ST.

PAUL’S DEGREE & PG COLLEGE

B.COM (GEN, COMP,HONS) VI SEMESTER
SUBJECT : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND PROJECT REPORT
(MATERIAL)

Unit 1
ESSAY QUESTIONS:

1.What is the meaning and definition of Research?Explain the various types of research?

Ans) Meaning of Research: Research is a process to discover new knowledge to find answers
to a question. The word research has two parts re (again) and search (find) which denote that
we are taking up an activity to look into an aspect once again or we wantto look for some new
information about something.

E.g Front Office Executive has to learn about the facilities, timings,key features of products
and services available at the hotel if one wants to become a wonderful sales professional
other than being a host. "All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than
overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention" is a famous Hudson
Maxim in context of which the significance of research can well be understood.

Clifford Woody states that research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulation
of hypothesis; collection, organizing and evaluation of data; and reaching conclusions. Hereit
is emphasized that all research has to be systematic and logical to arrive at expected outcome.
D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson inthe Encyclopedia of Social Sciences Research define
research as "The manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purposeof generalizing
to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether
that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice ofan art."

Definition of Research: Research: is defined as careful consideration of study regarding a

particular concern or problemusing scientific methods. According to the American sociologist
Earl Robert Babbie, “research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control
the observed phenomenon. It involves inductive and deductive methods.”

Inductive research methods analyze an observed event, whiledeductive methods verify the
observed event. Inductive approaches are associated with qualitative research, and deductive
methods are more commonly associated with quantitative analysis.

1. Basic Research: is also called pure research or fundamental research, is a type of

scientific research with the aim of improvingscientific theories for better understanding and
prediction of natural or other phenomena.
2. Applied Research: refers to scientific study and research that seeks to solve practical
problems. 1 This type of research plays animportant role in solving everyday problems that
often have an impact on life, work, health, and overall well-being

1
3. Empirical Research: is research that is based on observation and measurement of
phenomena, as directly experienced by theresearcher. The data thus gathered may be
compared against a theory or hypothesis, but the results are still based on real life experience.
4. Scientific Research: is the systematic investigation of scientific theories and hypotheses.
A hypothesis is a single assertion, a proposed explanation of something based on available
knowledge, for something yet to be explained. One that is subjectto further experimentation.

5. Behavioral and Social Sciences: research helps predict, prevent,and manage illness — in
individuals and in whole populations.
This research also helps people change their behaviors, understand treatments, and learn how
to stick with them. Society’s role is significant, too: access to health care affectsdecision
making and behavior.
6. Historical Research: includes two sources of data collection, such as primary and
secondary sources. Primary sources are theoriginal first-hand resources such as documents,
oral or writtenrecords, witnesses to a fact, etc. These are of two types, such as:1.present
2.past
7. Business Research :Example. Let say there’s an automobile company that is planning to
launch a car that runs on CNG. Inorder to promote cleaner fuel, ...
Importance of Business Research.Types & Methods.
Qualitative Research Methods. Quantitative Research Methods.
8. Normative research :seeks to clearly define the studypopulation, outline the phenomena
under research and appropriately interpret the results. Scientists use the scientific method to
gather this data and apply it to the generated hypothesis. Doctors use it to determine
appropriate levels of carefor a populated area, and advertisers use it to understand how best to
market products

9. Exploratory Research: is a methodology approach that investigates research questions

that have not previously beenstudied in depth. Exploratory research is often qualitative in
nature. However, a study with a large sample conducted in anexploratory manner can be
quantitative as well.
10. Descriptive Research: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact finding enquiries of
different kinds. The major purposeof descriptive research is description of the state of affairs
as it exists at any given time. The term Ex post facto research is usedin social sciences and
business research for descriptive researchstudies.
The researcher only reports about the factors identified and cannot modify the details
available thus it makes it clear that he does not have any control over such variables Most ex
post factoresearch projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher strives to
find out information about, for example, frequency of dining out, preferences of individuals,
etc
11. Causal Research : helps identify the causes behind processestaking place in the system. ...
Causal research provides the benefits of replication if there is aneed for it.
Causal research helps identify the impacts of changing the
processes and existing methods.

2. What do you mean by qualitative and quantitativeResearch? distinguish between

them.?

2
Ans) Quantitative v/s Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of
quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
E.g. Studying the number of enquiries receivedfor room bookings through different modes
like internet, emails, calls, letters, or different sources like travel and tours operators,
companies and government organizationsetc.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned withqualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. E.g. studying the stress levels andreasons
for variable performances of staff in different shifts in the same department of a hotel. The
same individuals may perform differently with the change of shift timings. It can involve
performing research about changing preferences of customers as per the change of season.
METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH ―Method― plainly meansa particular procedure for
accomplishing or approaching something, especially a systematic or established one.
Thus methodology can be understood as a set of specific procedures or techniques used to
identify, select, process,and analyze information about a topic. It is the systematic,theoretical
analysis of the methods applied to a field of study. It comprises the theoretical analysis of the
body of methods and principles associated with a branch of knowledge.
The most important methodological choice researchers make is based on the distinction
between qualitative and quantitative data i.e whether it would collect descriptive data or a
quantifiable data. Before the research begins it isimportant to decide the methods of data
collection would be qualitative or quantitative.
Verifying existing theories or hypothesis, questioning them or measurement of variables
conveys that quantitative methods be adopted whereas any attempt tocollect statistical data,
numbers or relative data means that one has t adopt quantitative methods.
The process of research addresses two major questions
i.e. what is to be found and how it is be found. It is like planning a journey where we first
decide where we are going and then we decide how we shall be travelling. Wehave to identify
important stopovers and routes, check points, modes available to reach the destination.
The steps involved in finding responses to the research questions comprise research
methodology. At each operational step in the research process one is required tochoose from a
variety of methods, procedures and modelsof research methodology which help you to best
achieve the objectives.

3. Define Measurement and Scaling.State the objectives of Measurement and scaling.

Explain the properties of scales?

Ans)Meaning of Measurement :The measurement is the process of assigning numbers or

symbol to the
characteristics of the object as per the specified rules. Here, the researcher assigns numbers,
not to the object,but to its characteristics such as perceptions, attitudes, preferences, and other
relevant traits.
Measurement is the quantification of attributes of an object orevent, which can be used to
compare with other objects or events.

3
In other words, measurement is a process of determining howlarge or small a physical
quantity is as compared to a basic reference quantity of the same kind. The scope and
application ofmeasurement are dependent on the context and discipline.
In natural sciences and engineering, measurements do not applyto nominal properties of
objects or events, which is consistent with the guidelines of the International vocabulary of
metrology published by the International Bureau of Weights andMeasures.

However, in other fields such as statistics as well as

the social and behavioural sciences, measurements can have multiple levels, which would
include nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales.
Measurement is defined as the process of comparison of anunknown quantity with a known or
standard quantity.
Definition of Measurement : According to W.S
Torgerson,”measurement is the assignment of numbers toobjects to represent amounts or
degrees of a property possessed by all of the objects”.
Definition of Scaling: is the procedure of measuring andassigning the objects to the numbers
according to the specified rules. In other words, the process of locating themeasured objects
on the continuum, a continuous sequence of numbers to which the objects are assigned is
called as scaling.Scaling is considered as the extension of measurement.

Measurement of scale examples:

Nominal :-categories, identification, roll nos,
Ordinal:-ranking, preference, most popular brands

Interval:-temperature, grading in exams, user categories

Ratio:-length, marks in exams, distance, salaries

Objectives of Measurement and Scaling:

There are two important objectives of measurement andscaling .first objective is to determine
what can be revealed about the object of the study and second objective is to determine the
appropriate statistic to be applied to analyse the information .Following are the other
objectives of measurement and scaling.
1. Reliability : the measurement should be reliable byproducing consistent results when
certain research methods are repeated.
2. Validity: an instrument is valid when it measures what it is supposed to measure ,but
since attitudes are elusive,validity is not possible.
3. Sensitivity:the measurement should lead toidentification of changes or differences.
4. Relevance:it should facilitate the decision-maker byproducing relevant information.
5. Versatility :versatility of measurement for various statistical interpretations is a desired

4
 goal especially forassessing the results validity and for drawing maximum,measurement
should possess versatility.
Properties of scales
The measurement scales has the following properties, Distinctive Classification: Distinctive
classification is the property of a measure which is used to differentiate objects or its
characteristics into various categories the individuals into two different groups such as males
andfemales .
1. Order: a measure that can be used to arrange the objectsor their characteristics in a
meaningful order is said to have order properly.example:the arrangement of students marks in
an ascending or descending order.
2. Equal distance :the measure is used to have equal distance property ,if the difference
between two consecutive categories of a measured scale are equal.example:the difference
between the temperatures40 c and 50c is equal to the difference between temperatures,60c
and 70c i.e ,…1.
3. Fixed origin:a measurement scale is used for measuring acharacteristic is used to have
the property of “fixed origin”when there exists a meaningful zero or absence of
characteristic.example:sales of a company where zero sales describes that there is no sales or
absence of sales.

4. What is Research Design ?Explain the types of it.

Ans) Research Design : Refers to the framework of marketresearch methods and techniques that
are selected by a researcher. The design that is selected by the researchers
allow them to utilise the methods that are suitable for the study and to set up their studies
successfully in the futureas well.
Research Design Definition
Research design refers to the overall strategy utilized tocarry out research that defines a
logical plan to tackle established research question through the collection, interpretation,
analysis, and discussion of data
Research Design Objectives
What Is the Purpose of Research Design? The purpose ofresearch design is to provide a clear
plan of the research,based on independent and dependent variables, and to consider the cause
and effect evoked by these variables.
Types of Research Design
1. Exploratory Research Design:The exploratory researchdesign format is useful when you
don't have a clearly defined problem to study. Often, this type of research design is less
structured than other research design options, and you can use it as a guide for your initial
research to uncover your research problem.
2. Descriptive Research Design:The goal of using a descriptive research design is to describe
a research topic,so this type of research is useful when you need more information about your

5
 topic. Descriptive research design can also help you understand the "what," "where,""when"
and "how" of your research topic.
3. Experimental Research Design:The experimental research design is especially useful when
you want to testhow different factors affect a situation, making this designtype very versatile.
The experimental research design usesthe scientific method.
4. Diagnostic Research Design:The diagnostic research design attempts to find the underlying
factors that cause events or phenomena to occur. This research type is usefulto help you
understand what's causing problems so you can find solutions.

5. What is Research Process ? Explain the stepsinvolved in Research Process?

Ans) Research Process:The Research Process is a processof multiple scientific steps in

conducting the research work. Each step is interlinked with other steps. The process starts
with the research problem at first. Then it advances in the next steps sequentially.
1. Selecting the Research Area: If you find a research areaand research problem that is
genuinely interesting to youit is for sure that the whole process of writing your dissertation
will be much easier. Therefore, it is never too early to start thinking about the research area
for yourdissertation.
2. Formulating Research Aim: The choice between the formulation of research questions and
the development ofhypotheses depends on your research approach as it is discussed further
below in more details. Appropriate research aims and objectives or hypotheses usually result
from several attempts and revisions.
3. Conducting the Literature Review: Actually, the literature review starts even before the
formulation of research aims and objective. This is because you have to check if exactly the
same research problem has been addressed before and this task is a part of the literature
review. Nevertheless, you will conduct the main part of the literature review after the
formulation of research aimand objectives. You have to use a wide range of secondarydata
sources such as books, newspapers, magazines, journals, online articles etc.
4. Selecting Data Collection Methods: Data collection method(s) need to be selected on the
basis of critically analyzing advantages and disadvantages associated withseveral alternative
methods. In studies involving primarydata collection.
5. Collecting the Primary Data: You will have to start primary data collection only after
detailed preparation. Sampling is an important element of this stage. You mayhave to
conduct pilot data collection if you chose questionnaire primary data collection method.
Primary data collection is not a compulsory stage for all dissertations and you will skip this
stage if you are conducting a desk-based research.
6. Data Analysis:This stage involves an extensive editing and coding of data. Data analysis
methods vary betweensecondary and primary studies, as well as, between qualitative and
quantitative studies. In data analysis coding of primary data plays an instrumental role to
reduce sample group responses to a more manageable form for storage and future processing.

6. define hypothesis and its types

6
 Ans. Hypothesis Meaning: A supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of
limited evidence as astarting point for further investigation.

The word hypothesis consists of two words Hypo + thesis =Hypothesis

“Hypo” means tentative or subject to the verification and “Thesis” means statement about
solution of a problem .
The world meaning of the term hypothesis is a tentative statement the solution of the problem
,Hypothesis offers asolution of the problem that is to be verified empirically and based on
some rationale.
Definition of Hypothesis: “Hypothesis is a tentative prediction or explanation of the
relationship between twovariables. it implies that there is a systematic relationship between
an independent and dependent variable”.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESES

1. Null hypothesis: A null hypothesis proposes no relationship between two variables. Denoted
by HO, it is a negative statement like "Attending physiotherapy sessions does not affect athletes'
on-field performance." Here, the author claims physiotherapy sessions have no effect on on-field
performances. Even if there is, it's only a coincidence.
2. Alternative hypothesis Considered to be the opposite of a null hypothesis, an alternative
hypothesis is donated as H1 or Ha. It explicitly states that the dependent variable affects the
independent variable. A good alternative hypothesis example is "Attending physiotherapy
sessions improves athletes' on-field performance." or "Water evaporates at
100°C."
The alternative hypothesis further branches into directional and non-directional.
• Directional hypothesis: A hypothesis that states the result would be either positive or negative
is called directional hypothesis. It accompanies H1 with either the '<' or '>' sign.
• Non-directional hypothesis: A non-directional hypothesis only claims an effect on the
dependent variable. It does not clarify whether the result would be positive or negative. The sign
for a non-directional hypothesis is '#!
3. Simple hypothesis A simple hypothesis is a statement made to reflect the relation between
exactly two variables. One independent and one dependent. Consider the example, "Smoking is
a prominent cause of lung cancer." The dependent variable, lung cancer, is dependent on the
independent variable, smoking.
4. Complex hypothesis In contrast to a simple hypothesis, a complex hypothesis implies the
relationship between multiple independent and dependent variables. For instance, "Individuals
who eat more fruits tend to have higher immunity, lesser cholesterol, and high metabolism." The
independent variable is eating more fruits, while the dependent variables are higher immunity,
lesser cholesterol, and high metabolism.
5. Associative and casual hypothesis Associative and casual hypotheses don't exhibit how
many variables there will be. They define the relationship between the variables.
In an associative hypothesis, changing any one variable, dependent or independent, affects

7
others. In a casual hypothesis, the independent variable directly affects the dependent.
6. Empirical hypothesis Also referred to as the working hypothesis, an empirical hypothesis
claims a theory's validation via experiments and observation.
This way, the statement appears justifiable and different from a wild guess.
Say, the hypothesis is "Women who take iron tablets face a lesser risk of anemia than those who
take vitamin B12." This is an example of an empirical hypothesis where the researcher the
statement after assessing a group of women who take iron tablets and charting the findings.
7. Statistical hypothesis The point of a statistical hypothesis is to test an already existing
hypothesis by studying a population sample. Hypothesis like "44% of the Indian population
belong in the age group of 22-27." leverage evidence to prove or disprove a particular statement.

SHORT QUESTIONS:
1. What is Research?
Ans)Research is a process to discover new knowledge to find answers to a question. The
word research has two parts re (again) and search (find) which denote that we aretaking up an
activity to look into an aspect once again or we want to look for some new information about
something.
Definition: Research is defined as careful consideration of studyregarding a particular concern
or problem using scientific methods. According to the American sociologist Earl Robert
Babble, “research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain,
predict, and control the observed phenomenon. It involvesinductive and deductive methods.”

Inductive research methods analyze an observed event, whiledeductive methods verify the
observed event. Inductive approaches are associated with qualitative research, and deductive
methods are more commonly associated with quantitative analysis.

2. Measurement.
Ans)Meaning of Measurement :The measurement is theprocess of assigning numbers or
symbol to the characteristics of the object as per the specified rules.
Here, the researcher assigns numbers, not to the object,but to its characteristics such as
perceptions, attitudes, preferences, and other relevant traits.
Measurement is the quantification of attributes of an object orevent, which can be used to
compare with other objects or events.
In other words, measurement is a process of determining howlarge or small a physical
quantity is as compared to a basic reference quantity of the same kind. The scope and
application ofmeasurement are dependent on the context and discipline.
In natural sciences and engineering, measurements do not applyto nominal properties of
objects or events, which is consistent with the guidelines of the International vocabulary of
metrology published by the International Bureau of Weights andMeasures.,However, in other
fields such as statistics as well as the social and behavioural sciences, measurements can have
multiple levels, which would include nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales.
Measurement is defined as the process of comparison of anunknown quantity with a known or
standard quantity.

8
 Definition of Measurement : According to W.S Torgerson,”measurement is the assignment of
numbers toobjects to represent amounts or degrees of a property possessed by all of the
objects”.

3. Semantic Differential Scale

Ans)A semantic differential scale :is a survey or questionnaire rating scale that asks people to
rate a product, company, brand, or any 'entity' within the framesof a multi-point rating option.
These survey answering options are grammatically on opposite adjectives at each end.

4. Hypothesis.
Ans) Hypothesis Meaning: A supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of
limited evidence as astarting point for further investigation.

The word hypothesis consists of two words Hypo + thesis =Hypothesis

“Hypo” means tentative or subject to the verification and “Thesis” means statement about
solution of a problem .
The world meaning of the term hypothesis is a tentative statement the solution of the problem
,Hypothesis offers asolution of the problem that is to be verified empirically and based on
some rationale.
Definition of Hypothesis: “Hypothesis is a tentative prediction or explanation of the
relationship between twovariables. it implies that there is a systematic relationship between
an independent and dependent variable”.

5. what is Null Hypothesis and AlternativeHypothesis?

Ans) The Null Hypothesis :is a typical statistical theorywhich suggests that no statistical
relationship and significance exists in a set of given single observed variable, between two
sets of observed data and measured phenomena
Alternative Hypothesis : is one of the proposed propositionin the hypothesis test. In general
the goal of hypothesis test is to demonstrate that in the given condition, there is sufficient
evidence supporting the credibility of alternative hypothesis instead of the exclusive
proposition in the test (null hypothesis) It is usually consistent with the research hypothesis
because it is constructed from literature review, previous studies, etc

9
 UNIT -2

Essay Questions
1. Write the difference between Parametric and Non -Parametric tests?
Ans)
Parametric tests Non -Parametric tests

1. Parametric test is defined as the 1. Non- Parametric test isdefined as

study of statistical tests concerning the study of statistical test that does
assumptionsand estimation that not concern assumption related to
are related to population parameter estimation or precise
parameters. distribution.
2. This is also referred as 2. This is also referred as
“distribution tests”. “distribution free tests”
3. Assumptions are made in these 3. No assumptions are made.
tests i.e,null and alternative
hypothesis. 4.These tests do not employ the population
4. These tests employ a specific parameters.
parameter of thepopulation such as 5. The data in these testsdoes not
follow any specific distribution.
mean,variance etc.
5.The data in these testsfollow a
6. The population distribution are
distribution which is either
same forthe null hypothesis.
presumed
or established 7. It is measured in theterms of
6. The population meansare same Normal or Ordinal scale.
for the null hypothesis 8. It is used only for smallsamples.

7. It is to measure in the terms of 9. It is applied for both attributes

Interval or Ratioscale. and variables.
8. It is used for both samples
i.e small andlarge 10.The examples of non -parametric
9. It is applied only for tests are Chi(x2)test.
variables.
10. The examples of parametric tests
are Z-test.T-test etc.

10
2. write briefly about the various sampling methods?
Ans)The various sampling methods are as follows:

A.Probability Sampling Method: Probability sampling methods are also known as random
sampling methods.inthese methods ,sampling process is random and the laws of probability
are used for sampling.it is used when research is conclusive in nature.these methods are

classified into various types as follows,

1. Simple Random Sampling : in this technique ,each andevery item of the population is
given an equal chance ofbeing included in the sample .the selection is thus free from personal
bias.This method is also known as the method of chance selection or unrestricted sampling
Example:lottery.
2. Complex Random Sampling :the various types ofcomplex random sampling.
I. Stratified Sampling : this process divide the populationinto homogeneous groups or
classes called strata. A sample is taken from each group by simple random method
and the resulting sample is called a stratified sample.
II. Cluster Sampling : this method of sampling is done for small groups or units.whole
population is taken into consideration according to the given problem and is divided
into sub units which are known as “clusters”
III. Systematic Sampling: this is used in those cases where a complete list of the
population from which sample to be drawn is available .the method is used to select
every Kthitem from the list ,where k refers to the sampling interval.
IV. Multistage Sampling :in this method ,sampling is carried out in several stages .it is
mostly used when population is very huge and simple random sampling is not
possible.
B.Non -Probability sampling methods: are also known asnon random sampling methods in
this methods
,probability is not considered for selecting sample.
I. Convenience sampling:is also called as chunk .chunk is a fraction of one population
taken for investigation becauseof its convenient availability.a sample obtain from
readily available lists such as telephone directories etc.
II. Purposive sampling:sometimes sample cannot be obtained through convenience
sampling. the investigatormay wish to choose sample according to research type.

3. Explain the F-test? Its Properties and Application?

Ans) A large number of research experiments are conducted to examine the effect of various
factors on the production and quality attributes of milk and milk products. F-test is used either
for testing the hypothesis about the equality of two population variances or the equality of two
or more population means. The equality of two population means was dealt with t-test. Besides a
t- test, we can also apply F-test for testing equality of two population means. Sir Ronald A.

11
Fisher defined a statistic Z which is based upon ratio of two sample variances. In this lesson we
will consider the distribution of ratio of two sample variances which was worked out by G.W.
Snedecor.

F-Statistic

Let X1i (i=1,2,�

, n1) be a random sample of size n 1from the first population with variance

σ1 2 and X2 (j=1,2,�
, n2 ) be another independent random sample of size n2 from the

second normal population with variance σ 22. The F- statistic is defined as the ratio of

estimates of two variances as given below:

where, S 1 2 > S 2 2 and are unbiased estimates of populationvariances which are given by:

It follows Snedecor� s F- distribution with (n 1-1, n2-1) d.f. i.e., F~F (n1 �1, n2 �1). Further,
if X is a χ -variate with n1 d.f. and Y is another independent χ2-variate with n2 d.f., then F-
2

statistic is defined as:

i.e. F-statistic is the ratio of two independent Chi-square variates divided by their
respective degrees of freedom. This statistic follows G.W. Snedecor F distribution with
(n1,n2) d.f. The sampling distribution of F-statistic does not involve any population
parameter and depends only on the degrees of freedom n1and n2.
Application of F- Distribution
F-distribution has a number of applications in statistics, some of which are given below
a) F-test for equality of population variances
b) F test for testing equality of several population means F -test for equality of population
variances
Suppose we are interested to find if two normal populations have same variance. Let X 1i
(i=1,2,�, n1) be a random sample of size
n1from the first population with variance σ12 and X2j (j=1,2,�
, n2 )
be another independent random sample of size n2 from the second normal population with
variance σ 2. The two samples are independent of each other.
Under the null hypothesis H0: σ 2 = σ 2 = σ2 i.e., population variances are equal. In other
words the two independentestimates of the common population variance do not differ. The
test statistic �
F = (S1 2/ S22) ~ F(n1 �1, n2 �11)1(S12 > S22) ~

12
 Where S12 and S22 are unbiased estimates of the common population
variances σ2 are given by

It follows Snedecor � s F- distribution with (n 1-1, n2-1) d.f. i.e.,

F~F (n1 �1, n2 �1). Since F-test is based on the ratio of two
variances it is also known as Variance Ratio Test. If calculated value
of F is greater than tabulated value at α percent level of significance
H0 is rejected at α percent level of significance which implies that the
two independent estimates of population variances are heterogeneous.
On the other hand if calculated value of F is less than tabulated F then
H0 is not rejected at α percent level of significance suggesting that the
estimates of population variances are homogeneous.

4. What is Chi-square(x²)?Explain its application ,teststatistic and

assumption?

Ans) A chi-squared test (also chi-square or χ2 test) is a statistical

hypothesis test that is valid to perform when the test statistic
is chi-squared distributed under the null hypothesis, specifically
Pearson's chi-squared test and variants thereof.

Pearson's chi-squared test is used to determine whether there isa

statistically significant difference between the
expected frequencies and the observed frequencies in one ormore
categories of a contingency table.

In the standard applications of this test, the observations areclassified

into mutually exclusive classes. If the null hypothesis that there are
no differences between the classes in the population is true, the test
statistic computed from the observations follows a χ2 frequency
distribution. The purpose of the test is to evaluate how likely the
observed frequencies wouldbe assuming the null hypothesis is true.
Test statistics that follow a χ2 distribution occur when the
observations are independent. There are also χ2 tests for testingthe

13
 null hypothesis of independence of a pair of random variables based
on observations of the pairs.
Chi-squared tests often refers to tests for which the distribution of the
test statistic approaches the χ2 distribution asymptotically,meaning
that the sampling distribution (if the null hypothesis is true) of the test
statistic approximates a chi-squared distributionmore and more
closely as sample sizes increase.
CHI-SQUARE DISTRIBUTION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Karl Pearson (1857-1936) was a English Mathematician and Bio

statistician. He founded the world’s first university statistics
department at University College, London in 1911. He was the first to
examine whether the observed data support a given specification, in a
paper published in 1900. He called it ‘Chi- square goodness of fit’
test which motivated research in statistical inference and led to the
development of statistics as separate discipline.

1. Application x² distribution

The square of standard normal variable is known as a chi-square

variable with 1 degree of freedom (d.f.). Thus
If X ~ N (µ, σ2), then it is known that
~N0,1 .
Further Z2is said to follow χ2– distribution with 1 degree of freedom
(χ2 – pronounced as chi-square)
Note:i) If Xi~N (μ,σ2) ,i= 1, 2, ..., n are n iid random variables then

2. Chi-square Test Statistic

A chi-square (χ2) statistic is a test that measures how a model compares

to actual observed data. The data used in calculating achi-square
statistic must be random, raw, mutually exclusive, drawn from
independent variables, and drawn from a large enough sample. For
example, the results of tossing a fair coin meet these criteria.

Chi-square tests are often used in hypothesis testing. The chi- square

14
 statistic compares the size of any discrepancies betweenthe expected
results and the actual results, given the size of thesample and the
number of variables in the relationship.

For these tests, degrees of freedom are utilized to determine if a

certain null hypothesis can be rejected based on the total numberof
variables and samples within the experiment. As with any statistic,
the larger the sample size, the more reliable the results.
The Formula for Chi-Square Is

X2= Ʃ(O-E)²
e

Where O= Observed frequency.

E= Expected frequency.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 A chi-square (χ2) statistic is a measure of the difference between the

observed and expected frequencies of the outcomes of a set of events
or variables.
 Chi-square is useful for analyzing such differences in categorical
variables, especially those nominal in nature.
 χ2 depends on the size of the difference between actual andobserved
values, the degrees of freedom, and the sample size.
 χ2 can be used to test whether two variables are related or
independent from one another.
 It can also be used to test the goodness-of-fit between anobserved
distribution and a theoretical distribution of frequencies.

3. Assumptions of Chi-square test

To test the variance of the normal population, using the statisticin

note (ii)

· (i)To test the independence of attributes.

· (ii)To test the goodness of fit of a distribution.

· The sampling distributions of the test statistics used in the last
two applications are approximately chi-square distributions.

5.What is ANOVA? what are its assumptions and applications?

Ans) Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a collection of statistical

models and their associated estimation procedures (such as the
15
 "variation" among and between groups) used to analyze the
differences among means. ANOVA was developed by the
statistician Ronald Fisher. ANOVA is based on the law of total
variance, where the observed variance in a particular variable is
partitioned into components attributable to different sources of
variation. In its simplest form, ANOVA provides a statistical
test of whether two or more population means are equal, and
therefore generalizes the t-test beyond two means. In other words, the
ANOVA is used to test the difference between two or more means.

Applications of ANOVA:

Suppose in the Manufacturing Process, we want to compare and

check which are the most reliable procedures, materials, etc. We can
use the ANOVA test to compare different suppliers and selectthe best
available.
ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) is used when we have more than two
sample groups and determine whether there are any statistically
significant differences between the means of two or more
independent sample groups. In other words, we can say that it checks
the impact of one or more factors by comparing the means of
different samples. When we have less than or equal to two sample
groups – we go for one sample and two sample tests.
Assumptions of ANOVA: The analysis of variance has been studied
from several approaches, the most common of which uses a linear
model that relates the response to the treatments andblocks. Note
that the model is linear in parameters but may be nonlinear across
factor levels. Interpretation is easy when data is balanced across
factors but much deeper understanding is needed for unbalanced data.

Short Questions:
1. What is F-Test?
Ans)A large number of research experiments are conducted to
examine the effect of various factors on the production and quality
attributes of milk and milk products. F-test is used either for testing
the hypothesis about the equality of two population variances or the
equality of two or more population means. The equality oftwo
population means was dealt with t-test. Besides a t- test, we can also
apply F-test for testing equality of two population means. Sir Ronald
A. Fisher defined a statistic Zwhich is based upon ratio of two sample
variances. In this lesson we will consider the distribution of ratio of
two
sample variances which was worked out by G.W. Snedecor.
2. What is ANOVA?

16
 Ans) Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a collection of statistical
models and their associated estimation procedures (such as the
"variation" among and betweengroups) used to analyze the
differences among means.
ANOVA was developed by the statistician Ronald Fisher.
ANOVA is based on the law of total variance, where the
observed variance in a particular variable is partitioned into
components attributable to different sources of variation. In its
simplest form, ANOVA provides a statisticaltest of whether two or
more population means are equal, and therefore generalizes the t-test
beyond two means. In other words, the ANOVA is used to test the
difference between two or more means.
3. What is Chi-square test?
Ans)A chi-squared test (also chi-square or χ2 test) is a statistical
hypothesis test that is valid to perform when the test statistic is chi-
squared distributed under the null hypothesis, specifically Pearson's
chi-squared test and variants thereof.
Pearson's chi-squared test is used to determine whether there isa
statistically significant difference between the
expected frequencies and the observed frequencies in one ormore
categories of a contingency table.
In the standard applications of this test, the observations areclassified
into mutually exclusive classes. If the null
hypothesis that there are no differences between the classes in the
population is true, the test statistic computed from the observations
follows a χ2 frequency distribution. The purpose of the test is to
evaluate how likely the observed frequencies wouldbe assuming the
null hypothesis is true.
Test statistics that follow a χ2 distribution occur when the
observations are independent. There are also χ2 tests for testingthe
null hypothesis of independence of a pair of random variables based
on observations of the pairs.
Chi-squared tests often refers to tests for which the distribution of the
test statistic approaches the χ2 distribution asymptotically,meaning
that the sampling distribution (if the null hypothesis is true) of the test
statistic approximates a chi-squared distributionmore and more
closely as sample sizes increase.

4. Explain about Parametric Tests of Significance?

Ans)1.Parametric test is defined as the study of statisticaltests
concerning assumptions and estimation that are related to population
parameters.

17
2.This is also referred as “distribution tests”.
3.Assumptions are made in these tests i.e,null andalternative
hypothesis.
4. These tests employ a specific parameter of thepopulation such as
mean,variance etc.
5. The data in these tests follow a distribution which iseither
presumed or established
6. The population means are same for the null hypothesis

7.It is to measure in the terms of Interval or Ratio scale.

8.It is used for both samples i.e small and large

9.It is applied only for variables.
10.The examples of parametric tests are Z-test.T-test etc.

Parametric Test Significance:

A statistical test or procedure using a quantitative measure
standard error, standard deviation, mean square error of variability or
spread in the data to establish a p-value T- tests.
ANOVA Parametric tests assume that the distribution of the
observations or datapoints is known. For a parametric test to produce
valid pvalues, the data must have a Gaussi an ("normal") distribution.

5.What is Research Report?Explain the steps involved in it?

Ans) A research report is a publication that reports on the findings of
a research project or alternatively scientific observations on or about a
subject.
Research reports are produced by many sectors including industry,
education, government and non-government organizations and may
be disseminated internally, or made public (i.e. published) however
they are not usually available from booksellers or through standard
commercial publishing channels.Research reports are also issued by
governmental andinternational organizations, such as UNESCO.
There are various distribution models for research reports with the
main ones being: public distribution for free or open access; limited
distribution to clients and customers; or sold commercially. For
example market research reports are often produced for sale by
specialist market research companies, investment companies may
provide research reports to

18
client, while government agencies and civil society organizations
such as UNESCO, the World Health Organization and many others
often provide free access to organization research reports in the public
interest or for a range of organization requirementsand objectives.
Research reports are the product of slow, painstaking, accurate
inductive work. The usual steps involved in writing report are:
1.logical analysis of the subject-matter;
2.preparation of the final outline;
3.preparation of the rough draft;
4.rewriting and polishing;
5.preparation of the final bibliography; and
6.writing the final draft.
Though all these steps are self explanatory, yet a brief mention ofeach
one of these will be appropriate for better understanding.
1.Logical analysis of the subject matter: It is the first step which is
primarily concerned with the development of a subject. There are two
ways in which to develop a subject
1. logically and chronologically.
The logical development is made on the basis of mental connections
and associations between the one thing and anotherby means of
analysis. Logical treatment often consists in developing the material
from the simple possible to the most complex structures.
Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in
time or occurrence. The directions for doing or making something
usually follow the chronological order.
2. Preparation of the final outline: It is the next step in writing the
research report “Outlines are the framework upon which long written
works are constructed. They are an aid to the logical organization of
the material and a reminder of the points to be
stressed in the report.”
3. Preparation of the rough draft: This follows the logical analysis
of the subject and the preparation of the final outline. Such a step is
of utmost importance for the researcher now sits to write down what
he has done in the context of his research study. He will write down
the procedure adopted by him in collecting the material for his study
along with various limitations faced by him,the technique of analysis
adopted by him, the broad findings andgeneralizations and the
various suggestions he wants to offer regarding the problem
concerned.
4. Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft: This step happens to
be most difficult part of all formal writing. Usually this step requires
more time than the writing of the rough draft. The careful revision
makes the difference between a mediocre and agood piece of writing.

19
While rewriting and polishing, one shouldcheck the report for
weaknesses in logical development or
presentation. The researcher should also “see whether or not the
material, as it is presented, has unity and cohesion; does the report
stand upright and firm and exhibit a definite pattern, like amarble
arch? Or does it resemble an old wall of moldering cement and loose
brick.” In addition the researcher should give due attention to the fact
that in his rough draft he has been consistent or not. He should check
the mechanics of writing—grammar, spelling and usage.
5. Preparation of the final bibliography: Next in order comes the
task of the preparation of the final bibliography. The bibliography,
which is generally appended to the research report, is a list of books
in some way pertinent to the research which has been done. It should
contain all those works which the researcher has consulted. The
bibliography should be arranged alphabetically and may be divided
into two parts; the first part may contain the names of books and
pamphlets, and the second part may contain the names of magazine
and newspaper articles. Generally, this pattern of bibliography is
considered convenient and satisfactory from the point of view of
reader, though it is not the only way of presenting bibliography.

Writing the final draft: This constitutes the last step. The finaldraft
should be written in a concise and objective style and in simple
language, avoiding vague expressions such as “it seems”, “there may
be”, and the like ones. While writing the final draft, the researcher
must avoid abstract terminology and technical jargon. Illustrations
and examples based on common experiences must be incorporated in
the final draft as they happen to be mosteffective in communicating
the research findings to others. A research report should not be dull,
but must enthuse people and maintain interest and must show
originality. It must be remembered that every report should be an
attempt to solve some intellectual problem and must contribute to the
solution ofa problem and must add to the knowledge of both the
researcherand the reader.

20
 IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION
UNIT-1
Essay Questions:

1. What is the meaning and definition of Research? Explain the various

types of research?
2. What do you mean by qualitative and quantitativeResearch?
distinguish between them.
3. Define Measurement and Scaling. State the objectives of
Measurement and scaling. Explain the properties of scales?
4. What is Research design? Explain the types of it
5. What is Research process ?Explain the steps involvedin Research
process?

Short Questions:

1.What is Research?
2.Measurement
3.Semantic Differential scale
4.Hypothesis
5.What is Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis?

UNIT-2
Essay Questions

1. Write the difference between parametric tests andnon-parametric tests

2. Write briefly about the various sampling methods?
3. Explain the F-test, its properties and applications.
4. What is chi-square (x2)? Explain its application , teststatistic and
assumptions.
5. What is ANOVA? What are itsassumptions and applications?

Short questions:
1. What is F-test?
2. What is ANOVA?
3. What is chi-square test?
4. Explain about parametric tests of significance.
5. What is Research Report ?Explain the steps involved in it.

21