Data communication

Module-1
1.How internet works?
• The Internet is a global network of interconnected computer
networks that communicate with each other using standard
Internet protocols. Here is a brief overview of how the Internet
works:
1. Devices connected to the Internet: The Internet
connects billions of devices around the world, including
computers, smartphones, tablets, and other Internet-
enabled devices.
2. Transmission of data: When you send or receive data
over the Internet, the data is broken down into small
packets and sent through a series of routers and
switches to its destination.
3. Internet Service Provider (ISP): To access the Internet,
you need an Internet Service Provider (ISP), which
provides you with a connection to the Internet. Your ISP
is connected to other ISPs around the world, which
allows you to access content and services from
anywhere.
4. Domain Name System (DNS): When you type a web
address into your browser, the Domain Name System
(DNS) translates the address into an IP address that can
be used to locate the website you are trying to access.
5. Web servers: Websites are hosted on web servers,
which are specialized computers that are always
connected to the Internet. When you access a website,
 your request is sent to the web server, which sends the
content back to your device.
6. Protocols: The Internet uses a set of protocols to ensure
that data is transmitted reliably and securely. Some of
the most commonly used protocols include TCP/IP,
HTTP, and SSL.
Overall, the Internet is a complex system that requires the
cooperation of many different technologies and organizations to
function properly.
2. History of internet.
• The history of the internet is a long and complex one,
stretching back over several decades. Here are some of the key
milestones:
1. 1960s: The origins of the internet can be traced back to
the 1960s, when the U.S. Department of Defense
created a network of computers called ARPANET. This
network was designed to allow researchers to share
information and collaborate on projects.
2. 1970s: In the 1970s, ARPANET was expanded to include
more universities and research institutions, and the first
email program was developed.
3. 1980s: The 1980s saw the development of new
protocols such as TCP/IP, which enabled different
computer networks to communicate with each other.
This led to the creation of the modern internet, and the
first domain name system was created.
4. 1990s: The 1990s saw the commercialization of the
internet, and the development of the World Wide Web
by Tim Berners-Lee. The first web browser was released,
 and online services such as AOL and CompuServe
became popular.
5. 2000s: The 2000s saw the rise of social media and online
search engines such as Google. The introduction of
broadband internet made it possible for people to
access high-speed internet from their homes.
6. 2010s: In the 2010s, the internet continued to evolve
with the introduction of new technologies such as cloud
computing and mobile devices. Social media platforms
such as Facebook and Twitter became even more
popular, and e-commerce sites such as Amazon and
Alibaba grew rapidly.
Today, the internet has become an integral part of our lives, and is
used for everything from communication and entertainment to
education and commerce. The future of the internet is sure to be
even more exciting, as new technologies such as artificial intelligence
and the Internet of Things continue to emerge.

3.describe different types of transmission media.

• There are several types of transmission media that
can be used to transmit data in a computer
network. Here are some of the most common types:
• Twisted pair cable: Twisted pair cable is a type of
copper cable that consists of two or more insulated
wires twisted together. It is commonly used for local
area networks (LANs) and telephone systems, and
can transmit data at speeds of up to 10 Gbps.
 • Coaxial cable: Coaxial cable consists of a copper
conductor surrounded by a layer of insulation, a
metallic shield, and an outer insulating jacket. It is
commonly used for cable television systems and
broadband internet connections, and can transmit
data at speeds of up to 10 Gbps.
• Fiber optic cable: Fiber optic cable uses thin strands
of glass or plastic to transmit data using light. It is
commonly used for long-distance communication,
and can transmit data at very high speeds (up to
several terabits per second).
• Wireless transmission: Wireless transmission uses
radio waves to transmit data without the need for
physical cables. This includes technologies such as
Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular networks.
• Satellite transmission: Satellite transmission uses
communication satellites to transmit data over long
distances. This is commonly used for broadcasting
and remote communication, such as satellite TV and
satellite phones.
Each type of transmission media has its own advantages and
disadvantages, and the choice of which one to use will depend
on factors such as distance, speed, cost, and the specific needs
of the network.
4.Describe TCP/IP.
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
is a suite of communication protocols used for
connecting computers and devices to the Internet. It is a
set of rules that define how data is transmitted over the
internet and how it is received by other devices.

TCP is responsible for ensuring that data is transmitted

reliably between devices. It breaks data down into small
packets, sends them over the network, and then
reassembles them at the receiving end. TCP also ensures
that packets are delivered in the correct order and
handles errors and retransmissions if packets are lost or
damaged during transmission.

IP, on the other hand, is responsible for routing packets

of data between different networks. It assigns a unique
IP address to each device connected to the network, and
uses this address to identify the device and route
packets to the correct destination.

Together, TCP/IP provides a standardized way for

devices to communicate over the Internet. It allows
devices to communicate with each other regardless of
the type of device, operating system, or network they
are using. TCP/IP is also flexible enough to support a
wide range of applications, from email and web
browsing to video conferencing and online gaming.

TCP/IP is the foundation of the modern internet, and is

used by billions of devices around the world. It has
played a critical role in the development of the global
communication infrastructure, and has enabled people
to connect and communicate with each other on an
unprecedented scale.
4.list some advantages and disadvantages of internet.

Advantages of the Internet:

1. Access to Information: The internet is a vast source
of information, with billions of web pages covering
almost every topic imaginable. This makes it easy to
find information on almost any subject.
2. Communication: The internet has revolutionized
communication by providing instant messaging,
email, social media, and other tools for people to
connect with each other across the globe.
3. Convenience: The internet has made many things
more convenient, such as online shopping, online
banking, and online booking of travel
arrangements.
4. Entertainment: The internet offers a wide variety of
entertainment options, such as streaming video and
music, online games, and social media platforms.
5. Global Marketplace: The internet has enabled
businesses to reach customers around the world,
creating a global marketplace that was not possible
before.
• Disadvantages of the Internet:
 1. Cybersecurity threats: The internet is vulnerable to
cybersecurity threats such as viruses, malware, and
hacking. This can result in the loss of personal and
sensitive information.
2. Addiction: The internet can be addictive, with
people spending hours on social media and other
online activities, sometimes at the expense of other
important aspects of life such as work and
relationships.
3. Information Overload: The sheer amount of
information available on the internet can be
overwhelming, making it difficult to find relevant
and reliable information.
4. Misinformation: The internet is also a source of
misinformation and fake news, which can lead to
confusion, misunderstandings, and even harm.
5. Social Isolation: While the internet has made it
easier to connect with people around the world, it
can also lead to social isolation as people spend
more time online and less time engaging with
others in person.
5.describe TCP/IP protocol model.
The TCP/IP protocol model is a conceptual framework
for how data is transmitted over the Internet. It consists
of four layers, each of which plays a specific role in the
communication process. The layers, from lowest to
highest, are:
1. The Link Layer: The lowest layer of the TCP/IP model
is the Link layer, which is responsible for
transmitting data over a physical network medium,
such as Ethernet or Wi-Fi. This layer defines the
physical and electrical characteristics of the network,
and is responsible for managing the transmission of
data packets between devices on the same network.
2. The Internet Layer: The second layer of the TCP/IP
model is the Internet layer, which is responsible for
routing packets of data between different networks.
This layer uses the Internet Protocol (IP) to identify
devices on the network, and to route data packets
to their intended destinations.
3. The Transport Layer: The third layer of the TCP/IP
model is the Transport layer, which is responsible
for ensuring reliable data transmission between
devices. This layer uses protocols such as TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol) to break data into
smaller packets, transmit them over the network,
and then reassemble them at the receiving end.
4. The Application Layer: The highest layer of the
TCP/IP model is the Application layer, which is
responsible for supporting specific applications and
services, such as email, web browsing, and file
 sharing. This layer defines the protocols and
standards used by these applications to
communicate over the network.
The TCP/IP protocol model is a standardized
framework that allows devices from different vendors
and with different operating systems to communicate
with each other over the Internet. By dividing the
communication process into distinct layers, the model
makes it easier to develop and maintain network
infrastructure, and to troubleshoot network problems.
6.describe osi refference model.

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) reference

model is a conceptual framework for how data is
transmitted over a network. It consists of seven layers,
each of which has a specific function in the
communication process. The layers, from lowest to
highest, are:
1. The Physical Layer: The Physical layer is responsible
for transmitting raw data over a physical medium,
such as copper wires or fiber optic cables. It defines
the electrical, mechanical, and timing specifications
of the network, and ensures that data is transmitted
reliably over the physical medium.
2. The Data Link Layer: The Data Link layer is
responsible for transmitting data over a local
 network, such as Ethernet or Wi-Fi. It defines how
data is formatted into packets and transmitted over
the physical medium, and provides error detection
and correction to ensure data integrity.
3. The Network Layer: The Network layer is responsible
for routing data between networks. It uses logical
addressing to identify devices on the network, and
determines the best path for data to travel from the
source to the destination.
4. The Transport Layer: The Transport layer is
responsible for reliable end-to-end delivery of data.
It uses protocols such as TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol) to
establish connections, break data into packets,
transmit them over the network, and ensure that
they are reassembled in the correct order at the
receiving end.
5. The Session Layer: The Session layer is responsible
for establishing, maintaining, and terminating
sessions between applications. It manages
communication between applications, and provides
mechanisms for error recovery and flow control.
6. The Presentation Layer: The Presentation layer is
responsible for ensuring that data is presented in a
format that can be understood by the application. It
handles data compression, encryption, and
 decryption, and translates between different data
formats.
7. The Application Layer: The Application layer is
responsible for supporting specific applications and
services, such as email, file sharing, and web
browsing. It defines the protocols and standards
used by these applications to communicate over the
network.
The OSI reference model is a standardized framework
that allows devices from different vendors and with
different operating systems to communicate with each
other. By dividing the communication process into
distinct layers, the model makes it easier to develop and
maintain network infrastructure, and to troubleshoot
network problems.
7.define internet.

The Internet is a global network of computer systems

and other digital devices that are interconnected and
communicate with each other using a standardized set
of communication protocols. It is a vast network of
networks, connecting millions of computers and devices
around the world, allowing people to communicate,
share information, and access a wide range of services
and resources.
8.define computer network.
A computer network is a collection of computers,
servers, and other devices that are interconnected with
each other to share information, resources, and services.
Networks can be small, such as a few computers in a
home or office, or large, such as the global Internet that
connects millions of computers and devices around the
world.
9.Difference between LAN,WAN and MAN.
10.Define Protocol?
A protocol is a set of rules and guidelines that govern the way in which data is
transmitted over a network. It defines the format and sequence of messages
exchanged between devices or systems, as well as the actions to be taken
under various conditions. Protocols can be used for a variety of purposes,
including communication between computers, routing of information over a
network, and transmission of data between different applications or services.
Some common examples of protocols include TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol), HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), SMTP (Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol), and FTP (File Transfer protocol).
11.discuss the advantage and disadvantages of mesh topology?
Mesh topology is a type of network topology in which each node is connected
to every other node in the network. This creates a highly redundant network
that can quickly and efficiently transfer data between nodes, without relying
on any centralized routing or switching device. While mesh topology offers
several advantages, it also has some disadvantages that should be taken into
account when considering its use.

Advantages of Mesh Topology:

1. High Reliability: Mesh topology is highly reliable as it has multiple

paths to reach a destination node. If one path fails, the data can still
reach its destination through another available path.
2. Scalability: Mesh topology is highly scalable because new nodes can
be added to the network without affecting the performance of the
network.
3. Security: Mesh topology provides a high level of security as it is
difficult for unauthorized users to access the network since every
node acts as a potential barrier to entry.
4. High Bandwidth: Mesh topology has high bandwidth as every node
can communicate with every other node simultaneously.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology:

1. High Cost: Mesh topology is expensive to implement as it requires a

large number of cables and ports to connect every node with each
other.
 2. Complexity: Mesh topology can be very complex as it requires careful
planning and configuration to ensure proper connectivity between
nodes.
3. Maintenance: Mesh topology can be difficult to maintain as any failure
or changes in one node can affect the connectivity of the entire
network.
4. Difficulty in Installation: Mesh topology requires specialized skills and
expertise to install and configure, which can be a challenge for small
organizations or those without the necessary resources.

In summary, mesh topology is a highly reliable and scalable network topology

that provides a high level of security and high bandwidth. However, it can be
complex, expensive, and difficult to maintain and install. Its advantages and
disadvantages should be carefully considered when deciding whether or not
to implement it in a particular network environment.

12.discuss the advantages and disadvantages of star

topology.
Star topology is a type of network topology in which all the nodes are
connected to a central device, called a hub or switch. Each node
communicates with the hub, which acts as a traffic controller, managing
and directing the flow of data within the network. While star topology
offers several advantages, it also has some disadvantages that should be
taken into account when considering its use.

Advantages of Star Topology:

1. Easy to Install and Manage: Star topology is easy to install and

manage as it only requires a single central device (hub/switch) to be
configured and maintained.
2. High Reliability: Star topology is highly reliable as it ensures that the
failure of one node does not affect the other nodes in the network.
3. Scalability: Star topology is highly scalable as new nodes can be
added to the network easily by connecting them to the central
device.
4. Centralized Control: Star topology provides centralized control as the
hub/switch can monitor and control the flow of data in the network,
making it easy to manage and troubleshoot.
Disadvantages of Star Topology:

1. Single Point of Failure: Star topology has a single point of failure as

the entire network depends on the central device (hub/switch). If the
central device fails, the entire network goes down.
2. Limited Bandwidth: Star topology has limited bandwidth as all the
nodes share the same communication channel, which can cause
congestion and slow down the network.
3. Costly: Star topology can be costly to implement as it requires a
central device (hub/switch) and dedicated cables for each node.
4. Limited Distance: Star topology has limited distance as the distance
between the central device (hub/switch) and the nodes is limited by
the length of the cables.

In summary, star topology is easy to install and manage, highly reliable, and
scalable. However, it has a single point of failure, limited bandwidth, can be
costly to implement, and has limited distance. Its advantages and
disadvantages should be carefully considered when deciding whether or
not to implement it in a particular network environment.