MTDR3115: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Visi Sumbom Tubuo (PhD) & Suiven John Paul Tume (PhD)
Introduction
Research is a way of thinking: You question what you observe, make an attempt to further explore,
understand and explain your observations and draw conclusions.

Research is looking at your practice or work situation inquisitively, critically and analytically to
gain an in-debt knowledge of its rationale, relevance, effectiveness and efficiency.

Research is when you develop an attitude that encourages you to challenge different aspects of
your work situation, to question purpose, relevance and validity, to find their strengths and
weaknesses, and to investigate the possibilities and ways for further improvement and
refinements. Research is the search for truth.

Paul D. Leedy and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod in Practical Research: Planning and Design define
research as “a systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting information, data, in
order to increase our understanding of a phenomenon about which we are interested or concerned”
(2021, p. 24).

Objectives of Research
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures.
It is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered yet.

Research can be based on specific purpose, but research objectives can be grouped as follows:
- To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
- To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
- To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research
studies);
- To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).

Motivation in Research
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The
possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
- Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
- Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;
- Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
- Desire to be of service to society;
- Desire to get respectability.
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However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about new
things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like may
as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.

Research Methods Versus Research Methodology

Researchers should understand the difference between research methods and research
methodology. Research methodology explains more about the research process whereas research
methods aim at finding answers to research questions. All of the methods, approaches, processes
and techniques used by researchers during a research process can be referred to as research
methods. It can be methods applied during dataset creation, data preprocessing, and data collection
to decide sufficiency of data. A Researcher has to use different analytical tools and techniques at
the time of statistical analysis and to check accuracy of obtained results. Examples of methods
applied during dataset creation are survey methods, interview method, questionnaires, thorough
observations, and input through mechanical/electrical devices. Some of the examples of statistical
analysis methods are mean, mode, median, mean deviation, standard deviation, skewness,
kurtosis, and histogram. Methods such as finding precision, recall, f-score, and t-test are used in
result analysis.

Researchers should be able to identify appropriate relevant methods applicable at each step. For
researchers, along with an understanding of different research methods, design of methodology
for his/her research problem is very important and it may differ from problem to problem.
Consider the example of building a house; first, the architect will design a plan for your house
according to your requirements. In his/her plan he fulfils each and every requirement and comes
up with final solutions including positions of different rooms, windows, doors, staircases, and so
on. The quality and quantity of each and every material is decided before constructing actual
house. Estimation of building house is prepared before starting actual work. Then contractor
decides how the construction should be completed, which tools and methods should be used at
every stage of progress and plan is executed accordingly. First, complete plan of process of
construction is prepared and then executed using tools and techniques. Similarly, in research, a
researcher is expected to prepare plan of research from problem definition, that is, methodology
for research process. At the time of deciding on a specific methodology, researchers should look
at different available methods, analyse them and should choose the appropriate one for his/her
research. In short, different research methods are part of research methodology.

TYPES OF RESEARCH
Different research types are discussed in here. They are classified in various categories including
applicability, the mode of enquiry in conducting the study, and major objectives of the study.
Selection of research method depends on the discipline of the research, objectives, and the
expected outcomes. One research problem may use multiple research types. Main research types
discussed in this section include basic research, applied research, descriptive research, analytical
research, correlational research, qualitative research, and quantitative research.

1) Basic Research
Basic research is pure or fundamental research; there is no immediate need, but new theories can
be added to the knowledge cluster. This type of research may solve problems but may not have
practical applications. It has a broader scope compared to applied research. Theories in basic

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sciences and mathematics are examples of basic research. Newton’s law of motion is an example
of basic research. This has been applied in many product design and testing.

2) Applied Research
Applied research tries to solve an immediate specific problem faced by industry or society. The
obtained solution can be deployed to solve the problem. The duration of applied research is shorter
as a quick solution is expected. An optimized search problem on the Internet is an example of
applied research in the computer engineering domain. “Analysis of cell/body organ behavior in
cancer” is an example of hybrid research. A researcher may use data analytics, image processing,
algorithms, and knowledge of the medical industry. The outcome of applied research should either
address the unsolved problem or improve the existing solution.

3) Descriptive Research
Descriptive research is generally used in business analysis or social problems. This type of
research does not have any control over the parameters or variables. It just tries to represent or
analyze the previous and or current facts. Some of the examples of descriptive research include
an analysis of customer purchase patterns, that is, purchases from the mall, online, or retailer, as
well as the study of travel mode used by people. All kinds of correlational methods, survey
methods, and comparative studies are descriptive research. Various kinds of systematic surveys
are conducted, including the study of various cultural practices, the region-specific study of
particular decease, and an analysis of the development of particular businesses. This is also known
as ex-post facto research. Study of the effect of global warming on birds is also an example of
descriptive research. One specific example is: “To study socioeconomic characteristics of
residents of particular community during certain period for specific country.”
R Research
4) Analytical Research
Analytical research uses existing information to explain a complex phenomenon or to perform a
critical evaluation. The identified hypothesis can be accepted or rejected depending on the
analysis; from experience the hypothesis can be redefined. Analytical research is observed in
historical study, forensic work, food, in the medical domain, and so on. Analytical research
summarizes and evaluates the ideas in historical research for accessing both witness and literature
sources to document past events. Philosophical research organizes data that can be presented to
support the data in comprehensive model.

5) Correlational Research
Correlational research focuses on exploring the relationship or association between incidences,
variables, and so on. Examples of correlational research include “To study the effect of a modern
lifestyle on obesity” and “Analysis of the impact of technology on employment.” In the first
example, a modern lifestyle and obesity are two variables and researchers should study a group of
people living both a modern lifestyle and a non-modern lifestyle. The groups should be segregated
on the basis of obesity parameters. Collected data may be analyzed to establish the relationship
between two variables: “obesity” and “modern” lifestyle. Similarly, researchers need to study
“employment” and “availability of technology.” From the collected data, researchers may come
up with number of observations and analytics.

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An institute organizes a conference and takes feedback from participants as its regular practice, to
provide input for evaluating the quality of current conference and to make improvement in next
conference. Participants who attended the conference gave feedback stating that there was a
difficulty in reaching the location. For the next conference, the survey question can include a
question, “Was there a sufficient service available for reaching the location?”

6) Qualitative Research
Qualitative research mainly deals with the quality or the types of the parameters considered for
the research. Here, it is assumed that the world is unstable and differences in the parameter may
occur with time. Research related to human behavior is an example of qualitative research.
Everybody can react to the situation differently and it is difficult to propose the predictive
conclusions. This type of research is more complicated and requires more guidance. Less emphasis
is given on generalization and more focus is towards individual. An example can be “Study of
behavior of employees in an organization.” Here, behavior of an employee may vary with different
parameters such as gender, post, skill set, expertise, socioeconomic status, and religion. Focus of
the work is to find results with respect to qualitative parameters. Another example of qualitative
research is, “How and why there is an upward movement in the value of dollar and its impact on
the French francs currency.”

7) Quantitative Research
Quantitative research involves measurements of quantities of characteristics that can be used as
features for the research study. Unlike qualitative research quantitative research assumes that
world is stable and uses statistical analysis on parameter values for conclusions. Statistical
quantities that can be measured are involved in quantitative research. Example of quantitative
research is “Finding number of individuals taking benefits of different government policies.” This
is a statistical report of various government policies and number of individuals and does not
involve any qualitative parameter.

Another example is to conduct a survey every weekend and a random question is been asked,
“Who is your favorite actor?” and response of this questions is self-controlled by providing a
multiple-choice question. The outcomes are provided briefly in judgement form with statistical
respective.

8) Experimental Research
Experimental research focuses on the fieldwork and experiments that can control the independent
variable. Study of the effect of the new drug on a specific group of people or animal is an example
of experimental research in medicine domain. In computer engineering, “Analysing performance
of algorithms on various dataset” is an example of experimental result. A researcher wants to
examine changes in the land cover using satellite data. In this example, to ensure the changes in
the study area, researchers randomly place the area of changes including change in the agricultural
land due to land degradation, NH roadways, and soon, which can be verified with quasi
experimental research and can be tested and trained with pre- and post-experimental research
design.

9) Explanatory Research
Explanatory research tries to analyze and justify the reason behind the occurrence of particular
phenomenon or association between the variables. It basically answers the “Why” type of
questions. It aims to explain why a relationship, association, or interdependence exist. Explanatory
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research is also called as a causal research with a three important components like time-to-time
sequences which will occur before the effect, concomitant variations, where the variations will be
systematic between two variables. Some of the examples of explanatory research are “Why the
modernisation creates health problem?”, “Why some students have casual attitude towards study,
while others are sincere?”, “Why will customers buy our food products in green packages?”,
“Which of the two advertising company will help students by providing the internship?”, ‘which
company will be more effective and why?’

10) Exploratory Research

This kind of research generally explores the areas that have required meagre attention or it is for
checking the possibility of research in the particular domain or area. A small-scale study is done
to decide the further scope of advancement in domain. Depending on outcomes of exploratory
study, domain is further explored for in depth research on the specific topic. Exploratory studies
are also conducted to develop, refine and test procedures, policies, and tools. Some of the
examples of exploratory research are, “Why product sales are reduced, due to already existing
data or the products which have been acquired recently for the agricultural company?” Generally,
the research statements that span across multiple domains come under exploratory research.

THE RESEARCH PROCEDURE

Before embarking on the details of a research methodology, it appropriate to present a brief
overview of the research process. Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary
to effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps (Figure 1).

Figure 1: The Research Process Flow Chart

The chart indicates that the research process consists of a number of closely related activities, as
shown through I to VII. Such activities overlap continuously rather than following a strictly
prescribed sequence. At times, the first step determines the nature of the last step to be undertaken.
If subsequent procedures have not been taken into account in the early stages, serious difficulties
may arise which may even prevent the completion of the study. One should remember that the
various steps involved in a research process are not mutually exclusive; nor they are separate and
distinct. They do not necessarily follow each other in any specific order and the researcher has to

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be constantly anticipating at each step in the research process the requirements of the subsequent
steps. However, the following order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural
guideline regarding the research process: (1) formulating the research problem; (2) extensive
literature survey; (3) developing the hypothesis; (4) preparing the research design; (5) determining
sample design; (6) collecting the data; (7) execution of the project; (8) analysis of data; (9)
hypothesis testing; (10) generalisations and interpretation, and (11) preparation of the report or
presentation of the results (formal write-up of conclusions reached).

FORMULATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

A research problem is not a literary problem or the word ‘problem’ in its literary meaning. It is
a missing link that provokes a researcher to probe into a research area to resolve an issue through
a step-by-step procedure. A research problem is identified by observation and extensive reading
in a research area to identify what has not been done and how to do it. A research problem is
systematically developed in line with the research questions, objectives and hypotheses.

There are two types of research problems: those which relate to states of nature and those which
relate to relationships between variables. At the very outset the researcher must single out the
problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-
matter that he would like to inquire into. Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general
way and then the ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem be resolved. Then, the feasibility of
a particular solution has to be considered before a working formulation of the problem can be set
up. The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes the first
step in a scientific enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research
problem, viz., understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful
terms from an analytical point of view.

The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with
those having some expertise in the matter. In an academic institution the researcher can seek the
help from a guide who is usually an experienced man and has several research problems in mind.
Often, the guide puts forth the problem in general terms and it is up to the researcher to narrow
it down and phrase the problem in operational terms. In private business units or in governmental
organisations, the problem is usually earmarked by the administrative agencies with whom the
researcher can discuss as to how the problem originally came about and what considerations are
involved in its possible solutions.

The researcher must at the same time examine all available literature to get himself acquainted
with the selected problem. He may review two types of literature—the conceptual literature
concerning the concepts and theories, and the empirical literature consisting of studies made
earlier which are similar to the one proposed. The basic outcome of this review will be the
knowledge as to what data and other materials are available for operational purposes which will
enable the researcher to specify his own research problem in a meaningful context. After this the
researcher rephrases the problem into analytical or operational terms i.e., to put the problem in as
specific terms as possible. This task of formulating, or defining, a research problem is a step of
greatest importance in the entire research process. The problem to be investigated must be defined
unambiguously for that will help discriminating relevant data from irrelevant ones. Care must be
taken to verify the objectivity and validity of the background facts concerning the problem. The

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statement of the objective is of basic importance because it determines the data which are to be
collected, the characteristics of the data which are relevant, relations which are to be explored,
the choice of techniques to be used in these explorations and the form of the final report. If there
are certain pertinent terms, the same should be clearly defined along with the task of formulating
the problem. In fact, formulation of the problem often follows a sequential pattern where a
number of formulations are set up, each formulation more specific than the preceeding one, each
one phrased in more analytical terms, and each more realistic in terms of the available data and
resources.

RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
A research hypothesis is a prediction of some sort regarding the possible outcome of the study.
It is an intellectual guess of a predicted outcome; an assumption of cause and effect. They are
possible causes/reasons for the problem or assumptions or guesses drawn from reading or from
experience about the problem. They are propositions made indicating relationship between two
or more variables. Three main characteristics or elements of a research hypothesis:
a) They are declarative statements: Suggesting no effort, no change, things remain the same or
there is no relationship between them. Or, a positive one leaning on the direction of the basis of
sample statistics and is called an alternative hypothesis
b) They are predictive statements: hypotheses tend to be forward looking (futuristic) providing
guiding principles to the case of the whole research.
c) They contain clear elements of testing and verification that can be measured empirically or
quantitatively.

Null hypothesis
This presumes a status quo, no significant change. This is a statistical hypothesis that the
researcher seeks to reject. Alternative hypothesis: This is the experimental hypothesis. It can
either be directional or non-directional. It is the hypothesis that the researcher seeks to support.

The null hypothesis always predicts that there will be no differences between the groups being
studied. By contrast, the alternate hypothesis predicts that there will be a difference between the
groups. Example, the null hypothesis would predict that regular electricity supply has a positive
effect on business turn over in a cold store (logistics). The alternate hypothesis would predict
that the two groups will differ significantly on business turn over.

Research Questions
A research question is a clear, focused, concise, complex and arguable question that lays the
groundwork for a research project/long essay/dissertation/thesis by offering a focus for
exploration of a topic. Although a strong research question is a good place to start a research,
the researcher should be prepared for it to modified/rephrased or even change as the study
progresses to the data collection level (primary and secondary research). In any study, there must
be a main research question and specific questions. The specific question must address the
following: ‘‘How’, What’, ‘When’, ‘Where’, ‘Why’.

Steps to writing a research question

The following steps are merely a guideline for the very beginning of the process of writing a
research question.

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1. Choose a general topic that interests you. The process will start broadly and then narrow as
you begin the research process. General topics might include broad issues such as ‘logistics,
transport, catering and hospitality, import and export of goods, etc.’
2. Do some preliminary research on your general topic. Consult journals on your topic to see
what has been explored in depth and what holes might remain.
3. Start asking questions. Taking into consideration the above, start asking ‘how’, ‘what’,
‘when’, ‘where’ and “why” questions about your general topic. For example, “Why is there a
correlation between service delivery and profitability?” or “How can custom officials respond
to illicit importation of goods?”
4. Evaluate the question. At several stages in your research process, you will want to come back
to “test” your research question to make sure it still meets your research objectives. Use the ideas
below about what makes a good research question to evaluate your question.

What makes a good research question?

None of these are absolute rules (except, perhaps, the first and the last), but rather goals to reach
toward through the process of writing and revising your research question.

Interesting
Select a topic excites you enough to keep you going through the long researching, designing and
writing process

Clear
A good research question avoids vague words

Research Objectives
Research objectives describe what you intend your research project to accomplish. They
summarize the approach and purpose of the project and help to focus your research. Objectives
should appear in the introduction or end of the statement of the research. Like the research
questions, the research objectives are sub-divided into the aim/purpose and the specific
objectives.

In formulating objectives, care must be taken specifically to:

1) State the objectives that are clear, well written and precise
2) Make objectives specific, significant, realistic, and achievable
3) Ensure that objectives flow logically from the statement of need and address the problem. 4)
Make objectives fall within the range of results, which are expected to be achieved within the
limit of time, money and human resources available
5) State the objectives as far as possible in terms, which allow measurements or at least
observation of their achievement
6) Objectives should be hierarchical and/or chronological.

In summary, the research questions are aligned to the hypotheses and objectives
Research Questions Research Hypotheses Research Objectives
Main Research Question Main Research Hypothesis Main Research Objective

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 Specific Research Question 1 Specific Research Hypothesis 1 Specific Research Objective 1
Specific Research Question 2 Specific Research Hypothesis 2 Specific Research Objective 2
Specific Research Question 3 Specific Research Hypothesis 3 Specific Research Objective 3

RESEARCH VARIABLES
A research variable refers to a phenomenon that the researcher is trying to measure in some way.
The best way to understand the difference between a dependent and independent variable is that
the meaning of each is implied by what the words tell us about the variable you are using.
Research hypotheses, research questions and objectives are built on VARIABLES.

Types of Variables
The classification of variables is largely an issue of choice. Mere listing of types of variables
may be as much confusing as listing types of research, it is therefore very necessary to make
some classifications, which are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Classification of variables
could therefore be done based on different typologies.

Categorical and Continuous Variables

Categorical variables are also known as discrete variables or classificatory variables or
qualitative variables. A categorical variable has a limited number of distinct values, that is, they
can be classified into distinct limited categories. The attributes (or sub-values or subsets) of a
categorical variable vary in kind rather than in degree, amount or level or quantity. In categorical
variables, the variations of the variables are associated with specific categories. As such, the
variance in the subsets of a categorical variable is a function of the placement of these values or
attributes in different categories rather than with respect to a scale of measurement. For example,
sex can be classified into two distinct categories of male and female. Here, all members of
category or subset are recognized as the same and assigned the same values. Categorical
variables are further divided into nominal, ordinal, dichotomous and polychotomous
variables.

Nominal variables
These have two or more categories which are not in an intrinsic order. Classification of the values
of this variable type is based on equality or sameness or difference. No category can be said to
be greater than or less than the other. A nominal variable does not actually show measurements.
Rather it names the characteristics of the sub-groups. A variable like 'mode of study' could have
values like 'full-time', 'part-time', and 'distance learning'. Other examples of such variables
include religion, gender or nationality.

Ordinal variables
These variables like nominal variables have two or more categories but they can be ordered or
ranked. Consequently, a category can be said to be greater or less than another. A plant's height
for example can assume any value within a certain range. Other examples include test scores,
income level.

Dichotomous variables
These variables have only two categories or levels. A dichotomous variable may have similar
features of nominal variables in terms of not having intrinsic orders. An example is gender. The

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categories are likely to be male and female. Another example is a variable like 'cadre of staff
whose subsets could be 'senior staff and 'junior staff. In other instances, a dichotomous variable
may assume the feature of rank ordering. For example, test scores which normally have multiple
values can be dichotomised as categories like 'high' or 'low' based on a boundary score set by
the researcher to delimit one category from the other. However, it is not possible to convert a
true dichotomous variable to a polychotomous one.

Polychotomous variables
These variables have more than two categories of subsets. An example is a variable like
‘computer proficiency level’ which could have subsets like 'beginner', 'intermediate' and
'advanced'. Other examples include educational qualifications, religion.

Continuous Variables
Continuous variables can be measured by scales such that the subsets or groupings are different
from each or one another on the basis of quantity, degree, level or amount. They vary on the
basis of magnitude along an ordered continuum. Such variables can take an infinite number of
values, that is, they can assume an unbounded range of values along a specific continuum. They
are also known as quantitative or measured variables, and they have the feature of rank-ordering.
Continuous variables can be further divided into classes like: interval or ratio variables.

Interval variables
An interval variable can be measured along a continuum in a scale. In addition, its subsets have
a numerical value. As such, we can talk of the size of the interval between the subsets of an
interval variable. The feature of rank ordering can be found in this type of variable.

Ratio variables
A ratio variable is first and foremost an interval variable but not all interval variables are ratio
variables.

Dependent and Independent Variables

In a bid to solve a given problem, the researcher in an experimental research focuses on causal
relationships also known as functional relationship and so, manipulates a variable so as to see
its effect(s) on another variable. Such a research work begins with an effect and then makes a
search for its causes. The manipulated variable which in some instances could be more than one
in number is referred to as the independent variable while the variable which is expected to be
affected by the manipulation is called the dependent variable. The independent variable is also
known as the input variable and it typifies the presumed cause, predictor or an antecedent while
the dependent variable, which is also known criterion or outcome variable represents the
presumed effect or consequence. Its value depends on another variable.

Independent Variable
An independent variable is the input variable, which causes, in part in total, a particular outcome.
It is a stimulus that influences a response, an antecedent or a factor which may be modified
(under experimental or other conditions) to affect an outcome. On the other hand, a dependent

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variable is the outcome variable, which is caused, in total or in part, by the input, antecedent
variable. This is a major assumption among researchers and statisticians.

Moderating variable
This is a variable that has a conditional influence which is strong enough to modify the original
relationship between the dependent and independent variable. As the name implies, it moderates
the strength of the relationship or association between the dependent and independent variables.
It affects the direction and/or strength of the relation between an independent and a dependent
variable. For example, research into the effect of quality of instruction on academic performance
of students may have a moderating variable like interest of students. This implies that students
who have an interest in a particular subject area are likely to perform better academically while
students without such an interest may not do well academically irrespective of how good the
quality of instruction is. Intervening variable: In more complex causal relationships, the
intervening variable acts like a link between the dependent and independent variable, and in a
way, accounts for the causal relationship between them. The intervening variable cannot be
directly measured or controlled and have direct and strong effect on the result or end product of
a study. The intervening variable is also known as the mediating variable explains the
relationship between the independent and dependent variables; it does not change the relation
but explains it. For example, a research work which focuses on the association between
management practices and staff productivity may have an intervening variable like job
satisfaction. It could be argued that good management practices would lead to job satisfaction
on the part of the members of staff which in turn may lead to high staff productivity. As such,
the intervening variable functions like a dependent variable to the independent variable
(management practices) and at the same time like an independent variable to the dependent
variable (staff productivity).

Extraneous variable
This is a variable which is either assumed or excluded from the investigation but has to be
controlled because it interferes with the relationship between the dependent and independent
variable. This is practicable in experimental research; Extraneous variables are variables that
may affect research outcomes but have not been adequately considered in the study. They exist
in all studies and have the potential of affecting the measurement of study variables and the
relationship among these variables. That is, extraneous variable is that which originally is
conceived to be important during an experiment but which affects the outcome of the experiment
probably in a hidden manner.

Research Indicators
Research indicators are used to evaluate research outcomes, derived from research variables.
Indicators are quantified in numeric terms and include input, output, outcomes, impact,
efficiency, effectiveness, sustainability, etc.

COLLECTING DATA
In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are inadequate, and hence,
it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are several ways of collecting the

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appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and other resources at
the disposal of the researcher.

Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher
conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help
of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis. But in the case of a survey, data can
be collected by any one or more of the following ways:

By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of investigator’s own
observation, without interviewing the respondents. The information obtained relates to what is
currently happening and is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or
attitudes of respondents. This method is no doubt an expensive method and the information
provided by this method is also very limited. As such this method is not suitable in inquiries
where large samples are concerned.

Through personal interview: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks answers to a set
of pre-conceived questions through personal interviews. This method of collecting data is usually
carried out in a structured way where output depends upon the ability of the interviewer to a large
extent.

Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information involves contacting the
respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used method but it plays an important
role in industrial surveys in developed regions, particularly, when the survey has to be
accomplished in a very limited time.

By mailing of questionnaires: The researcher and the respondents do come in contact with each
other if this method of survey is adopted. Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with a
request to return after completing the same. It is the most extensively used method in various
economic and business surveys. Before applying this method, usually a Pilot Study for testing the
questionnaire is conduced which reveals the weaknesses, if any, of the questionnaire.
Questionnaire to be used must be prepared very carefully so that it may prove to be effective in
collecting the relevant information.

Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given training.

They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These enumerators go to
respondents with these schedules. Data are collected by filling up the schedules by enumerators
on the basis of replies given by respondents. Much depends upon the capability of enumerators so
far as this method is concerned. Some occasional field checks on the work of the enumerators
may ensure sincere work.

SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
From what has been stated above, we can write that scales of measurement can be considered in
terms of their mathematical properties. The most widely used classification of measurement
scales are: (a) nominal scale; (b) ordinal scale; (c) interval scale; and (d) ratio scale.

Nominal scale: Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number symbols to events in
order to label them. The usual example of this is the assignment of numbers of basketball players
in order to identify them. Such numbers cannot be considered to be associated with an ordered

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scale for their order is of no consequence; the numbers are just convenient labels for the particular
class of events and as such have no quantitative value. Nominal scales provide convenient ways
of keeping track of people, objects and events. One cannot do much with the numbers involved.
For example, one cannot usefully average the numbers on the back of a group of football players
and come up with a meaningful value. Neither can one usefully compare the numbers assigned
to one group with the numbers assigned to another. The counting of members in each group is the
only possible arithmetic operation when a nominal scale is employed.

Ordinal scale: The lowest level of the ordered scale that is commonly used is the ordinal scale.
The ordinal scale places events in order, but there is no attempt to make the intervals of the scale
equal in terms of some rule. Rank orders represent ordinal scales and are frequently used in
research relating to qualitative phenomena. A student’s rank in his graduation class involves the
use of an ordinal scale. One has to be very careful in making statement about scores based on
ordinal scales. Ordinal scales only permit the ranking of items from highest to lowest. Ordinal
measures have no absolute values, and the real differences between adjacent ranks may not be
equal. All that can be said is that one person is higher or lower on the scale than another, but
more precise comparisons cannot be made.

Interval scale: In the case of interval scale, the intervals are adjusted in terms of some rule that
has been established as a basis for making the units equal. The units are equal only in so far as
one accepts the assumptions on which the rule is based. Interval scales can have an arbitrary zero,
but it is not possible to determine for them what may be called an absolute zero or the unique
origin. The primary limitation of the interval scale is the lack of a true zero; it does not have the
capacity to measure the complete absence of a trait or characteristic.

Ratio scale: Ratio scales have an absolute or true zero of measurement. The term ‘absolute
zero’ is not as precise as it was once believed to be. We can conceive of an absolute zero of
length and similarly we can conceive of an absolute zero of time. For example, the zero point on a
centimeter scale may indicate the complete absence of length or height.

Sources of Error in Measurement

Measurement should be precise and unambiguous in an ideal research study. This objective,
however, is often not met with in entirety. As such the researcher must be aware about the sources
of error in measurement. The following are the possible sources of error in measurement.

(a) Respondent: At times the respondent may be reluctant to express strong negative feelings
or it is just possible that he may have very little knowledge but may not admit his ignorance. All
this reluctance is likely to result in an interview of ‘guesses.’ Transient factors like fatigue,
boredom, anxiety, etc. may limit the ability of the respondent to respond accurately and fully.

(b) Situation: Situational factors may also come in the way of correct measurement. Any
condition which places a strain on interview can have serious effects on the interviewer-
respondent rapport. For instance, if someone else is present, he can distort responses by joining
in or merely by being present. If the respondent feels that anonymity is not assured, he may be
reluctant to express certain feelings.

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(c) Measurer: The interviewer can distort responses by rewording or reordering questions. His
behaviour, style and looks may encourage or discourage certain replies from respondents.
Careless mechanical processing may distort the findings. Errors may also creep in because of
incorrect coding, faulty tabulation and/or statistical calculations, particularly in the data-analysis
stage.

(d) Instrument: Error may arise because of the defective measuring instrument. The use of
complex words, beyond the comprehension of the respondent, ambiguous meanings, poor printing,
inadequate space for replies, response choice omissions, etc. are a few things that make the
measuring instrument defective and may result in measurement errors. Another type of
instrument deficiency is the poor sampling of the universe of items of concern.

LITERATURE REVIEW
Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down. At this juncture
the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the problem. For this
purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are
the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books
etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem. In this process, it should be
remembered that one source will lead to another. The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to
the study in hand should be carefully studied. A good library will be a great help to the researcher
at this stage.

Development of working hypotheses: After extensive literature survey, researcher should state
in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption
made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. As such the manner in
which research hypotheses are developed is particularly important since they provide the focal
point for research. They also affect the manner in which tests must be conducted in the analysis
of data and indirectly the quality of data which is required for the analysis. In most types of
research, the development of working hypothesis plays an important role. Hypothesis should be
very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested. The role of
the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to keep him on
the right track. It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the
problem. It also indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to
be used. How does one go about developing working hypotheses? The answer is by using the
following approach:

(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives in
seeking a solution;
(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends,
peculiarities and other clues;
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited scale
with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the practical
aspects of the problem. Thus, working hypotheses arise as a result of a-priori thinking about the

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subject, examination of the available data and material including related studies and the counsel
of experts and interested parties. Working hypotheses are more useful when stated in precise and
clearly defined terms. It may as well be remembered that occasionally we may encounter a
problem where we do not need working hypotheses, especially in the case of exploratory or
formulative researches which do not aim at testing the hypothesis. But as a general rule,
specification of working hypotheses in another basic step of the research process in most
research problems.

RESEARCH DESIGN
Research design is the skeletal foundation on which the research procedure is built. The research
problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a
research design. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible
yielding maximal information. In other words, the function of research design is to provide for
the collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. But how
all these can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose. Research purposes may be
grouped into four categories:
(i) Exploration
(ii) Description
(iii) Diagnosis
(iv) Experimentation

A flexible research design which provides opportunity for considering many different aspects of
a problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the research study is that of exploration.
But when the purpose happens to be an accurate description of a situation or of an association
between variables, the suitable design will be one that minimises bias and maximises the
reliability of the data collected and analysed. There are several research designs, such as,
experimental and non-experimental hypothesis testing. Experimental designs can be either
informal designs (such as before-and-after without control, after-only with control, before-and-
after with control) or formal designs (such as completely randomized design, randomized block
design, Latin square design, simple and complex factorial designs), out of which the researcher
must select one for his own project. The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a
particular research problem, involves usually the consideration of the following:
(i) the means of obtaining the information;
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be
organized and the reasoning leading to the selection;
(iv) the time available for research;
(v) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.
SAMPLE DESIGN
All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’.
A complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It can
be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items are covered no element of chance is left
and highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not be true. Even the slightest element
of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as the number of observations increases.
Moreover, there is no way of checking the element of bias or its extent except through a resurvey

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or use of sample checks. Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and
energy. Not only this, census inquiry is not possible in practice under many circumstances. For
instance, blood testing is done only on sample basis. Hence, quite often we select only a few
items from the universe for our study purposes. The items so selected constitute what is
technically called a sample.

The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the
sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are
actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. Thus, the plan to select 12 of
a city’s 200 drugstores in a certain way constitutes a sample design. Samples can be either
probability samples or non-probability samples. With probability samples each element has a
known probability of being included in the sample but the non-probability samples do not allow the
researcher to determine this probability. Probability samples are those based on simple random
sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas non-
probability samples are those based on convenience sampling, judgement sampling and quota
sampling techniques. A brief mention of the important sample designs is as follows:

(i) Deliberate, purposeful, snowball sampling: Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive
or non-probability sampling. This sampling method involves purposive or deliberate
selection of particular units of the universe for constituting a sample which represents the
universe. When population elements are selected for inclusion in the sample based on the ease
of access, it can be called convenience sampling. If a researcher wishes to secure data from,
say, gasoline buyers, he may select a fixed number of petrol stations and may conduct
interviews at these stations. This would be an example of convenience sample of gasoline
buyers. At times such a procedure may give very biased results particularly when the
population is not homogeneous. On the other hand, in judgement sampling the researcher’s
judgement is used for selecting items which he considers as representative of the population.
For example, a judgement sample of college students might be taken to secure reactions to a
new method of teaching. Judgement sampling is used quite frequently in qualitative research
where the desire happens to be to develop hypotheses rather than to generalise to larger
populations.

(ii) Simple random sampling: This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or
probability sampling where each and every item in the population has an equal chance of
inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible samples, in case of finite universe, has the
same probability of being selected. For example, if we have to select a sample of 300 items
from a universe of 15,000 items, then we can put the names or numbers of all the 15,000
items on slips of paper and conduct a lottery. Using the random number tables is another
method of random sampling. To select the sample, each item is assigned a number from 1 to
15,000. Then, 300 five digit random numbers are selected from the table. To do this we select
some random starting point and then a systematic pattern is used in proceeding through the
table. We might start in the 4th row, second column and proceed down the column to the
bottom of the table and then move to the top of the next column to the right. When a number
exceeds the limit of the numbers in the frame, in our case over 15,000, it is simply passed over
and the next number selected that does fall within the relevant range. Since the numbers were

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 placed in the table in a completely random fashion, the resulting sample is random. This
procedure gives each item an equal probability of being selected. In case of infinite population,
the selection of each item in a random sample is controlled by the same probability and that
successive selections are independent of one another.

(iii) Systematic sampling: In some instances, the most practical way of sampling is to select
every 15th name on a list, every 10th house on one side of a street and so on. Sampling of this
type is known as systematic sampling. An element of randomness is usually introduced into
this kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start. This
procedure is useful when sampling frame is available in the form of a list. In such a design
the selection process starts by picking some random point in the list and then every nth
element is selected until the desired number is secured.

(iv) Stratified sampling: If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a
homogeneous group, then stratified sampling technique is applied so as to obtain a
representative sample. In this technique, the population is stratified into a number of non-
overlapping subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum. If the
items selected from each stratum is based on simple random sampling the entire procedure, first
stratification and then simple random sampling, is known as stratified random sampling.

(v) Quota sampling: In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples from individual
strata is often so expensive that interviewers are simply given quota to be filled from different
strata, the actual selection of items for sample being left to the interviewer’s judgement. This
is called quota sampling. The size of the quota for each stratum is generally proportionate to the
size of that stratum in the population. Quota sampling is thus an important form of non-
probability sampling. Quota samples generally happen to be judgement samples rather than
random samples.

(vi) Cluster sampling and area sampling: Cluster sampling involves grouping the population
and then selecting the groups or the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the
sample. Suppose some departmental store wishes to sample its credit card holders. It has
issued its cards to 15,000 customers. The sample size is to be kept say 450. For cluster
sampling this list of 15,000 card holders could be formed into 100 clusters of 150 card
holders each. Three clusters might then be selected for the sample randomly. The sample size
must often be larger than the simple random sample to ensure the same level of accuracy
because is cluster sampling procedural potential for order bias and other sources of error is
usually accentuated. The clustering approach can, however, make the sampling procedure
relatively easier and increase the efficiency of field work, especially in the case of personal
interviews.

Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about when the total
geographical area of interest happens to be big one. Under area sampling we first divide the
total area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas, generally called geographical
clusters, then a number of these smaller areas are randomly selected, and all units in these
small areas are included in the sample. Area sampling is especially helpful where we do not

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 have the list of the population concerned. It also makes the field interviewing more efficient
since interviewer can do many interviews at each location.

(vii) Multi-stage sampling: This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling. This
technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably large geographical area like an
entire country. Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large primary
sampling units such as states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families within
towns. If the technique of random-sampling is applied at all stages, the sampling procedure is
described as multi-stage random sampling.

(viii) Sequential sampling: This is somewhat a complex sample design where the ultimate size of
the sample is not fixed in advance but is determined according to mathematical decisions on
the basis of information yielded as survey progresses. This design is usually adopted under
acceptance sampling plan in the context of statistical quality control.

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