discovering new knowledge. Applied
determination to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war research is aimed at discovering new knowledge that has some specific
which has brought untold sorrow to mankind. potential use. Development is aimed at putting new or existing
knowledge to use in producing goods or services.
In 1957 the Assembly called for collective action to inform and
enlighten the peoples of the world to the dangers of the armament race, The poison pill describes a situation in which the target-company
and particularly to the destructive effects of modern weapons. adds large amounts of corporate debt through borrowing.
87
86
 None the less, the professor does not present legal theory as a given Ex. 6. Divide the words below into two groups: those having the same form for
at the be ginning of the course; the students must themselves construct singular and plural; and those having '-s' ending but singular in their
the legal theory by working from the texts or from concrete problems. meaning. Can you find any similar examples in Ukrainian?
Barracks, news, crossroads, statistics, mathematics, physics
The Constitution provides for the protection of works of authorship headquarters, means, series, species, works, Swiss, draughts, measles,
in these terms: 'Congress shall have Power... to promote the Progress of politics
Science... by securing to Authors... for limited Times the exclusive Right
to their... Writings.'
Ex. 7. Translate the sentences paying special attention to the pronouns.
Authors may use parts of the work (e.g., tables, figures) in God send everyone their heart's desire (Sheakspear). Sufficient unto
subsequent works without requesting permission from the AHA. If a the day is the evil thereof. (Bible) If anyone wants my umbrella they can
joint work, all co-authors must transfer rights in said work to the AHA take it. Nobody called me, did they? Whoever is late tell them to wait till
by executing this Agreement. the break. Everybody in this group thinks they are cleverer than the other
group. If a person does not know what they want from life they find it
hard to be a success.
Ex. 5.Translate the following sentences paying attention to the participles or
participial constructions.
I wasn't looking for any more difficult jobs in this world, but the
near possibility of one coming along allowed me to enjoy my slippered
days with a quieter conscience.

In developing rules and regulations, care must be taken to insure that

the conditions are not changed.

It is next to impossible to convey here even an approximate

impression of the essence and range of this brilliant, content-packed
volume.

It is not possible for contamination to occur here.

Much more stringent constraints than the requirement of formal

consistency associated with formalist philosophies are posed here.

My father was watching them with mild blue eyed interest.

Numerous articles have appeared dealing with this intricate

problem.

89
88
 Partitioning

Lecture 10. BASIC TRANSLATION DEVICES •► Partitioning is either replacing in translation of a source sentence
by two or more target ones or converting a simple source sentence
into a compound or complex target one.
This Lecture:
• introduces basic translators' devices:
• partitioning; One is to distinguish between inner partitioning (conversion of a
• integration; simple sentence into a compound or complex one) and outer partitioning
• transposition; (division of a sentence into two or more). For example, inner partitioning
• replacement; is used when translating English verbal complexes into Ukrainian:
• addition; Come along and see me play one evening. - Приходь коли-небудь
• omission and увечері - побачиш, як я граю.
• antonymous translation; More often than not inner partitioning is a regular translation
• shows where and how these devices are applied as tools to transformation accounted for by the differences in the Ukrainian and
ensure English syntactic structures, although it may be also used on individual
adequate translation. occasions as required by the text genre and style and communication
variety of the source sentence.
When translating from English into Ukrainian outer partitioning
You might have already guessed from previous discussion that (unlike inner) is more a matter of personal translator's choice based, of
translation was a rather individual matter brinking on art and almost in course, on the proper account of stylistic and genre peculiarities and
any case requiring unique and unprecedented decisions. And yet even in communication intent of both the source text and its translation.
translation of poetry, which undoubtedly demands the most individual Outer partitioning is out of the question in case of translating
official legal or diplomatic documents (laws, contracts, memos, etc.) but
approach, a translator is bound to use a more or less standard set of
it becomes a totally justified translation option, say, in consecutive
devices which helps to convey the ideas of the source text in the best
translation of a long and complex sentence.
possible way and, generally speaking, makes it possible to translate. The following example from Graham Greene34 is one of the cases
Although the choice of particular devices depends on the text type, where outer partitioning seems a proper translation device (although, of
genre and style as well as on the translation variety (oral, written, course, not a universal recipe):
consecutive, simultaneous) and translation direction (into or from a There was a real game too, not a party game played in the old school
foreign language), the basic set of translation devices (a kind hall and invented by my eldest brother Herbert, who was always of an
of'translator's tool kit') usually comprises partitioning and integration of adventurous character until he was changed by the continual and sometimes
sentences, transposition of sentence parts, replacement, addition and shameful failures of his adult life.
omission of words and word combinations as well as a special type of
transformations called antonymous translation.

90
Greene
G. A Sort
of Life. -
London:
Vintage
Classics,
1999.
91
 Була і справжня, а не салонна гра, у яку ми грали в актовому залі The flight will be boarding at Gate 17 in about fifteen minutes,' the girl
старої школи. Цю гру вигадав мій старший брат Герберт — людина added with a smile35 - «Приблизно за п'ятнадцять хвилин на цей рейс буде
винахідлива і схильна до всіляких пригод, доки постійні і часом ганебні посадка біля виходу номер 17», — посміхаючись, додала дівчина.
негаразди дорослого життя не змінили його вдачу.

Replacement
Integration

•* Replacement is any change in the target text at the morphological, lexical

ШЬ Integration is the opposite of partitioning, it implies combining two or and syntactic levels of the language when the elements of certain source
(seldom) more source sentences into one target sentence. paradigms are replaced by different elements of target paradigms36.

Generally, integration is a translation device wholly depending on stylistic An example will suffice to illustrate the idea of transposition.
peculiarities and communication intent of the text being translated. In oral 92
translation, however, integration may be a text compression tool (see below),
when an interpreter (consecutive or simultaneous) is to reduce the exuberant
elements of the source text to keep in pace with the speaker.
An example will do to illustrate the idea of integration:
Олена Філіп'єва любить усі свої ролі. Якщо якусь із них довго не
танцює - починає сумувати.
Olena Filip'eva loves all her roles and even misses them should too much
time pass without performing them.

Transposition

•► Transposition is a peculiar variety of inner partitioning in translation

meaning a change in the order of the target sentence syntactic elements
(Subject, Predicate, Object, etc.) as compared with that of the source
sentence dictated either by peculiarities of the target language syntax or by
the communication intent.
 It seems worth to discuss again the example from our previous
lecture on language paradigms. Let us consider sentences in English
and in Ukrainian: He used to come to Italy each spring and
Зазвичай він приїздив до Італії кожної весни.
The following paradigms were used to form these sentences
and the following paradigm elements were activated in syntagmas
during their formation (viz. Table below).

Elements Activated
Names of in the Sentence
Paradigms English Ukrainian
Used to Form he він
the Sentences used, come приїздив
Personal Pronouns Past Indef. минулий час
Paradigm Verbs to none
Paradigm Verb Tense
Paradigm Particles
Paradigm

I
35
Archer J. Honour Among Thieves. - London: Harper Collins, 1994. 36 Our
definition of replacements somewhat differs from the viewpoints of
other scholars the reason being the specific target audience of this
Manual. The Manual is targeted to the students of non-linguistic
disciplines with only basic linguistic awareness that is why we try to
make our explanations simple and practical rather than present a
detailed linguistic classification of translation pa-
 Prepositions Paradigm to do one is an efficient device called antonymous translation. It is a means
Noun Paradigm Italy, spring Італія, весна of text compression extensively used in interpretation and discussed
Adjectives Paradigm each кожний in more detail elsewhere in this Manual (viz. Lecture 15
Adverbs Paradigm none зазвичай Interpretation: Professional Skills and Training)
Noun Cases Paradigm Common Case pod. відм. Replacements of all kinds are so common in English-Ukrainian
Adjective Cases Paradigm none pod. відм. translation that even a beginner is sure to use this device more than once,
so to save space we shall give examples in the attached exercises.
Comparing the paradigm sets used to form the above English and
Ukrainian sentences and paradigm elements activated in the syntagmas
of these sentences one may easily spot numerous replacements. Addition
Of interest for student translators are changes observed in Complex
Sentences where transposition of the Subjects is combined with their •► Addition in translation is a device intended for the compensation
mutual replacement. To prove the statement, let us consider the of structural elements implicitly present in the source text or
following example: paradigm forms missing in the target language
No sooner did he start his speech than the President was interrupted. -
He встиг президент розпочати промову, як його перервали.
The replacements are necessary because English and Ukrainian Additions in translation from English into Ukrainian stem from the
possess different language systems. It goes without saying that this fact is differences in the syntactic and semantic structure of these languages. In
very important for translation and explains many translation problems. English, being an analytical language the syntactic and semantic
Thus, replacement is a universal and widely used translation device. relations are often implicitly expressed through order of syntactic
One may even say that replacements in that or another form are observed elements and context environment whereas in predominantly synthetic
in any translation from English into Ukrainian and even more so — from Ukrainian these relations are explicit (expressed in relevant words).
Ukrainian into English. When translating from English into Ukrainian a translator is to visualize
the implicit objects and relations through additions. So-called 'noun
The following basic types of replacements are observed in English- clusters' frequently encountered in newspaper language are especially
Ukrainian translation: rich in 'hidden' syntactic and semantic information to be visualized by
1. Replacement of Noun Number and Verb Tense and Voice addition in translation:
Paradigms, e. g. replacing Singular Form by Plural and vice versa; Green Party federal election money - гроші Партії зелених,
replacement of Active Voice by Passive; replacement of Future by призначені на вибори на федеральному рівні
Present, Past by Present, etc. fuel tax protests - протести, пов'язані з підвищенням податку на
2. Replacement of Parts of Speech (the most common is replacing паливо
Ukrainian Nouns by English Verbs when translating into English peer-bonded goods - товари, розраховані на споживання певною
/see in more detail below/; common enough is the replacement of віковою групою
English 'Nomina agentis' /drinker, sleeper, etc./ by Ukrainian Verbs).
3. Replacement in translation of a negative statement by an affirmative
94
95
 Omission Ш QUESTIONS

What are the basic translation devices?

What is partitioning and integration? Define them and give examples.
Describe transposition as a variety of inner partitioning What is
replacement? Define it. What are the basic types of replacements in
practical translation? Give examples. What is addition? Give definition and
examples. What is omission? Give examples of Ukrainian-English
translation.

ШЬ Omission is reduction of the elements of the source text considered the lectures that follow. WHY THE BEST? The New
redundant from the viewpoint of the target language structural patterns and York Times Magazine, June 1, 1999
stylistics There may be less agreement than
ever about what it is. But the concept has
become an essential tool. The Best has
4. become a search engine. By FRANK
5. RICH
Omission is the opposite of addition - to understand it consider the literal Some nine decades later, the
historian Peter N. Stearns disinterred the
EXERCISES
old Times essay and, while finding it not
Ex. 1. Compare the English text and its translation into Ukrainian. Comment on
translation devices used.
translation into English of the above noun clusters from their Ukrainian without insight, noted the conspicuous
translation and compare these translations with the original English text. omission of «an amazing number of
Green Party federal election money - гроші Партії зелених, призначені developments that we now consider to
на вибори на федеральному рівні - Green Party money intended for the have been crucial in the 19th century.»
elections at the federal level Among the missing were the abolition of
fuel tax protests - протести, пов'язані з підвищенням податку на паливо slavery, the artistic revolution of Im-
-protests related to the increase of the fuel tax
peer-bonded goods - товари, розраховані на споживання певною
віковою групою — goods designed for use by certain age groups
Furthermore, the meaning of their constituents being the same, a number of
expressions do not require translation into Ukrainian in full, e.g., null and void -
недійсний.
So, as one can see, proper omissions are important and necessary
translation devices rather than translator's faults as some still tend to believe.
Thus, basic translation devices discussed in this lecture are, indeed, the
only 'tool kit' available to a translator, however, a big question remains
unanswered: Where and when to use that or another device? A complete answer
is hardly possible, but we shall try, at least, to give some recommendations in
 ^ЧОМУ НАЙКРАЩЕ? «Нью-Йорк Тайме Мегезин», 1 червня 1999
p. Автор: Френк Річ
Може, зараз існує більше розбіжностей щодо тлумачення слова
«найкращий», ніж їх було коли-небудь до цього, але концепція
«найкращого» стала суттєвим засобом своєрідної селекції.
Історик Пітер Стернз розкопав у старих номерах «Тайме» есе, яке
побачило світ приблизно дев'яносто років тому і, зауважив, що йому не
бракує глибини. Він звернув увагу на відсутність у есе згадки про
«дивовижну кількість подій і фактів, які ми зараз вважаємо важливими для
XIX століття». Пройшли непоміченими: повалення рабства, мистецька
революція імпресіоністів і майже все, що

96 97
pressionism and стосується Азії. А сьогодні may not be amended or supplemented except by written agreement
virtually the entirety «Тайме» розкопує завали на signed by both parties hereto. lO.The terms used hereunder shall have the
of Asia. горищі історії і перетрушує минуле following meaning. 11. Each Party may, within 20 days after receiving the
Now The Times тисячоліття у пошуках minutes, suggest amendments thereto.
is upping the ante Найкращого. Ні, не десятка
e) addition:
exponentially and кращих і не сотні найліпших, а
саме Найкращого. Publications on Foreign Policy; the United Nations; Ministry of
ransacking an entire Health
millennium in search Якщо хтось помітить у цих
of the Best. Not the пошуках абсурдистську нотку, . J) omission:
10 best, or the 100 типову для XX сторіччя, то це так і a) The Court of Justice; null and void; rejected and omitted; as far
best, but the Best. If було заплановано. У 1999 році сам back as; as early as; he is head and shoulders above his comrades; prim
you detect a цей вираз «найкращий» визначає and proper; power to execute and perform the duties and responsibili
distinctly 20th- словесну бійку або, якщо ties; continue in full force and effect; foreign policy problem; electoral
century absurdist висловитись більш конструктивно, base; political scientist;
grace note in this провокує дебати. b) Статут Організації Об'єднаних Націй; Члени Організації
endeavor, it's intentional. In Об'єднаних Націй; юристи з визнаним авторитетом у галузі
1999, the very term «the Best» міжнародного права; постійна Палата Третейського Суду; взяти на
amounts to fighting words-or, to себе обов'язки; подати заяву про відставку; у порядку спрощеного
put it more constructively, a судочинства; у випадку рівності голосів суддів голос старшого за
provocation to debate. віком дає перевагу; термін повноважень п'яти суддів закінчується
через три роки.
Ex. 2. Translate into Ukrainian, using the suggested, and, if needed, other
g) antonymous translation:
devices: Valid with diploma only. Keep off the grass. Take it easy. Take it or
a)partitioning: leave it. She was not like a bird. Staff only. It won't be long before the
Similar artifacts have been found at sites throughout North and help arrives. It wasn't until 1983 that Connor could afford a holiday
South America, indicating that life was probably well established in abroad. It would take these first North Americans thousands of years
much of the Western Hemisphere by some time prior to 10,000 B.C. One more to work their way through the openings in great glaciers south to
result of these restrictions was to reduce the appeal of nativists what is now the United States. The armed forces shall not be used save
organizations37 in the common interests.
d) replacement:
1. Everyone was talking but stopped the moment she entered the
room. 2. The establishment of the United Nations Office in November Ex. 3. Translate into Ukrainian, making necessary transformations.
1992 followed the signing in New York a host agreement between Primaries; academia; turnout (at the polls); caucus; Ministry of
Ukraine's Foreign Minister and the United Nations Secretary-General. 3. Health; the Exchequer; to investigate; to accommodate; airborne; breeze;
I hear that you have been promoted. Congratulations! 4.Please be quiet. refinery; publicist; body of independent judges.
You re continually interrupting! 5.Pay no attention to him. He is just
being naughty. 6.When he was rich, he used to stay in this hotel. 7.
Scientists are on the point of making a vital breakthrough. No sooner did
the President start his speech than he was interrupted. 8.Principal hereby
appoints Agent as its non-exclusive service provider. 9.This Agreement
Nativist organizations - організації «американців за походженням». 99
98
 Ex. 4. Translate into Ukrainian. Comment on translation devices used.

DICK WHITTINGTON AND HIS CAT Lecture 11. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHOICE
Tales of cats that bring gpod fortune to their owners can be found in OF EQUIVALENTS
cultures throughout the world. One of the most famous is the English
legend of Dick Whittington, a poor orphan in the late 1300s, whose only
possession was a cat. Dick worked in a rich traders house, but was ill- This Lecture:
treated and ran away. A peal of bells tells him to return and he does so to • outlines basic factors that influence the choice of translation equivalents,
find that his cat has been sold for a great fortune to a Moorish ruler who І^ф i.e. context, situation and background information;
is plagued by rats. ^ • defines context varieties and their influence on the choice of translation
equivalents;
The story of Dick Whittington and his cat is a familiar one to most • shows the role of cultural background in equivalent selection.
schoolchildren. A poor orphan comes to London and finds work in thev ■a
kitchens of a rich merchant-trader called Fitzwarren. One day Dick earns „ФҐ>\ a
penny by shining a rich man's shoes ,an,d buys a cat to keep the vermin in From the previous lectures and your own translation experience you know
his room at bay. Fitzwarren allows his employees to put one item on his ship that that the choice of translation equivalents depends on the context, situation and
could be traded abroad,. The employee will then get all the profits. Dick had
background information. This lecture presents more detailed information on the
nothing^xceptW cat, and so he reluctantly gives up
f. ніг role these and some other important factors play in the process of translation
equivalent selection.
his pet. Thus, the main factors are context, situation and background information.
ІД^ *
^ 1JMT,.
They are well-known, but, regrettably, their definitions by various scholars
«Л><Я& STORM AT SEA ^ substantially differ.
^ о^Ц^Опе day, Fitzwarren's ship encounters a fierce storm and is blown into uncharted To start with, let us define the context38.
territory on the African Barbary coast. The Moorish king, « dining with the
captain, tells him that he will pay a fortune if anyone can rid him of a plague of
rats. The captain, who has seen how Dick's cat has rid the ship of vermin, gives Ш* For the purpose of practical translation we shall call the context the
the cat to the king. The cat immediately sets about its work and then goes to sit on length of speech (text) necessary to specify the meaning and translation of a
the queen's lap, purring. The king is so happy that he gives the captain gold and given word.
jewels worth ten times the value of the entire ship's cargo. Dick becomes a rich
man.

Also for the purpose of practical translation we shall distinguish between

immediate and general context.
100 See also: Нелюбин Л.Л. Переводческий словарь. - M., 1999.
101
 потрібна, окрім релігії, щоб вижити у час, коли нове тисячоліття летить
•* Immediate context is a sequence of syntactically and semantically related прямо на нас; це ілюзія, що ми ще можемо зупинити годинник і знайти
words that determines the meaning and syntactic function of a given word спосіб, навіть у цю останню мить, щоб підкорити простір і час.
and forms the basis for its translation.
Perhaps, you will agree that in the first instance the immediate context is all
that one needs for translation whereas to translate properly the text of the second
example one will need broader context and, probably, some additional
Note the words 'forms the basis' in the above definition - these words are
background information as well. This brings us to the first conclusion:
critical indeed, because immediate context is seldom sufficient for the proper
choice of equivalents. Usually immediate context is limited to a sentence, though
in many cases a length of text shorter than a sentence is sufficient as an •* The choice of translation equivalents depends both on immediate and
immediate context. general context.
However, to get all information necessary for translation one should take
into account the general context as well.

Ш* General context is the source text as a whole. Any source text, however, consists of words and word combinations which
you are to translate to finally end up in a target text. And to say the least, words
and word combinations are very different as to the problems they present for
To feel the difference compare the translation of the following two translation.
examples. Compare, for example, words and word combinations in the left and right
columns of the Table below.
After becoming involved in city politics, he was rewarded for his services to
the King by being made Lord Mayor of London, serving four terms between organization insider
1397 and 1420.
society power-broker
Він став брати активну участь у політичному житті міста, і король
відзначив його заслуги перед короною, призначивши лорд-мером Лондона. territory mainstream
На цій посаді він залишався чотири строки - з 1397 по 1420 рік. development hot button
The hope that we can still pare down our choices to a list of essentials is region marginal
the other faith, besides religion, that we need to survive as the new millennium
rushes toward us - the illusion that we can stop the clock and somehow, even at
this late date, master space and time.
Сподівання, ніби-то ми все ще в змозі відмовитися від усього зайвого
і обрати найсуттєвіше, - це своєрідна віра, яка нам
102
I
It is easy to note that the entries in the left column present no
prob-

lem for translation whereas to find proper equivalents for those in

the right column one needs at least broad context and desirably also
a piece of background information.

103
 The explanation lies in the fact that unlike those in the left column the right You will get more of such texts in the exercises after this lecture that prove
column words are relatively new language formations standing for also the final conclusion39:
relatively new phenomena of the American culture. Then the next conclusion
may be:
•* To select proper equivalents one needs to be aware of the cultural
background underlying the source text being translated.

9Ґ The choice of translation equivalents for individual words and word

combinations depends on the translator's awareness in the underlying
cultural background.

39
To get a better idea of the above equivalent selection factor consider an We purposefully include in the exercises after this lecture the texts partly
example: or fully shown elsewhere in this Manual. We think it is worth analyzing these
texts at a different angle.
The conservative commentator David Brooks argues in «Bobos in
Paradise» that the old bourgeoisie and the old bohemians have in the last
generation morphed into what he calls «Bobos» - bourgeois bohemians. The
longhaired, tie-dye-shirted, sandal-shod free spirit is now in the corporate
boardroom, and the things that seemed to divide the counterculture from the
business culture have largely disappeared as a result.
These Bobos are obviously far less inclined than their Rotarian
predecessors to fight the prudish battles against popular culture. They are
products of that culture, and they like it.
Консервативний коментатор Девід Брукс у своєму есе «Бубо у раю»
стверджує, що стара буржуазія і стара богема в останньому поколінні
переродилися у те, що він називає «бубо» - буржуазна богема. Колишні
патлаті носії вільного духу в сандалях та яскравих сорочках сидять зараз
у респектабельних офісах, і в результаті зникло все те, що, здавалось би,
відділяло культуру протесту від бізнес-культури. На відміну від членів
Ротаріанських клубів, місце яких вони зараз посіли, «бубо», очевидно, менш
схильні до пуританських хрестових походів проти попкультури, бо вони
самі є продуктом цієї культури, і ця культура їм до вподоби.
104 105
ЕЗ QUESTIONS side seems especially willing to lay down arms. If anything, they seem
emboldened after an election that showed the citizenry to be evenly
1. What are the basic factors that influence the choice of translation divided. No one wants to give ground for fear the tide of battle will turn.
equivalents? But while the political war over social issues rages on, what these
2. What is immediate context? How does it influence the choice of observers might have really sensed is an increasing tolerance in the
translation equivalents? popular culture for things once considered unacceptably outside the
3. What is general context? How does it influence the choice of mainstream. Just a decade ago, there were no gays in television situation
translation equivalents? comedies. Now NBC's «Will Grace,» one of the most popular sitcoms,
celebrates gay characters, and no one seems particularly lathered about
4. What are the factors that influence the choice of translation
it.
equivalents of individual words and word combinations?
A decade ago, television commercials barely hinted at sex, lest they
5. What is the role of cultural background in finding proper translation offend potential consumers. Now they hurl sexual innuendo, and no one
equivalents? bats an eye.
More than a decade ago, Madonna scandalized polite society with
j§J EXERCISES the suggestion that a new romance made her feel like a virgin. Now radio
plays the most sexually explicit music, and no one notices. One might be
Ex. 1. Translate into Ukrainian. Suggest factors that influence the choice of excused for assuming, then, that there has been a truce and that a new era
translation equivalents. of cultural coexistence has dawned. But in truth this is hardly a new state
BOTH SIDES WILL MAKE SURE AMERICA'S CULTURE WARS of affairs. The popular culture has always been more tolerant than the
CONTINUE The International political culture, and the tension between the two has accounted, in part,
for the launching of the culture wars. Although it is a chicken-and-egg
Herald Tribune. April 12, 2001. ByNeal Gabler
question, cultural conservatives raise a taboo and purveyors of popular
The culture wars that so enlivened the 1980s and 1990s in America culture violate it. Then the conservatives rail against the violation, and
are said to be over. The savage fights that raged full-scale as recently as the purveyors of popular culture rise to the challenge and push the
two years ago over gay rights, abortion, gun control, environmental envelope. Then the conservatives howl over the latest transgression, and
protection and general permissiveness, and that culminated in the the popular culture transgresses once again. And so it goes. It is a
Antietam of culture battles, Bill Clinton's impeachment and trial, seem to dynamic and continuous process, a symbiosis not only between the so-
have just called conservatives and liberals but also between both of these cohorts
petered out. and society generally. Without it the culture would be directionless,
Pundits say the combatants, exhausted from all the verbal shelling, which is not only why culture wars will continue but also why America
have accepted compromise rather than press on for total victory, and this need them to continue. How dull the culture would be without them.
has led to a new spirit of accommodation. One observer writes that the Conservatives might be ascendant in politics, setting the agenda since at
«crackle of cultural gunfire is now increasingly distant.» least the days of Ronald Reagan, but they are always the beleaguered
It makes you wonder what country they're living in. ones in the war over the popular culture.
If Americans don't hear the crackle, it might be because the bombs That discrepancy between political power and cultural power is
detonating overhead drown it out. If Americans look around they will see something to which they have never quite been able to reconcile
that abortion, gun control, environmental protection, gay rights and, themselves. Militant conservatives simply cannot fathom how one can
lately, campaign finance reform are still hot-button issues, and neither vote Republican, profess to embrace conservative values and yet buy
106 Eminem
107
CDs or watch NBC's «The West Wing» or go see R-rated movies. To when they attack movie blockbusters, cutting-edge television programs
them it is both inconsistent and a betrayal. and rock CDs.
The barrier, as they see it, isn't between politics and culture but In professing to save America from the toxin of popular culture,
between conservative values and liberal values. They won the political conservatives were also saving themselves. Popular culture promoted the
war, so how come their troops aren't carrying the cultural one, too? Much sort of values that further marginalized the critics and made them seem
to their dismay, the answer is that there are two different sets of armies in even more old-fashioned and irrelevant. It is a war they cannot afford to
these two theaters of combat. In the political theater you have the familiar lose, so they have to keep soldiering on no matter how inexorably the
forces of liberalism and conservatism. In the cultural one, you have a popular culture seems to advance. They don't seem to realize that this
variegated group of pop culture consumers including political right- culture might not be a form of cultural illiteracy. It might be a form of
wingers on the one side, and a bellicose band of religious and moral rebellion for people who deliberately choose what is likely to infuriate
conservatives on the other. The conservative commentator David Brooks cultural commissars intent on telling them what is good for them.
argues in «Bobos in Paradise» that the old bourgeoisie and the old bo- Since the days of Andrew lackson, people embraced the «trashy» in
hemians have in the last generation morphed into what he calls «Bobos» direct proportion to the critics' hatred of it, thus asserting their cultural
- bourgeois bohemians. The longhaired, tie-dye-shirted, sandal-shod free independence and power. It is one of the reasons the popular culture
spirit is now in the corporate boardroom, and the things that seemed to often goes to extremes. At the extremes lies the greatest irritation value.
divide the counterculture from the business culture have largely The culture wars might ebb and flow, but they will never end.
disappeared as a result. Conservatives cannot concede defeat, because to do so would end the
These Bobos are obviously far less inclined than their Rotarian hope of their worldview ever prevailing.
predecessors to fight the prudish battles against popular culture. They are And consumers of popular culture need that opposition to give
products of that culture, and they like it. themselves a target, a boundary to transgress. Without conservatives to
Despite their heated rhetoric and noise, cultural conservatives just excoriate it, the popular culture would lose its subversive subtext and the
don't have the numbers. sneaky thrill of violation that fuels it.
When the culture wars began in America 150 years ago, it was
because elites and aristocrats, a tiny faction, feared and detested the rise Ex. 2. Translate into Ukrainian. Suggest items of cultural background
of a genuinely democratic culture of almanacs, crime pamphlets, dime necessary for translation.
novels, penny newspapers, theatrical melodramas, popular music, ANIMALS HAVE TRADITIONALLY SHAPED HUMAN EVENTS.
circuses. As the elites saw it, this new culture, appealing to the masses, Leading article The Times, April 27, 2001. &>Ш
threatened the country by degrading its standards and morals. It was a
culture of the proverbial lowest common denominator. As the 19th There everyone is, caught between horror at the ghastly enormity
century progressed, the elites gradually gave way to middle-class that is foot-and-mouth and ennui that it has dragged on for so long, when
moralists and reformers, but the moralists' arguments were essentially the suddenly from the ashes there rises the sacred calf, Bambi reincarnate.
same as the aristocrats'. Popular culture undermined American values. It With her fluffy white fur, ox-eyed gaze and perfect pink pout Phoenix is
promoted sex, violence,.vulgarity and disrespect for authority. the prettiest page 3 star Fleet Street has had in years. Suddenly amid the
That was the argument when cultural conservatives were attacking big, ugly world of slaughter trip the words «tiny», «white» and
saloon shows at the end of the 19th century, silent films, including the «innocent». Ministers quail and policy is made on the hoof.
films of Charlie Chaplin, early in the 20th century, and sexual comedies People talk about causes needing a human face, but on the whole
in the 1920s and gangster pictures in the 1930s. It is still the argument prefer an animal countenance. Mute bestial appeal is considered easier
108 109
 on the ear than, say, the guttural petition of asylum-seekers. We can be fairly Lecture 12. TRANSLATION VARIETIES
indifferent to our own kind; it takes an animal to make us human. Phoenix's life
would have been pretty dreadful under normal circumstances, but no matter. She
has assumed the symbolic status of The Cow That Changed History. This Lecture:
Animals have altered the course of events more often than might be • introduces the classification of translation based on physical parameters;
imagined. Many's the time when mankind has felt himself to be sturdily at the • familiarizes the students with sub-categories of translation depending on
helm, when in fact matters have been bunted along by beak or snout. Europe genre;
itself began this way when Europa was carried off into the ocean by a bullish • "outlines approaches translators use when handling these varieties.
Zeus, kicking and flailing before submitting to become a continent. For
Christians the instigating beast is the serpent, worming his way into Eve's
confidences with sinuous insinuations. Generally speaking all translation varieties have much in common -similar
Ancient history is a positive bestiary of cloven goings on. The noblest approaches, similar translation means and devices. According to physical
incidence of animal magic came in the form of the sacred geese whose cackling parameters of translation process, however, translation is divided into written
alerted their masters to a stealthy advance upon the Capi-toline Hill. Caligula's
translation (or simply translation) and oral (or interpretation).
bestowal of a consulship upon his horse was rather less successful, being one of
Interpretation, in its turn, is traditionally divided into consecutive
all-too-many final straws that broke the populace's back and led to his being
dispatched at the Palatine Games. Cleopatra's exit pursued by an asp showed far interpretation and simultaneous interpretation. Chuchotage and at-sight
better judgment. interpretation are commonly regarded as alternatives of consecutive
Animals also throw up historical «what-ifs». What if Richard III had traded interpretation despite minor differences in physical procedures.
his kingdom for a horse, Dick Whittington not been so bounteous with his cat, or Written translation is also divided into several sub-categories depending on
Catherine the Great been less pony crazy? In the multimedia age pets can win the genre of the text being translated, such as literary translation (fiction, poetry
the ultimate prizes and emerge as global mega-stars. The orbit of Sputnik's dog, and publicistic texts), translation of official documents, etc.
Laika, made him the fantasy comrade of the world's youth.
The Prime Minister's personal intervention as Phoenix's saviour is a bow to
the electoral beasts of the apocalypse. It is a case of chicken, but the public will Ш* In consecutive interpretation the interpretation follows the source
see only a happy ending to The Calfs Tale. utterance, whereas simultaneous interpretation is performed simultaneously
with the original speech.

This time lag of the interpreter relative to the speaker is the main
distinction of consecutive interpretation, which determines the peculiarities of
the approach and translation devices used by the interpreter.

Ill
110
 In a similar way almost zero time lag of the interpreter during •* Consecutive interpreter generally prefers denotative approach
simultaneous interpretation is critical for the choice of translation devices since it is virtually impossible to memorize the entirety of the long
and approaches as well as determines the necessity of using special text passages being translated and translate close to the source text.
equipment for interpretation. Simultaneous interpreter is bound to keep to transformational
approach interpreting the source text by small fragments.

•► Without special equipment simultaneous interpretation is

impossible.

It should be added mat in translation the decisions made by the

translator are the results of thorough speculation and, ideally, are
The equipment for simultaneous interpretation comprises earphones, conscious, whereas in interpretation the interpreter's decisions are mainly
a microphone and a sound-insulated booth which serves as the subconscious and intuitive.
interpreter's work-place. Because of physical and mental strain As concerns translation devices, they are basically the same for all
simultaneous interpretation is considered the hardest and most stressing translation varieties. Moreover, it is hardly possible and feasible to
interpretation variety that requires special skills and qualities. It is explain when to use which device - in many aspects translation is an art
regarded as a top class of interpretation and demands special vocation implying constant search for unprecedented decisions. However, in this
and training. Basic skills and training methods of consecutive and Manual we attempt to file a sort of translation device inventory when it
simultaneous interpreters are discussed below in this Manual (Lecture seems rational (Lectures 10 and 15). For example, one of the instances
15). when particular devices are feasible is text compression during
As it has been already mentioned all translation varieties use similar interpretation (see below in Lecture 15).
approaches and translation devices. Both in written translation and Chuchotage and at-sight interpretation are two specific alternatives
during the interpretation the translator (interpreter) may use either of consecutive interpretation proper. During chuchotage the interpreter
transformational or denotative approach.40 speaks in low voice, almost whispers so that only the interpretation user
Basically, the choice of one or another approach in written can hear. This interpretation alternative is rather hard for the interpreter
translation depends on the genre of the text being translated rather than who has to control the pitch of his or her voice. As concerns the
on the translation variety. In interpretation practice, however, there are approach it is similar to that used in standard consecutive interpretation.
two instances when the choice of approach is determined by the working At-sight interpretation is another variety of consecutive
environment. interpretation. The difference is that the interpreter reads a written text in
a source language rather than listening to the speaker as in ordinary
consecutive interpretation. However, there is a peculiarity of this
interpretation variety which, unfortunately, is often overlooked.
40
It is worth reminding here that according to transformational approach It is stylistical discrepancy between the written document and its oral
translation (interpretation) is performed by relatively small and regular syntac- interpretation: the styles of written documents (literary, official, etc.)
tico-semantic fragments of the source sentences whereas the denotative approach radically differ from the colloquial style any interpreter tends to use in
is based on larger text fragments (at least, a sentence) with occasional equivalents
113
(see more above).
112
interpretation (the expressions used in written language are different and О QUESTIONS
the interpreter has to adapt to them which is not as easy as it might seem
1. What varieties are distinguished in translation?
at first sight)41. To check the truthfulness of this statement do exercises
2. Are translation approaches and devices similar in different
after this lecture. translation varieties?
Completing this discussion of translation varieties it is worth 3. What are the principle differences between consecutive and
discussing the translation accessories and working environments of simultaneous interpretation?
translation and interpretation. The difference is substantial. A translator 4. What are chuchotage and at-sight interpretation?
has at hand dictionaries and reference materials and, as a rule, observes 5. Describe differences in working environments of a translator and
no specific time limits for the work; translation may be self-edited and interpreter?
redone if so required.
An interpreter is entirely self-dependent and cannot rely on any \§} EXERCISES
outside help: mistakes, slips of tongue are immediately noticeable and
derate the translation. In other words, the interpretation and translation Ex. 1. Interpret the text recording your interpretation, then translate in
tasks are equally hard, but different as different are the required skills writing. Compare the translation and interpretation, comment on the
and training methods discussed below in the lectures that follow. differences.
The star had made seven enormously popular horror films, five of
them talking pictures, and was being compared to the great American
actor Lon Chaney. Yet nobody knew anything about Johann Ingersoll.
There were no photographs of him except in the grotesque makeup he
invented for each picture. His biography listed only his films. He never
granted interviews and went to unusual lengths to protect his real
identity. Adding further to his mystique was Ingersoll's eccentric habit of
arriving on the set each day in makeup and leaving the same way.

Ex. 2. Ask your fellow student to read the text for you. Interpret it in
consecutive manner recording the interpretation. Observe the difference
between at-sight and regular consecutive translation.
HAS THIS BEEN A TERM OF ENDEARMENT? The
Observer, Sunday April 29, 2001. Andrew Rawnsley, columnist of the year.
Tony Blair's government has made history. What it has yet to
demonstrate is the capacity to change the country's destiny.
A week is a long time in politics; 48 months is an eternity. Four years
ago this Wednesday, Tony Blair stood before the black door on his sun-
Similar difficulty is experienced by the interpreters when the speaker 115
reads his paper prepared in advance rather than speaking off-hand.
114
dappled first day in office. 'Enough of talking,' said the man of action. 'It office in May 1997, but their term of power did not properly end until
is time now to do.' Strip off the hype which has gushed from Number 10 just two years ago, when Gordon Brown finally released the Government
ever since; blow away the froth of the daily headlines. How has his from the Tory spending corset. Transformed schools and hospitals await
government actually done? Let us try, as clinically as is possible, to assess realisation. If not delivered in the second term, the punishment of the
the performance of New Labour. electorate may be terrible.
The starter test of any government, I would suggest, is that it is Blair's most reckless pledge was to restore faith in public life. Back
reasonably accomplished at governing. This sounds an undemanding on May Day 1997, even the most cynical observer did not anticipate they
hurdle, but it is a first fence many previous governments have failed to would have quite so much sleaze in them. In other respects, this
surmount. The Blair government has made serious, self-inflicted government has delivered more than it promised. The last manifesto
mistakes -the Millennium Dome blasts them still. The unexpected has pledged nothing about child benefit - it has actually risen by 25 per cent.
come close to blowing them over. Foot and mouth has not been - I am They did not claim to be able to create full employment, yet they have
being charitable - a textbook example of how to handle an emergency. achieved that historic goal of Labour.
The Government teetered on the lip of the abyss during last autumn's fuel Any set of rulers with an eye on claiming a large place in posterity
protests. It is natural that we should curse their blunders more than we must aspire to be more than competent deliverers. The superior rank of
offer credit for the mistakes they have avoided. But the Blair government government is occupied by those which make changes lasting beyond
has eschewed perpetrating any spectacular errors. their lifetime. It is not conceivable that the Conservatives could unravel
The novices to red boxes who took office four years ago have devolution to Scotland and Wales, an aspiration of progressive
broadly run a competent government. Its life has been punctuated by governments dating back to Gladstone.
crises, which have been invariably generated not by dissident One of the ironies of Blair is that, for all his relentless emphasis on
backbenchers or off-message Ministers, but erupted from the inner core the modern, his bigger achievements have been based on ambitions set
of the regime. There have been gripping soap operas, none more so than by long-dead predecessors. A settlement in Ireland has eluded every
the double resignations of Peter Mandelson. But the damage done has premier since the nineteenth century. The minimum wage was a Labour
been to the actors, not to the country at large. There has not been the goal when Keir Hardie founded the party. The Tories have been
economic calamity or civil crisis which destroys governments and compelled to accept it, just as they have been forced to support
wrecks countries. independence for the Bank of England. This government could come to a
The Blair government has not inflicted upon us a Suez, a Three Day full stop today - and would leave enduring legacies.
week or a Winter of Discontent. There has not been the vicious social There are other elements of the Blair record which the Right accepts
conflict of the inner-city riots and the miners' strike in the Eighties. There because they are as amazed as many on the Left are disgusted that they
has not been anything approaching the ruinousness of Thatcher's poll tax have been enacted by a Labour government.
or Major's Black Wednesday. Just by being reason ably adept at ruling, Which takes us to my next test of a government: has it permanently
the Blair administration is lifted above the average run of postwar altered the framework of political choice? The verdict here is mixed.
governments. With a little help from the grisly pantomime that is William Hague's
The next test of any government is whether it has been true to its Conservative Party, New Labour commands the centre ground and
promises. Generally, the soi-distant People's Prime Minister has fulfilled swathes of territory on both flanks. Harold Wilson's unrequited dream of
the rather low expectations the people had of him. Blair was elected on a making Labour 'the natural party of government' is closer to realisation
paradoxical prospectus. The subtext of his campaign was: everything is by Tony Blair than under any previous Labour Prime Minister.
appalling; we will change it very slowly. The Conservatives may have left
116 117
 But he has achieved it more by following the consensus than by Lecture 13. LITERARY TRANSLATION
challenging the status quo. His government has pandered to illiberality
more often than it has confronted prejudice. It has become a little less
bashful about making the case for the active state and a fairer society, but This Lecture:
remains coy of full candour. • describes written translation subcategories;
Since the Third Way was giggled to death, it has become ever clearer • introduces the notion of hypertext;
that this is a government which moves by inches rather than leaps. There • discusses challenges facing a literary translator.
is nothing intrinsically wrong with that: small steps, provided there are
enough of them, can take you on a long journey. As mentioned in the previous Lecture, written translation is divided
Baby bonds are an eye-catching device to give the poor an asset stake into several subcategories depending on the genre of the texts being
in society. But this is the safest sort of radicalism. The first beneficiaries translated. Literary translation forms one of such subcategories being,
of the scheme will not come into possession of their modest endowments perhaps, unique and the most sophisticated of all.
until Mr Blair is eligible for his pension. He, Gordon Brown, David This translation variety requires special skills and talents and, unlike
Blunkett and Alistair Darling, along with the Institute for Public Policy some other varieties (e.g., translation of official documents) it cannot be
Research and the Fabian Society, all claim paternity over baby bonds. formalized or standardized. The explanation of the uniqueness and
When one good notion has to be spread around four Cabinet Ministers unprecedented nature of each literary translation piece lies in the
and two think tanks, it tells us that New Labour is not bursting with bold following statement.
and innovatory ideas.
This brings me to the last and most demanding test. The outstanding
governments are those which alter the country's destiny. The project to •► In literary translation the translator is to render the images of the
secure the exclusion of the Conservatives from power for a generation source text rather than only facts like in other translation and
has withered as Blair's enthusiasm for changing the Westminster voting interpretation varieties.
system has shrivelled. In terms of the private goals he set for his
premiership, the most evident failure has been Europe. Towards Europe
as a whole, and towards the single currency especially, public opinion is
more aggressively hostile than ever. Below, to illustrate the statement, let us compare the following
The greatest wrangling between the Prime Minister and the passage from A Farewell to Arms by Ernest Hemingway with its
Chancellor about the next manifesto is not over what it says about tax, translation into Ukrainian.
but about the warmth of the phraseology towards the single currency.
The fiercest struggle about that is within Mr Blair himself. Will he hedge I stopped at a barber shop Я зайшов до перукарні й по-
his self-perceived destiny with deadening qualifications or will he and was shaved and went home голився, потім попростував до
articulate the belief that his epochal role is to make Britain a fully to the hospital. My leg was as госпіталю. Моя нога вже так змі-
engaged partner in Europe? well as it would get for a long цніла, що кращого й бажати було
The Blair government has demonstrated that it can make history. time. I had been up for examina- годі. За три дні перед тим я був
Only in its second term will we discover whether it has the capacity to tion three days before. There на комісії. Мені залишалось усьо-
change the future.

118 119
were still some treatments to take го кілька процедур до кінця you.» кишені кілька монет.- Зробіть
before my course at the Ospedale лікування в Головному госпіталі, «Please,» I brought out мені приємність.
Maggiore was finished and I і я йшов бічною вулицею, some coppers. «For pleasure.» - Ні. Мені самому було
walked along the side street намагаючись не кульгати. Під «No. I did them for a приємно вирізати їх. Подаруйте
practicing not limping. An old склепінчастим під'їздом одного pleasure. Give them to your своїй дівчині.
man was cutting silhouettes будинку якийсь старий вирізував girl.» - Дуже вам дякую. Бувайте
under an arcade. I stopped to паперові силуети. Я зупинився «Many thanks until we здорові.
watch him. Two girls were подивитись. Йому позували двоє meet.» - Ходи здоровий, синку.
posing and he cut their дівчат, і він вирізував їхні «Until I see thee.»
silhouettes together, snipping силуети вкупі, швидко орудуючи Я повернувся до госпіталю.
very fast and looking at them, his ножицями й раз по раз I went on to the hospital. Там на мене чекало кілька листів,
head on one side. The girls were нахиляючи голову вбік, щоб There were some letters, an один з них - службовий. Мені
giggling. He showed me the позирнути на дівчат. Дівчата official one, and some others. I надавали тритижневу відпустку
silhouettes before he pasted them хихотіли. Він показав силуети was to have three weeks' на одужання, а потім я мав
on white paper and handed them мені, а тоді вже наклеїв їх на convalescent leave and then повернутися на фронт. Я уважно
to the girls. білий папір і віддав дівчатам. return to the front. I read it over перечитав листа. Еге ж, отак воно.
«They're beautiful» he said. - Он які красуні,- сказав carefully. Well, that was that. Відпустка починалася з
«How about you, Tenente?» він.- А ви не хочете, лейтенанте? The convalescent leave started четвертого жовтня, того самого
The girls went away looking Дівчата пішли, October fourth when my course дня, коли я закінчував курс
at their silhouettes and laughing. роздивляючись свої силуети і was finished. Three weeks was лікування. Три тижні - це
They were nice-looking girls. сміючись. Обидві були гарненькі. twenty-one days. That made двадцять один день. Отже,
One of them worked in the wine Одна з них працювала у кав'ярні October twenty-fifth. I told them двадцять п'ятого жовтня. Я сказав
shop across from the hospital. проти нашого госпіталю. I would not be in and went to the у госпіталі, що знов іду, й подався
«All right,» I said. - Ну зробіть, - сказав я. restaurant a little way up the до ресторану на тій-таки вулиці,
«Take your cap off.» Зніміть кашкета. street from hospital for supper майже поруч госпіталю,
«No. With it on.» - Ні. В кашкеті. and read my letters and the повечеряти і почитати листи й
«It will not be so beautiful,» - Буде не так гарно,- сказав Corriere della Sera at the table. «Corriere della Sera». Один лист
the old man said. «But,» he старий.- Зате,- усміхнувся він, - There was a letter from my був від мого діда: родинні
brightened, «it will be more дуже войовниче. grandfather, containing family новини, патріотичні гасла, чек на
military.» Він заходивсь обрізувати news, patriotic encouragement, a двісті доларів та кілька газетних
He snipped away at the складений удвоє чорний папір, draft for two hundred dollars, вирізок; ще був нудний лист від
black paper, separated the two потім розняв готові профілі, and a few clippings; a dull letter нашого священика, лист від
thicknesses and pasted the наклеїв їх на картку й подав мені. from the priest at our mess; a одного знайомого, який служив у
profiles on a card and handed - Скільки з мене? letter from a man I knew who французькому авіазагоні й весело
them to. 'How much?» - Пусте.- Він махнув рукою.- was flying with the French and проводив час у гурті
«That's all right». He waved Я зробив їх вам за спасибі. had gotten in with a wild gang відчайдушних гультяїв, про що й
his hand. «I just made them for - Ну будь ласка.- Я витяг з and was telling about it, and a сповіщав мене; та ще коротка
120 note from Rinaldi asking me писулька від Рінальді. Він
how long I was going запитував, чи довго
121
to skulk in Milano and what was я ще думаю огинатися в Мілані й Bury me, be done with me,
all the news? He wanted me to що нового взагалі. Крім того, Rise and break your chain,
bring him phonograph records просив привезти грамофонних Water your new liberty With
and enclosed a list. платівок і додав до листа їх спи- blood for rain. Then, in the
сок. mighty family
122
The most striking examples, however, of this unique feature of
literary translation gives us poetry:

The Testament Заповіт

by Taras Shevchenko Тарас Шевченко

Dig my grave and raise my Як умру, то поховайте Мене на могилі, Серед степу широкого На
barrow
By the Dnieper-side Вкраїні милій, Щоб лани широкополі, І Дніпро, і кручі Було видно,
In Ukraina, my own land, було чути Як реве ревучий. Як понесе з України У синєє море Кров
A fair land and wide. ворожу... отоді я І лани,і гори -Все покину і полину До самого бога
Молитися...
I will lie and watch the cornfields, а до того Я не знаю бога. Поховайте та вставайте
Кайдани порвіте І вражою злою кров'ю Волю окропіте. І мене в
Listen through the years
сім'ї великій В сім'ї вольній, новій, Не забудьте пом'янути Незлим
To the river voices roaring,
тихим словом.
Roaring in my ears.

When I hear the call

Of the racing flood,
Loud with hated blood,
I will leave them all,
Fields and hills; and force my way
Right up to the Throne
Where God sits alone;
Clasp His feet and pray...
But till that day
What is God to me?
 Of all men that are free, May be
sometimes, very softly You will
speak of me?
Translated by E.L. Voynich
London, 1911

It is easy to note that in the above translation example of the well-

known Shevchenko's «Testament» individual information items (facts)
are sometimes radically different or missing but the images forming in
the translation readers' minds are virtually similar to those triggered in
the minds of the source text readers. The same applies to the translation
of prose pieces, though, maybe, to a lesser degree.
To fully understand the task of the literary translator it is worthwhile
to recall the communicational scheme of translation. As you might
remember, the author of the source text sends a message to the source
language speakers and the translator's task is to render this message for
the speakers of the target language. For the translated message to be
understood properly by the target language audience it is necessary that
the knowledge bases (thesauruses) of the author, translator and
translation users were similar.
This task is rather easy when the translator deals with facts as in
translation of technical or official documents - one is only to match
grammar patterns (perform regular transformations) and properly choose
the equivalents.42
Should the translator manage to achieve these goals, the translation
will be a success, because facts are objective and understood in the same
way by all people with similar educational background.
The situation with literary translation, however, is radically different.
In literary translation
♦ the translator is to render mental images and trigger emotions
similar to those initiated by the source text in its readers;
♦ the images and emotions are known to be extremely subjective;
♦ the words causing similar images and emotions may be
different in different languages.

Sometimes this is not that easy, but still easier than create a unique image.
123
 That is why literary translation is an artistic creation and to be Since means and devices of hypertext may be different in source and
successful it must be accepted by the language speakers' community of target languages, the translator is to find appropriate target language
the target language as a piece of literary prose in their native language, substitutes for the source hypertext elements.
unlike other translation varieties which may be tolerated by the users It is hardly possible and desirable to give a universal prescription for
even in poor quality (factual information sometimes is more important hypertext substitutions in translation - the grounds of the choice are
for the users than grammatical and stylistic correctness). unique in each case.
Besides, there is another factor that makes literary texts so difficult Moreover, because of the unique cultural background of each nation
for translation - it is so called hypertext. a large share of the source hypertext is lost in translation.43
Thus, in literary translation an important role is played by literary
images and hypertext, however, speaking about this translation variety
•► Hypertext is the collective meaning of a literary text comprising one should also keep in mind the following.
all associations and allusions acquired by the words and word
combinations of this text in their previous usage. ♦ The target text of literary translation is a piece of fiction belonging
to the target language literature. That is why the knowledge of the target
language is so critical for this translation type.

These associations and allusions may be acquired when words and 124
word combinations were used in other texts: books, popular songs,
sayings, films, etc. For instance, word combination реве та стогне is
closely connected in the minds of Ukrainian speakers with the popular
song and when used in a different context still preserve this connection.
The same applies to words бузина and дядько. Used together in any
context they still remain associated with the saying На городі бузина, в
Києві дядько and this association rings a bell in the native speakers'
minds, though often subconsciously.
Of course, these examples are the simplest - generally the hypertext
allusions are extremely subtle and often not even recognized at the
conscious level. Yet, they are very important for the adequate perception
of a literary text which makes translator's task especially hard.
In order to explain possible ways to render the hypertext in
translation let's recall again the communication theory. The author's text
must comply with the hypertext thesaurus of the source text readers and
in a similar way the hypertext of translation must 'ring a bell' in the minds
of the target text readers.
 •* Literary translation should be recognized by the target language
speakers as a literary text in their native language.

♦ In literary translation of dialogues the translator should take exact

account of the speakers' character and situation of the dialogue. This
information determines the style of translation.
♦ Stylistic devices and expression means as well as connotations and
shades of meaning of individual words are critical elements of 'image-
making' in literary translation.

See also the lecture on translation into English in this Manual.

125
О QUESTIONS Lecture 14. TRANSLATION INTO ENGLISH
1. What are the distinctive features of literary translation?
2. What is hypertext? Define it. Give examples of hypertext allusions
and associations. This Lecture: • emphasizes the essential features to be remembered
3. Can a translator render the whole of the source hypertext? If not, then by the students when
what part of the hypertext is lost? translating into English: , , _ • pre-determined
4. What is the attitude of the target language audience to a piece of order of words in a sentence;
literary translation? • verbal style of expression;
5. What is to be taken into account in translation of dialogues? • analytical way of expressing semantic and syntactic relations
between words;
• the use of prepositional structures.
dJ EXERCISES
Ex. 1. Translate into Ukrainian. Try first word-by-word translation.
Explain why it fails and give literary translation. Suggest stylistic means and When translating into any language one is expected to treat with due
devices that are used to create the images of the source text, compare them regard the peculiarities of its grammatical and lexico-semantic systems.
with those in your translation.
Of numerous peculiarities of the system of English the following three
He was struck by the realization that what had been a traumatic and
are, perhaps, the most important for translation into this language.
monumental moment in his life had been an infinitesimal part of the
battle, by the insignificance of his part in the brutal encounter. And as
Rudman read on, the story gathered a kind of chilling energy unto itself 1. Definite (pre-determined) order of words in a sentence.
and Keegan began to feel its power. (William Diehl) 2. Predominantly verbal style of expression.
1. Analytical way of expressing semantic and syntactic relations
Ex. 2. Translate into Ukrainian using characters' backgrounds (a journalist
between words (by positioning rather than by prepositions and case
and a young soldier) as a basis for the selection of equivalents.
forms).
«Hi,» Rudman had greeted him holding out his hand, «I'm Bert
Rudman, Herald Tribune out of Paris.»
«Keegan,» was all the youngster had mumbled back. If one compares the above features of English with
«Were you at Belleau Wood?» ♦ free word order,
«I think so.» ♦ predominantly nominative style of expression and
«How bad is it?» Rudman asked nodding toward his leg. ♦ expression of semantic and syntactic relations by prepositions
«Bad enough to get me home.» He paused for a moment and then and/or case forms
asked, «Did we win?» typical for Ukrainian the principle objectives of Ukrainian-English
Rudman had stared at him for a moment, the significance of the translation may be phrased as follows.
question slowly sinking in. Then he smiled. «You sure did, kiddo.
Kicked the Kaiser's ass right back where it came from and then some.»
«That's good,» Keegan said.

126 127
 by the target audience. The best way to do this provides a combination of
•► When translating from Ukrainian into English the translator is: denotative approach (interpretation of the content) and transformational
♦ to change the word order in the source sentences in accord with scheme (transforming Ukrainian phrases into standard English
the English syntax; expressions).
♦ to change the source text style into predominantly verbal and
♦ to express the syntactic and semantic relations between nouns by
their proper positioning. •* In English-Ukrainian translation the translator is expected to
interpret the content of the source text using standard phrasing of the
target language speakers.

Speaking of translation means and devices the most applicable ones The matter is that the target Міцне, повите спокійною
for Ukrainian-English translation are restructuring (rewording) of the усмішкою обличчя. Вилитий
source sentences, replacement of noun combinations by verbal structures Let's take an example of Ukrainian Іван! Чистісінько батькова
the above recommendation. кру-тобровість. Наче той
and substitution of target noun clusters for source prepositional ожив, наче воскрес...
combinations. audience of Ukrainian-English
translation is foreigners having ...Вже викликають інших. З
It should be noted, however, that all said above is valid only for the числа цивільних одержує
cultural and educational
general case - each particular translation case demands individual грамоту і той модерняга, що
background which sometimes
consideration. приїздив мотоциклом до
radically differs from Ukrainian кіношників, пропонував зіграти
Let's take an example to illustrate a typical Ukrainian-English culture and ways of life. Hence, in роль анонімника. Одержавши
transformations. order to convey the source text нагороду й відходячи від столу,
Необхідно негайно провести голосування з цього питання. content in an optimal way one підморгнув Колосовському: а ви,
«The issue is to be voted immediately.» should translate it using the мовляв, не хотіли брати... Не
Note rewording and replacement of the nominative combination by phrasing common to and easily знаєте, братці, людей... (Oles
understood Honchar)
the verbal construction in the above example.
As concerns the approaches used in Ukrainian-English translation 128
one is to remember that the denotative approach and transformations are
used in combination.
To explain the necessity of denotative approach when translating
into English one is to apply the communicational scheme of translation.
As one can see a non-native speaking translator can achieve good
results in Ukrainian-English translation only through using standard (cli-
cheed) English phrasing. The reason of this requirement becomes clear if
you recall the information on hypertext discussed earlier in this Manual.
 English translation to illustrate

The strong face, the smile.... The arched brows. He was the image
of Ivan! Ivan himself may have come to life again, risen from the dead.
...Others were called. One of the civilians was the dashing young
fellow who had come on his motorcycle asking to be given the role of
anonymous letter-writer. He took his certificate and as he left the table
winked at Ko-losovsky, as though to say: And you didn't want to take
me. You're a poor judge of people...
 0 QUESTIONS

1. What are the peculiarities of the English language system which are
to be taken into account in Ukrainian-English translation?
2. What are the most important changes of the source text in
Ukrainian-English translation?
3. What is the optimal approach in Ukrainian-English translation?
4. Why is it desirable to use standard (clicheed) expressions when
translating into a foreign language.
5. Grade the texts according to difficulties they present for Ukrainian-
English translation.

{§} EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Read the Ukrainian text and its translation into English. Observe the
way the Ukrainian cultural idioms are translated. Describe the structural
changes and changes in the text content.
A non-native speaking translator simply may not know the hypertext interpretation proper are Місяць все щедріше
underlying the equivalents and only standard language cliches (to a discussed in the lecture that оббризкував сяйвом оброшені
follows. дерева і шлях, чіткіше
certain extent!) guarantee proper choice of equivalents with relevant
обрисовувались нерозсідлані
connotations. коні, а притишені пісні козаків
поривались і поривались на
далекі дороги, до укляклих
•> The use of standard (clicheed) phrases in translation into English
вишняків, до червоних калин і
is desirable since they are repeatedly tested by native speakers and
чорних пожарищ, де б мати чи
carry with them correct associations and allusions. батько і вірне кохання. Було в
тих піснях і степове озерце, де
плавало відеречко три дні під
Of course, in literary translation this aspect is more important than in водою, був і сердега бурлак, в
translation of technical or official documents. Generally speaking, the якого заболіло тіло, ще й
effectiveness of translation into English by a foreigner depends on the голівонька; був і кінь, що
type of the source text. The lowest level of connotations is observed in клонить голову за козаком, була і
дівчина, якій вгортав ноги своєю
legal texts where no ambiguity is tolerated, besides, legal texts are highly
шапкою молодик. Туга віків і
clicheed. In a way the same is true for technical texts and official надії віків
documents. This is where one may expect good results translating into
English by standard 'well-worn' expressions.
All said above about translation into English applies both to written
translation and interpretation, although some peculiarities of
 The moon-silver fell more lavishly on the dew-covered trees and
road, picking out the saddled horses; and the muted voices of the Cossacks
still sang of the rapids, the bowed cherry-trees, the red guelder roses and
the black ashes, yearning for the distant home where their father or
mother, or sweetheart, perhaps, awaited them. There was the steppe lake,
too, in those songs, the lake where the bucket floated for three days on the
water; there was the poor boatman dragging barges up the river with
aching head and back; there was the horse hanging his head in grief for his
Cossack master and there was the

130 131
сходились у молодих голосах і girl whose feet her Cossack warmed не так лічили роки. like a little brown animal in a
слалися старим шляхом, with his fur cap. Ancient sorrow - А як же, тату? thicket of grey.
стискаючи і веселячи серце... and ancient hope blended together Батько вплів у бороду «How? Have you forgotten,
in the young voices and flowed правицю, вона темним Timofi? It was the man that
along the old road, wringing and звірятком заворушилась на mattered, not his years. That first
gladdening hearts. сивині. time I took you to the Varchuks to
Старий... схрестив руки на His hands gripped the top of - Як? Ніби забувся? Літа work, they looked you up and they
палиці. Тепер сивина його his stick and his grey beard fell over були, Тимофію, тоді збоку, а looked you down, feeling all over
бороди якраз колихалася над them. «Couldn't they find someone попереду - чоловік. От коли я you with their eyes, and then they
перехрестям рук. older, and with more sense, too? повів тебе наймати до Варчу- asked me, 'How old is your lad?'
- То не можна було когось You're only a kid.» ків, там обдивилися, обмацали And what did I answer them? I told
знайти старшого чи розумні Timofi gave Svirid an eloquent очима з усіх боків і питають: them, 'He's a herdsboy.' So you
шого? Ти ж іще пуцьверінок у look and turned away from the old «Скільки ж років синові?» Я й went to the herd. And when I
мене. man to hide his smile. кажу: «Та вже пастушок». Так і signed you on to work on the estate
Тимофій посміхнувся, «In things like that, it isn't age пішов ти до череди. А коли в from St.Valentine's to St. Semyon's
багатозначно повів очима і that counts, it's whether a man's економію, у строк, од Стрітен- Day, they wanted to know the
одвернув голову від батька, straight and honest,» said Svirid, ня до Семена, записував тебе, same-'How old is your lad?' 'He's a
щоб не розсміятися. coming to his friend's rescue. так тож в конторі допитували teamster now,' I told them. And
- В такому ділі не по «He's honest all right. My son ся: «Скільки років синові?» - whenever they asked your years, I
старшинству, а по совісті has never done a crooked thing in «Та вже погонич»,- підказую. І told them your work. 'He's a
вибирають, - заступився за his life, Svirid. He's too young for де не питали про твої роки, ploughman,' I'd say, or 'He's
друга Свирид. this job though, the land likes to be говорив тільки про те, чого ти already a mower.' Some grow old
- Коли по совісті - нічого handled by older people who know по роботі вартий: «Уже й and grey and still can't be called
не скажу: мій синаш ніколи, it through and through.» орач» або «Уже й косар». Ін mowers, but you were taking the
Свириде, в сірка очей не «But Granddad, you can't say ший і до сивого волосу дожи lead with the scythe in the
позичав, але молодий він ще до he's that young, your Timofi's all of ве, а косарем не годен стати, а meadows before you ever joined
цього діла, земля старіших thirty-five!» ти ще й на вулицю вечорами the dancing on the village green at
любить, тих, які не тільки верх, «Thirty-five, indeed,» the old не заглядав, а на лузі отамана night. And that's how your age was
а й глибину її чують. man snorted. «You do everything вів. Отака моя всюди метрика reckoned until you were called up.
-Діду, та який він mighty quick these days, and you була, аж поки тобі й лоба не They've a newfangled way of
молодий: вашому Тимофію count the years quick too, like you забрили. А тепер новомодна reckoning age now-a lad can aim to
вже повних тридцять п'ять were all of a rush to get somewhere, метрика почалася: не встиг be an official before he's worn out
років. to the devil, maybe. We didn't зносити першу пару штанів - і his first pair of pants.... What's in
- Тридцять п'ять, три reckon years that way in my day.» в начальство преться... То що your mind, Timofi? After an easy
дцять п'ять! - перекривив ста «How did you do it, Dad?» ти собі думаєш, Тимофію? На life, are you?»
рий.- Швидко ви все робите і The old man thrust his right легкий хліб перейти? The mirage of shimmering
швидко лічите. Спішите ку hand into his beard where it stirred Маревом, блиском усе light filled every thing. That reed!
дись до дідька. А колись у нас 132 переповнене. Все злилось, 33
поєд-
 How its colours changed as the трощило, тут поступилося The river was bathed in light over
налось в стихії сонця, в breeze rippled through it.... How місцем іншій повені - повені, all its great expanse. It parted the
гармонії життя. Стоп, катер! much plastic movement there was reeds and poured out freely,
яка не руйнує.
Яка очеретина! Як вона in that saying stem with the repeating the breadth and blueness of
Плине, ущерть налита
переблискує, торкнута rhythmic play of light upon it! the sky, and spoke to all living
світлом, ріка. Розсунула
вітерцем... Скільки пластики в Reflected in the shimmering water things in its silent speech. Here I
очерети, розлилася привільне,
коливанні цієї стеблини з the reed lived, talked inaudibly with mingle with the seas and oceans of
відтворює саму широчінь і
хитливим ритмічним the water, the wind, the sun, and the world. I take leave of the reeds
сяйво неба, з усім живим
переливом світла на ній! perhaps with your friend. which like the Egyptian papyri
спілкується своєю безмовною
Віддзеркалена на мигтючім Photograph it, its movement, the draw into themselves the generous
мовою... Тут я впадаю в
екрані води, вона похитується, light on the water, the silvery secrets of light. I take leave of the
Світовий океан. З цими
живе, не-чутно розмовляє з willows, their epic pen-siveness. frontier watch-tower rising above the
очеретами прощаюсь, що, як
водою, з вітром, із сонцем, з Photograph it, preserve this great reeds, where a young border-guard
єгипетські папіруси, вбирають
другом вашим, може, розмов- creation of nature! But for whom? with field-glasses raised to his eyes
й себе щедрі тайно-щі світла...
ля... Вхопи, зафіксуй цей порух For what? Who would treasure it? stands guard over the blinding
Прощаюсь з прикордонною
очеретини, і світіння вод, і Would anyone see this majestic silence.... He is on guard over this
вишкою, що височить в
сріблястість верб, їх епічну calm of the wide estuary and that day, over the flood of light, the
очеретах, і прикордонник
задуму... Зафільмуй, збережи reed with its trembling sway, as a transparent pensiveness of the
молодий там чатує угорі з
цю велику творчість природи! fragment of beauty, a necessity? willows, and the uncontrolled
біноклем... Цей день чатує,
Але кому, навіщо? Хто «Tolstoy said somewhere that flight of birds over all frontier posts.
залитий потопом світла, і
дорожитиме? Чи перед ким із people are like river,» Yaroslava I go to pour my fresh water into
маревну тишу верб, і
прийдешніх постане цей said musingly. «It might have been Ocean. It will absorb me, one of the
безконтрольний політ птаха
величавий спокій гирла і ця said about Sergei.» many rivers which like me dissolve
понад усі межові знаки... Йду,
очеретина в її плавкім in its blue infinity. But do I then
«And this river is like man. It зникаю своїми прісними водами
коливанні, чи оживе вона, як vanish and leave no trace? Do I not
has reached its apotheosis, broken в Світовім океані. Він поглинає
рядок гекзаметра, як скалка influence at least to a small degree
out into a flood of light and now, мене, одну з безлічі рік, щоб
краси, як необхідність? the composition of its water, its
when it has taken all into itself, уподібнити собі, розчинити у
- Толстой десь сказав: when it is illuminated with the light синіх своїх безмежжях. А чи так degree of saltiness, the level of the
люди як ріки, - почувся of wisdom, it must complete its уже й безслідно зникаю? Не shores, the very character of seas? I,
задумливий голос Ярослави.- flow, pacified, through the позначусь хіба - хоч певною the river of plains and mountains,
Наче про Сергія сказав... boundless estuary. And become the мірою -на складі його ж власних shall yet flow for a long time, and
«Ця ріка, вона теж як Ocean.» вод, на мірі її солоності, на рівні my brown water will be seen far
людина: сягнула свого апогею, його берегів, на самому away in the blue of the sea; there too
The river was unrecognisable.
вибухла повінню світла і саме характері Океану? Ріка рівнин і it will keep its river traits, the
So recently it had roared, smashed,
тепер, коли світлом мудрості гір, ще довго тектиму й там, freshness of its sources, the
destroyed, but here there was a
осяяна, в спокійних розтоках серед моря, далеко буде видно yellowness of clay from the
different flood, one which lay
гирла мусить завершувати свій mountains and valleys, the inner
placid and destroyed nothing. серед морської блакиті течію
плин... Вже стає Океаном». рудої річкової води; вона й там rhythm of
34
Не впізнати ріку. Те, що ще
недавно чорно ревіло, ламало,
довго зберігатиме свою річкову life. Water amidst water - in this itself Lecture 15. INTERPRETATION: BASIC SKILLS
природу - і прісноту джерел, і there is something extraordinary; there is AND TRAINING METHODS
колір гірських та долинних something significant in the very act of
грунтів, і внутрішній рух життя... confluence, in the eternal union of the
Вода серед води - вже в цьому є river with the Ocean. This Lecture compares:
незвичайність; і є щось значне в The world is bright with light, it • working environments of
самому акті впадання, в цьому flows everywhere, an infinite silver ♦ written translators and interpreters;
одвічнім єднанні гирла ріки з flood. ♦ consecutive and simultaneous interpreters;
Океаном. And the power of the water is no • approaches - denotative and connotative,
Світиться світ. Всюди longer dreadful. • and tools they use:
розіллялося тихе, сріблясте, And the sky is no longer the sky, but ♦ text compression and text development
безкрає... the heavens. ♦ note-taking and its sequence
І повінь уже тут не повінь.
♦ underlines the importance of being skilful in using the tools.
І небо вже тут не небо, а
небеса.
To tell the difference between translation and interpretation let us compare
Ex. 2. Translate into English using the suggested equivalents.
working environments of a translator and interpreter.
Ніби виріс в очах кіногрупи ♦ Translator has all time necessary to do and check the translation.
to grow to greater stature in
Сергій. Його камера - експресивна, the eyes of ♦ Interpreter is limited in time and cannot check and redo the
зухвала, різка - її ні з чиєю не сплутаєш.
to have caught its master's interpretation.
Вона мовби повторювала вдачу way ♦ Translator has free access to dictionaries and reference material.
господаря; його нервову жадобу, його
a professional trick ♦ Interpreter has no access to any outside information.
невситенність, навіть вади його... Раніш
to stare in the face ♦ Translator has no immediate contact with translation users and often is
декому не подобалась в Сергієві,
absolutely dedicated to art unaware of their reaction.
скажімо, ота його набута в кіно
професійна манера безцеремонно ♦ Interpreter is in immediate and close contact with the audience reacting
розглядати людину з ніг до голови, to interpretation mistakes
грубувато зазирати незнайомому в очі,
мовби допитуючись: «Ану, на що ти
здатен... Чи хоч трохи ти Ш* Translator is dependent on supporting environment; interpreter is entirely
кіногенічний?» Але зараз і ці манери self-dependent.
його прочитувались інакше: все ж таки
славний був хлопець, душею відданий
мистецтву!.. There are two main varieties of interpretation, consecutive and
simultaneous. Though they have much in common and possess all men-
137
136
 tioned characteristics that distinguish them from translation there are •* Text compression aimed at saving interpretation time and
substantial differences in the working environments as well. removing source text redundancy is one of the main instruments of
simultaneous interpretation which allows the interpreter to keep in
1. In simultaneous interpretation the interpreter is much more limited pace with the source text not sacrificing the content.
in time.
2. In simultaneous interpretation the length of the text translated as one
'batch' is much shorter than in consecutive.44 In consecutive interpretation text compression is used as well - it
3. Unlike consecutive interpretation where the interpreter may correct allows to get rid of the source text redundancy, but the main instrument
mistakes and slips of the tongue, simultaneous interpreter has no of consecutive interpretation is text development.
time for corrections and redoing.

Differences in the working environment of interpreters compared Ш* Ability to compress the source text and develop the target one
with that of translators as well as differences between working from the core structure are the basic skills of an interpreter.
environments of simultaneous and consecutive interpreters determine the
peculiarities of interpretation approaches and methods.
First of all, as you already know from our previous discussions, the Basic compression devices used in Ukrainian-English translation
consecutive interpreter adheres to predominantly denotative approach in comprise:
interpretation whereas the basic approach of simultaneous interpretation
is transformational. a. transformation of the nominative structures into verbal ones;
b. converting prepositional constructions into noun clusters;
c. omission or transformation of words and word combinations typical
for Ukrainian style and considered redundant according to English
•* Long stretches of speech to be translated do not allow the
speech standards.
consecutive interpreter to keep close to the source text, whereas the
For example:
simultaneous interpreter is forced by time limitation to translate by
small fragments of the source text transforming them according to Згідно з рішенням Ради наглядачів, аудит фінансової діяльності
the target language grammar. фірм та установ з надання послуг у сфері юридичного консалтингу
буде проведено у квітні цього року.
The Supervisory Board decided to audit the books of judiciary
consulting companies in April this year.
However, both during consecutive and simultaneous interpretation
interpreters use text compression and text development as basic translation When interpreting into Ukrainian an interpreter is using
devices. compression to a lesser degree because:
♦ limited (even with good interpreters) knowledge of the foreign
language does not permit free interpretation of the source text and
44
Although simultaneous interpretation seems continuous the flow of
interpreter's speech may be divided into individual fragments. 139
138
 ♦ English way of expression is more concise and often English text 1. кореспонденти зібралися (разом)
contains no redundant words, which is explained by the analytical structure of 2. декілька (деякі, дехто) з нас, американських кореспондентів
this language. 3. зібралися (разом) сьогодні ввечері
4. зібралися (щоб за традицією зустріти Новий рік)
The second basic tool of interpretation - text development - is typical both 5. зібрались у бістро
for English-Ukrainian and Ukrainian-English interpretation. It should be 6. бістро (наше, улюблене)
mentioned, however, that text development is more usable in consecutive than in
simultaneous interpretation, though simultaneous interpreters also use it. The final target text will appear then as an optimal rearrangement of the
above parts of the text development scheme, e. g., as the one below:
Сьогодні ввечері деякі з нас, американських кореспондентів, за
Ш* Text development in the course of interpretation is the restoration of the традицією зібрались у нашому улюбленому бістро, щоб зустріти Новий
full composition of a source sentence starting from its syntactic and рік.
semantic core accompanied by restructuring of the source sentence in Text development is reflected in note-taking procedure, which usually
compliance with syntactic and semantic standards of the target language.
includes the following information items.
1. main ideas (skeleton outline) - subject, verb, object;
2. links and separations;
Text development is performed either with note-taking or without it. It 3. viewpoints of the speaker;
usually starts from the Subject-Predicate pair and then other sentence elements 4. tenses and modalities;
are organized around this core.
5. proper and geographical names.

There are also certain recommendations for the best way to take notes.
Ш* Text development is the optimal method of interpretation because it
allows to organize the translation in accordance with the target language Some of them are as follows:
style and grammar standards rather than copy the source sentence structure. ♦ diagonal notes are preferable for skeleton outline;
♦ left-hand margin for links and viewpoints;
♦ short horizontal line for separations;
The best way to explain text development is an example. Let the source ♦ question marks for unclear points.45
text be: Thus, compression and development are the basic interpretation tools and
A few of us American correspondents got together tonight for a traditional in our view they should determine the methods of interpretation training. We
New Year's Eve party at our favorite bistro. would recommend the following exercises.46
Then the interpretation scheme with text development may be as follows:

140 More on note-taking see, e. g. in: Johnes R. Conference Interpreting Ex

45

plained. - New-York, 1999.

46
Methods recommended in this Manual may be used together with other
interpreters' training exercises, e. g., those suggested by A. Shiryayev.
141
 Text compression exercises for Ukrainian-English interpretation of interpretation with a short resume of interpretation concept presenting
Type 1. it as a variety of martial arts.47 Here are the principles:
In the course of interpretation of a Ukrainian text into English 1. reality is whatever happening right at this moment (here and now);
♦ omit redundant words; 2. to deal with reality you have to be totally aware;
♦ convert nominative constructions into verbal; 3. for this your body and mind have to be in the 'here and now';
♦ transform prepositional noun sequences into noun clusters. 4. in this state of mind there is no room for thoughts: instead there is
The exercises are first done in writing, then follows oral training (in an instantaneous intuitive response.
terpretation).

Type 2.
Conversion of individual Ukrainian prepositional nominative
constructions into English noun clusters.
Conversion of Ukrainian set phrases of noun-verb type into verbs.

Text development and reduction exercises (Ukrainian-English and

English- Ukrainian interpretation)
Type 1.
Develop a text from the given core (first done in one language, then
with interpretation, first - in writing, then - orally)

Type 2.
Reduce the text to the core, then develop it back.
Text development exercises improve students' knowledge of foreign
and native language vocabulary, help to develop easiness and flexibility
of vocabulary use in interpretation. Doing text development exercises
students might compete for the number of sentences developed or for a
better story developed from the given core.
Thus, unlike a translator who may always ask help from outside, an
interpreter is entirely self-supporting. In the modern world of
globalization the significance of translation and interpretation is ever- Andrey G. Falaleyev. Video-taped lectures and personal communication
with the authors.
growing The translation and interpretation quality standards are
143
becoming more stringent. In this context it seems worthwhile to
complete our discussion
142
 Ех. 2. Translate into English using text compression (omit redundant words,
QUESTIONS convert nominative structures into verbal, use noun clusters, first do in
writing, then orally).
1. What are the differences in the working environments of a translator а) У миротворчій діяльності міжнародних організацій в останні
and interpreter? роки відбулися події, які вимагають уважного вивчення і з'ясування.
Так, Статут ООН забороняє міжнародне втручання у внутрішні
2. What are the differences in the working environments of a справи держав, застосування сили, а на практиці мали місце і
consecutive and simultaneous interpreter?
втручання, і застосування сили. З'явилася концепція «гуманітарних
3. What are the basic interpretation approaches used by consecutive інтервенцій», які деякі експерти розцінили як удар по суверенітету
and simultaneous interpreters? Explain why they keep to a particular держав. Назріла необхідність розібратися в сучасності цих дій, дати
approach? їм правову оцінку, визначитися у принципово важливих питаннях:
4. What is text How is it used in interpretation? чи означають вказані події перекреслення принципів Статуту ООН?
compression? How is it used in interpretation? Чи правомірні «гуманітарні інтервенції»?
5. What is text Проблема «гуманітарних інтервенцій» виникла в пошуках
development?
{§} EXERCISES адекватних дій для усунення гуманітарних катастроф; породжених
внутрідержавними конфліктами 90-х років, що супроводжувалися
Ex. 1. Find English equivalents rfthe words and word combinations масовими порушення прав людини, «етнічними чистками»,
c below. кровопролиттям. За даними ООН, було вбито більше 5 млн. осіб,
відповідати бути у відповідності
десятки мільйонів стали біженцями і переміщеними особами, що
звітувати давати звіт опинилися на межі виживання. Трагедія в Руанді, на терені
розпорядитися давати розпорядження колишньої Югославії, в Сомалі порушили перед ООН питання щодо
погоджуватися давати згоду теорії та практики миротворчої діяльності.
рекомендувати давати рекомендацію Складність полягає в тому, що Статут ООН передбачає
вирішувати знаходити вирішення невтручання у внутрішні справи держав, додержання їх
суверенітету, незастосування сили в міжнародних відносинах. Але
доповнювати робити доповнення
чи може міжнародна спільнота зайняти позицію спостерігача, коли
перекладати робити переклад
в якійсь країні відбуваються масові вбивства? Чи може суверенітет
рухатися робити кроки бути прикриттям для свавілля, кровопролиття в якійсь державі?
перешкоджати створювати перешкоди Думається, що на сучасному історичному етапі, в умовах
сходити здійснювати сходження глобалізації, примату загальнолюдських цінностей в основу
відкривати робити відкриття політики ООН та інших міжнародних організацій має бути
оголошувати робити оголошення покладено принцип захисту прав людини, гуманітарне право.
розцінювати давати оцінку Принцип суверенітету не може використовуватися в якості
прикриття злочинів
ударити завдати удару
144 145
проти людяності. Суверенітет не може розглядатися сьогодні як що бар'єрів на нашому шляху суверенної країни було більш ніж
абсолютний, який дозволяє урядам безкарно масово порушувати достатньо.
права людини. (Бруз B.C.) Варто згадати знов-таки 1993 рік. Тоді внаслідок рішення
російського парламенту щодо статусу Севастополя Україна
b) Перше десятиріччя незалежності стало для української
опинилася перед необхідністю на рівні ООН наголошувати на
дипломатії періодом випробувань, відлуння яких відчуваємо і
недоторканості своїх державних кордонів. Липнева заява Голови
сьогодні. Ми просувалися від усвідомлення азбучних істин
Ради Безпеки остудила гарячі голови тих, хто не бажав миритися з
міжнародного життя до опанування нових правил гри в
територіальною цілісністю та незалежністю України. Саме здатність
міжнародних відносинах доби глобалізації та, інформаційного,
української дипломатії зайняти чітку і сміливу позицію стала тоді
суспільства. При цьому ми керувалися тим, що у зовнішній політиці
вирішальним фактором, під впливом якого проблема втратила
важливо, щоб жоден крок не блокував наступні. Важливо, щоб,
гостроту і згасла.
зовнішня політика зразка 2001року мала внутрішній зв'язок з
(Зленко A.M.)
кроками, здійсненими в році 91-му, 94-му чи 98-му.
Послідовність та передбачуваність - мені видається, ці риси
були властиві національній зовнішній політиці, хоча, звичайно, Ех. 3. Reduce the text to the core, then develop it back without consulting the
шлях України на міжнародній арені не був безпроблемним і text (do first in writing, then orally; first in one language, then with
безпомилковим. interpretation).
Послідовність та передбачуваність є лейтмотивом всіх наших
здобутків. Хотів би зупинитися на деяких з них, які мають, на мою THE HUNDRED-YARD CREEP The International
думку, ключовий характер. За цей короткий проміжок часу нам не Olympic Committee tries to save the world. BY CLAUDIA ROSETT. The
без труднощів вдалося створити власну зовнішню політику, яка Wall Street Journal, Thursday, July 5, 2001
слугує незалежній Україні. Важливим, на моє переконання, було
Mission creep is a phrase that keeps turning up in the news, and
практичне утвердження України на політичній карті світу та
though not poetic, it does neatly sum up a widespread syndrome.
зовнішнє забезпечення суверенітету і територіальної цілісності
Mission creep is what's going on when an organization overreaches its
нашої держави. Якщо пригадуєте, це завдання було Визначене
mandate in order to seize new turf - usually someone else's, often with
першим із шести найважливіших завдань вітчизняної зовнішньої
messy results.
політики в її Основних напрямах, ухвалених Верховною Радою у
When Genghis Khan and his kin, having decided that lording it over
1993 році.
Mongolia was not enough, galloped forth to pillage the known world,
З точки зору 2001 року суверенітет і територіальна цілісність
that was mission creep. In our more genteel era, the recent news has
виглядають як природні, самі собою зрозумілі атрибути Української
been full of worry that everything from Balkan peacekeeping forces to
держави. Проте, так було не завжди. Як міністр закордонних справ,
faith-based charities to the International Monetary Fund is suffering
якому доля дарувала високу честь бути першим главою
from mission creep. And why not? As various institutions jockey to
зовнішньополітичного відомства України, хотів би нагадати,
reinvent themselves in the post-Cold-War, new-economy global era, it
pays to
146 147
make a play for bigger, fatter missions, to creep while the creeping is good. Dispatching the Olympics to Norilsk as a mighty Airwick might have given
All of which led me to an epiphany the other day while I was reading about the not only the locals but certain portions of Scandinavia their first relief since the
debate over where to hold the 2008 Olympic Games. There are five cities in the days of Stalin. If Norilsk is impractical, or not quite toxic enough, then arranging
running, including Osaka, Japan; Istanbul, Turkey; Paris and Toronto. The fifth for the Olympic events simply to replace the usual traffic at just about any major
candidate, and apparently the one favored to win when the International roundabout in New Delhi could have gone far to save the lungs of millions.
Olympic Committee decides next Friday, is Beijing-Assorted pro-Beijing If the Olympic aim is to boost the teaching of basic English where it's really
factions put forth many arguments. They needed, also forget Beijing and hold the Olympics in American public schools.
speculate that the Olympics would help motivate China to clean up its air, teach Then there's the goal of furthering political reform. If the Olympic
its people English, reform its repressive politics, enhance its national pride and organizers - despite such miscues as Berlin in 1936 and Moscow in 1980 - have
build from scratch 22 of the 37 sports facilities needed - thereby, at least in the finally mastered this one, then it is raw irresponsibility to focus solely on
eyes of a few transient athletes plus the IOC, improving its infrastructure. Beijing. Have a heart for nearby Pyongyang, North Korea, where the Olympic
In the IOC's report summing up the bids, the telling factors in Beijing's food concessions alone could provide the most exciting window on freedom in
favor include the assertion that the Olympics would «improve the city» and decades.
«leave a unique legacy to China.» The report adds as an afterthought that a Though, to be frank, the IOC still doesn't quite seem to have a handle on
Beijing win would also leave a unique though unspecified legacy «to sport.» this political reform business. After a four-day inspection tour, the committee
The IOC are deep in mission creep. Sure, sports still matter, at least to the appears to have reached the perhaps unique conclusion that China is already a
world audience and the athletes. But with the IOC's president, Juan Antonio normal democracy. The IOC states without qualification in its report on Beijing
Samaranch, about to step down after 21 years, the real mission here is to leave a that «national and local elections will take place in early 2003 and early 2008.»
legacy. Thus the Olympics are creeping into such specialized tasks as air- Yet in order to justify staging the Olympics in Beijing, the IOC also
cleaning, language-teaching, repression-easing, nationalism-reinforcing and - oh appears to be banking on many more years of rock-solid dictatorship, noting in
yes - infrastructure-improving. the same report that «there is strong central government control in all sectors.
Even so, what makes Beijing such an ideal candidate for these new This could be expected to prevail in respect to an Olympic Games and
Olympian enterprises? associated developments and activities.» Not that the IOC is wholly insensitive
If the Olympic mission now includes inspiring large-scale air cleanup, then to the plight of China's stifled democrats. Its report does note that for the beach-
Beijing, despite all its smog, is hardly the world's worthiest challenge. For that, volleyball event, «the Commission took the view that the Tiananmen Square site
a better candidate would have been, say, Norilsk, Russia. This northern Siberian was inappropriate.»
city is home to one of the largest nickel-mining operations in the world, and for If the committee's aim is to boost national pride, then, again, why bother
more than 60 years its smelters have been pouring corrosive fumes into the with already nationalist Beijing? The Olympics should head straight to Minsk,
arctic winds. capital of Belarus. Since the 1991 Soviet collapse, Bela-

148 149
rus's self-esteem has been so low that it keeps trying to give itself back to Lecture 16. MACHINE AND COMPUTER-AIDED
Moscow. TRANSLATION
As for improving infrastructure, what about holding the games in Bangkok?
Clearing a site - any site - amid the midtown gridlock of the Thai capital might
give at least some of the folks caught in traffic for years a chance to finally get This Lecture: • gives a short review of basic machine translation platforms
home. and methods: *• including direct or icon method;
Of course, all this is hypothetical. The 2008 bids are already in. Any • transfer-based and pivot-language based engines and
• AI and statistical approaches.
interested parties on the list above will have to wait. But the way the IOC is
going, it's already encroaching on the mission of sundry development banks.
The idea of computer use in translation (hereinafter referred to as machine
Chief among them is the World Bank, which in recent years has itself been translation) appeared almost simultaneously with computers. Already in 1949
encroaching on the mission of the World Health Organization, while only five years after the first powerful computer had been put in operation in the
simultaneously being encroached upon by the ever-more-aggrandized IMF, USA mathematician and philosopher W. Weaver suggested the use of
which has had its own problems with being encroached upon by the U.S. computers to model the process of translation.
Treasury. The pioneers of the new research area were mathematicians and
There's just no end to this stuff. Can it be long before the Kyoto crowd programmers and the first stage of computer translation development was
elbows in to demand an emission-free Olympic torch? Maybe Mr. Samaranch's characteristic of the so-called «encoding-decoding» approach (see Lectures 2
and 3 of this Manual)48
more enduring legacy could be to give all these folks, himself included, their
This approach, which still remains one of the basic methods of translation
own Olympic event. Call it the mission creep.
automation is usually called the direct or icon method.

•► Direct or icon method of machine translation is based on establishing a

direct relationship between the source and target dictionary entries.

See more, e. g., in: Bruderer H.E. The Present State of Machine-
Assisted Translation // 3-d European Congress on Information Systems and
Networks. Overcoming Language Barriers. - Luxemburg, 1977; Slocum J. A
Survey on Machine Translation: its History, Current Status and Future Prospects
// Computational Linguistics. - 1985. - V.ll, 1.
150 151
 The target entries are regarded as regular counterparts (icon copies) Syntactic analysis. At this stage using the information from the
of the source ones. According to the direct translation method the source dictionary and paradigmatic data syntactic representation of the source
and target texts are presumed to be similar both in their form and text is formed by the syntactic analyser (called parser). A string of
conceptual content49. syntactic classes or a syntactic tree of the source sentence is passed over
You may validate this assumption yourself having done such word- to the transfer module.
for-word translation. You will see mat rather more often than not such a
Transfer. The transfer module receives the syntactic representation
non-grammatical translation makes no sense at all for the end user and,
of the source text and, using relevant transfer rules, converts it into an
therefore, it is to be somehow rearranged and smoothed.
intermediate representation.
To improve the quality of direct translation the two following
methods are usually applied: Syntactic synthesis. At this stage a final syntactic representation of
• syntactic filters and the target text is formed by combining and matching the transferred
• statistical ranking of translation equivalents to select the most structures of the source syntactic representation.
probable ones for the subject matter discussed in a particular document
Morphological synthesis. Using the information from the target
being translated.
dictionary and paradigmatic data the target text (translation) is obtained.
Syntactic filters take the form of logical frames (see Lecture 17) in
which the slots are filled with syntactic patterns specifying the function The way the syntactic representation is formed, analysed and
of an ambiguous syntactic term in the representation of the source text. transferred greatly depends on the grammar used. The most common
Usually in machine translation systems based on the direct method quite ways are so-called «templates», applied to the linear string of syntactic
a few filters are used to «smooth down» the raw translation50. classes, dependency grammar (DG) or immediate constituents (IC)
According to the classification we suggest in this Manual, the grammar.
second basic method of machine translation is the transfer-based Transfer-based systems rather often comprise a semantic
method. component. A network of semantic descriptions and relationships is
superimposed on syntactic structures of the source and target texts. The
purpose of the semantic component is to improve the accuracy of
•* According to the transfer-based method of translation grammars of translation51.
the source and target languages are matched in the process of
translation by a set of rules called transfer. Pivot language-based machine translation is the third basic
method. In a way it is similar to the transfer-based; however, there are
several critical differences.
In a transfer-based system the process of translation comprises the As opposed to transfer procedures which are applied mostly at the
following processing steps: syntactic level with some corrective semantics, pivot language
representation involves all available linguistic information.
Morphological analysis. Word-forms of the source text are
analysed using paradigm sets and identified with the dictionary entries. Besides, transfer-based translation is intended for a concrete
language pair, whereas pivot language-based systems claim to be
universal, i.e. applicable to any language.

,r Кулагина О.С. Исследования по машинному переводу. - M., 1979. 50 Machine Translation: An Introductory Guide / D.Arnold et al. - Oxford, 1994.
152 See more in, e. g.: Кунце Ю. Введение семантических критериев в
синтаксические правила // НТИ. - 1986. - 2, 6.
153
 ■ "■"""■" Hence, to complete the picture it is worthwhile to give a short description of
Ш* A pivot language is a formal description of morphological, syntactic and this method as well.
semantic characteristics of a language unit in the form of one-to-one The main component of the AI translation model is its so-called
relationship. Each language unit is related to a specific invariable atom in the «knowledge base». According to an AI-based translation model the results of
pivot language structure and vice versa, each atom of the pivot language linguistic analyses at all language levels are verified against extral-inguistic
structure is invariably connected with the units of various languages. information contained in the knowledge base.
Here we might want to refer back to our previous discussions. As you may
remember, we discussed three factors that help us clarify natural language
Ideally a pivot language-based machine translation will comprise the
ambiguities and make translation possible. These are context, situation, and
following processing steps:
background information.
Morphological, syntactic, and semantic analysis of the source text using
In all three translation modelling methods that we have just discussed,
information of the source language dictionary and paradigms.
disambiguation is performed only with the help of context. It is rather simple
Formation of the pivot language representation of a source text by the pivot
lexical and syntactic context in direct translation model, and much more
language module.
complicated syntactic and semantic context representations in transfer-based and
Conversion of the source pivot language representation by the pivot
pivot language models. None of those models, however, makes use of the other
language module into the target text using relevant semantic, syntactic, lexical,
two disambiguation tools, i.e. situation and background information.
and morphological data from the target language dictionary and paradigms.
Usually pivot language formalism has the form of a graphic network or its
analytical equivalent. It is, indeed, an extremely complicated system of
morphological, syntactic and semantic entities and relations. We can hardly •* In AI-based translation models disambiguation procedures are radically
show even a part of it in this Manual because of space limitations, and even different and based first and most of all on the analysis of situation and
more because such a detailed presentation is well beyond the scope of this background information (knowledge base), whereas purely linguistic
introductory course. context analysis methods serve only as secondary back-up tools.
As a rule, linguistic science accepts only the three basic methods of
machine translation mentioned above. Some scholars, however, maintain that the
artificial intelligence (Al)-based method should also be included in the The concept of a knowledge base is very similar to that of the subject
classification despite the fact that it relies on encyclopaedic rather than linguistic thesaurus suggested by the communicational theory of translation (see Lectures
findings52. 3 and 5). Both the knowledge base and subject thesaurus are presumed to
contain a specifically arranged hierarchy of the facts of real world with the
You may find more about this language and translation modelling
52
verbal information playing a subordinate role as labels for the facts and
method, e.g., in: Schank R.C. Conceptual Dependency: A Theory of Natural situations.
Language Understanding // Cognitive Psychology. - 1972. - V.3, 4; Wilks Y. Another important component of AI-based translation simulation is a
Machine Translation and Artificial Intelligence Paradigm of Language decision-making module, comprising a structural hierarchy of logical
Processing // Computers in Language Research. - 1983. - V.2; Neue Ansatze in
productions with probability estimations.
maschineller Sprachbearbeitung. - Tuebungen, 1986; Попов З.В. Общение с
ЗВМ на есте-ственном язьіке. — М., 1982.
154 155
 The present level of sophistication of AI-based translation modelling is Besides, since we still know very little about how a translation is
rather ambiguous - on the one hand, results of the development of AI-models performed, statistical modelling is another attempt to learn more about
intended for translation as such are rather limited, on the other, however, the translation.
development of AI models intended for natural language interface, especially for It should be noted, however, that none of the machine translation methods
expert systems, is very efficient53. appear in real systems in pure form. Very often it is rather difficult to classify
This discussion of computer-based translation would be incomplete without unambiguously whether one or another system is a typical representative of a
mention of statistical methods. particular basic translation simulation method. For this reason it is hardly
worthwhile to analyse here any particular commercial machine translation
package.
•► In purely statistical methods of translation modelling it is presumed that To the best of our knowledge all available commercial packages use that or
with certain probability each word of the target text may be a translation of another alternative of transfer model and the quality level of their products
each word of the source text leaves much to desire. We hope that this Manual helped you to understand why
this is the case.
Thus, completing our discussion of machine translation we must conclude
that unfortunately available machine translation packages are not capable of
The various statistical models are different as to further probability providing adequate translation. However, it should be noted that such powerful
estimations. For instance, a model suggested by P. Brown and coworkers tool as computer can still be used for translation and this variety of translation is
estimates the probabilities of the word order matching in the source and target called computer-aided translation
texts54. Other models estimate the probabilities of word collocations in source
and target texts, and so on.
At present statistical method of machine translation modelling is gaining Ш* Unlike machine translation, which by definition is wholly automatic,
new popularity because of two factors: computer-aided translation is a tool to assist human translation

1. Virtually unlimited storage capacity and processing capabilities of new

generation computers.
2. Availability of large bilingual text corpora in computer-accessible formats. In the process of computer-aided translation a translator is using a machine
translation system (usually a direct translation variety) for the search of
equivalents both for individual words and small text fragments. At the present
See, e.g.: Попов З.В. Зкспертньїе системи. - M., 1988; Инструмента- stage of machine translation development computer-aided translation seems the
рий для проектирования систем планирования решений. - К., 1989; Коз- most appropriate practical alternative.
ловский С.В. Лингвистический процессор для персональних зкспертньїх
систем // Проблеми автоматического и зкспериментально-фонетического
анализа текстов. - Минск, 1986.
54
A Statistical Approach to Machine Translation / P.Brown et al. //
Computational Linguistics. - 1990. - V.16, 2; The Matematics of Statistical
Machine Translation: Papameter Estimation / P.Brown et al. // Computational
Linguistics. - 1994. - V.19, 2.
156 157
0 QUESTIONS came, he ran to the center, endorsing limited research on existing stem-
cell lines. After setting himself four-square against campaign-finance
1. What is direct or icon machine translation method? reform last year, he indicated this summer that he might sign it into law if
2. What is transfer-based machine translation method? such legislation ever made it to his desk.
3. What is pivot-language based machine translation method? All of which paints a picture of Bush as a man who strikes tough-
4. What are artificial intelligence and statistical machine translation looking poses, then carefully uses his political leverage to bring about
methods?
moderate compromises. He may have conservative principles, but none
5. What is computer-aided translation? How is it used in human have proved to be unyielding.
translation?
True, before Tuesday's lethal attacks on the World Trade Center and
the Pentagon, the president had to govern as a normal politician, always
keeping one eye on his agenda and the other on the ephemeral political
(D EXERCISES calculus that rules Washington. Today, however, Bush is a war-time
president, and he is perhaps the only one whose actions will be
Ex. 1. Analyse the mistakes of machine translation of the text given below.
Suggest translation rules or information required for correct translation. completely unbound by political considerations. Indeed, it is difficult to
conjure a scenario in which Americans would fault the president for
THE REAL BUSH: TOUGH GUY OR SQUISHY MODERATE? being too assertive. He has carte blanche to do whatever his conscience
dictates. So, how will he use it?
WASHINGTON - How President Bush responds to last week's Last Tuesday, it seemed that Bush might rely on international law to
terrorist attacks on America will not only define him for the rest of his even the score. In his first address to the nation after the attacks, he
term in office, it will also give us an unfiltered look into his soul. called the resulting death and devastation a «national tragedy,»
He does not have to cultivate public support. Polls show that an promising only that he would «conduct a full-scale investigation to hunt
overwhelming majority of Americans would back even a decision to go down and to find those folks who committed this act.» His second
to war. Congress, furthermore, is eager to give him whatever he wants. address went no further, though by his third speech he referred to the
Yet, despite this monolithic support, it's uncertain how the president will day's «acts of terror.» It seemed as if the president would be satisfied to
respond. Will he be aggressive, squishy or somewhere in-between? catch the terrorists responsible and extradite them to The Hague for trial.
During his first eight months in office, Bush inevitably took the In a curious turn of events, the leaders of Germany and France issued
moderate path. The conservative Republican base enabled him to win the statements that were much more pointed. Chancellor Gerhard Schroeder
White House, but once in the Oval Office, he staffed his administration called the attacks «a declaration of war against the civilized world,» while
with moderate Republicans like Andrew H. Card Jr., Colin L. Powell and President Jacques Chirac said «we must fight terrorism by all means.»
Christine Todd Whitman. Encouragingly, Bush's tone changed Wednesday, and he seemed
He was no less flexible on his agenda. Bush initially insisted on a non- headed toward a stronger course of action than international law. His
negotiable $1.6-trillion tax cut, then negotiated with Democrats and «acts of terror» turned into «acts of war.» He said that «The United
reduced it to $1.3 trillion. During the presidential campaign, he came out States of America will use all our resources to conquer this enemy.» He
strongly against embryonic stem-cell research, but when decision time
158 159
 came close to assuring the country that a military response would шення поїхати до війни. Конгрес, furthermore, нетерплячим дати
eventually come because, presumably, an act of war against the United йому щоб ні він хоче. Досі, незважаючи на цю монолітну
States cannot stand unanswered. On Friday, he went further still, vowing підтримку, це невизначений як президент відповісти. Він буде
to «rid the world of evil.» агресивним, squishy або де-небудь проміжний?
Still, the question of what sort of response Bush will decide on is Під час його перших восьми місяців у відомстві, Кущ inevitably
very much open. Former President Bill Clinton spent a few days взяв помірний шлях. Консервативна Республіканська база
investigating the terrorist bombings of the two U.S. embassies in Africa, дозволена йому щоб виграти Білий Будинок, але одного разу у
then ordered up an attack of cruise missiles and laser-guided bombs on Овалі Відомство, він staffed його адміністрація з помірним
what was believed to be Osama bin Laden's compound in Afghanistan Republicans люблять Andrew Н. Карта Jr., Colin L. Powell та Christine
and on Sudan. It was the kind of retaliation that carried as little risk as Todd Whitman.
possible for U.S. military personnel. Bush could similarly opt for surgical Він знаходився ні менш гнучкий на його порядку денному. Кущ
strikes, but extend them for a period of weeks. He could launch merely a вихідно наполягав на не-negotiable трильоні $1.6 оподатковують
rhetorical war on terrorism, like the war on poverty or the war on drugs. ріжуть, тоді обговорив з Democrats та зменшив це до трильону $1.3.
Or, the president could lead us into a real war. He is no longer a Під час президентської кампанії, він вийшов сильно проти
politician. He is the war-time leader of a great nation. He knows that both embryonic стовбура-клітина дослідження, але коли час рішення
the American public, the country's political leadership and most of the прибув, він побіг до центру, що підтримує обмеженого дослідження
civilized world will stand beside him no matter what he does, be it legal на існуючому стовбурі-клітина лінії. Після постановки себе чо-
prosecution, surgical strikes or war. It will take great intestinal fortitude тирьох-площі проти кампанїі-фінанси реформа торік, він показав
for the president to take a calm measure of events, declare war on nations цей літній що він може підписати це в закон якщо таке
that harbor our terrorist enemies and possibly deploy U.S. troops on законодавство колись зроблене це до його парти.
foreign soil. Весь з котрих фарбує малюнок Куща як людина котра вражає
George W. Bush's words are increasingly tough. He has resolved to міцні що -дивляться пози, тоді обережно використовує його
win the «first war of the 21st century.» Will his corresponding deeds політичний вплив викликати помірні компроміси. Він може мати
follow? консервативні принципи, але ніхто доказали unyielding.
Вірний, перед атаками lethal Вівторка на Світовому Торговому
Центрі та П 'ятикутникові, президент мусить був управляти як
РЕАЛЬНИЙ КУЩ: МІЦНИЙ GUY АБО SQUISHY ПОМІРНИЙ? нормальним політиком, завжди що держить одне око на його
порядку денному та іншому на ephemeral політичному calculus що
ВАШІНГТОН - Як Кущ Президента відповідає витримати
управляє Вашінгтоном. Сьогодні, однак, Кущ війною-час
тиждень terrorist атаки на America тільки не визначать йому для
президент, та він можливо єдиним чі дії будуть повністю unbound
решти його терміну у відомстві, це також дасть нам unfiltered
шляхом політичного розгляду. Дійсно, тяжко conjure сценарієм у
погляд в його душу.
котрому Americans би провина президент для існування надто
Він не мусить культивувати суспільну підтримку. Голосування
ствердного. Він carte blanche щоб зробити щоб ні його сумління
показ що переважна кількість Americans би підтримала навіть рі-
диктує. Так, як він буде використати це?

160 161
 Або, президент міг привести нас в реальну війну. Він більше не
Останній вівторок, це здавалося що Кущ може покластися на
політик. Він являє собою війну-час лідер великої нації. Він знає що
міжнародне право до навіть рахунку. У його першій адресі до нації
обидва американська суспільна, країна політичне керівництво та
після атак, він закликав результуючу смерть та devastation
більшість цивілізованого світу лишиться в силі біля йому ніяка
«національна трагедія,» що обіцяє тільки що він «проведе повне
матерія який він, це правове переслідування, хірургійний удар або
дослі-дження-шкали полювати вниз та щоб знайти ці народи котрі
війна. Це візьме великий intestinal fortitude для президента взяти
здійснив цей акт.» Його друга адреса поїхала ніяка далі, хоч шляхом
спокійну міру подій, заявляють війну на націях що гавань наші
його третьої промови він посилався на «акти дня терору.» Йому
здавався так, якби президент був би влаштований щоб спіймати terrorist вороги та можливо розгортаються США військо на
terrorists варті довіри та видають їм до Гааги для іспиту. У іноземному грунті.
допитливому обігу подій, лідери Німеччини та Франції видані George W. Слова Куща все більше міцні. Він вирішив виграти
твердження що значно більше pointed. Канцлер Gerhard Schroeder першу війну 21st віку.» Його відповідні справи Будуть
закликаний атакує декларацію війни проти цивілізованого світу,» в прослідкувати?
той час, як Президент Jacques Chirac сказав «ми повинні битися
терорізм усіма засобами.»
Encouragingly, Тон Куща змінена середа, та він здавався
очолений до більш сильного курсу дії ніж міжнародне право. Його
«акти терору» повернулися в «акти війни.» Він сказав що
«Сполучені Штати Америки використають всі наші ресурси
перемогти цього ворога.» Він прибув близька що запевняє країна що
воєнна відповідь зрештою прибуде тому, що, мабуть, акт війни
проти Сполучених Штатів не може стенд unanswered. У П 'ятницю,
він поїхав далі все-таки, vowing «увільнити світ зла.»
Все-таки, питання якого сорту Куща відповіді вирішить на дуже
сильно відкрите. Колишній Президент Рахунок Clinton витрачені
нечисленні дні що вивчають terrorist bombings двох США посольств
у Африці, тоді замовлена атака cruise ракети та лазерні -керовані
бомби на що знаходились повірені щоб знаходитися Osama
контейнер Навантажений складовий у Афганістані та на Sudan. Це
являло собою різновид retaliation що носило як маленький ризик як
можливий для США воєнний персонал. Кущ міг подібно opt для
хірургійного удару, але простягаються їм на період протягом
тижднів. Він міг запустити просто риторичну війну на терорізмі,
люблять війну на бідності або війні на наркотиках.

163
162
 9¥ A frame is understood as a set language structure with changeable
Lecture 17. TRANSLATION OF OFFICIAL elements
DOCUMENTS: TEXT FRAMES

The changeable elements within a text frame are called slots. Let us take a
This Lecture:
preamble to a commercial agreement as an example of a frame.
underscores differences in translating official and literary texts;
gives a brief outline of an official document framework;
AGREEMENT
introduces the notions of:
• a frame, This Agreement is made this day of , 1999, by and be
• a slot, tween , [a corporation with its principal
• and a slot filler. office at ] or [an individual with an office and
mailing address at , ] («Agent»), and [company
name], a corporation organized and existing under the laws of
In a way translation of official documents is the opposite of literary , with its principal place of business at
translation in what concerns the freedom of translator's actions and choices.
( )■

As you may remember literary translation is more art than craft which is
accounted for by the nature of literary texts. Translation of a literary text is Here, in the above frame of an agreement the blank spaces represent the
unique and unprecedented; it cannot be standardised and obeys almost no rules. slots to be filled with slot fillers (by the date, company names, addresses etc. in
Unlike literary texts the texts of official documents are highly standardised: this example).
this applies both to the structure of the whole text (macrostructure) and to the But a text frame seldom has the form of a text with blank spaces. Rather
arrangement of individual paragraphs and sentences (microstructure). often than not a frame is a standard text with stable and changeable parts, for
At the macro level an official document usually consists of a preamble, example:
main text body and a finalising (concluding) part. Depending on the type of
document the composition and content of its individual parts may slightly vary 7. Intellectual Property Rights.
(see Appendix to this Manual). In modern linguistics standard text structures
intended for information presentation at different language levels are called by this Agreement does not grant to Agent any rights in or li
frames.55 cense to's trademarks, trade names or service marks.
reserves all such rights to itself. Agent shall not utilize, without
's express, prior and written consent, any trade or
service marks on trade names, and will promptly report to
See more in: Минский М. Фреймм для представлення знаний. - М.,
1975; Нелюбин Л.Л. Перевод и прикладная лингвистика - М., 1983. І
164 any apparent unauthorized use by third parties in the Territory of
's trade or service marks or trade names.

In the above text frame the italisized text fragments are presumed to be
changeable depending on the subject and conditions of the Agree-
165
ment, e. g. «prior and written consent» may be replaced by «oral consent», etc. gress on reform, noting the важливість прискореної реалізації
Bearing in mind the standardised and clicheed structure of official importance of accelerated реформ, що посилюватиме здатність
documents one may formulate the main translator's task as follows: implementation of reforms, which США підтримувати зусилля України у
UNITED STATES-UKRAINE СПІЛЬНА ЗАЯВА УКРАЇНА-США will strengthen the ability of the покращенні співробітництва з МВФ та
JOINT STATEMENT U.S. Президент України Л.Кучма та United States to support іншими міжнародними фінансовими
President Clinton and Ukrainian Президент СІЛА У.Клінтон в ході Ukraine in its efforts to improve інституціями. Президент У.Клінтон
Ш* The task of a translator translating official documents is to find target cooperation with the IMF and other привітав оголошення
language equivalents of the source text frames and use them in translation as international financial institutions. Президентом Л.Кучмою про закриття
standard substitutes, filling the slots with frame fillers in compliance with President Clinton welcomed the Чорнобильської атомної
the document content. announcement by President електростанції 15 грудня 2000 року,
President Kuchma, during their зустрічі в Києві 5 червня 2000 року Kuchma to close the Chornobyl відзначаючи важливість цього
meeting in Kiev on June 5, 2000, підтвердили свої зобов'язання nuclear power plant on December рішення для зміцнення безпеки усіх
15, 2000, noting the importance of європейців, особливо Українського
Let's take an example to illustrate this principle approach to the translation this decision to strengthening the народу та його безпосередніх сусідів.
of official documents: security of all Europeans, especially Президент У.Клінтон оголосив
reaffirmed their commitment to забезпечувати поступальний розвиток the Ukrainian people and their рішення Сполучених Штатів виділити
advance and deepen the strategic та поглиблювати стратегічне immediate neighbors. President додатково 78 мільйонів доларів США
partnership between the United партнерство між Україною та США у Clinton announced the decision для Чорнобильського фонду
States and Ukraine in the 21st XXI столітті. Президент Л.Кучма of the United States to provide «Укриття». Він зазначив про
century. President Kuchma наголосив на відданості України another $78 million to the зобов'язання Сполучених Штатів
emphasized Ukraine's commitment демократичним та ринково- Chornobyl Shelter Fund. He noted продовжувати співпрацю з Україною,
to a democratic and market економічним перетворенням. the commitment of the United країнами з «Великої сімки» та
economic transformation. The Президенти погодились, що ці States to continue to work with міжнародною спільнотою, аби
Presidents agreed that this перетворення є суттєвою базою для Ukraine, the G-7 and the забезпечити вирішення завдань, що
transformation is the essential basis реалізації європейських прагнень international community toward залишаються, пов'язаних з закриттям
for fulfilling Ukraine's European України. Президент У.Клінтон високо resolving the remaining tasks ЧАЕС, зокрема для допомоги у
aspirations. President Clinton оцінив керівну роль Президента associated with the closure of забезпеченні стабільного
praised the leadership of President Л.Кучми та його нового Уряду у Chornobyl, in particular to help виробництва електроенергії в Україні,
Kuchma and his new government досягненні швидкого прогресу provide for stable electricity чому сприятимуть необхідні реформи
for early pro- реформ, відзначаючи generation in Ukraine supported by в енергетичному секторі. Президенти
necessary energy reforms. The висловились на підтримку успішного
166
Presidents expressed their support проведення Другої конференції
for a successful second pledging донорів, що відбудеться у липні в
conference to be held in July in Берліні з метою збору решти коштів,
Berlin to obtain the remaining необхідних для фонду
167
funds needed for the Shelter «Укриття». Президент Л.Кучма ship with NATO and agreed to та домовились працювати на
Fund. President Kuchma привітав заяву про надання work to deepen Ukraine's поглиблення співробітництва
welcomed the announcement of Сполученими Штатами додаткових cooperation with the Atlantic України з Атлантичним Альянсом.
an additional $2 million from the 2 мільйонів доларів США для Alliance. They expressed Вони висловили підтримку
United States for nuclear safely проведення робіт з ядерної безпеки support for their military військовій співпраці в рамках
work in Ukraine. The Presidents в Україні. Президенти привітали cooperation in KFOR, where КФОР, де американські та
welcomed the initiation of the початок реалізації українського American and Ukrainian soldiers українські солдати несуть мир та
Ukraine Nuclear Fuel проекту кваліфікації ядерного are working to bring peace and безпеку в Косово. Президент
Qualification Project, a major палива як масштабного security to Kosovo. President Л.Кучма та Президент У.Клінтон
technology project to enable технологічного проекту, що Clinton and President Kuchma високо відзначили успіх
Ukraine to evaluate and certify надасть можливість Україні praised the success of U.S.- українсько-американського
the reliability and safety of new оцінювати та серти-фікувати Ukraine cooperation in the area співробітництва в сфері
suppliers of fuel for Ukraine's надійність та безпечність нових of commercial space launch комерційних запусків космічних
nuclear energy sector. With an постачальників палива для services, particularly through апаратів, зокрема в рамках
estimated value of $30 million, українського ядерно-енергетичного the Sea Launch Consortium. консорціуму «Морський старт».
this project will allow Ukraine to сектору. Цей проект, орієнтовною They announced that the U.S.- Вони оголосили про припинення
diversify its sources of supply of вартістю 30 мільйонів доларів Ukraine Commercial Space дії двосторонньої Угоди щодо
nuclear fuel. President Clinton США, дозволить Україні дивер- Launch Agreement of 1996 had торгівлі в галузі комерційних
expressed support for Ukrainian сифікувати свої джерела been terminated, noting that this послуг із космічних запусків від
participation in the emerging постачання ядерного палива. bold step will allow U.S. firms 1996 року, відзначаючи, що
east-west energy corridor from Президент У.Клінтон висловив and their Ukrainian partners to завдяки цьому сміливому кроку
the Caspian region to world підтримку участі України у enter into commercial space фірми США та їх українські
markets, within the contexts of створенні енергетичного коридору launch ventures unfettered by партнери матимуть можливість
Ukraine's energy sector reforms «Схід-Захід» від Каспійського quantity restrictions. The залучатися до спільних проектів у
and the United States' broader регіону до світових ринків у Presidents committed to галузі комерційних запусків
Caspian energy policy. President контекстах реформ енергетичного strengthening commercial космічних апаратів без кількісних
Kuchma reaffirmed Ukraine's сектору України та ширшої relationships between their two обмежень. Президенти
European choice and its goal of енергетичної політики США у countries' aerospace firms зобов'язались зміцнювати
achieving associate membership Каспійському регіоні. Президент because of Ukraine's progress in комерційні зв'язки між
and eventually full membership Л.Кучма підтвердив європейський restructuring the space sector, аерокосмічними підприємствами
in the European Union, вибір України та мету набути its ongoing commitment to своїх країн, зважаючи на прогрес
recognizing the importance of статусу асоційованого, а згодом і market-based principles України у реструктуризації
continued reforms necessary to повноправного члена у embodied in the Agreement, and космічної галузі, її подальше
achieve that end. The Presidents Європейському Союзі, визнаючи to its strong adherence to our зобов'язання стосовно ринкових
emphasized the importance of важливість продовження реформ, shared non-proliferation goals. принципів, визначених в згаданій
Ukraine's distinctive partner- необхідних для досягнення цієї The Presidents affirmed their Угоді, та її рішучу відданість
мети. Президенти наголосили на commitment to increase support спільним цілям в галузі
важливості особливого for нерозповсюдження. Президенти
партнерства України з НАТО підтвердили свої зобов'язання
168 активізувати підтримку розвитку
169
small and medium private малого та середнього приватного Ukraine Joint Action Plan to щодо боротьби з нелегальним
enterprise development in підприємництва в Україні. Combat Optical Media Piracy in виробництвом оптичних носіїв
Ukraine. President Clinton Президент У.Клінтон оголосив про Ukraine and welcomed the інформації в Україні та привітали
announced plans to establish a плани започаткування нової Ukrainian Government's призупинення Урядом України
new micro-enterprise credit програми мікрокредитування в suspension of the operations of функціонування підприємств, що
program in Ukraine, which will Україні з використанням pirate production facilities in випускали нелегальну продукцію в
draw upon the successful Fun- успішного досвіду програми Ukraine until the conditions for Україні, до створення умов, які б
dusz Mikro program in Poland, «Фонду Мікро» в Польщі та про ensuring legal production are забезпечували легальність такого
and to initiate a five-year $25 початок п'ятирічної програми created. President Clinton виробництва. Президент У.Клінтон
million program to support сприяння розвитку малого та welcomed Ukraine's progress привітав прогрес України у
small and medium enterprise середнього підприємництва, на яку toward achieving normal trade досягненні нормальних
development. President Kuchma виділяється 25 мільйонів доларів relations with the United States торговельних відносин зі
affirmed that the Ukrainian США. Президент Л.Кучма on a permanent and Сполученими Штатами на
Government will ensure as soon підтвердив, що Уряд України unconditional basis. President постійній та беззастережній
as possible the necessary legal якомога швидше забезпечить Clinton encouraged Ukraine to основі. Президент У.Клінтон
and regulatory framework for необхідні правові та регулятивні continue with reforms that закликав Україну продовжувати
the new micro-credit program. рамки для нової програми would allow it to achieve реформи, що дозволить їй набути
The Presidents declared their мікрокредитування. Президенти market economy status. статусу країни з ринковою
continued determination to заявили про свою рішучість й President Kuchma emphasized економікою. Президент Л.Кучма
support the creation of a надалі підтримувати створення the priority importance for наголосив на пріоритетному
business and investment climate такого ділового та інвестиційного Ukraine to combat corruption in значенні для України боротьби з
in Ukraine that will facilitate клімату в Україні, який сприятиме order to strengthen a democratic корупцією з метою зміцнення
expanded trade and investment розширенню торгівлі та society and market-oriented демократичного суспільства та
opportunities between their two інвестиційних можливостей між economy. In this regard, the ринково-орієнтованої економіки. В
countries. They welcomed двома країнами. Вони привітали Presidents welcomed the цьому зв'язку Президенти
initial steps toward privatizing перші кроки в напрямку Program of U.S.Ukrainian привітали Програму українсько-
the energy sector in Ukraine and приватизації енергетичного Cooperation for Combating американського співробітництва у
the entry into force of the U.S.- сектору України та набуття Corruption and Organized сфері боротьби з корупцією та
Ukraine Treaty on Double чинності українсько- Crime. The Presidents організованою злочинністю.
Taxation. The Presidents американською Конвенцією про recommitted themselves to Президенти підтвердили свої
pledged to work together to уникнення подвійного strengthening efforts between зобов'язання посилити взаємодію
support steps to advance their оподаткування. Президенти the United States and Ukraine to між Україною та США у боротьбі
shared goal of WTO accession зобов'язались діяти разом на combat the problem of з проблемою торгівлі людьми.
for Ukraine as soon as possible. підтримку кроків для наближення trafficking in human beings. Вони привітали проведення у
In this context, they affirmed до їхньої спільної мети - They welcomed the June 21-23 Києві 21-23 червня відповідного
their intention to implement якнайшвидшого вступу України до workshop in Kiev, co-sponsored семінару, який спільно
the U.S.- COT. У цьому контексті вони by the two Governments. As a організовується обома урядами. На
підтвердили свій намір виконувати new century begins, the порозі нового століття Президенти
Українсько-американський план підтвердили,
спільних дій 171
170
Presidents affirmed that що через стратегічне партнерство О QUESTIONS
through their strategic Сполучені Штати 1. Compare the principles of literary translation and those of official
partnership, the United підтримуватимуть зусилля document translation.
States will support України посісти належне їй місце 2. What is peculiar about the text of official documents?
Ukraine's efforts to take у неподільній євроатлантичній 3. What is a text frame? Define it. What are the frame slots and slot
its rightful place among спільноті вільних та стабільних fillers? Give examples of text frames with slots.
an undivided Euro- держав. Одночасно Україна 4. What is the main approach to the translation of official documents?
Atlantic community of продовжуватиме втілення своїх 5. Give examples of grammar patterns and standard terms in the text of
free and stable states. демократичних та ринкових official documents.
Ukraine will, at the same перетворень, таким чином роблячи
time continue to власний внесок в євроатлантичну
implement its democratic безпеку. [§J EXERCISES
and market transformation, thus
Ex. 1. Translate into Ukrainian observing the frame structure and terms of
contributing to Euro-Atlantic
the source text.
security.
POWER OF ATTORNEY
Another important task of a translator translating official documents I, , the senior partner of
is to keep to proper matching patterns of lexical and grammatical law firm, Street, city
structures within the frames. To give an example, English forms of of (country) regulated by the Law Society of Eng
Participle I in the preamble of some international agreements may be land and Wales, being duly authorized representative and attorneys
rendered in Ukrainian as «з метою...»
of. Company, , city of ,
Besides, translators of official documents must pay special attention
to translation of standard terms and terminological word combination in by this POWER OF ATTORNEY authorize and appoint
the texts. Advocate Firm « » (hereinafter - Advocate firm),
More information on grammatical and other aspects of official registered on... of. , 199 by the Ministry of Justice of Ukraine,
document translation are given in the lecture that follows. registration # , identification code , to act on behalf
of. (together «the Company») on matters related
to interests of the Company on the territory of Ukraine in all matters
arising from and/or relating to the

The Advocate firm is authorized:

1. To conduct any negotiations concerning the purpose of this
Power of Attorney on the territory of Ukraine;

172 173
 2. To approach with any applications and letters of official requests niary compensations and penalties from third parties on behalf of the
any of official boards, organizations, courts, notary offices, legal entities interest of the Company;
and physical persons in Ukraine; 8. On behalf of the Company to sign relevant documents as to the
3. To lawfully represent Company with regards to any official boards purpose of this Power of Attorney;
and organizations, including, but not limited, court, notary and 9. To do any other activities to his opinion necessary for Company's
administration boards, notary offices, companies, legal entities and interests on the territory of
physical persons of Ukraine within the legal scope of herein presented
Power of Attorney; The Advocate firm has the right to define independently advocates
4. To represent Company's interests in courts of all institutions owing and collaborators for execution of above mentioned authorities and grant
all rights given to plaintiff, defendant, to the third person, as well as get above mentioned through issuing a corresponding Power of Attorney to
to know documents of case, to make extracts, to copy; to sue, to sign any advocates and collaborators working at the Advocate firm.
statements of claim and other documents that amend and supplement it,
to sign any documents related, to claim; to bring any claim; to insert any This Power of Attorney is issued on 2001 and is valid till
alterations in and amendments to claim; to change claim demands; to
contest a claim; to establish a claim; to abandon a claim; to counterclaim; Senior Partner
to defend a suit; to take part in court proceedings; to afford proof, to lake
part in investigation of proofs; to present petitions, to present oral and Signature
writing explanations in courts of any institutions; to afford their proofs
and present their considerations in connection with questions which can
arise in court proceedings; to raise objections against petitions and proofs Ex. 2. Translate into English observing the frame structure and terms of the
of participants of a court procedure; to participate in taking a decision; to source text.
amicable agreement; to file an appeal; to make use of all other rights for ДОВІРЕНІСТЬ
Participant under Ukrainian legislation; a use of all other rights for
Participant under the Ukrainian legislation; (населенний пункт)
5. To represent the Company in any and all State Bodies and (число, місяць, рік словами)
institutions of Ukraine in connection with execution of the decision of
courts of any institutions; Я, громадянин
6. To carry out any and all actions on behalf of the Company related
(прізвище, ім'я та по батькові)
to execution of the decision of courts including, but not limited to
signing, presenting and receiving all documents in connection with it. що проживає за адресою:
7. To carry out any negotiations with any third parties on any
паспорт _ серія _ № , виданий « »
pecuniary compensations and penalties concerning the Accident,
19 р.
including, but not limited to determination of sum of any pecuniary
compensations and penalties, definition of dead line of payments of any і ор-
pecuniary compensations and penalties, conclusion and signing on behalf гану, що видав паспорт)
of the interest of the Company of any contracts or additional agreements
in connection with it; carrying out of any other actions concerning the
penalty of pecu-
174 175
 Уповноважую громадянина __^_ Lecture 18. TRANSLATION OF OFFICIAL
DOCUMENTS: GRAMMATICAL ASPECTS
що проживає за адресою:
паспорт _ серія _ № , виданий « » 19 р.
This Lecture:
(назва органу, що видав паспорт)
• outlines official substyles;
бути моїм представником у всіх підприємствах, установах, • shows features common to all the substyles;
• offers instruction in translation of certain English constructions typical of
організаціях незалежно від форм власності, в тому числі органах влади та official style.
управління в питаннях
The style of official documents is represented by the following sub-styles
or variants:
У зв'язку з чим надаю йому такі права: ♦ the language of business documents;
1. Брати участь у ; ♦ the language of legal documents;
♦ the language of diplomacy;
2. Подавати від мого імені листи, заяви, клопотання та інші документи;
♦ the language of military documents56.
3. Підписувати від мого імені листи, заяви, вимоги, клопотання, Like other styles of language, this style has a definite communicative aim
and, accordingly, has its own system of interrelated language and stylistic
протоколи, скарги та інші документи;
means. The main aim of this type of communication is to state the conditions
4. Одержувати інформацію, документи та пояснення від binding two parties in an undertaking and to reach agreement between two
contracting parties.
, а також підприємств, установ, ор
Each of the subdivisions of this style has its own peculiar terms, phrases
ганізацій ; and expressions, which differ from the corresponding terms, phrases and
expressions of other variants of this style.
6. Здійснювати інші дії, необхідні для виконання представницьких функцій
The peculiar features common to all stylistical varieties of official
для управління належними мені корпоративними правами. documents are the following:
♦ the use of abbreviations, conventional symbols and contrac
Довіреність видана без права передовіри та дійсна років, тоб
tions. (There are so many of them that there are special addenda in dic
то до tionaries to decode them);

(Підпис) 56
See more in: Гальперин И.Р. Стилистика английского язьїка: Учеб-
ник. - 3-є изд. - М.: Вьісш. школа, 1981. - С.312-318; Карабан В.І. Переклад
англійської наукової і технічної літератури. - Нова Книга, 2001. Mascull В.
Collins Cobuild. Key Words in Business. - Harper Collins, 1996.
176
177
 ♦ the use of words in their logical dictionary meaning; Президент повідомив про свою відставку після того, як влітку
♦ absence of emotiveness; минулого року його кампанія за об'єднання двох країн зазнала
♦ definite compositional pattern and design (see Lecture 17). невдачі.
It should be also noted that the syntactical pattern of this style is as ♦ after adjectives «the last, the only» and ordinal numerals the In
important as the vocabulary. finitive is translated as the predicate of an attributive subordinate clause,
its tense form is determined by the context, e. g.
He was the first high official to be admitted to the inner council of
•► Translation of legal, economic, diplomatic and official business
government, to the cabinet.
papers requires not only sufficient knowledge of terms, phrases and
expressions, but also depends on the clear comprehension of the Він був першим високопоставленим службовцем, якого було
structure of a sentence, some specific grammar and syntactical допущено до закритих нарад з питань державного управління і
patterns, which are characteristic of this style. навіть до засідань кабінету.
♦ «if + noun + be + infinitive» can be translated as «для того
щоб», e. g.
Coming across an unknown term in the text a translator can consult In any event, members of the association should be prepared to put
a dictionary. Coming across such a phenomenon as the Nominative aside partisan interests if consensus on the abovementioned principles is to
Absolute Construction, for instance, a translator can find it time- be achieved.
consuming to search for an equivalent conveying its meaning, unless he У будь-якому випадку, щоб дійти згоди щодо зазначених
or she already knows the corresponding pattern. приципів, члени асоціації повинні облишити свої партійні інтереси.
This Manual is intended for students who are already aware of the ♦ the Complex Object with the Infinitive is translated as an object
basics and peculiarities of the grammar and syntax of the English subordinate clause, e. g.
language. That is why it offers below only some instruction in translation
Both experiments revealed the rated dimensions to be highly
of certain English constructions, which can cause special difficulties interrelated.
while translating. Обидва експерименти показали, що розрахункові параметри
дуже тісно пов 'язані між собою.
INFINITIVE
♦ the Complex Subject with passive forms of the verbs «think, ex
Depending on the function the Infinitive plays in the sentence it can pect, show, see, find, argue, know, mean, consider, regard, report, be
be translated in the following ways: lieve, hold, suppose, note, presume, claim, admit, interpret, etc.» is
♦ as an adverbial modifier of purpose the Infinitive can express an translated as a complex sentence with an object subordinate clause. Care
independent idea that adds some new information about its subject; the should be taken about non-perfect forms of the Infinitive (which are
adverb «only» is omitted in translation, e. g. translated in the Present time) and perfect forms (which are translated in
the Past time), e. g.,
The president announced his resignation after the failure of his drive to
push through the merger of the two countries last summer. Still they can hardly be said to have formulated a true scientific theory.

178 179
 І все ж навряд чи можна стверджувати, що вони сформулювали Розрахунок на те, що члени ради опікунів втратять витримку,
дійсно наукову теорію. може виявитися невірним.
The term «model» is held to have important normative significance. ♦ an infinitive, e. g.,
Вважається, що термін «модель» має важливе нормативне
Under the pressure of national campaign, he showed a positive gift for
значення.
saying the wrong things in the wrong words at the wrong time.
♦ the Complex Subject with active forms of the verbs «happen, В умовах напруженої кампанії, що проводиться в країні, він
appear, see, prove, turn out, be likely, be certain, be sure, etc.» is виявляв безумовний дар говорити не те, що треба, не так, як
translated in two possible ways: треба, і не тоді, коли треба.
♦ the English finite form is transformed into a Ukrainian
♦ a participle, e. g.,
parenthesis and the English Infinitive into a Ukrainian predicate, e. g.,
In Washington there is quiet satisfaction that the French by joining the
So, there appear to be two choices.
float have indirectly acknowledged that the U.S. was right all along.
Отже, виявляється, вибір існує. У Вашингтоні висловлюють задоволення з приводу того, що
♦ the English finite form is transformed into a Ukrainian main Франція, приєднавшись до країн з плаваючим курсом валюти, таким
clause {«малоймовірно», «мені здається», etc.) and the English Infini чином непрямо визнала, що США були повністю праві.
tive into a Ukrainian predicate in an object subordinate clause, e. g., The Perfect Gerund denotes an action which is prior to the action
Neither proposal is likely to work. expressed by the finite form of the verb, e. g.,
Малоймовірно, щоб якась із цих пропозицій виявилася слушною. After having been colonies for a long time, many Asian and African
♦ if the English predicate has an object «by somebody» such countries have now become independent states.
predicate-object clusters are translated as a parenthesis «на думку», «за Багато країн Азії та Африки, що протягом тривалого часу
даними», «як показав (виявив, встановив, описав)», є. g., були колоніями, стали тепер незалежними.
The results were interpreted by Brown (1989) to be insufficient to draw The priority of the action can be expressed not only by a Perfect
any substantial conclusions. Gerund, e. g.,
На думку Брауна (1989), цих результатів недостатньо для This African country thanked France for offering (= having offered) her
того, щоб зробити якісь вагомі висновки. a helping hand.
Ця африканська країна подякувала Франції за те, що Франція
простягла руку допомоги.
GERUND
Depending on the function, the Gerund plays in the sentence it can PARTICIPLE
be translated as: Participle I can be translated as:
♦ a noun
♦ an attributive clause, e. g.,
Banking on a loss of nerve within the board of trustees may turn out to
be misguided. In the carriage there was only an old man reading his paper.
180 181
 У вагоні був лише один старий чоловік, який читав газету. На питання про те, чи надають Сполучені Штати військову
допомогу силам, які протистоять законному уряду цієї країни,
♦ an adverbial clause, e. g., сенатор дав ухильну відповідь.
Heavy artillery and mortar fire broke out again in the city last night, Some Participles I and II have fixed equivalents: conjunction
virtually putting the whole population of the city under a state of siege. provided; preposition given; preposition failing; conjunction granted;
Вчора в місті знову розпочалася інтенсивна артилерійська та prepositions following; followed by; assuming; considering.
мінометна стрілянина, через що все його населення фактично The Nominative Absolute construction with Participles I and II can
опинилося в облозі. be translated in different ways depending on (1) the form of the
♦ a separate sentence, e. g., Participle; (2) the position of the construction in the sentence:
The treasury announced that in August the sterling area had a gold and ♦ the Nominative Absolute construction with Participle I is in
dollar deficit of 44 million dollars bringing the gold and dollar reserves postposition and plays the function of an adverbial modifier of attending
down to the lowest level reached this year. circumstances:
Міністерство фінансів оголосило, що в серпні стерлінгова зона The Prime Minister and the African National Council promptly lapsed
мала золотий і доларовий дефіцит у розмірі 44 мільйонів доларів. into mutual recrimination, each seeking to blame the other for deadlock.
Таким чином золотий і доларовий запаси сягнули найнижчого рівня Прем'єр-міністр і Африканська національна рада негайно
за цей рік. перейшли до взаємних обвинувачень, до того ж кожна сторона
As a part of the Complex Object construction Participle I and намагалася перекласти на іншу провину за те, що вони потрапили у
Participle II can be translated as: безвихідь.
♦ an object clause, e. g., ♦ the Nominative Absolute construction with Participles I and II
is in preposition and plays the function of an adverbial modifier of cause
At the cemetery mourners knocked over tombstones in their frantic or time:
effort to watch the body being lowered into the earth.
На цвинтарі, охоплені несамовитим бажанням побачити, як That done with, the two statesmen had subsided into long and
домовину опускають у землю, учасники траурної процесії перекидали profitable talks about other subjects.
надгробки. Після того, як з цим питанням було закінчено, обидва державні
діячі поринули у довгу та плідну розмову що стосувалася інших
The country would like to see its proposals approved by the General питань, (adverbial modifier of time).
Assembly.
Країна хотіла б, щоб її пропозиції були схвалені Генеральною It being too late for further discussion, the session was adjourned. Засідання
Асамблеєю. було відкладено, оскільки було занадто пізно, щоб продовжувати
дискусію, (adverbial modifier of cause)
Participle II at the beginning of the sentence can be translated as:
The second element of the Nominative Absolute construction can be
♦ an adverbial clause, e. g., expressed by a noun or an adverb:
Asked if the United States is rendering military aid to the forces The first conference a failure, another meeting at a ministerial level was
opposing the lawful government in that country the senator gave an evasive decided upon.
reply.
183
182
 У зв'язку з невдачею першої конференції було прийнято рішення Such a principle, strange as it may seem, is championed in one form or
про проведення ще однієї зустрічі на рівні міністрів. another by certain scholars.
Такий принцип, хоч він і може видатися досить дивним,
The debate over, the meeting was adjourned.
відстоюють деякі вчені.
Дебати скінчилися, і засідання було оголошено закритим.
Useful as it is, the book has two general shortcomings.
The second element of the Nominative Absolute construction can be
Хоча ця книга й корисна, вона все ж має два суттєвих недоліки.
also expressed by an infinitive. It can be related to the future action:
With the Congress still to be elected, the Republican leadership is
already moving to team up with the Southern Democrats, as it did in the
palmy days of the New Deal.
Хоча вибори до Конгресу ще попереду, керівництво
Республіканської партії вже вживає заходів щодо об'єднання з
демократами з Півдня, як це було під час розквіту Нового курсу.

INVERSION
The order of words in which the subject is placed after the predicate
is called inverted order or inversion. While translating the target sentence
retains the word order of the source sentence in many cases:
Of special interest should be the first article in Chapter 1.
Особливий інтерес має становити перша стаття у главі 1.
Also treated are such matters as theory construction and methodology.
Розглядаються також такі питання, як побудова теорії та
методика дослідження.
Had this material been examined from this viewpoint, the regularities
that he discovers would probably have gone unnoted.
Якби цей матеріал було досліджено з такої точки зору,
закономірності, які він встановлює, залишилися б, можливо,
непоміченими.
Subordinate clauses of concession with an inverted predicate often
serve emphatic purposes and can be translated with the help of Ukrainian
combinations хоч; хоч який би:

184 185
03 QUESTIONS Ex 2. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the gerund or
gerundial constructions:
1. Compare the principles of literary translation and those of official 1. Polls keep indicating that a majority of Americans hold strong
document translation. doubts about the candidate's ability to handle his job.
1. What is peculiar about the text of official documents? 2. Each side insists on withholding its part of the bargain until the
2. What is a text frame? Define it. What are frame slots and slot fillers? other has acted.
Give examples of text frames with slots. 3. The situation in the country is a lesson in the dangers of upsetting
2. What is the main approach to the translation of official documents? the delicate balance of neutralist politics.
3. Give examples of grammar patterns and standard terms in the text of 4. The impossibility of disregarding established diplomatic rules
official documents. does not, however, preclude suspicious host governments from keeping a
watchful eye on diplomatic missions and diplomats suspected of abusing
their privileges and immunities.
E] EXERCISES
5. My objection is to writing books about him before there is
Ex 1. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the infinitive or anything serious to write, and offering accounts, which are very far from
infinitive constructions: objective.
1. The United Nations principal function is to maintain peace and 6. All this, however, has not prevented the head of the delegation
prevent war. and his colleagues from keeping up their end of a dialogue, which
The decisions of the Yalta and Potsdam conferences pointed out the reflects a practical approach and a real willingness to consider serious
treat of militarism and aggression to the course of peace and security and proposals.
provided a system of measures to eliminate sources of war and 7. Amnesty, often granted to student troublemakers last year, is to be
aggression. a thing of the past at many colleges. Instead of being forgiven for
misconduct, more students are to be suspended or expelled.
2. Other areas of major concern relate to the seabed and ocean floor
8. They are terrified of being drawn into taking over responsibility
and mean to ensure their reservation for peaceful use.
for their own security.
3. Disputes are to be settled by peaceful means.
9. The same end is not at all served, at least, not in any direct way, by
Member states undertake not to use force or the threat of force in
getting rid of the secretary of defense.
contravention of the purposes of the UN.
10. No sign exists of the president having concerned himself with the
4. States not-members of the UN are required to act in accordance
substance of these two important questions.
with these principles so far as may be necessary for the maintenance of
international peace and security.
Ex 3. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the participles or
5. The General Assembly is expressly authorised to deal with specific
participial constructions:
disputes and situations brought before it and to undertake studies and
1. But most (98%) of the businesses in the United States are «small»
make recommendations for promoting international co-operation in
businesses - independendy owned and operated and having fewer than
political, social, cultural and educational matters for encouraging the
twenty employees.
development of international law and for assisting in the realisation of
2. Whether a business has one employee working at home, 100
human rights and fundamental freedoms.
working in a retail store, 10,000 working a plant or factory or 100,000
working in branch offices nation-wide, all businesses share the same
186 definition and are organized for the same purpose: to earn profits.
187
 3. There being no survivors, the exact causes which led to the 17. First, a practical response: appreciation of the theoretical
accident will never be known. underpinnings of a particular domain helps the lawyer formulate an
4. Government legislation leads a company to change its hiring analysis of any problem concerning that domain.
practices; technological advances convince a company to change its 18. An expensive advertising campaign can attract you to a
manufacturing processes; changes in consumer tastes tell a company to company, its impressive building will make you glad you come, but if the
alter its marketing strategies. first person you deal with is wearing a purple tank top and flared
5. The number of working women is rising - and, as a result, the trousers, are you really going to take them seriously?
number of two salary households and the number of women managers 19. Every week brings fresh outrage at tales of bosses of privatised
are also rising steadily. firms picking up huge pay rises.
6. With the new countries in, the United Nations will for the first 20. This fact cannot be stated too often and too clearly.
time include Britain's allies and associates. 21. All other things being equal, one would assume that the latter
7. When sole proprietors borrow money, they do so as individuals, solution is more plausible.
using their own personal assets to finance personal loans. 22. As is generally true of conference volumes, the quality of these
8. A tactical plan is specific, detailed, and current, focusing on papers is uneven.
present operations. 23. But in no way does it approach the book under review in depth,
9. The ratification debate should take place as quickly as possible, it scope, or insight of coverage.
being understood that the president of the republic should not sign the 24. But there would have to be some other mechanism for dealing
treaty until the «preconditions» are fulfilled. with the optional positions.
10. Once objectives and plans have been established, the organizing 25. He waited, standing in his room and trying to reason himself
function comes into play. into a decent temper.
11. Managers' decisions range from minor and relatively
unimportant to major and potentially life-threatening to the organization.
12. UNEP in co-operation with the Specialised Agencies and other
organisations is trying to check loss of land through erosion, aridity,
salinity and encroaching cities.
13. The 18 riparian countries have begun research and monitoring of
the condition of the sea, most have signed the Barcelona Convention
agreeing to control pollution and over-fishing, and they have begun plans
for joint development of that sea.
14. The intellectual attractions of the law regulating literary and
artistic property account only in small part for the rise of copyright law.
15. Sometimes copyright law is taught together with trademark and
patent law in a one-semester optional course dealing generally with
intellectual property.
16. The students prepare the texts and the questions before each
class, knowing that the professor may call upon them to explain or
criticize a text, or to analyse a question or a hypothetical case.
188 189
 УГОДА WHEREAS, Agent has БЕРУЧИ ДО УВАГИ, що Агент
experience in matters involving має досвід у справах, що
Цю Угоду укладено
APPENDIX 1999 року між
trade in the Products and, in стосуються торгівлі Продукцією,
AGREEMENT particular, trade involving the і, зокрема, торгівлі Продукцією
TEXT PATTERNS AND ADDITIONAL TRAINING Products з
with and in (the («Територією») і на
MATERIAL «Territory»); and Території; і
This Agreement is made this [корпорацією, головна контора
day of , 1999, якої знаходиться за. адресою: WHEREAS, desires to БЕРУЧИ ДО УВАГИ, що
by and between ] purchase and sell Products from бажає купувати Продукцію у
чи [особою, контора якої знаходить and to entities in the Territory, осіб, що знаходяться на
corporation with its principal ся за адресою: ] («Аген and desires to work with Agent Території, а також продавати їм
office at ] том») і [назва компанії], корпорації, concerning such trade of Продукцію, і бажає
or [an individual with an office що заснована і діє відповідно до за Products to and from the співпрацювати з Агентом у
and mailing address at конодавства , голо Territory; and питаннях, що стосуються такої
] («Agent»), and вна контора якої знаходиться за ад торгівлі Продукцією, що
[company name], a corporation ресою: надходить на Територію і з неї, і
organized and existing under the серед іншого, займається міжна
laws of , родною торгівлею, і, зокрема, WHEREAS, Agent is willing and БЕРУЧИ ДО УВАГИ, що Агент
with its principal place of busi міжнародною торгівлею able to provide such services to бажає і має можливість надавати
ness at •" (товарами, у своїй су такі послуги .
купності іменованих «Продукці
єю») і NOW, THEREFORE, in consid ТОМУ, з урахуванням
(_ .)• eration of the mutual promises обопільних зобов'язань і
WHEREAS, and covenants set forth below, домовленостей,
in, among other things, the busi and Agent under викладених нижче, і
ness of international trade, and stand and agree as follows: Агент досягли взаєморозуміння і
RECITALS ЗАГАЛЬНІ ПОЛОЖЕННЯ домовилися про нижченаведене:
in particular, 1. Appointment
is engaged БЕРУЧИ ДО УВАГИ, що hereby appoints Agent 1. Призначення Агента
international trade
involving as its non-exclusive service Цією Угодою при
provider, on the terms and значає Агента для надання послуг
(collectively, and the «Products»); conditions stated in this на неексклюзивних умовах, за
Agreement, значених у даній Угоді, щодо
relating to purchase of придбання Продукції
Products from and sale of у суб'єктів економічної
Products to entities located in діяльності, що знаходяться на
the Territory. Території, і продажу Продукції
таким суб'єктам.
190 191
2. Duties and Obligations of 2. Обов'язки Агента 2.В. Agent shall inform 2.Б. Агент інформує про
Agent of changes in any laws, rules, зміни законодавства, нормативної і
2.A. Agent shall regularly consult 2.А. Агент регулярно консульту regulations, or practices regarding правової бази Чи практики, що
with on and inform ється з з питань при the import and export of Products стосуються імпорту і експорту
of any Product purchas дбання, продажу, організації збу into and from the Territory or Продукції на даній Території, чи з
ing, selling, marketing, trading ту Продукції, торгівлі нею і з по relating to other issues involving інших питань, що стосуються
and related matters in the Terri дібних питань, а також інформує trade, finance, politics or business торгівлі, фінансів, політики чи
tory, including but not limited to щодо згаданих питань про стан issues and events in the Territory бізнесу і подій на Території, які
providing with timely справ на Території, включаючи, generally affecting the trade in можуть впливати на торгівлю
and accurate information але не обмежуючись, наданням Products. 2.C. Agent shall, when Продукцією взагалі.
concerning: своєчасної і точної інформації, requested 2.В. Агент, на прохання ,
що стосується: by , serve as a liaison забезпечує підтримання зв'язку
(1). prevailing marketing price and (1) існуючих ринкових цін і інших between and its cus між і його клієнтом чи по
other sale terms for Products умов продажу Продукції, ввезеної на tomer or potential customers for тенційними клієнтами, з метою
imported into the Territory; Територію; the receipt, transmission, pres одержання, передачі, надання
(2) prevailing market prices and (2) існуючих ринкових цін і інших entation, and explanation пояснень (де це доречно) повід
other purchase terms for Products умов придбання Продукції, (where appropriate) of commu омлень і спілкування між
exported from the Territory; експортованої з даної Території; nications between and і потенційними чи реальними
(3) the identity of any persons or potential or actual customers, клієнтами, до початку, під час і після
entities which are actual or potential (3) визначенням національної both prior to, during and follow припинення терміну дії
importers of Products into and/or приналежності осіб, що є реаль ing the term of any contacts be будь-якого контракту між
exporters of Products from the ними чи потенційними імпорте tween and such en і такими суб'єктами економічної
Territory and potential buyers from рами і/чи експортерами Продук tities. діяльності.
or sellers, to ції на даній Території чи потен 2 D. Agent shall solicit offers to sell 2.Г. Агент консультує з
ційними покупцями чи продав to or buy from potential buyers or питань продажу чи придбання у
(4) any other matters which may цями ; sellers of Products in the Territory потенційних покупців чи продавців
be of interest to in or (4) з усіх інших питань, що мо and forward such на Території і передає такі
der to ensure that is at жуть становити інтерес для offers to by facsimile пропозиції за допомогою
all times kept well informed of , з метою забезпечення for acceptance or rejection by факсимільного зв'язку для їх
market conditions and trade належного рівня його прийняття чи відхилення _.
opportunities relating to the trade of поінформованості про умови на 2.E. Agent shall assist , 2.Д. Агент надає допомогу, у
Products involving the Territory, ринку і можливості торгівлі as it may request, in performing and випадку звернення до нього з
and with such other matters related Продукцією на даній Території, а fulfilling its obligations under its подібним проханням, у виконанні
to the foregoing as також з усіх інших питань, що contacts to sell to or buy Products зобов'язань за контрактами купі-влі-
may reasonably стосуються вищезгаданого, у from exporters from or importers продажу Продукції експортерів і
request. випадку, якщо into the Territory (such exporters імпортерів на Території (експортерів
звернеться з подібним or importers чи імпортерів, що
прийнятним проханням. 193
192
with contracts to sell to or buy має контракти на продаж чи under a Covered Transac відповідності з Покритою операцією;
from hereinafter придбання Продукції , що tion що дорівнює %, від
collectively referred to as тут і далі у своїй сукупності equal to остаточної фактурної ціни за всю
's «Customers») іменуються «Клієнтами»), % of the final Продукцію, придбану чи продану
including any включаючи будь-які зобов'язання invoice price for all Products у відповідності з Покри
obligation to arrange for and/or щодо організації і спостереження за purchased or sold by тою операцією
monitor the loading and unloading навантаженням і розвантаженням under a Covered Transaction згідно зі ставками, зазна
of vessels, arrange for necessary суден, організовує необхідну according to the ченими в Додатку А на всю Про
transport to or from ports in the доставку до/з портів Території, rates "set forth in the attached дукцію, придбану чи продану
Territory, present to or obtain пред'являє документи Клієнтам і Schedule A for all Products pur у відповідності з Покри
documents from одержує документи від Клієнтів chase or sold by un тою операцією.
's Customers, arrange , організовує одержання der a Covered Transaction. З.Б. У цілях цієї Угоди, «Покрита
for the issuance of performance гарантій виконання контрактів і 3.B. For the purposes of this операція» означає придбання чи
bonds and other related services інших, пов'язаних з виконанням Agreement, a «Covered Transac продаж Продукції за контрактом
in support of 's per контрактів, послуг, з метою надання tion» shall mean the purchase or із Клієнтом, датованим протягом
formance under its purchase or підтримки у діяльності sale of Products under a contact терміну дії даної Угоди, де конт
sale contracts with its Custom за контрактами купівлі- with a Customer dated during ракт складений або (1) між
ers. продажу з Клієнтами. the term of this Agreement and і Клієнтом, представленим
2.F. Agent shall assist 2.Е. Агент надає допомогу служ which contract is either (1) be Агентом у вищезга
employees and representatives when бовцям і представникам , tween and a Customer даний період, чи (2) успішно
they visit the Territory by коли вони прибувають на Тери introduced to by Agent укладений і виконаний у резуль
helping obtain, at 's торію, і сприяє в одержанні, за during the term hereof, or (2) таті безпосередніх зусиль Агента і
cost, entry visas, hotel rooms, local рахунок , в'їзних віз, готе successfully entered into or наданих ним послуг.
transport, and with related logistical льних номерів, місцевих транс performed as a direct result of the Незважаючи на вищезгадані
matters. портних засобів і у відповідному effort and services of Agent. умови, де може йтися про проти
матеріально-технічному забезпе Notwithstanding anything in the лежне, «Покрита операція» не
ченні. foregoing to the contrary, a включає продажу товарів, що
«Covered Transaction» does not походять із відповідно до
3. Compensation 3.A. In 3. Відшкодування include sales of origin експортних програм уряду
consideration of, and as full З.А. Як винагороду і повний роз goods under government , за якими заборонено
payment for the services рахунок за послуги, надані за ці export programs which prohibit the сплату комісійних, гонорарів чи
provided by Agent under this єю Угодою, сплачує Аген payment of commissions, fees, or інших подібних винагород.
Agreement, shall pay to ту гонорар (виберіть один із ва other similar compensation.
Agent a fee (choose one): ріантів): 3.C. All payments due to Agent З.В. Усі виплати, що належать до
equal to U.S. per що дорівнює доларів США under this Agreement shall be сплати Агенту відповідно до даної
for all Products _ за , за всю Продукцію, payable in Угоди, виконуються в
purchased or sold by придбану чи продану у 195
194
(unless otherwise prohibited) and (якщо це не заборо under this Agreement to any від за цією Угодою жод
will be paid solely by check or нено іншими угодами) і викону third party without the prior ній третій стороні без попере
wire transfer. No payment will be ються винятково чеком чи теле written consent of дньої письмової згоди і,
made by ^___ in cash or bearer графним переказом. Жодні ви and, unless otherwise agreed by якщо інше не передбачено
instrument. All payments will be плати не будуть здійснюватися in writing, Agent and письмово, Агент і його
made solely to Agent and to no готівкою чи документами на its employees shall personally персонал особисто надають по
other person or entity; payments пред'явника. Усі виплати будуть perform the services required by слуги, необхідні . Крім того,
made by wire transfer will be здійснюватися винятково Агенту, ■ -- Agent further agrees Агент згоден з тим, що він не бу
made to a bank account in а не будь-якій іншій особі чи су that it will not pay or transfer де сплачувати чи переказувати
Agent's name at a bank located in б'єкту економічної діяльності; any portion of the payments re жодну частину коштів, одержа
the country of Agent's principal платежі можуть бути виконані на ceived from to any них від нікому з інозем
place of business. банківський рахунок на ім'я Аге foreign official or other person них посадових чи яких-небудь
нта в країні місцезнаходження in violation of law. інших осіб у порушення законів
3.D. will make pay головної контори Агента.
ments due to Agent under this З.Г. робить виплати, що 3.F. In the event the Covered З.Е. У випадку, якщо Покрита
Agreement within належать до сплати Агенту у від Transaction is part of a barter операція є бартерною і передба
( ) days: повідності з даною Угодою про arrangement involving the чає обмін товарами, ціна прода
(i) for Products purchased тягом ( ) днів: exchange of commodities, the жу покупки чи (у залежності від
by from Customers, (і) за Продукцію, придбану sale or purchase price (as the обставин) з метою визначення
the payment or delivery of other від Клієнтів, за на case may be) for purposes of розміру гонорару, що належить
consideration by or on behalf of дання інших послуг calculating the fee due to Agent Агенту за цією Угодою, повинна
to the Customer, or чи від його імені Клієнтам, чи under this Agreement shall відбивати реальну ринкову вар
(ii) for Products sold by reflect the than existing market тість Продукції, проданої чи
to Customers, the (іі) за Продукцію, продану value of the Products sold or придбаної за взаємною згодою
actual receipt of funds for value Клієнтам, фактичне оде purchased as mutually agreed Агента і .
or other full consideration by or ржання коштів за чи еквівалент between Agent
on behalf of from the за надання інших послуг у пов and . 4. Терміни і припинення чинності
Customer; ному обсязі . чи від його 4. Term; Termination Угоди 4.А. Дана Угода набуває
provided, however, that prior to імені Клієнтам; сили з
making any payment under this однак, за умови, що до здійснен 4.A. This Agreement will com і залишається чинною до
Agreement shall have ня будь-якого платежу відповід mence on , and її припинення (і) у будь-який час
received Agent's invoice for the но до даної Угоди одер shall continue in effect thereafter за взаємною письмовою згодою
full amount due. жить рахунок-фактуру від Агента until terminated (i) at any time сторін (іі) будь-якої із сторін із
3.E. Agent shall have no right to на всю суму, що належить йому. by the mutual written consent of зазначенням чи без зазначення
assign any portion of its rights to З.Д. Агент не має жодного права the parties or (ii) by either party причини, з наданням іншій сто
receive payments from передавати яку-небудь частину with or without cause, by роні письмового попередження
своїх прав на одержання коштів providing sixty (60) days prior про це за ( ) днів.
196 written notice to the other. 197
4.B. Upon termination of this 4.Б. Після припинення дії даної persons hired by it and shall be ня контролю за найнятими ним
Agreement, Agent will have no Угоди Агент не буде мати жодних solely responsible for the payment особами, і є єдиною особою,
further claim or right to for претензій чи прав, крім як на виплату of any and all related compensation, відповідальною за виплату будь-яких
compensation or other payment of гонорарів, зароблених ним до дати wages and other liabilities imposed належних винагород, заробітної
any kind whatsoever, except for the припинення дії Угоди, у upon employers under labor and/or плати і розрахунків за іншими
payment of fees earned prior to the відповідності зі Статтею.З даної any applicable social legislation. зобов'язаннями, що накладаються на
termination date in accordance with Угоди. Agent shall be solely responsible for роботодавців згідно з трудовим і/чи
Section 3 of this Agreement. any and all expenses incurred in іншим відповідним соціальним
4.C. Notwithstanding anything in providing services to законодавством. Агент одноосібно
Clause 4.A to the contrary, either 4.В. Незважаючи на положення under this Agreement, including but відповідає за всі і будь-які витрати,
party may terminate this Agreement Статті 4.А про протилежне, кож not limited to the cost of rent, office понесені
with immediate effect upon the на зі сторін може припинити дію equipment, communications and ним при наданні послуг за
giving of notice in the event the даної Угоди негайно, повідоми travel, except даною Угодою, які включають,
other violates or breaches any term вши про це, у випадку, якщо ін where has specifically але не обмежуються, вартістю
or provision of this Agreement. 5. ша сторона діє всупереч будь- agreed, in writing and in advance, to оренди, офісного устаткування,
Independent Contractor The parties яким положенням чи умовам cover or reimburse Agent for any комунікацій і поїздок, за винят
expressly acknowledge and agree даної Угоди чи порушує їх. such expenses. ком випадків, про які
that Agent is an independent 5. Незалежна сторона в договорі особливо застеріг, письмово і
contractor and is not a partner, joint Сторони особливо застерігають і завчасно, що він покриває чи
venturer or погоджуються з тим, що Агент є відшкодовує Агенту будь-які з
employee of , незалежною стороною в договорі 7. Miscellaneous таких витрат. 7. Різне
Agent does not have, and will not і не є партнером, учасником спі 7.A. This Agreement may not be 7.А. Ця Угода не підлягає змінам чи
hold itself out as having, any льного підприємства чи службо amended or supplemented except by доповненням, за винятком тих
authority to bind to вцем , Агент не має і не written agreement signed by both випадків, коли такі виконуються
any contract, debt or other буде вимагати для себе повнова parties hereto. письмо за згодою і підписом обох
obligation. Agent acknowledges and жень зв'язувати жодним сторін.
agrees that the negotiation of, контрактом, борговими чи ін 7.B. This Agreement contains the 7.Б. Цю Угоду складено за повною
agreement to all terms and шими зобов'язаннями. Агент ви entire agreement between the parties згодою сторін щодо її змісту, і вона
conditions, and the execution of any знає і згоден, що переговори з hereto with respect to the contents заміняє собою всі попередні угоди і
purchase or sale contracts for приводу всіх умов і положень і hereof and supersedes all prior домовленості, досягнуті між
Products with Customers shall be згода на їхнє встановлення, ви agreements and understandings сторонами, письмові чи усні.
sole responsibility of конання яких-небудь контрактів between the parties, written or oral.
. Agent shall have з Клієнтами на покупку чи про 7.C. This Agreement shall be 7.В. Дана Угода регулюється за
the exclusive right and obligation to даж продукції є винятково пре subject to the laws of the конам . Будь-який спір,
select, hire and supervise all рогативою . Виключним . . Any dispute що виникає між сторонами з 199
правом і обов'язком Агента є добір,
прийом на роботу і здійснен-
198
arising between the parties under приводу даної Угоди, що не мо the mail, postage pre-paid, and а у випадку рекомендованої
this Agreement which cannot be же бути врегульований сторона addressed as follows: кореспонденції - за датою
amicably resolved by the parties ми у дружній спосіб, підлягає відправлення на поштовому
shall be subject to non-binding врегулюванню за допомогою по штемпелі, з передоплатою поштових
mediation using the services of a середництва, що не є обов'язко зборів, і надсилаються за адресою:
sole mediator under the media вим, із залученням одного посе If to Agent: Агенту:
tion rules of the редника відповідно до правил
or such проведення посередницьких
other recognized mediation ser операцій чи іншої
vice or association as the parties відомої посередницької служби Attn: Кому:
may mutually agree. If the dis чи асоціації, за взаємною згодою If to
pute cannot be resolved by me сторін. Якщо спір не може бути
diation then the dispute shall be врегульований за допомогою по
referred to binding arbitration in середника, тоді він передається Attn: Кому:
according to the In на обов'язковий розгляд до 7.E. Agent agrees to keep private 7.Д. Агент погоджується не роз
ternational Commercial Arbitra відповідно до Між and confidential any and all in голошувати і зберігати конфіде
tion Rules and Procedures of the народних правил торгового арбі formation regarding нційність будь-якої і всієї інфор
American Arbitration Associa тражу і регламенту Американсь and its business activities (and мації, що стосується і
tion, with each party appointing кої асоціації арбітражу, причому those of its parent affiliated com ведення справ (і справ його ма
an arbitrator and the two party- кожна зі сторін призначає арбіт panies) that may dis теринської і дочірньої компаній),
arbitrators appointing a third ра, а обидві сторони разом при close to it or that Agent may з якими може ознайоми
arbitrator-chairman. The arbi значають третього арбітра, що otherwise obtain, and further ти його, а крім того, Агент пого
tration award shall be final and виступає в ролі голови. Рішення agrees that it will not disclose джується не розкривати таку ін
binding, and judgment upon the арбітражу є остаточним і обов'я any such information to any формацію нікому з інших фізич
arbitrators' award may be en зковим для виконання, а поста other person or entity or use it них чи юридичних осіб, або ви
tered in any court of competent нова суду з приводу арбітражно for its own benefit without the користовувати для власної виго
jurisdiction. го рішення може бути винесена у express prior written consent of ди, не одержавши на це попере
будь-якій належній судовій ін . This Agreement is дньо письмового підтвердження
станції. not a license and Agent has no явно вираженої згоди . Да
7.D. All notices required under this 7.Г. Усі повідомлення, що right to use any of 's на Угода не є ліцензійною і Агент
Agreement shall be given in writing вимагаються відповідно до даної trade names, trademarks, service не має права використовувати
by telex and registered mail. Notices Угоди, складаються у письмовому marks or other intellectual prop жодні з фірмових назв, торгових
shall be deemed effective 1 business вигляді і пересилаються телексом чи erty except as may марок, знаків обслуговування й
day after being sent, in the case of у вигляді рекомендованої specifically agree in writing. інших прав інтелектуальної влас
telex notices, and, in the case of кореспонденції. Повідомлення ності, крім випадків, коли
registered mail, after being placed in вважаються дійсними через один у письмовому вигляді дає дозвіл на
день після відправлення телексом, використання подібного.
200 201
7.F. shall have the right 7.E має право залучати TREATY ON THE NON- ДОГОВІР
to engage other persons or інших осіб чи об'єкти економічної PROLIFERATION OF ПРО НЕРОЗПОВСЮДЖЕННЯ
entities during the term of this діяльності під час терміну NUCLEAR WEAPONS ЯДЕРНОЇ ЗБРОЇ
Agreement to provide the same чинності цієї Угоди для надання
The States concluding this Держави, що укладають цей
or similar types of services to послуг подібного виду,
Treaty, hereinafter referred to as Договір, поіменовані нижче
relating to the trade які зв'язані з торгівлею
the «Parties to the Treaty», «Учасниками Договору»,
of Products involving the Продукцією на даній Території,
Considering the devastation враховуючи спустошливі
Territory concurrently with the одночасно з наданням послуг, що
that would be visited upon all наслідки, що їх мала б для всього
services provided by Agent надаються Агентом за даною
mankind by a nuclear war and людства ядерна війна, і
under this Agreement. Угодою.
the consequent need to make необхідність, яка випливає з
7.G. This Agreement has been every effort to avert the danger цього, докласти всіх зусиль для
executed in two originals, one 7.Ж. Цю Угоду складено в двох
of such a war and to take запобігання загрозі виникнення
being kept by and примірниках, що є оригіналами,
measures to safeguard the такої війни і вжити заходів для
one by Agent, but each original один знаходиться в , а ін
security of peoples, безпеки народів,
constituting one and the same ший - в Агента, причому обидва
Believing that the вважаючи, що
document. оригінали складають той самий
proliferation of nuclear weapons розповсюдження ядерної зброї
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the документ.
would seriously enhance the серйозно посилило б загрозу
parties by their authorized НА ПІДТВЕРДЖЕННЯ ЧОГО danger of nuclear war, ядерної війни,
representatives have signed this сторони через своїх In conformity with відповідно до резолюцій
Agreement as of the day and year уповноважених представників resolutions of the United Генеральної Асамблеї Організації
above written. підписали дану Угоду Nations General Assembly Об'єднаних Націй, що
вищевказаного числа і року. calling for the conclusion of an закликають укласти угоду про
AGENT agreement on the prevention of відвернення подальшого
АГЕНТ wider dissemination of nuclear розповсюдження ядерної зброї,
By: _ weapons, зобов'язуючись
Undertaking to cooperate in співробітничати з метою
Title: ! facilitating the application of сприяння застосуванню гарантій
Посада: International Atomic Energy Міжнародного агентства з
Agency safeguards on peaceful атомної енергії щодо мирного
nuclear activities, застосування ядерної
By:_ Expressing their support for радіоактивності,
research, development and other висловлюючи свою підтримку
Title: efforts to further the application, зусиллям по дослідженню,
Посада: within the framework of the вдосконаленню та іншим
International Atomic Energy зусиллям, спрямованим на
Agency safeguards system, of the сприяння застосуванню в рамках
principle of safeguarding effec- системи гарантій Міжнародного
агентства з атомної енергії
202 принципу ефек-
203
tively the flow of source and special ХИБНИХ гарантій щодо руху Recalling the determination нагадуючи про рішучість,
fissionable materials by use of вихідних і спеціальних expressed by the Parties to the 1963 висловлену Учасниками Договору
instruments and other techniques at розщеплюваних матеріалів, шляхом Treaty banning nuclear weapon про заборону випробувань ядерної
certain strategic points, використання приладів та інших tests in the atmosphere, in outer зброї в атмосфері, в космічному
Affirming the principle that the технічних засобів у ключових space and under water in its просторі і під водою 1963 року в
benefits of peaceful applications of місцях, Preamble to seek to achieve the його преамбулі, прагнути назавжди
nuclear technology, including any підтверджуючи той принцип, що discontinuance of all test explosions досягти припинення всіх
technological byproducts which блага мирного застосування ядерної of nuclear weapons for all time and випробувальних вибухів ядерної
may be derived by nuclear-weapon технології, включаючи будь-які to continue negotiations to this end, зброї та продовжувати переговори з
States from the development of технологічні побічні продукти, які Desiring to further the easing of цією метою,
nuclear explosive devices, should be можуть одержати держави, що international tension and the прагнучи сприяти пом'якшенню
available for peaceful purposes to мають ядерну зброю, від розвитку strengthening of trust between міжнародної напруженості та
all Parties of the Treaty, whether ядерних вибухових пристроїв, States in order to facilitate the зміцненню довіри між державами з
nuclear-weapon or non-nuclear повинні бути доступні для мирних cessation of the manufacture of тим, щоб сприяти досягненню
weapon States, цілей усім державам-учасницям nuclear weapons, the liquidation of припинення виробництва ядерної
Convinced that, in furtherance of Договору, як тим, що мають, так і all their existing stockpiles, and the зброї, знищенню всіх існуючих її
this principle, all Parties to the тим, що не мають ядерної зброї, elimination from national arsenals запасів і виключенню ядерної зброї
Treaty are entitled to participate in будучи переконаними, що на of nuclear weapons and the means та засобів її доставки з національних
the fullest possible exchange of здійснення цього принципу всі of their delivery pursuant to a арсеналів у відповідності з
scientific information for, and to Учасники цього Договору мають Treaty on general and complete договором про загальне і повне
contribute alone or in cooperation право брати участь у якомога disarmament under strict and роззброєння під суворим і
with other States to, the further повнішому обміні науковою effective international control, ефективним міжнародним
development of the applications of інформацією для дальшого розвитку Recalling that, in accordance контролем,
atomic energy for peaceful застосування атомної енергії в with the Charter of the United
purposes, мирних цілях і робити свій внесок у Nations, States must refrain in their нагадуючи, що відповідно до
Declaring their intention to цей розвиток одноосібно або в international relations from the Статуту Організації Об'єднаних Націй
achieve at the earliest possible date співробітництві з іншими threat or use of force against the держави повинні утримуватися в їхніх
the cessation of the nuclear arms державами, territorial integrity or political міжнародних відносинах від погрози
race and to undertake effective заявляючи про свій намір по independence of any State, or in силою або її застосування як проти
measures in the direction of nuclear можливості швидше досягти any other manner inconsistent with територіальної недоторканності або
disarmament, припинення гонки ядерних озброєнь the Purposes of the United Nations, політичної незалежності будь-якої
Urging the cooperation of all і вжити ефективних заходів у and that the establishment and держави, так і у будь-який інший
States in the attainment of this напрямі ядерного роззброєння, maintenance of international peace спосіб, не сумісний з цілями
objective, настійно закликаючи до and security are to be promoted Організації Об'єднаних Націй, і
співробітництва всі держави у with сприяти встановленню і підтриманню
досягненні цієї мети, 204 міжнародного миру та безпеки з най-
205
the least diversion for меншим залученням світових ons or other nuclear explosive рну зброю чи інші ядерні вибухові
armaments of the worlds human and людських сил і економічних ресурсів devices; and not to seek or receive пристрої, так само як і не добиватися
economic resources, Have agreed as до справи озброєння, any assistance in the manufacture of і не приймати будь-якої допомоги у
follows: погодилися про нижченаведе-не: nuclear weapons or other nuclear виробництві ядерної зброї або інших
explosive devices. ядерних вибухових пристроїв.
Стаття І
Article I Кожна з держав-учасниць цього Article III Стаття III
Each nuclear-weapon State Party Договору, які мають ядерну зброю, l.-Each non-nuclear-weapon (1) Кожна з держав-учасниць
to the Treaty undertakes not to зобов'язується не передавати будь- State Party to the Treaty undertakes Договору, що не мають ядерної
transfer to any recipient whatsoever кому ядерну зброю чи інші ядерні to accept safeguards, as set forth in зброї, зобов'язується прийняти
nuclear weapons or other nuclear вибухові пристрої, а також контроль an agreement to be negotiated and гарантії, як вони викладені в угоді,
explosive devices or control over над такою зброєю або вибуховими concluded with the International про яку провадитимуться переговори
such weapons or explosive devices пристроями ні прямо, ні Atomic Energy Agency in і яку буде укладено з Міжнародним
directly, or indirectly; and not in опосередковано, так само як і ніяким accordance with the Statute of the агентством з атомної енергії
any way to assist, encourage, or способом не допомагати, не International Atomic Energy відповідно до Статуту
induce any non-nuclear weapon заохочувати і не спонукати будь-яку Agency and the Agencies Міжнародного агентства з атомної
State to manufacture or otherwise державу, що не має ядерної зброї, до safeguards system, for the exclusive енергії та системи гарантій
acquire nuclear weapons or other виробництва або здобуття у будь- purpose of verification of the Агентства, виключно з метою
nuclear explosive devices, or який інший спосіб ядерної зброї чи fulfilment of its obligations перевірки виконання його
control over such weapons or інших ядерних вибухових пристроїв, assumed under this Treaty with a зобов'язань, прийнятих відповідно
explosive devices. а також до контролю над такою view to preventing diversion of до цього Договору, з тим щоб не
зброєю або вибуховими пристроями. nuclear energy from peaceful uses допустити переключення ядерної
to nuclear weapons or other nuclear енергії з мирного застосування на
Стаття II explosive devices. ядерну зброю або інші ядерні
Кожна з держав-учасниць цього Procedures for the safeguards вибухові пристрої.
Договору, яка не має ядерної зброї, required by this article shall be Процедури забезпечення
Article II
зобов'язується не приймати followed with respect to source or гарантій, що вимагаються цією
Each non-nuclear-weapon State
передавану ким би то не було ядерну special fissionable material whether Статтею, здійснюються щодо
Party to the Treaty undertakes not to
зброю чи вибухові пристрої та не it is being produced, processed or вихідного чи спеціального
receive the transfer from any
здійснювати контроль над такими used in any principal nuclear розщеплюваного матеріалу,
transferor whatsoever of nuclear
зброєю чи пристроями, як прямо так facility or is outside any such незалежно від того, чи виробляється
weapons or other nuclear explosive
і опосередковано, не виробляти і не facility. The safeguards required by він, обробляється чи
devices or of control over such
здобувати у будь-який інший спосіб this article shall be applied to all використовується в будь-якій
weapons or explosive devices
яде- source or special fissionable основній ядерній установці або
directly, or indirectly; not to
material in all peace- знаходиться за межами будь-якої
manufacture or otherwise acquire
nuclear weap- такої установки. Гарантії, що
вимагаються цією Стат-
207
fill nuclear activities within the тею, застосовуються до всього provisions of this article and the стосування гарантій, викладеним у
territory of such State, under its вихідного чи спеціального principle of safeguarding set forth преамбулі Договору.
jurisdiction, or carried out under its розщеплюваного матеріалу, в усій in the Preamble of the Treaty.
control anywhere. мирній ядерній діяльності в межах 4. Non-nuclear-weapon States
території такої держави, під її Party to the Treaty shall conclude (4) Держави-учасниці Договору,
юрисдикцією, чи здійснюваної під її agreements with the International які не мають ядерної зброї,
контролем де б то не було. Atomic Energy Agency to meet the укладають угоди з Міжнародним
2. Each State Party to the (2) Кожна з держав-учасниць requirements of this article either агентством з атомної енергії з метою
Treaty undertakes not to pro Договору зобов'язується не надавати: individually or together with other виконання вимог цієї Статті або в
vide: (a) source or special fis а) вихідного чи спеціального States in accordance with the Statute індивідуальному порядку, або
sionable material, or (b) equip розщеплюваного матеріалу, в) of the International Atomic Energy спільно з іншими державами
ment or material especially de устаткування чи матеріалу, Agency. Negotiation of such відповідно до Статуту Міжнародного
signed or prepared for the proc спеціально призначеного або agreements shall commence within агентства з атомної енергії.
essing, use or production of spe підготовленого для обробки, 180 days from the original entry into Переговори про такі угоди
cial fissionable material, to any використання чи виробництва force of this Treaty. For States починаються протягом 180 днів з
non-nuclear-weapon State for спеціального розщеплюваного depositing their instruments of часу первісного набуття чинності
peaceful purposes, unless the матеріалу, будь-якій державі, що не ratification or accession after the цим Договором. Для держав, які
source or special fissionable ma має ядерної зброї, для мирних цілей, 180-day period, negotiation of such здають на зберігання свої
terial shall be subject to the safe якщо на цей вихідний чи agreements shall commence not ратифікаційні грамоти або
guards required by this article. спеціальний розщеплюваний later than the date of such deposit. документи про приєднання після
матеріал не поширюються гарантії, Such agreements shall enter into закінчення періоду в 180 днів,
які вимагаються цією Статтею. force not later than eighteen months переговори про такі угоди
3. The safeguards required by (3) Гарантії, що вимагаються after the date of initiation of починаються не пізніше дати такої
this article shall be implemented цією Статтею, здійснюються у negotiations. здачі. Такі угоди набувають чинності
in a manner designed to comply відповідності до Статті IV цього не пізніше вісімнадцяти місяців з дня
with article IV of this Treaty, Договору і уникати створення початку переговорів.
and to avoid hampering the перешкод для економічного або Article IV
economic or technological de технологічного розвитку Учасників 1. Nothing in this Treaty shall be
velopment of the Parties or in Договору чи міжнародного interpreted as affecting the Стаття IV
ternational cooperation in the співробітництва в галузі мирної inalienable right of all the Parties to (1) Ніяке положення цього
field of peaceful nuclear activi ядерної діяльності, включаючи the Treaty to develop research, Договору не слід тлумачити як таке,
ties, including the international міжнародний обмін ядерним production and use of nuclear що зачіпає невід'ємне право всіх
exchange of nuclear material матеріалом і устаткуванням для energy for peaceful purposes Учасників Договору розвивати
and equipment for the process обробки, використання або without discrimination дослідження, виробництво та
ing, use or production of nu виробництва ядерного матеріалу в використання ядерної енергії в
clear material for peaceful pur мирних цілях відповідно до мирних цілях без дискримінації
poses in accordance with the положень цієї Статті і принципу за- 209
208
and in conformity with articles I і відповідно до Статей І та II charge to such Parties for the вартість використовуваних
and II of this Treaty. цього Договору. explosive devices used will be as вибухових пристроїв для таких
2. All the Parties to the Treaty (2) Всі Учасники Договору low as possible and exclude any Учасників Договору була такою
undertake to fadlitate, and have зобов'язуються сприяти якомога charge for research and низькою, як це тільки можливо, і
the right to participate in, the повнішому обмінові development. не включала витрат на їх
fullest possible exchange of устаткуванням, матеріалами, Non-nuclear-weapon States дослідження та вдосконалення.
equipment, materials and науковою і технічною Party to the Treaty shall be able Держави-учасниці цього
scientific and technological інформацією про використання to obtain such benefits, pursuant Договору, які не мають ядерної
information for the peaceful uses ядерної енергії в мирних цілях і to a special international зброї, зможуть отримувати такі
of nuclear energy. Parties to the мають право брати участь у agreement or agreements, блага відповідно до спеціальної
Treaty in a position to do so shall такому обміні. Учасники through an appropriate міжнародної угоди або угод
also cooperate in contributing Договору, які спроможні робити international body with adequate через відповідний міжнародний
alone or together with other це, також співпрацюють у справі representation of non-nuclear- орган, в якому належно
States or international сприяння окремо або спільно з weapon States. Negotiations on представлені держави, що не
organizations to the further іншими державами чи this subject shall commence as мають ядерної зброї. Переговори
development of the applications міжнародними організаціями soon as possible after the Treaty з цього питання почнуться так
of nuclear energy for peaceful дальшому розвиткові enters into force. швидко, як це можливо, після
purposes, especially in the застосування ядерної енергії в Non-nuclear-weapon States набуття чинності цим Договором.
territories of non-nuclear- мирних цілях, особливо на Party to the Treaty so desiring Держави-учасниці цього
weapon States Party to the територіях держав-учасниць may also obtain such benefits Договору, які не мають ядерної
Treaty, with due consideration Договору, що не мають ядерної pursuant to bilateral agreements. зброї, коли вони побажають
for the needs of the developing зброї, з належним урахуванням цього, можуть також отримувати
areas of the world. потреб регіонів світу, що такі блага відповідно до
розвиваються. двосторонніх угод.
Article V
Each party to the Treaty un Стаття V Article VI Стаття VI
dertakes to take appropriate Кожний з Учасників цього Each of the Parties to the Кожний Учасник цього
measures to ensure that, in ac Договору зобов'язується вжити Treaty undertakes to pursue Договору зобов'язується в дусі
cordance with this Treaty, under відповідних заходів з метою negotiations in good faith on доброї волі вести переговори про
appropriate international obser забезпечення того, щоб відповідно effective measures relating to ефективні заходи по припиненню
vation and through appropriate до цього Договору, під cessation of the nuclear arms гонки ядерних озброєнь у
international procedures, poten відповідним міжнародним race at an early date and to найближчому майбутньому і
tial benefits from any peaceful наглядом і шляхом відповідних nuclear disarmament, and on a ядерному роззброєнню, а також
applications of nuclear explo міжнародних процедур потенційні Treaty on general and complete про договір про загальне і повне
sions will be made available to блага від будь-якого мирного disarmament under strict and роззброєння під суворим і
non-nuclear-weapon States застосування ядерних вибухів були effective international control. ефективним міжнародним
Party to the Treaty on a доступні дер-жавам-учасницям контролем.
nondiscriminatory basis and that цього Договору, які не мають
the ядерної зброї, на 211
недискримінаційній основі, і щоб
210
 Article VII Стаття VII the amendment upon the deposit of вки, після здачі на зберігання таких
Nothing in this Treaty affects the Ніяке положення цього Договору such instruments of ratification by a ратифікаційних грамот більшістю
right of any group of States to не зачіпає права будь-якої групи majority of all the Parties, including всіх Учасників Договору,
conclude regional treaties in order держав укладати регіональні the instruments of ratification of all включаючи ратифікаційні грамоти
to assure the total absence of договори з метою забезпечення nuclear-weapon States Party to the всіх держав-учасниць цього
nuclear weapons in their respective повної відсутності ядерної зброї на Treaty and all other Parties which, Договору, що мають ядерну зброю, і
territories. їх відповідних територіях. on the date the amendment is всіх інших Учасників Договору, які є
circulated, are members of the членами Правління Міжнародного
Article VIII Стаття VIII Board of Governors of the агентства з атомної енергії, на дату
1. Any Party to the Treaty may (1) Будь-який Учасник цього International Atomic Energy розсилки цієї поправки. Надалі вона
propose amendments to this Договору може запропонувати Agency. Thereafter, it shall enter набуває чинності для будь-якого
Treaty. The text of any proposed поправки до цього Договору. Текст into force for any other Party upon іншого Учасника Договору після
amendment shall be submitted to будь-якої запропонованої поправки the deposit of its instrument of здачі ним на зберігання своєї
the Depositary Governments подається урядам-депозитаріям, ratification of the amendment. грамоти про ратифікацію поправки.
which shall circulate it to all Par котрі розсилають його всім 3. Five years after the entry into (3) Через п'ять років після набуття
ties to the Treaty. Thereupon, if Учасникам Договору. Потім, якщо force of this Treaty, a conference of чинності цим Договором у Женеві
requested to do so by one-third цього вимагатиме одна третина або Parties to the Treaty shall be held in (Швейцарія) скликається
or more of the Parties to the більше Учасників Договору, уряди- Geneva, Switzerland, in order to конференція Учасників Договору для
Treaty, the Depositary Govern депозитарії скликають конференцію, review the operation of this Treaty розгляду того, як діє цей Договір,
ments shall convene a confer на яку вони запрошують усіх with a view to assuring that the щоб мати впевненість у тому, що
ence, to which they shall invite all Учасників Договору для розгляду purposes of the Preamble and the цілі, викладені в преамбулі, та
the Parties to the Treaty, to con такої поправки. provisions of the Treaty are being положення Договору здійснюються.
sider such an amendment. (2) Будь-яка поправка до цього realized. At intervals of five years Через кожні наступні п'ять років
2. Any amendment to this Договору повинна бути затверджена thereafter, a majority of the Parties більшість Учасників Договору може,
Treaty must be approved by a більшістю голосів усіх Учасників to the Treaty may obtain, by шляхом подання пропозиції з цією
majority of the votes of all the Договору, включаючи голоси всіх submitting a proposal to this effect метою урядам-депозитаріям,
Parties to the Treaty, including держав-учасниць цього Договору, що to the Depositary Governments, the добитися скликання подальших
the votes of all nuclear-weapon мають ядерну зброю, і всіх інших convening of further Conferences конференцій з тією ж метою
States Party to the Treaty and all Учасників Договору, що є членами with the same objective of розгляду того, як діє Договір.
other Parties which, on the date Правління Міжнародного агентства з reviewing the operation of the
the amendment is circulated, are атомної енергії на дату розсилки Treaty.
members of the Board of Gov такої поправки. Поправка набуває
ernors of the International чинності для кожного Учасника Article IX Стаття IX
Atomic Energy Agency. The Договору, який здає свою грамоту 1. This Treaty shall be open to (1) Цей Договір відкритий для
amendment shall enter into про ратифікацію попра- 13
force for each Party that deposits 212
its instrument of ratification of
 підписання всіма державами. their instruments of ratification гра-14
all States for signature. Any State Будь-яка держава, яка не or accession.
which does not sign the Treaty підпише Договір до набуття ним 5. The Depositary Govern
before its entry into force in чинності, відповідно до пункту ments shall promptly inform all
accordance with paragraph 3 of (3) цієї Статті, може приєднатися signatory and acceding States of
this article may accede to it at до нього в будь-який час. the date of each signature, the
any time. (2) Цей Договір підлягає date of deposit of each instru
2. This Treaty shall be subject ратифікації державами, які ment of ratification or of acces
to ratification by signatory підписали його. Ратифікаційні sion, the date of the entry into
States. Instruments of грамоти і документи про force of this Treaty, and the date
ratification and instruments of приєднання здаються на of receipt of any requests for
accession shall be deposited зберігання урядам Союзу convening a conference or other
with the Governments of the Радянських Соціалістичних notices.
United States of America, the Республік, Сполученого
United Kingdom of Great Королівства Великої Британії та 6. This Treaty shall be regis
Britain and Northern Ireland and Північної Ірландії і Сполучених tered by the Depositary Gov
the Union of Soviet Socialist Штатів Америки, котрі цим ernments pursuant to article 102
Republics, which are hereby призначаються урядами- of the Charter of the United Na
designated the Depositary депозитаріями. tions.
Governments. (3) Цей Договір набуває
3. This Treaty shall enter into чинності після його ратифікації Article X
force after its ratification by the державами, уряди яких 1. Each Party shall in
States, the Governments of which призначені депозитаріями exercising its national
are designated Depositaries of the Договору, і сорока іншими sovereignty have the right to
Treaty, and forty other States державами, що підписали цей withdraw from the Treaty if it
signatory to this Treaty and the Договір, та здачі ними на decides that extraordinary
deposit of their instruments of зберігання ратифікаційних events, related to the subject
ratification. For the purposes of грамот. Для цілей цього matter of this Treaty, have
this Treaty, a nuclear-weapon Договору державою, що має jeopardized the supreme interests
State is one which has ядерну зброю, є держава, яка of its country. It shall give notice
manufactured and exploded a виробила і підірвала ядерну of such withdrawal to all other
nuclear weapon or other nuclear зброю або інший ядерний Parties to the Treaty and to the
explosive device prior to January вибуховий пристрій до 1 січня United Nations Security Council
1, 1967. 1967 року. three months in advance. Such
4. For States whose instru (4) Для держав, ратифікаційні notice shall include a statement
ments of ratification or acces грамоти або документи про of the extraordinary events it
sion are deposited subsequent to приєднання яких будуть здані на regards as having jeopardized its
the entry into force of this зберігання після набуття supreme interests.
Treaty, it shall enter into force чинності цим Договором, він
on the date of the deposit of набуває чинності в день здачі на
зберігання їхніх ратифікаційних
 MOT або документів про обставини, які він розглядає як
приєднання. такі, що поставили під загрозу
(5) Уряди-депозитарії його найвищі інтереси. 215
безвідк-ладно повідомляють
всі держави, які підписали
цей Договір і приєдналися
до нього, про дату кожного
підписання, дату здачі на
зберігання кожної
ратифікаційної грамоти або
документа про приєднання,
дату набуття чинності цим
Договором, дату одержання
будь-яких вимог щодо
скликання конференції, а
також про інші
повідомлення.
(6) Цей Договір
реєструється урядами-
депозитаріями відповідно
до Статті 102 Статуту
Організації Об'єднаних
Націй.

Стаття X
(1) Кожний Учасник цього
Договору в порядку
здійснення свого державного
суверенітету має право вийти з
Договору, коли він вирішить,
що пов'язані зі змістом цього
Договору виняткові обставини
поставили під загрозу найвищі
інтереси його країни. Про
такий вихід він повідомляє за
три місяці всіх Учасників
Договору і Раду Безпеки
Організації Об'єднаних Націй.
Таке повідомлення повинно
містити заяву про виняткові
 2. Twenty-five years after the (2) Через двадцять п'ять років TRANSLATE INTO UKRAINIAN
entry into force of the Treaty, a після набуття Договором
conference shall be convened to чинності скликається
decide whether the Treaty shall конференція для того, щоб 1. Occasionally, I was led to conclude that shorter, clearer statements
continue in force indefinitely, or вирішити, чи повинен Договір of techniques could have been provided.
shall be extended for an далі залишатися чинним
additional fixed period or безстроково чи його дія повинна 2. One can hardly object to this as a sort of first approach.
бути продовжена на додатковий
periods. This decision shall be
певний період або періоди часу. 3. Rumour has it that some Labour insurrection was demanding for
taken by a majority of the Parties
Це рішення приймається Foreign Secretary's head and that he had to return from the Hague to
to the Treaty.
більшістю Учасників Договору. quell it.
Article XI
This Treaty, the English, Стаття XI 4. Science is a continuing process and at no stage can one say that one's
Russian, French, Spanish and Цей Договір, російський, knowledge is complete and final.
Chinese texts of which are англійський, французький,
equally іспанський і китайський тексти 5. She shrugged an indifferent shoulder.
authentic, shall be deposited in якого є однаково автентичними,
здається на зберігання до архівів 6. Specifically, explaining the data in terms of these principles may
the archives of the Depositary
уря-дів-депозитаріїв. Належним purchase internal homogeneity and consistency in the picture at the
Governments. Duly certified
чином завірені копії цього expense of their perhaps wider significances.
copies of this Treaty shall be
Договору надсилаються урядами-
transmitted by the Depositary
депозитаріями урядам держав, які 7. The Chancellor of the Exchequer shrugged off the unemployment
Governments to the
підписали Договір та figures as «swollen».
Governments of the signatory
приєдналися до нього.
and acceding States.
На посвідчення чого 8. They were snorting out of West Bowlby now. It was the next
IN WITNESS WHEREOF the
нижчепідписані, належним station, thank Heaven.
undersigned, duly authorized,
чином на те уповноважені,
have signed this Treaty.
підписали цей Договір. 9. This considered, there arises the same question of whether we
should allow for one or more than one solution.
Вчинено у трьох примірниках,
DONE in triplicate, at the
у містах Москві, Вашингтоні і
cities of Washington, London 10. This is not to deny, of course, that he is absolutely correct in this
Лондоні липня місяця 1 дня
and Moscow, this first day of respect.
тисяча дев'ятсот шістдесят
July one thousand nine hundred
восьмого року.
sixty-eight. 11. This test is most unreliable; it should never, I think be used as the
Верховна Рада України, Інститут sole criterion for a classification, though it can support a
законодавства classification established on other criteria.
«Закони України», том 14.
217
216
12. Unless he has massively misrepresented the data, his proposed solutions 24. It is unfortunate that an English translation of the monograph could
appear to be statistically well-grounded. not have been published instead of an uncorrected reprint of the
original.
13. We would like to think that this is one of the more fruitful potential arenas
in which this original concept could be put to work in the future. 25. It was not until he has read for several days that he came upon a
story that quickened his pulse.
14. With these methodological preliminaries out of the way, let us turn now to
26. It was not, in fact, until the death after a month in office of President
specific task of applying new techniques.
William Henry Harrison in that the constitutional system was tested,
and its ambiguities exposed.
15. A conference held at the University of New Hampshire in October
produced this book. 27. My main complaint is with the editors, who should have done more
to link the authors' contributions to questions and issues that lie at
16. «Ready?» said the old gentleman inquiringly, when his guests had been the centre of the debate.
washed, mended, brushed, and brandied.
28.Nevertheless, it will be useful to begin this survey with those proc
17. As is obvious from the proceeding discussion, her arguments against my esses that are in fact associated with the elimination of dislocations.
approach are not only naive, but are also based on an incorrect These are of two distinct types.
interpretation of the basic fact.
29. Results strongly suggest that these observations do not match com
monly held perceptions.
18. But how adequate is this assessment? There seem to be two points
regarding this position that are worth questioning. 30. The account I have offered of this phenomenon is in some ways rather
remote from traditional discussions.
19. But of course all this energy and innovation did not spring at one kangaroo-
bound out of a night at the Australian opera. 31. The auditors' report confirmed a stream of mysterious payments to
Switzerland, many after the Indian contract had been entered into.
20. By intensive experiments, it is possible for a researcher to obtain
outstanding results. 32. The author offered explanations of his methods; but they are brief and one
is left to figure out his conceptual methodology.
21. Grouped under this topic are very diverse questions. 33. The new American Express Optima card will complement, rather than
replace, the existing green, gold and platinum cards.
22. If Oakland office hadn't been affected by the quake, it wouldn't have
executed orders through the Sacramento office, which wasn't affected by 34. The point that has just been made is often presented as if it were a
the quake. damaging point of criticism against my theory.

23. It is in these terms that choice is built into the argument: choice exists in a 219
range of alternatives in any interaction.
218
35. The text appears to have been prepared by non-native speakers of SHEVCHENKO'S POETRY IN ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS
English, which results in some linguistic oddities.

36. The Times yesterday warned editorially that the government was MY TESTAMENT
going to resign.
When I am dead, bury me
37. The value of his research is certainly not to be underestimated. In my beloved Ukraine,
My tomb upon a grave mound high
38. There is the greatest future for the Britain people once they take their
Amid the spreading plain,
destinies into their own hands. So that the fields, the boundless steppes,
The Dnieper's plunging shore
39. This is bound to get me a bad name as a sportsman, but let me say at
My eyes could see, my ears could hear
once that I have nothing against the killing of animals.
The mighty river roar.
When from Ukraine the Dnieper bears
40. This needs to be viewed as an inherent quality.
Into the deep blue sea
The blood of foes... then will I leave
41. Translating from one language to another has been accomplished by
These hills and fertile fields -
computer.
I'll leave them all and fly away
42. Unless they can push these corporate welfare plans through, the To the abode of God,
liberals will be stuck for the foreseeable future with the priorities And then I'll pray.... But till that day
imposed on them by the Reagan administration. I nothing know of God.
Oh bury me, then rise ye up
43. Various formalizations of the vicious circle principle as well as the And break your heavy chains
point at which the continuum is impredictive are discussed. And water with the tyrants' blood
The freedom you have gained.
44. We are confident peace can be maintained once the determination is And in the great new family,
there. The family of the free,
With softly spoken, kindly word
45. Working under hard conditions were all the early students of this Remember also me.
new field.
Pereyaslav,
December 25, 1845

Translated by John Weir

Toronto, 1961
220 221
Day dawns, then comes the twilight grey, True justice, strength, and liberty!
The limit of the live-long day; For weary Gain knowledge, brothers! Think and read,
people sleep seems best And all God's And to your neighbours' gifts pay heed, -
creatures go to rest. I, only, grieve like Yet do not thus neglect your own:
one accursed, Through all the hours both For he who is forgetful shown
last and first, Sad at the crossroads, day Of his own mother, graceless elf,
and night, With no one there to see my Is punished by our God Himself.
plight; No one can see me, no one knows Strangers will turn from such as he
me; All men are deaf, no ears disclose And grudge him hospitality -
me; Men stand and trade their mutual Nay, his own children grow estranged;
chains And barter truth for filthy gains, Though one so evil may have ranged
Committing shame against the Lord By The whole wide earth, he shall not find
harnessing for black reward People in A home to give him peace of mind.
yokes and sowing evil In fields Sadly I weep when I recall
commissioned by the Devil... And what The unforgotten deeds of all
will sprout? You soon will see What kind Our ancestors: their toilsome deeds!
of harvest there will be! Come to your Could I forget their pangs and needs,
senses, ruthless ones, О stupid children, I, as my price, would than suppress
Folly's sons! And bring that peaceful Half of my own life's happiness...
paradise, Your own Ukraine, before your Such is our glory, sad and plain,
eyes; Then let your heart, in love sincere, The glory of our own Ukraine!
Embrace her mighty ruin here! Break I would advise you so to read
then your chains, in love unite, Nor seek That you may see, in very deed,
in foreign lands the sight Of things not No dream but all the wrongs of old
even found above, Still less in lands that That burial mounds might here unfold
strangers love... Then in your own house Before your eyes in martyred hosts,
you will see That you might ask those grisly ghosts:
Who were the tortured ones, in fact,
And why, and when, were they so racked?...

222 223
 Then o my brothers, as a start, Come, IT MAKES NO DIFFERENCE TO ME
clasp your brothers to your heart, -So let
your mother smile with joy And dry her It makes no difference to me, If I
tears without annoy. Blest be your shall live or not in Ukraine Or
whether any one shall think Of me
children in these lands By touch of your
'mid foreign snow and rain. It makes
toil-hardened hands, And, duly washed,
no difference to me. In slavery I
kissed let them be With lips that speak of grew 'mid strangers, Unwept by any
liberty! Then all the shame of days of old, kin of mine; In slavery I now will
Forgotten, shall no more be told; Then die And vanish without any sign. I
shall our day of hope arrive, Ukrainian shall not leave the slightest trace
glory shall revive, No twilight but the Upon our glorious Ukraine, Our
land, but not as ours known. No
dawn shall render And break forth into
father will remind his son Or say to
novel splendour.... Brother, embrace!
him, «Repeat one prayer, One
Your hopes possess, I beg you in all prayer for him; for our Ukraine
eagerness! They tortured him in their foul lair.»
It makes no difference to me, If that
Viunishcha, December 14, 1845 son says a prayer or not. It makes
great difference to me That evil folk
Translated by C. H. Andrusyshen & W. Kirkconnell and wicked men Attack our Ukraine,
once so free, And rob and plunder it
at will. That makes great difference
to me.

St. Petersburg
Citadel Prison
May, 1847

Translated by Clarence A. Manning

Columbia University New York, 1944

224 225
 I WAS THIRTEEN Not far from there, down by the path,
Heard my lament and came
I was thirteen. I herded lambs Across the field to comfort me;
Beyond the village on the lea. She spoke a soothing phrase
The magic of the sun, perhaps, And gendy dried my weeping eyes
Or what was it affected me? And kissed my tear-wet face....
I felt with joy all overcome, It was as though the sun had smiled,
As though with God.... As though all things on earth were mine,
The time for lunch had long passed by, My own.... the orchards, fields and groves!...
And still among the weeds I lay And, laughing merrily the while,
And prayed to God.... I know not why The master's lambs to drink we drove.
It was so pleasant then to pray Oh, how disgusting!... Yet, when I
For me, an orphan peasant boy, Recall those days, my heart is sore
Or why such bliss so filled me there? That there my brief life's span the Lord
The sky seemed bright, the village fair, Did not grant me to live and die.
The very lambs seemed to rejoice! There, plowing, I'd have passed away,
The sun's rays warmed but did not sear! With ignorance my life-long lot,
But not for long the sun stayed kind, I'd not an outcast be today,
Not long in bliss I prayed.... I'd not be cursing Man and God!...
It turned into a ball of fire
Orsk Fortress,
And set the world ablaze.
1847
As though just wakened up, I gaze:
The hamlet's drab and poor,
And God's blue heavens -even they Translated by John Weir
Are glorious no more. Toronto, 1961
I look upon the lambs I tend -
Those lambs are not my own!
I eye the hut wherein I dwell -
I do not have a home!
God gave me nothing, naught at all....
I bowed my head and wept
Such bitter tears.... And then a lass57
Who had been sorting hemp

Oksana Kovalenko to whom Shevchenko dedicated the Poem to Oksana,

57 227
May 1847 while in prison in the St. Petersburg Citadel.
226
 SHEVCHENKO'S LAST POEM Thou, my holy bride,
And with lips unsullied we shall
Should we not then cease, my friend, Make our prayer to God,
My poor dear neighbour, make an end And then set out quietly
Of versifying useless rhymes? On that longest road,
Prepare our waggons for the time Over Lethe's plumbless depths,
When we that longest road must wend? Waters dark and swarthy,
Into the other world, my friend, Grant me then thy blessing, friend,
To God, we'll hasten to our rest... With thy holy glory.
We have grown weary, utter-tired, While this and that and all such wear
A little wisdom we've acquired, on,
It should suffice! To sleep is best, Straight let us go, as the crow flies,
Let us now go home to rest... To Aesculapeus for advice,
A home of gladness, you may know! If he can outwit old Charon
No, let us not depart, nor go — And spinning Fate... And then, as long as
It is early still, The old sage would change his purpose,
We shall yet take walks together, We would create, reclining there,
Sit, and gaze our fill, An epic, soaring everywhere
Gaze upon the world, my fortune, Above the earth, hexameters
See how wide it spreads, We'd twine, and up the attic stairs
Wide and joyful, it is both Take them for mice to gnaw. Then we
Bright, and of great depth! Would sing prose, yet with harmony
We shall yet take walks my star, And not haphazard.
On a hill climb high, Holy friend,
And take our rest together And Companion to my journey's end,
Your sister-stars, meanwhile, The Before the fire has ceased to glow,
ageless ones, will start to shine, Let us to Charon, rather, go!
Through the heavens glide... Let us Over Lethe's plumbless depths,
linger then, my sister, Waters dark and swarthy,
Let us sail, let us bear
228 229
 With us holy glory, A REFLECTION
Ageless, young for evermore...
Or -friend, let it be! The river empties to the sea,
I will do without the glory, But out it never flows;
The Cossack lad his fortune seeks,
Ifthey grant it me,
But never fortune knows.
There on the banks of Phlegethon, The Cossack lad has left his home,
Or beside the Styx, in heaven, He's left his kith and kind;
As if by the broad Dnipro, there The blue sea's waters splash and foam,
In a grove, a grove primaeval, Sad thoughts disturb his mind:
A little house I'll build, and make «Why, heedless, did you go away?
An orchard all around it growing, For what did you forsake
Your father old, your mother grey,
And you'll fly to me in the shades,
Your sweetheart, to their fate?
There, like a beauty, I'll enthrone you; In foreign lands live foreign folks,
Dnipro and Ukraina we Their ways are not your way:
Shall recollect, gay villages There will be none to share your woes
In woodlands, gravehills in the Or pass the time of day.»
steppes, Across the sea, the Cossack rests —
And we shall sing right merrily. The choppy sea's distraught.
He thought with fortune to be blessed —
February 14-15, 1861 St. Misfortune is his lot.
Petersburg In vee-formation, 'cross the waves
The cranes are off for home.
Translated by Vera Rich The Cossack weeps - his beaten paths
London, 1961 With weeds are overgrown...

St. Petersburg, 1838

Translated by John Weir

Toronto

230 231
 MYTHOUGHTS RUDYARD KIPLING РЕДЬЯРД КІПЛІНҐ
IF ЯКЩО
My thorny thoughts, my thorny thoughts, If you can keep your head when all Як вистоїш, коли всі проти тебе-
You bring me only woe! about you Упали духом і тебе кленуть, і Як
Are losing theirs and blaming it on всупереч усім ти віриш в себе, А
Why do you on the paper stand
you, з їх невіри також візьмеш суть;
So sadly row on row?... If you can trust yourself when all
Why did the winds not scatter you men doubt you,
Like dust across the steppes? But make allowance for their
Why did ill-luck not cradle you doubting too;
To sleep upon its breast?... If you can wait and not be tired by Якщо чекати зможеш ти
My thoughts, my melancholy thoughts, waiting, невтомно,
My children, tender shoots! Or being lied about, don't deal in Оббріханий - мовчати і пройти
lies, Під поглядом ненависті, притому
I nursed you, brought you up - and now
Or being hated, don't give way to Не грати цноти ані доброти;
What shall I do with you?... hating,
Go to Ukraine, my homeless waifs! And yet don't look too good, nor
Your way make to Ukraine talk too wise; Як зможеш мріять -в
Along back roads like vagabonds, If you can dream - and not make мрійництво не впасти, І
But I'm doomed here to stay. dreams your master; думать - не творити думки
There you will find a heart that's true If you can think - and not make культ,
And words of welcome kind, thoughts your aim; Якщо Тріумф, зарівно як
There honesty, unvarnished truth If you can meet with Triumph and Нещастя, Сприймеш як дим і
Disaster вітер на віку;
And, maybe, fame you'll find...
And treat those two imposters just
So welcome them, my Motherland, the same;
Ukraine, into your home! Якщо стерпиш, як з правди твого
Accept my guileless, simple brood If you can bear to hear the truth слова
And take them for your own! you've spoken Пройдисвіт ставить пастку на
Twisted by knaves to make a trap простих,
for fools, Якщо впаде все, чим ти жив, і
St. Petersburg, 1839.
Or watch the things you gave your знову Зумієш все почати - і
life to, broken, звести;
Translated by John Weir
And stoop and build 'em up with
worn-out tools;

232 233
 Якщо ти зможеш в пориві ЛІНА КОСТЕНКО LINAKOSTENKO
If you can make one heap of all одному
your winnings Поставить все на карту - і
And risk it on one turn of pitch and Затінок, сутінок, день золотий. A shady spot, twilight, a golden day.
програть, Плачуть і моляться білі White roses cry and pray.
toss, А потім - все спочатку, і нікому
And lose, and start again at your троянди. Perhaps it's me, or someone, or you
Про втрати й слова навіть не Може це я, або хто, або ти ось over there sitting in a corner of the
beginnings сказать;
And never breathe a word about там сидить у куточку веранди. veranda.
your loss; Може, він плаче, а може, він Perhaps he's crying, or waiting -
Якщо ти змусиш Серце, Нерви, жде- he heard footsteps, or the wicket gate
If you can force your heart and Жили кроки почулись чи скрипнула squeaked.
nerve and sinew хвіртка. Perhaps he'll get up, hang his head,
Служити ще, коли уже в тобі
To serve your turn long after they Може, він встане, чолом there, on the veranda, pressed to the
Усе згоріло, вигасло - лишилась
are gone, припаде, door.
Одна лиш Воля - встоять в
And so hold on when there is там, на веранді, чолом до Where are you, people, who used to
боротьбі;
nothing in you одвірка. live in this house?
Except the Will which says to them: Де ж ви, ті люди, що в My wide world, what flat lands lie
«Hold on!» хаті жили? here all around!
Як зможеш гідно річ вести з Світку мій білий, яке тут The sadness of posterity - like the
If you can talk with crowds and
юрбою роздолля! dance of a bee,
keep your virtue,
І з Королем не втратиш Смуток нащадків - як танець the dance of the bee to the immortal
Or walk with kings - nor lose the
простоти, бджоли, field.
common touch,
Якщо усі рахуються з тобою -На танець бджоли до Perhaps after a thousand years -
If neither foes nor loving friends
відстані, яку відміриш ти; безсмертного поля. Може, це I will not be me, but awakened in
can hurt you,
If all men count with you, but none вже через тисячу літ genes,
too much; here on the earth I will seek out the
Якщо ущерть наповниш біг я і не я вже, розбуджена в trace
If you can fill the unforgiving генах, of my lineage at least in laments and
хвилини
minute тут на землі я шукаю хоч слід legends!
Снагою дум, енергією дій, Тоді
With sixty seconds' worth of роду мого у плачах та Voice of the well, why have you gone
весь світ тобі належить, сину, І
distance run, легендах! silent?
більше: ти - Людина, сину мій.
Yours is the Earth and everything Голос криниці, чого ж ти Arms of mulberry trees, why have you
that's in it, замовк? grown stiff with cold?
And - which is more - you'll be a Руки шовковиць, чого ж ви Windows nailed shut, and the lock
Переклад Євгена Сверстюка
Man, my son! заклякли? Вікна забиті, і hanging -
висить замок - a rusty ring above the claw of the
knob.
235
23
4
ржава сережка над кігтиком Rainy weather beats the white side of TABLE OF CONTENTS
клямки. the building.
Білий причілок оббила сльота. Who wails there in this house in the PREFACE 5
Хто там квилить у цій хаті nights? Lecture 1. LANGUAGE AND EXTRALINGUISTIC WORLD 7
ночами? Perhaps loneliness lives there alone, Lecture 2. LANGUAGE SYSTEM: PARADIGMS AND SYNTAGMAS 14
Може, живе там сама самота, stuffing the empty house in the oven
Lecture 3. LANGUAGE AS A MEANS OF COMMUNICATION 21
соває пустку у піч рогачами. with tongs.
Lecture 4. TRANSLATION DEFINITION 30
Може, це біль наш, а може, вина, Perhaps this is our pain, perhaps our
guilt, Lecture 5. BASIC TRANSLATION THEORIES 40
може, бальзам на занедбані душі-
perhaps a balsam for neglected souls - Lecture 6. TRANSLATION RANKING 49
спогад криниці і спогад вікна,
memory of a well and memory of a Lecture 7. TRANSLATION EQUIVALENCE AND EQUIVALENTS 58
спогад стежини і дикої груші...
window, Lecture 8. TRANSLATION AND STYLE 68
memory of a path and a wild pear... Lecture 9. TRANSFORMATIONS IN TRANSLATION 78
Lecture 10. BASIC TRANSLATION DEVICES 90
Translated by Michael M. Naydan Lecture 11. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHOICE OF
EQUIVALENTS 101
Lecture 12. TRANSLATION VARIETIES Ill
Lecture 13. LITERARY TRANSLATION 119
Lecture 14. TRANSLATION INTO ENGLISH 127
Lecture 15. INTERPRETATION: BASIC SKILLS AND TRAINING
METHODS 137
Lecture 16. MACHINE AND COMPUTER-AIDED TRANSLATION 151
Lecture 17. TRANSLATION OF OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS: TEXT
FRAMES 164
Lecture 18. TRANSLATION OF OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS:
GRAMMATICAL ASPECTS 177
APPENDIX. TEXT PATTERNS AND ADDITIONAL TRAINING
MATERIAL 190

236 237
 Навчальне видання

Г.Е.Мірам, В.В.Дайнеко, Л.А.Тарануха, Мірам Г.Е. та ін.

М.В.Грищенко, О.М.Гон М63 Основи перекладу: Курс лекцій; Навчальний посібник - К.: Ельга,
Ніка-Центр, 2002. - 240 с. ISBN 966-521-160-9
Навчальний посібник «Основи перекладу» є першою частиною
ОСНОВИ ПЕРЕКЛАДУ курсу лекцій з теорії та практики перекладу, призначеного для
студентської аудиторії відповідних факультетів вищих навчальних
Курс лекцій з теорії та практики перекладу для закладів, враховує мовну та комунікативну специфіку підготовки
факультетів та інститутів міжнародних відносин спеціалістів широкого гуманітарного профіля, зокрема, міжнародних
відносин, міжнародного права, міжнародної інформації, міжнародних
економічних відносин.
УДК 81(075.8)
ББК 81я73
Редактор англійського тексту Н. Брешко

Оригінал-макет О.В.Гашенко

Підписано до друку 4.03.2002. Формат 60x84/16. ISBN 966-521-160-9

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