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 Contents

Page 1 Page 6 Page 12 Page 14

States of Atomic
Unit 1 Isotopes Bonding
matter structure

Page 19 Page 21 Page 27 Page 32

Chemical Metals Reactivity Solid

formula and alloys series structure

Page 39 Page 46 Page 49

Acids and Preparation

Unit 2 bases
Oxides
of salts

Page 58 Page 64 Page 74 Page 79 Page 85

Redox Metal Electrochemical

Unit 3 reactions
Electrolysis
extraction cell
Rusting

Page 88 Page 92 Page 104 Page 109

Chemical reaction & Rate of chemical Chemistry Reversible

Unit 4 physical changes reactions & energy reactions

Page 114 Page 126

Unit 5 Air and water Non-metals

Page 137 Page 176

Unit 6 Organic chemistry Moles

 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
01. States of Matter

States of Matter
 All matter is made up of tiny particles.
 All matter can exist is three states: solid, liquid and gas.
 The Individual particles of the substance are the same in each state; they only differ in their
arrangements.

Rigid Not rigid No rigid

Fixed shape No fixed shape No fixed shape
Fixed volume Fixed volume No fixed volume

Sate Arrangement of particles Motion of particles

Solid Close together in a regular arrangement Vibrate at fixed point

Liquid Still close together in an irregular arrangement Move past each other

Move quickly and spread

Gas Far apart and widely separated
apart from one another

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
01. States of Matter
 Kinetic particle theory

The kinetic particle theory is a theory which accounts for the bulk properties of
different states of matter in terms of the movement of particles (atoms, molecules and
ions)
- All matter is made up of very small particles (different substances contain different
types of particles, such as atoms, molecules or ions)
- Particles are moving all the time (the higher temperature the higher average energy
of the particles).
- The freedom of movement and the arrangement of the particles is different for the
three states of matter.
- The pressure of a gas is produced by the atoms or molecules of the gas hitting the
walls of the container ,The more often the particles collide with the walls, the greater
the pressure.

 Phenomena such as evaporation, condensation, melting and freezing

can be explained by the kinetic theory as follow .
 Melting: when a solid is heated, its particles get more
energy and vibrate more breaking away from their
position. Thus, the solid becomes a liquid.
 Evaporation: when particles of liquid gain energy they
move apart and the liquid becomes gas.
 Sublimation: This is the change of state from solid to
vapor or from vapor to solid without passing through
the liquid state.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
01. States of Matter
 Difference between boiling and evaporation.
 Boiling: When a liquid is heated, its particles get more energy and move faster. At the
boiling point, the particles get enough energy to overcome the forces holding them
together so they break away from liquid and form gas.
 Evaporation: some particles in a liquid have more energy than others, even when a
liquid is well below the boiling point. Some particles have enough energy to escape and
from a gas.

Boiling Evaporation

Usually occurs throughout the liquid Usually occurs on the surface of the liquid

Occurs at specific temperature Occurs at any temperature(over the range)

Rapid process Slow process

Bubbling effect is visible Bubbling effect is not visible

 The rate of evaporation increases with increasing the temperature and increasing the surface
area.
 Pure substances have fixed and definite melting point and boiling point.
 Impurities lower the melting point and increase the boiling point within the range.
Ex. pure water melts at 0c. and boils at 100c. While impure water melts in the range between 0 c.
to -2c. boils in the range between 100c. to 105c.
 Heating curve
 By heating the temperature increase, so the
particles gain energy.
 The particles move rapidly thus they get
Vaporization
separated from each other and state changes
Condensation
from solid to liquid to gas.
Melting
 The energy taken in is used to overcome the Freezing

intermolecular forces.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
01. States of Matter

 Cooling curve.
Change of state - Cooling
 As the temperature decrease, the particles move Curve
slowly and interact with each other more strongly
therefore they get closer to each other.
 When state changes from gas to liquid to solid the
intermolecular forces increase between particles, the
energy is given out.
Time

 Diffusion.
 Diffusion is the movement of particles from area of high concentration to area of low
concentration.
 This is the spreading out and mixing process, seen mainly in gases and liquids. The
particles of one substance mix with the particles of another and move through them.
Diffusion goes until the mixture is uniform.
 Particles diffuse fast in the gas, slowly in liquid and not diffuse in solid.

 Diffusion in gases.

Diffusion is fastest in gases. The particles in gases are moving faster than in liquid.
Demonstrating diffusion in lab:

1. Cotton wool soaked in ammonia solution is put into one end of a log tube. It gives
off ammonia gas.
2. At the same time another cotton wool is soaked in hydrochloric acid is put into the
other end of the tube. It gives hydrogen chloride gas.
3. The gases diffuse along the tube white smoke forms where they meet.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
01. States of Matter

The white smoke forms closer to the left end of the tube, so ammonia particles have
travelled faster than the hydrogen chloride particles in the same time.

 The rate of diffusion of gases depends on the molecular mass (Mr).

 The smaller the molecular mass, the faster the rate of diffusion.

 Mr is calculated by getting the sum of relative atomic masses of the atoms (Ar) that form the
molecule.
 Ar is the number written below the element symbol in the periodic table .

Example: prove that ammonia diffuses faster than hydrogen chloride .

14N 1H 35.5Cl

Relative molecular mass (Mr) of:

1. Ammonia (NH3): (1 x 14) + (3 x 1) = 17
2. Hydrogen chloride: (1 x 1) + (1 x 35.5) = 36.5
Ammonia has smaller Mr than hydrogen chloride. Therefore, ammonia diffuses faster.
 Diffusion also takes place in liquids. For example if a crystal of potassium manganate (VII) is
placed in a beaker of water, the water slowly turns purple.

 The particles of the crystal and the water particles move among each other, so they become
evenly mixed. This is called diffusion.

Terminology
Diffusion: The random moving of particles in liquid and gases from high concentration to low
concentration.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
02. Atomic structure

Atomic structure
 Atoms are the smallest particles that can participate in a chemical reaction.
 Each atom consists of a nucleus and a cloud of particles called electrons.
 The nucleus itself contains 2 particles: protons and neutrons.

Particle Charge Mass

Proton Positive 1 1 unit
Neutron Neutral 1 unit
Electrons Negative 1 1/1840 unit

 An atom is neutral because number of positive protons equal to number of negative

electrons.
 Mass of the atom is concentered in its nucleus as mass of electrons found outside the
nucleus is very small and can be neglected.
 Atomic number is also called number of protons.
 Nucleon number (mass number) is the total number of protons and neutrons inside the
nucleus of an atom.

Example: carbon atom, 6C12

Number of protons: 6
Number of electrons: 6
Mass number: 12
Number of neutrons: 12-6 =6

To find number of neutrons: Mass number-Atomic number (protons)

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
02. Atomic structure

 The arrangement of the electrons in an atom.

 The electrons in an atom circle fast around the nucleus, at different levels from it.
 These energy levels are called electron shells.
 The further the shell is from the nucleus, the higher the energy levels.
 Each shell can hold a limited number of electrons: first shell can hold up to 2 electrons,
second shell can hold up to 8 electrons.
 The third shell can hold 18 electrons, but it become more stable if it hold 8 electrons.
 The shells fill in order from lowest energy level to highest energy level.
 Electronic configuration means the arrangement of electrons in an atom.

Example:
 Oxygen has 8 electrons, so its electronic configuration: 2,6
 Magnesium has 12 electrons, so its electronic configuration: 2,8,2

Oxygen Magnesium

 The outer shell is called the valency shell and the electrons of the outer shell is the
valency electrons.
 Elements of the same group in the periodic table contain the same number of electrons in
their outer shell. For example group 1 elements they have 1 electron in their outer shell,
while group 7 elements they have 7 electrons in their outer shell.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
02. Atomic structure
 The Periodic table.
The periodic table is a list of all the elements, which are placed according to the increasing of
their atomic number. The horizontal rows are called periods, and the vertical columns are
called groups.
G8
G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 G7

P1

P2

P3
Transition metals
P4

P5
P6
P7

 NOTE
Vertical (group)
Horizontal (period)

 Groups
 The group number tells you how many electrons are in the outer shell of the atom.
 All elements in the same group have same chemical properties.
 Group 0 (8) elements have full outer shell. This makes them unreactive.
 Some groups have special names.
 Group 1: The alkali metals
 Group 2: The alkaline earth metals
 Group 7: The halogens
 Group 0: The noble gases
 Period
 The period number tells you how many electron shells there.
 Hydrogen: sits alone in the table because it’s the only element with one electron in first
shell.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
02. Atomic structure

 Trends in the periodic table.

 The reactivity of group 1 and 2 increase down the group.
Rb > K > Na > Li
 The reactivity of group 7 decreases down the group.
F > Cl > Br > I
 More details about reactivity will be discussed later.

 The formation of ions.

All atoms want to reach stability, to become stable they should have full outer shell electrons.

To have full outer shell electron wither lose or gain electrons.

Example 1: Sodium atom has 11 protons and 11 electrons. Its electronic configuration
2,8,1. Now sodium has 1 electron in its outer shell, to reach stability it will lose the
electron (1) in its outer shell to reach full outer shell electron and become stable.
Therefore, it will form positive ion (p > e-). So now, sodium ion has 11 protons and 10
electrons. Its electronic configuration 2,8.

Example 2: Oxygen atom has 8 protons and 8 electrons. Its electronic configuration 2,6.
Now oxygen has 2 electrons in its outer shell, to reach stability it will gain 2 electrons to
reach full outer shell electron and become stable. Therefore, it will form negative ion (p
< e-). So now, oxygen ion has 8 protons and 10 electrons. Its electronic configuration 2,8.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
02. Atomic structure

 The difference between valency and valency electron.

 Valency: is the number of electrons lost, gained, or shared by an atom to reach the
stability of nearest inert gas.
 Valency electron: is the number of outer shell electron of an atom.

Example 1: Magnesium has 2 electrons in its outer shell (valency electron), to be 8

electron and have the electronic configuration of the nearest inert gas it easier to lose 2
electrons, so we can say the valency of magnesium is 2 since it lost 2 electrons.

Example 2: chlorine has 7 electrons in its outer shell (valency electron), to be 8

electron and have the electronic configuration of the nearest inert gas it easier to gain 1
electron, so we can say the valency of chlorine is 1 since it gained 1 electrons.

 Important notes:
1. We can know the position of any element by its number of protons.
2. Atom(neutral) means it has equal number of protons and electrons
3. Hydrogen forms positive ions
4. The metals form positive ions by losing electron. (so protons become more than
electrons)
5. Non-metals form negative ions. (so electrons become more than protons)
6. When non- metals form compounds their name end with “ide” for example: Chloride,
oxide, sulfide, fluoride etc.
7. Group 4 do not usually form ions because they neither lose or gain several electrons
and this takes too much energy.
8. Group 0 elements do not form ions because they already have full outer shell.
9. Some of the transition metals form more than one ion.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
02. Atomic structure

Terminology
Atom: The smallest particle of an element.
 Atoms are made of protons, electrons and neutrons.

Atomic number: Number of protons in one atom of an element.

Electron: Negatively charged particle that forms the outer part of all atoms.
Ion: Particle containing different numbers of protons and electrons.
Mass number: The number of protons and neutrons in an atom. (also known as the nucleon
number)
Neutron: Particle in the nucleus of atoms that have mass but no charge.
Nucleus: the tiny center of an atom, typically made up of protons and neutrons.
Nucleon number (mass number): The total number of protons and neutrons in one atom of an
element.
Proton: Positively charged particles in the nucleus of atoms.
Proton number (atomic number): The number of protons in an atom.
Valency electrons: The outermost electrons of an atom.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
03. Isotopes

Isotopes
Definition: atoms of the same element having the same number of protons but different
number of neutrons.

P: 6 e: 6 n: 6 P: 6 e: 6 n: 7 P: 6 e: 6 n: 8

Most carbon atoms are carbon 12. One in every 100 carbon atoms is carbon 13.Carbon 14 is
very rare.

 Note
 Isotopes have different physical properties (such as density and melting point)
because they have different masses.
 Isotopes have same chemical properties because they have same number of
electrons in the outer shell
 Some isotopes are radioactive: which means that its nucleus is unstable, eventually
the atoms break down or decays giving out radiation in the form of rays and tiny
particles as well as large amount of energy.
 An atom cannot be weighted on a balance, but the mass of one atom can be
compared to that of another using a mass spectrometer.
 The element carbon ( C ) has been chosen as the standard

 Relative atomic mass of isotopes (Ar): average mass of all isotopes of an element
relative to carbon -12.
Example 1: Chlorine has 2 isotopes and their abundance are 75% and 25% successively.
Answer: Ar of chlorine = (35*75/100)+ (37*25/100) =35.5
Example 2: Bromine has 2 isotopes and their abundance are 51% and 49%
successively.
Answer: Ar of bromine = (79*51/100)+ (81*49/100) =79.9

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
03. Isotopes

Terminology
Isotopes: Atoms of the sane element that contain same protons and electrons number but
different number of neutrons.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
04. Bonding

Bonding
Most elements form compounds because they want a full outer shell to reach stability.

There are two types of bonding

Ionic Covalent
 Reaction occurs between: Metal & Non-metal  Reaction occurs between: two non-
 The metal atom loses electrons to become a metals
positive ion and the non- metal gains electron to  The 2 non-metals share equal number
become a negative ion. of electrons

 Ionic bond

Definition: the electrostatic attraction force between positive and negative ions in the
compound.

 Metal lose electrons and becomes a positive ions.

 Non-metal gain electrons and becomes a negative ions.
 Electrostatic attraction force between positive and negative ions.

 Properties of ionic compound.

1. Solids at room temperature.
2. High melting and boiling points because of strong attraction forces between
positive and negative ions (oppositely charged ions).
3. Conduct electricity when molten or aqueous. Due to presence of free moving ions.
4. Soluble in water and polar solvent.
5. Low Volatility.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
04. Bonding

Example 1: Sodium chloride

Sodium and chlorine reacts together; sodium gives its electron to chlorine. Now both
elements have a full outer shell, but with a charge. Therefore, they became ions.
 Sodium now has 10 electrons and 11 protons, so it has a positive charge.
 Chlorine now has 18 electrons and 17 protons, so it has a negative charge.
 The two ions have opposite charges, so they attract each other. The force of
attraction between them is strong. And It called an ionic bond.

+ -

 Because the sodium atom has lost one negative electron. It became a positive ion.
 Because the chlorine atom has gained one electron. It became a negative ion.
 Sodium chloride is made of sodium ions and chloride ions held together by an
electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.

Example 2: Magnesium oxide

2+ 2-

Example 3: Calcium chloride

- 2 -
+

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
04. Bonding

 Covalent bond.

Definition: the electrostatic attraction force between shared pair of electron and nuclei of
each atom.

 Covalent bonds take place between non-metal atoms by sharing electrons.

 When a pair of electrons is shared, it is called a single covalent bond.
 When 2 pairs of electrons are shared, it is called a double covalent bond.
 When 3 pairs of electrons are shared, it is called triple covalent bond.

 Properties of covalent compound.

1. They are often liquids or gases at room temperature.
2. Low melting and boiling points because of weak attraction forces between
MOLECULES.
3. They do not conduct electricity. No presence of free moving ions and electrons.
4. Soluble in organic solvent. (only few covalent compounds are soluble in water)
5. High Volatility. (evaporate easily)

Example 1: Hydrogen chloride (single covalent bond)

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
04. Bonding

Example 2: Methane CH4 (single covalent bond)

Example 3: Oxygen O2 (Double covalent bond)

Example 4: Nitrogen N2 (Triple covalent bond)

 The difference between Cl2, 2Cl, and 2Cl2.

 Cl2 means one molecule of chlorine.
 2Cl means two atoms of chlorine.
 2Cl2 means two molecules of chlorine.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
04. Bonding

Terminology
Covalent bond: Electrostatic attraction force between shared pair of electrons and nucleus of
each atom.
Ionic Bond: Electrostatic attraction force between oppositely charged ions.
Volatile: Easily turning to a gas.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
05. Chemical Formula

Chemical Formula
The chemical formula is a short hand for writing the names of ionic compounds and covalent
compounds.

 To write a chemical formula you have to follow the following steps.

1. Write down the symbol of the elements.
2. Write the valency of each one.
3. Cross the valency.

Example 1: Lithium chloride. Example 2: Lithium sulfide.

 Transition metals have more than one oxidation state, so the name of transition
metals must the oxidation state.
 The names of ionic compound is formed by putting name of metal and non-metal together,
but the non-metal had to end with -ide such as: Li+ and Cl- will be Lithium chloride.
 The compound must have no overall charge so we balance the ions until the charge add up
to zero.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
05. Chemical Formula

 Group radicals.

Valency Positive ions Negative ions

H+ Hydrogen OH- Hydroxide
1 Ag+ Silver NO3- Nitrate
NH4+ Ammonium NO2- Nitrite
Pb2+ lead
SO32- Sulphite
Cu2+ Copper
2 SO42- Sulphate
Zn2+ Zinc
CO32- carbonate
Fe2+ Iron
PO43- Phosphate
3 Fe3+ Iron
PO33- Phosphite

 Write the following formulas.

1) Sodium chloride…………………………………………………………………………..

2) Aluminum nitrate………………………………………………………………………….

3) Zinc chloride………………………………..……………………………………………..

4) Ammonium carbonate ………………………………………………………….………..

5) Copper (II) sulphate………………………………………………………………….…..

6) Magnesium Nitride……………………………..…………………………………….…..

7) Copper (II) nitrate………………………………………………………………….……..

8) Iron (iii) oxide…………………………………………………………….………………..

9) Calcium Chloride……………………………………………………………………..…..

10) Potassium oxide…………………………...……………………………..……………..

Terminology
Molecule: A group of two or more atoms covalently bonded together

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
06. Metal and Alloys

Metals and Alloys

Element: is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substance by chemical
methods.

Elements can be classified into

Metals Non-metals

Metals Non-metals
They are usually solids at room temperature, They are solids or gases at room
except mercury is liquid. temperature, except bromine is liquid

They have high melting and boiling point. They have low melting and boiling point.
They are Poor conductor of electricity,
All metals are good conductor of electricity. except graphite, a form of carbon.
They tend to be insulators.
They are good conductor of heat. They are poor thermal conductor
They are malleable as their shape can be
changed by hammering. They are ductile as they Most non-metals are brittle when solid
can be pulled out into wires.
They are grey in colour, except for gold and They vary in colour. They have a dull
copper. surface when solid.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
06. Metal and Alloys

 Properties of metals:
 All metals are silvery grey EXCEPT Copper Reddish brown and Gold Yellow.
 Group I,II,III form white compounds

 Comparison between group 1 and transition metals.

Name Group 1 Transition metals

Soft Hard
Physical properties Low melting point High melting point
Low density High density
They have more than one oxidation
They have one oxidation state
state
Chemical properties Does not act as a catalyst They act as a catalyst
They form white compounds.
They Form coloured compounds
Colourless in solution.
They form basic oxides (chemical property)
Common property They are good conductor of electricity (physical property)
They are shiny (physical property)

 Group II- the alkaline earth metals:

 Group 2 consists of the five metals: beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium,
and the radioactive element radium.
 They are harder than those of group (I).
 They are silvery grey in color when pure and clean.
 They tarnish quickly when left in air due to the formation of a metal oxide on their
surfaces.
 They are good electric conductor of heat and electricity.
 As we go down the group, the reactivity increases.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
06. Metal and Alloys

 Properties of group 1:
 Highest
As we go down the group: melting point
Reactivity increases  Least reactive

Melting point decreases

Density increases

 Lower
melting point
 Most reactive

 Uses of metals.
Aluminum

Low density Resist corrosion

Due to protective oxide layer
• Overhead Power lines  Kitchen foil
• Aircrafts  Can
 Cooking utensils

Metal Particular purpose Uses

Copper Conducts electricity Electrical wires

Iron Hard Bridges

Tin Not poisonous Coating cans

Zinc More reactive than iron Galvanising iron

 Note: overhead power lines are composed of an inner steel core to increase their strength
surrounded by an outer sheath of aluminum.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
06. Metal and Alloys

 Alloys.
Definition: is a mixture of elements (usually metals) designed to have the properties
useful for a particular purpose.

 Alloys are formed by mixing molten metals together and allowing them to cool.
 Alloys are considered as solid solution.
 Alloys formed by physical reaction not chemical reaction.
 Alloys are mixture therefore, they cannot be represented by chemical formula.
 Alloying often results in a metal that is stronger and more resist corrosion than
the original individual metals.
 An alloy has lower melting point and higher boiling point than the pure metal
from it.
 Alloys have lower electrical conductivity than the pure metal.

Look at the figure you will see that in case of pure metal, layers can slip easily while in
case of alloy, the impurity atoms (different size ) reduces the slip between the layers.

Applying force

Applying force

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
06. Metal and Alloys

 Some important alloys

Particular
Alloy Typical composition Uses
properties

Harder than pure

Brass Copper 70% and zinc 30% Ornaments
copper

Harder than pure

Bronze Copper 90% and tin 10% Ornaments
copper

Stronger and
Car bodies and
Mild steel Iron 99.7% and carbon 0.3% harder than pure
Machine
iron
Iron 74%, chromium 18% Harder than pure Cutlery, surgery tools
Stainless Steel
and nickel 8% iron, does not rust and Chemical Plant
High Carbon Harder than Mild Knives, hammer and
Iron and carbon 0.08-2%
Steel Steel cutting tools
Lower melting
Solder Tin 50% and lead 50% point than tin or In welding
lead

 What is meant by steel alloy?

A mixture that contains iron with other elements.
 Explain why high carbon steel harder than mild steel?
Because the different size of particles reduce moving.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
06. Metal and Alloys

Terminology
Alloy: A solid mixture of two or more metals.
Compound: two or more elements joined together chemically.
Element: A substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by any chemical
change.
Metal: An element with particular properties (usually hard, shiny and a good conductor of heat
and electricity)
Non-metal: An element with particular properties (usually a gas or soft solid and a poor
conductor of heat and electricity).
Mixture: Two or more substances combined without a chemical reaction –they can be separated
easily.
Transition Metal: Elements found between Group II and III in the periodic table. Often used as
catalysts and often make compounds that have colored solutions.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
07. Reactivity Series

Reactivity Series

The reactivity series is a list of metals in order of their drive to form positive ions. The more
reactive the metal, the more easily it gives up electrons to form positive ions.

Potassium (K)
React with cold water forming:
Sodium (Na)
Metal hydroxide + Hydrogen
Extracted by electrolysis
Calcium (Ca)
Magnesium (Mg) React
Aluminum (Al) with
Carbon (C) acid
React with steam forming:
Zinc (Zn)
Metal oxide + Hydrogen
Iron (Fe)
Tin (Sn)
Lead (Pb)

Their oxides are reduced with Hydrogen (H)

carbon Copper (Cu)
Mercury (Hg) Exist freely uncombined in rocks
Silver (Ag) They are native elements
Gold (Au)
Platinum (Pt)

 Metals above hydrogen react with dilute acids to form salt and hydrogen, while
metals below it do not react with dilute acids.
 Metals at the top of reactivity series are the most reactive metals, while those at
the bottom are the least reactive metals.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
07. Reactivity Series

 Points to consider about the reactivity series:

 The higher the metal in the series, the more reactive it is. In addition, their
reactions are fast, most vigorous and they produce energy (exothermic).
 As we go down the series, the reactivity decreases.
 The more reactive the metal, the more stable its compound. A stable compound
is difficult to break down; therefore, they are more difficult to be extracted from
their ores (compounds).
 The more reactive the metal, the more it has tendency to form compounds
 The most reactive metal (upper metals) have greater tendency to form positive
ions and they are the best reducing agents (they reduce other metal ions from
their compounds to neutral atoms).
 The more reactive (upper metals) have more tendency to corrosion with oxygen
and water.
 The more reactive (upper metals) can displace less reactive metals below it in
the series, from their oxides, chlorides or sulphates.
 Hydrogen and carbon are included but they are non-metals because they are good
reference for reactivity of metals.
 Metals below hydrogen will not displace hydrogen from acids and can be extracted
by heating the oxide in hydrogen.

From the most to the least:

Explosive Violent Vigorous

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
07. Reactivity Series

 Reactions of metals.
1) Reaction with water.
A. The most reactive metals (Potassium, Sodium, and Calcium).
They react vigorously with cold water to form the metal hydroxide.
-Potassium + water Potassium hydroxide + Hydrogen
2K (s) + 2H2O (l) 2KOH (aq) + H2 (g)
 Calcium reacts readily but not violently with cold water to form hydrogen and
calcium hydroxide solution.

B. Magnesium.

Reacts with cold water slowly forming the slightly soluble alkali magnesium
hydroxide and hydrogen gas.

-Magnesium + water Magnesium hydroxide + Hydrogen

Mg (s) + 2H2O (l) Mg (OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)

 Powdered magnesium reacts with cold water with a faster rate due to the
increase in the surface area.

Reaction with steam is faster with heated magnesium forming white powder.
Magnesium oxide and hydrogen.

-Magnesium + Steam Magnesium oxide + Hydrogen

Mg (s) + H2O (g) MgO (s) + H2 (g)

C. Zinc and Iron.

 They do not react with cold water.

 They only react with steam forming the oxide and hydrogen.
-Zinc + Steam Zinc oxide + Hydrogen

Zn + H2O (g) ZnO + H2

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
07. Reactivity Series

D. Silver, Gold and Platinum.

 No reaction with cold water or when heated with steam.

2) Reaction with oxygen.

A. The most reactive metals.

Burn vigorously with a colored flame when heated in air to form the white powder
metal oxide.

Example: potassium burns vigorously with a lilac flame when heated in air to form
the white powder potassium oxide.

B. Silver, Gold and Platinum.

 No reaction when heated in air.

3) Reaction with acids.

A. All metals above hydrogen.

They can displace hydrogen from the acid and form the corresponding salt and
hydrogen gas evolves.

-Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid Magnesium chloride + Hydrogen

Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

-Calcium + Sulphuric acid Calcium sulphate + Hydrogen

Ca(s) + H2SO4 (aq) CaSO4(s) + H2 (g)

 It is very dangerous to react very reactive metals (potassium and sodium) with
steam or acids, as they would cause explosion
 Going down the reactivity series the reaction becomes slower until we get
closer to hydrogen.
 Going down below hydrogen, elements Cu, Ag and Au do not react with acids.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
07. Reactivity Series

4) Reaction with salts of other metals.

A. Any metal can displace a less reactive metal from its salts.

-Magnesium + iron (II) sulphate Magnesium sulphate + Iron

Mg(s) + FeSO4 (aq) MgSO4 (aq) + Fe (s)

B. A less reactive metal cannot displace a more metal from its salt.

-Copper + zinc (II) sulphate No reaction

Cu (s) + ZnSO4 (aq) No reaction

5) Reduction with carbon.

A. Metal oxides below Carbon can reduced by heating with carbon.

-Carbon + Zinc oxide Carbon dioxide + Zinc

C + 2ZnO CO2 + 2Zn

B. Metal oxides above Carbon cannot reduced by heating with carbon.

-Carbon + Aluminum oxide No reaction

C + Al2O3 No Reaction

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
08. Solid Structure

Solid structure

 Giant Ionic structure

Giant ionic structure is the structure of most ionic compounds in the solid state.

The description of ionic structure:

Regular arrangement (lattice) of alternating positive and negative

ions in ionic crystals. Where the ions are held together by an
electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.

 Properties of Giant Ionic structure.

1. All crystalline solids at room temperature.
2. They are hard but brittle
3. They have high melting and boiling points
Reason: they have strong electrostatic attraction force between +ve and –ve ions, which
requires higher energy to overcome.
4. Conduct electricity when molten or aqueous but not in solid state.
Reason: Due to presence of free moving ions, but in solid state ions are not free
to move.
5. Soluble in water and polar solvent and insoluble in organic solvent such as alcohol and
benzene.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
08. Solid Structure

 Giant metallic structure.

The description of metallic structure:

Positive metal ions are well arranged in a metallic crystal lattice surrounded by sea of
mobile electrons. There is a strong attraction forces between positive ions and free
electrons.

 Properties of Giant Ionic structure.

1. They are hard.
Reason: they have non-directional attraction forces between positive ions and the
sea of electrons are strong enough to make the metal hard.
2. They are good conductor of heat and electricity.
3. Reason: Due to presence of free moving mobile electrons (not free ions) which
can carry electricity.
4. They are malleable and ductile.
5. Reason: As Metals consist of layers which can slide over each other.
6. Can form alloys.

Reason: Ions of any metal can accommodate ions of different metals in their lattice.

Malleability: Is the ability of metals to be stretched as sheets by the effect of heat and
external forces like hammering.

Ductility: Is the ability of metals to be stretched as wires by the effect of heat and external forces.

Metallic bonding is very strong in some metals like iron, copper (transition metals), and is
much weaker in sodium and potassium (group 1).

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
08. Solid Structure

Covalent Structure

Simple covalent Giant structure

• Single covalent bond • Sand (silicon dioxide)
• Double covalent bond • Diamond
• Triple covalent bond • Graphite

 Simple covalent structure.

This is the structure of most of covalent compounds such as water and carbon dioxide.
1. Single covalent bond: is formed when a pair of electrons is shared between two atoms.
(Non-metals)
2. Double covalent bond: is formed when two pairs of electrons is shared between two
atoms.
3. Triple covalent bond: is formed when three pairs of electrons is shared between two
atoms.

 Giant covalent structure.

1. Diamond.

The description of diamond:

Each carbon atom is attached to 4 carbon atoms, by strong covalent

bonds, in a tetrahedral 3-dimension structure.

Properties of diamond:
1. Hard.
2. High melting and boiling points.
3. Does not conduct electricity.
4. Insoluble in water.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
08. Solid Structure

 Explain why diamond is characterized by hardness and have high melting and
boiling points?

Diamond and all substances that have macromolecular structures are characterized by
their hardness, this is due to those strong covalent bonds and the atoms are arranged
in a tetrahedral shape. Which needs higher energy to overcome.

 Why diamond does not conduct electricity?

Due to the absence of free electrons or free ions.

2. Silicon dioxide (sand).

The description of Silicon dioxide:

Silicon has a giant covalent structure. Each silicon atom is bonded

to 4 oxygen atoms and each oxygen atom is bonded to 2 silicon
atoms by strong covalent bonds in a tetrahedral arrangement.

 Properties of silicon dioxide:

1. Hard.
Reason: Due to those many strong covalent bonds and the atoms are arranged in a
tetrahedral shape. which requires higher energy to overcome
2. High melting and boiling points.
3. Does not conduct electricity.
Reason: Due to the absence of free electrons or free ions.
4. Insoluble in water.

Germanium (IV) oxide (GeO4) has a macromolecular structure similar to silicon (IV)
oxide.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
08. Solid Structure

3. Graphite.
The description of graphite:
Carbon atoms are arranged in hexagons in parallel layers. The layers are held together by
weak forces. Each carbon atom is bonded to only 3 carbon atoms by covalent bonds.
Properties of graphite:
1. Soft.
2. High melting and boiling points.
3. Conducts electricity.
4. Insoluble in water.

Explain why graphite is soft?

Graphite does not have a tetrahedral structure like diamond. It is formed of layers, which
there is a weak attraction forces between them, so the layers can slide above each
other, making graphite able to change its shape, so it is soft.

Why does graphite conduct electricity?

Each carbon atom has four electrons, but graphite forms only three bonds. The fourth
electron is free to move through the graphite, carrying charge.

The thin layer of graphite is called graphene

 The Difference between graphite and diamond.

Graphite Diamond

Soft Hard
So it used as a lubricant and in pencils So it used in cutting and drilling
Conducts electricity Does not conduct electricity
Due the presence of free moving electrons, Due the absence of free moving electrons
so it used as electrodes in electrolysis and ions
Both diamond and graphite have very high melting points
As they consist of giant structures of atoms with very strong bonds between the atoms.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 1
08. Solid Structure

Terminology
Ionic Lattice:
Ionic: made of positive and negative ions.
Lattice: regular arrangement of particles.
Lattice: Regular arrangement of atoms or ions in the three-dimensional structure.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 2
09. Acid and base

Acid and Base

 Acid
Definition: An acid is a substance that dissolves in water to give hydrogen ions (H+). Acid is a
proton donor compound.
Strong acids: A strong acid is completely ionized in solution. The solution will contain a high
concentration of hydrogen ions.

Examples:-
Completely
-Hydrochloric acid (HCl) ionized
HCl H+ + Cl-
- Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
H2SO4 2H+ + SO42-
– Nitric acid (HNO3)
HNO3 H+ + NO3- Strong acid

Weak acids: A weak acid is partially ionized in solution. Most of the molecules will remain un-
ionized in the solution.
Partially
Examples:-
ionized
-Carbonic acid (H2CO3)
H2CO3 2H+ + CO32-
-Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH)
CH3COOH H+ + CH3COO-
Weak acid

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 2
09. Acid and base

Properties of acids.

1- Acids react with reactive metals to give a salt and hydrogen Hydrogen

Test: lighted splint

Acid + Metal Salt + Hydrogen.
Result: pop sound
Ex: 2HCl (aq) + Zn (s) ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

2-Acids react with bases (metal oxides or hydroxides) to produce salt and water (neutralization).

Acid + Base Salt + Water.

Ex: H2SO4 (aq) + CuO (s) CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l) Carbon dioxide

Test: limewater
Ex: H2SO4 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)
Result: turns milky

3- Acids react with metal carbonates to form a salt, carbon dioxide and water.

Acid + Metal carbonate Salt + Water + carbon dioxide.

Ex: 2HCl (aq) + CaCO3 (s) CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (g)

4- Aqueous solutions of acids turn the colour of litmus red. The change of colour is caused by
the hydrogen ions.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 2
09. Acid and base

 Base.
Definition: is a proton acceptor. Bases that dissolve (soluble) in water are called alkalis.
Bases are either metal oxides or metal hydroxides.
Common metal oxide: Na2O, K2O and CuO.
Common metal hydroxide: Ca(OH)2, NaOH and KOH.
Strong alkalis: They are alkalis that ionize in water completely producing high concentration of
hydroxide ions.

Examples:-
-Sodium hydroxide
NaOH Na+ + OH-
-Potassium hydroxide
KOH K+ + OH-

Weak alkalis: They are alkalis that ionize in water partially producing small amount of
hydroxide ions.
Examples:-
-Ammonium hydroxide
NH4OH NH4+ + OH-

Properties of bases and alkalis.

1- They neutralize acids to from salt and water (neutralization reaction).
Base + Acid Salt + Water.
Ex: NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
2- Alkalis react with ammonium salt to produce salt, water and ammonia gas.
Alkali + Ammonium salt Salt + Water + ammonia gas.
Ex: NaOH (aq)+ NH4Cl NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) + NH3 (g)
3- Alkalis (soluble bases) turn litmus blue. The change of colour is caused by the hydroxide ions.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 2
09. Acid and base

 pH scale.
The strength of an acid or an alkali is shown using a scale of numbers called the pH scale.
 Acids have low pH, which is less than 7.
 Alkalis have high pH, which is more than 7.
 Neutral solutions have pH of 7.

1 Acid Base 14
7
The smaller the number, the Neutral The bigger the number, the
stronger the acid stronger the alkali

 How can you measure the pH of a solution?

1) Using indicators.
Indicators: substances that change colour according to the pH of the solution they are in.
Indicators show only whether the solution is acidic, neutral or alkaline.

Colour change in
Indicator
Acidic Natural Alkaline

Methyl orange Red Orange Yellow

Litmus paper Red Violet Blue

Phenolphthalein Colorless Colorless Pink

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 2
09. Acid and base

2) Using universal indicator.

Universal indicator is a mixture of dyes that turns a different colour for every pH unit. Universal
indicator shows the strength of the acidic or alkaline solutions.

PH 1,2,3 4,5 5-6 7 8-9 10-11 12,13,14

Strong Weak Very weak Very weak weak Strong

Strength Neutral
acid acid acid alkali alkali alkali

Colour Red Orange Yellow Green Dark green Blue Violet

3) Using pH meter.
PH of coloured solutions cannot be measured using indicators. pH meter has to be used.

 What is meant by concentrated acid?

Concentration refers to the amount of water in an acid. A concentrated
acid has very little water in it. In a dilute acid, the acid is mixed with a
lot of water.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 2
09. Acid and base

 Comparing strengths of acids.

1) Using universal indicator.
On adding a universal indicator to a strong acid it gives red color, the weaker acid would give
orange or yellow, the universal indicator chart may give a precise pH value.

2) Using magnesium carbonate or any metal carbonate.

By adding magnesium carbonate or any metal carbonate to acids, the strongest acid will produce
rapid effervescence of carbon dioxide gas.
3) Measure the electrical conductivity.
Strong acid dissociates completely and produce more ions, hence conduct electricity more
strongly.
4) Titration. (Read only)
Titration is a practical laboratory technique to find out the end of a reaction between an acid and
an alkali.
If we have two acids, acid (A) and acid (B), which are of the same concentration.
A. 25 ml of one of the acids (A) is placed in the conical flask using a pipette.
B. Add a few drops of methyl orange indicator to the acid, which turns red.
C. The acid is then titrated against 0.1 mol/dm of sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH) from a
burette until the end point from red to orange.
D. Record the volume of sodium hydroxide solution taken from the burette.
E. Repeat the experiment with acid (B) instead of acid (A) but same concentration.
Analysis: the acid that takes the larger volume of the sodium hydroxide Solution in the
burette is the stronger.

 Comparing strengths of alkalis (soluble base)

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 2
09. Acid and base

1) Using universal indicator.

It gives violet color, the weaker alkali would give blue, and the universal indicator chart may give
a precise pH value.
2) Measure the electrical conductivity.
Strong base gives ions easily rather than weak base, thus strong base conduct electricity better
than weaker base.
3. Using ammonium salts.
By adding ammonium chloride to alkali, the strongest alkali will produce more bubbles of
ammonia gas.
4. Titration. (Read Only)
If we have two bases, base (A) and base (B), which are of the same concentration.
a. 25 ml of one of the bases, base (A) is placed in the conical flask using a pipette.
b. Add a few drops of methyl orange indicator to the base, which turns yellow.
c. The base is then titrated against 0.1 mol/dm of hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) from a burette
until the end point from yellow to orange.
d. Record the volume of hydrochloric acid solution taken from the burette.
e. Repeat the experiment with base (B) instead of base (A) but same concentration.
Analysis: the base that takes the larger volume of the hydrochloric acid solution in the burette
is the stronger.

Terminology
Acid: Substance with a pH less than 7. Acid molecules in solution release hydrogen ions,
H+.(Proton Donor)
Alkali: Soluble substance with a pH greater than 7. Alkalis usually release hydroxide ions, OH-, in
a solution.
Base: Substance that neutralizes an acid to produce salt and water. (Proton acceptor)
Strong Acid: Exists completely as ions/completely ionizes.
Weak acid: partially ionized.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 2
10. Oxides

Oxides

When an element combines with Oxygen, oxides are formed.

Oxides can be classified into

Basic oxides Acidic oxides Amphoteric oxides Neutral oxides

 Basic oxides.
 Most metal oxides are basic oxides such as: CaO.
 They are ionic compounds.
 If they dissolve in water, they form alkaline solutions.
Na2O (s) + H2O (l) 2NaOH (aq) Alkali
 They react with acids to form salt and water.
CuO + H2SO4 CuSO4 + H2O

 Acidic oxides.
 Acidic oxides are non-metals oxides such as CO2, SiO2, SO2, S2O3 and P2O3.
 They are covalent compounds.
 They react with base to form salt and water.
CO2 + 2NaOH Na2CO3 + H2O
 They dissolve in water producing acidic solutions.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 Carbonic acid
SO2 + H2O H2SO3 Sulphuric acid

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 2
10. Oxides

 Suggest why carbon dioxide turns lime water milky?

Because carbon dioxide is an acidic oxide which dissolves in water to form an acidic
solution.

 Amphoteric oxides.
 They are the oxides of some metals such as aluminum and zinc.
 Amphoteric oxides react with both acids and alkalis producing salts and water.
 Amphoteric oxides are insoluble in water
Aluminum oxide + hydrochloride acid aluminum chloride + water
Al2O3 + 6HCl 2AlCl3 + 3H2O
Aluminum oxide + sodium hydroxide sodium aluminate + water
Al2O3 + 2NaOH 2NaAlO2 + H2O

 Natural oxides.
 They are the oxides that do not react with acids or alkalis.
 Example: Water (H2O), Carbon monoxide (CO), Nitrogen monoxide (NO).

 Study the following table.

Oxides Acid Base Type of oxide

CaO React No reaction Basic oxides

ZnO, Al2O3 React React Amphoteric oxides

CO2, SO2, NO2,

No reaction React Acidic Oxides
SO3

CO, NO No reaction No reaction Natural oxides

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 2
10. Oxides

Terminology
Amphoteric Oxide: A substance that will react with both an acid AND base.
Acidic Oxide: A substance that will react with base ONLY.
Basic Oxide: A substance that will react with acid ONLY.
Neutral Oxide: A substance that will not react with an acid or base.
Oxide: A product of the reaction of oxygen with another element.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 2
11. Preparation of Salts

Preparation of Salts

Salts

Rules of solubility Preparation of slats

What is the What are How to describe

the your method of
method?
chemicals preparation
used?

A salt is a compound made from an acid when a metal takes the place.

The salt made depends on the acid, some common salts:

Parent acid H2SO4 HNO3 HCl

CuSO4 Cu(NO3)2 CuCl2

Copper sulphate Copper nitrate Copper chloride
(NH4)2SO4 NH4NO3 NH4Cl
Salts
Ammonium sulphate Ammonium nitrate Ammonium chloride
Na2SO4 NaNO3 NaCl
Sodium sulphate Sodium nitrate Sodium chloride

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 2
11. Preparation of Salts

 Rules of solubility:

Soluble Region
Lead and silver chloride Insoluble Region

 Nitrate salts

 Chloride salts

 Sulphate salts
Carbonate salts Oxides salts
 Group 1 and ammonium Carbonate

 Group 1 Oxides

Barium, Calcium and Lead Sulphate

 Soluble salts dissolve in water easily, while insoluble salts do not dissolve at all.

Soluble Insoluble

All group 1 and ammonium salts

All Nitrates

Chlorides Except silver and lead chlorides

Sulphates Except calcium, barium and lead sulphates

Except Sodium, potassium and ammonium

All other carbonates are insoluble
carbonates
Except Sodium , potassium ,calcium and
All other oxides are insoluble
magnesium oxides

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 2
11. Preparation of Salts

 Preparing salts:
1. What is the method of preparation?
2. What are the 2 chemicals used for preparation?
3. How to describe the method of preparation?

Preparation techniques

Neutralization Titration Precipitation

To decide which method you will use, follow this chart:

Start

Is the salt Yes Use precipitation technique

insoluble?

No
Yes Use titration technique
Is it group
1 metal?
Use neutralization technique
No

How can you decide the two chemicals used to obtain the salt in each method?
1. Neutralization: corresponding insoluble base (oxide) + corresponding acid.
2. Titration: corresponding soluble hydroxide + corresponding acid.
3. Precipitation of a salt: corresponding nitrate + corresponding sodium salt

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 2
11. Preparation of Salts

1. Neutralization (making soluble salt).

To prepare the soluble salt by neutralization follow the following steps:

 Add excess chosen insoluble base to a certain volume of chosen acid.

 Warm and stir.
 Filter to remove unreacted chosen insoluble base.
 Half evaporate till crystallization point.
 Then cool, filter and dry.

 Describe the preparation of magnesium chloride?

 The first stage is the addition of magnesium oxide to hydrochloric acid. Mild heating is
required for a full reaction to occur; however, care must be taken to ensure that the acid
does not boil, as this would be a great safety hazard.
 The magnesium (II) oxide is added until no more visible reaction can be seen, the base
no longer dissolves and the reaction stops fizzing.
 The mixture is then filtered (stage 2) to remove the excess base and leave a clear
solution in the evaporating bowl. If the solution is heated gently, to remove some of the
water and allowed to cool down slowly, crystals will appear. The slower this
crystallization is allowed to occur, the larger the crystals that will be produced.
 Separate crystals by filtration and dry them between two filter papers or in warm oven.

 State the chemicals that could be used to obtain the salt copper sulphate?

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 2
11. Preparation of Salts

 Copper oxide and sulphuric acid.

Not only metal oxides could be used as the base reagent in making a salt by neutralization,
but solid metal hydroxides and metal carbonates could be used, as well.

2. Titration (making group 1 salt).

To prepare group 1 soluble salt by titration follow the following steps:

Making soluble salts from acids and alkalis

 Use the pipette to add 25 cm3 of alkali to a clean conical flask.
 Add a few drops of a suitable indicator such as methyl orange into the alkali.
 Fill the burette with acid and note the starting volume.
 Slowly add the acid from the burette to the alkali in the conical flask.
Stop adding the acid when the end-point is reached (the appropriate colour change in
the indicator happens). Note the final volume reading.
 Repeat the experiment, using the same volume of alkali and the same volume of acid, but
without the indicator.
 Evaporate the salt solution to the crystallizing point, allow it cool, when crystals are formed
separate them by filtration then dry them.

 Why is it necessary to repeat the experiment without the indicator?

Because the salt obtained is not pure as it is mixed with the indicator.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 2
11. Preparation of Salts

 The same method works for adding an alkali to an acid – just swap around the
liquids that go into the conical flask and burette.

 Why is an indicator used in this experiment?

An indicator is used so we can know exactly when to stop - the end-point.

 How could you use titration to obtain the salt sodium nitrate NaNO3?
1. Use the pipette to add 25 cm3 of sodium hydroxide to a clean conical flask.
2. Add a few drops of phenolphthalein (ph.ph) into the sodium hydroxide.
3. Fill the burette with dilute nitric acid and note the starting volume.
4. Slowly add the nitric acid from the burette to the sodium hydroxide in the conical flask.
Stop adding the nitric acid when the end-point is reached (the appropriate colour change
in the indicator happens). Note the final volume reading.
5. Repeat the experiment, using the same volume of alkali and the same volume of acid,
but without the indicator.
6. Evaporate the sodium nitrate solution to the crystallizing point, allow it cool, when
crystals are formed separate them by filtration then dry them.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 2
11. Preparation of Salts

3. Precipitation (making Insoluble salt).

Precipitation is the formation of a solid when two solutions are mixed together.

General reaction:

Soluble salt + soluble salt  insoluble salt + soluble salt

In order to obtain a salt using this method you should follow these steps:

 Add a certain volume of chemical 1 solution to a certain volume of chemical 2 solution.

 Mix the two solutions, a precipitate of the required salt is formed.
 Filter to remove the precipitate, them wash and dry it in a warm oven.

 Describe the preparation of silver chloride?

Silver chloride is an insoluble salt. You can make it by mixing solutions of silver
nitrate and sodium chloride.
1. Make up a solution of sodium chloride and silver nitrate.
2. A white precipitate of silver chloride forms at once.
3. Filter the mixture, the precipitate is trapped in the filter paper.
4. Rinse the precipitate by running distilled water through it.
5. Then place it in a warm oven to dry. To precipitate an insoluble salt, you must mix a
solution that contains its positive ions with one that contains its negative ions.

If the salt is insoluble in water, then both your starting materials should soluble in water. It
does not matter whether the reagent used is in excess because the product can be
recovered by filtration, while the soluble reactants will be removed.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 2
11. Preparation of Salts

Terminology
Excess: More than enough to react.
Neutralization: A reaction in which an acid reacts with a base or alkali to form a salt and water.
Precipitation: A reaction in which an insoluble salt is formed by mixing two solutions.
Salt: A compound formed when the replaceable hydrogen atom of an acid is replaced by a
metal.
Soluble: A substance that dissolves in a solvent to form a solution.
Solute: A substance that dissolves in a solvent producing a solution.
Solution: This is formed when a substance dissolves in a liquid. Aqueous solutions are formed
the solvent used in water.
Solvent: The liquid in which solutes are dissolved.
Titration: An accurate method for calculating the concentration of an acid or alkali solution in a
neutralization reaction.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 3
12. Redox Reaction

Redox Reactions
Simple definition:

Oxidation Reduction

The process of gaining oxygen. The process of losing oxygen.

The process of losing electrons. The process of gaining electrons.

The increase in oxidation state. The decrease in oxidation state

Oxidizing agent (Oxidant): is the substance that is reduced and gained electrons.

Reducing agent (reductant): is the substance that is oxidized and lost electrons.

Examples of redox reactions:-

1) Oxygen transfer reaction.

Reduction (lost oxygen)

Reducing agent
2Mg + O2 2MgO
Oxidizing agent

Oxidation (gained oxygen)

 Mg  MgO is oxidation reaction (gained oxygen).

 O2  MgO is reduction reaction (lost oxygen).

Magnesium (Mg) the reducing agent gained oxygen from the oxygen molecule; thus, it
oxidized by oxygen to form magnesium oxide (MgO).

Oxygen (O2) the oxidizing agent loses oxygen; it is reduced.

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12. Redox Reaction

2) Electron transfer reaction.

2Mg + O2 2Mg2+ +O2-

This equation is the ionic representation of the full equation

2Mg + O2 2MgO

 Mg – 2e  Mg2+ Oxidation reaction (lost 2 electrons).

 O +2e  O2- is reduction reaction (gained 2 electrons).

Simple displacement reactions includes electron transfer.

A- Displacement among metals:
K + NaCl → KCl + Na
This chemical reaction is expressed ionically as:

K + Na+ → K + + Na
 K – e- → K+ is the oxidation reaction (losing electrons).
 Na+ + e- → Na is the reduction reaction (gaining electrons).
 Potassium metal is the reducing agent as it is oxidized by losing electrons and
changed to potassium ions (K+).
 Na+ ion is the oxidizing agent as it is reduced by gaining electrons and changed to
sodium metal (Na).

B- Displacement among non-metals:

Fluorine gas can displace chloride ion from its compounds.

F2 + 2NaCl → 2NaF + Cl2

 2Cl- - 2e- → Cl2 the oxidation reaction (losing electrons).
 F2 + 2e- → 2F- is the reduction reaction (gaining electrons).
 Chloride ions is the reducing agent as it is oxidized by losing electrons and changed to
Chlorine (Cl2).
 Fluorine is the oxidizing agent as it is reduced by gaining electrons and changed to fluoride
ions (F-).

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 3
12. Redox Reaction

3) Change in valence number (oxidation state).

2Mg + O2 2Mg2+ +O2-
 Mg – 2e  Mg2+ Oxidation reaction (The oxidation state increased 0  +2).
 O + 2e  O2- is reduction reaction (The oxidation state decreased 0  -2).
 Another example: oxidation involves an increase in the oxidation state.
Fe2+  Fe3+
 Reduction involves a decrease in the oxidation state.
Fe3+  Fe2+

Oxidation Numbers:
A number given to show whether an element has been oxidised or reduced; the oxidation
number of a simple ion is simply the charge on the ion.
1. The oxidation number of uncombined element is zero.
In Na the oxidation number of Na is 0
2. The oxidation number of molecule is zero.
In H2 the oxidation number of H is 0
3. The oxidation numbers in an ion is equal to the charge on the ion.
In Zn2+ the oxidation number of Zn is +2
4. The sum of the oxidation numbers in a neutral compound is zero.
In H2O the oxidation number of H is +1 and the oxidation number of O is -2
[2*(+1)]+ [1*(-2)] = 0
5. The sum of the oxidation numbers in a compound ion is the charge on the ion.
In MnO4-1 the oxidation number is -1

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 3
12. Redox Reaction

How to calculate oxidation state of an element (transition metal) in a compound?

Example 1: Calculate the oxidation state of Mn in KMnO4
- First, we know that the overall charge of neutral compound is equal to zero.
So, KMnO4 = 0
- K is in group 1, therefore it has +1 charge.
- O is in group 6, therefore it has -2 charge.
- K Mn O4
+1 X -2x4 = 0
- X = -1+8 = +7
- Therefore, oxidation state of Mn = +7
Example 2: Calculate the oxidation state of Cr in K2Cr2O7
- The overall charge is of neutral compound is equal to zero.
So, K2Cr2O7 = 0
- K is in group 1, therefore it has +1 charge.
- O is in group 6, therefore it has -2 charge.
- K2 Cr2 O4
+1x2 2X -2x7 = 0
- 2X = -2+14 = +12
- X = 12/2= 6
- Therefore, oxidation state of Cr = +6

Examples for the half ionic equations:

1. The change of iron (III) ions to iron metal.
Answer: Fe3+ + 3e- → Fe
2. The change of bromide ions to bromine.
Answer: Br2 + 2e- → 2Br-

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 3
12. Redox Reaction

Test for reducing agents

Using Potassium Manganate (VII)
Using Potassium Dichromate K2Cr2O7
KMnO4
On adding potassium manganate (the On adding potassium dichromate (the
strong oxidizing agent) to the contents strong oxidizing agent) to the contents
of a tube color changes from Purple to of a tube color changes from Orange to
Colorless indicates that we have a Green indicates that we have a reducing
reducing agent in the tube agent in the tube.

Test for Oxidizing agents

Using Potassium Iodide

Adding potassium iodide (the strong reducing agent) The color changes from
Colorless to Brown, which indicates that we have an oxidizing in the tube. The
brown color is that of iodine according to this reaction 2I- → I2 + 2e
As potassium iodide is oxidized to iodine The iodine can be further tested by starch,
which will turn Blue Black.

 Common oxidizing and reducing agents.

 The most common and of the most powerful oxidizing agents are the previously
mentioned potassium manganate and potassium dichromate.
 Also, the most common and of the most powerful reducing agents is the previously
mentioned potassium iodide.
 Also, potassium metal and all the alkali metals are of the powerful reducing agents
(sodium, potassium, rubidium and cesium).

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 3
12. Redox Reaction

Oxidizing agent Reducing agents

Oxygen O2 Hydrogen H2
Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 Hydrogen sulphide H2S
Conc.nitric acid HNO3 Sulphur dioxide SO2
(Fe(III) compounds) FeCl3 Carbon C
Chlorine Cl2 Iron sulphate FeSO4 (Fe(II) compounds)
Potassium manganate KMnO4 Acidified potassium iodide Kl
Potassium dichromate K2cr2O7 Carbon monoxide CO
Manganese dioxide MnO2 Metal atoms
Metal ions Non- metal ions
Non-metal atoms except hydrogen and
carbon

 Important notes:
1. Most reactive metal has greater tendency to form ions.

For example: K + Na+  K+ + Na

Zn + Cu2+  Zn2+ + Cu

Ca2+ + Mg  no reaction

2. In the reactivity series, the most reactive metal is potassium. It has greater

tendency to form ions (it loses electron) therefore, potassium oxidized. As a result,

the most reactive metal is the best reducing agent (oxidation).

3. The least reactive metal is the best oxidizing agent (reduction).

Terminology
Oxidation: The addition of oxygen in a chemical reaction. Electrons are lost.
Oxidizing agent: A substance that will oxidize another substance.
Redox: A reaction involving both oxidation and reduction.
Reducing agent: A substance that will reduce another substance.
Reduction: When a substance loses oxygen-electrons are gained.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 3
13. Electrolysis

Electrolysis
Definition: is the breakdown of an ionic compound when molten or in aqueous solution, by the
passage of electricity.
 Electrolysis changes electric energy to chemical energy.
 Electrolysis is an endothermic process, as it needs an external support of energy (electric
and sometimes heat energy).
 Electrolysis cannot be made on solid ionic compound, as ions are not free move .

 Mechanism of electrolysis.
Electrolysis takes place when electric current passes through the solution or the molten of an
ionic compound (the electrolyte) using the following electrolytic cell.

 The electrode that is connected to the -ve pole of the battery is called cathode.
 The electrode that is connected to the +ve pole of the battery is called anode
 The flow of electrons are from anode to cathode.
 Positive (+ve) ions move towards cathode.
 Negative (-ve) ions move towards anode.

Anode (+) Cathode (-)

Charge on Positive Negative
Ions attract to Non-metal Metals and hydrogen

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 3
13. Electrolysis

Inert electrodes: such as graphite and platinum. They do not undergo reaction and the
electrolyte is the one that only participates in the reaction.
Active electrodes: when the electrode is a metal such as silver, copper or nickel, the anode
participates in the reaction. It dissolves by losing electrons converting into positive ions.

 Electrolysis of molten compounds.

When molten compounds are electrolysed, metal is formed on cathode, while non-metal is
form is formed on anode.

Example 1: Molten lead bromide Pb2+ Br- Br2

Pb
Molten lead bromide is PbBr2 At cathode - At anode
Oxidation at anode: 2Br-  Br2 + 2e- ve ----- ----- +ve

Reduction at cathode: Pb2+ +2e-  Pb

Observation at anode: Bubbles of red brown gas (bromine gas)
Observation at cathode: Increases in size as drops of silvery grey metal (lead) form
Observation in electrolyte: Electrolyte is used up (always in case of molten).

 Electrolysis of solutions using inert electrodes.

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13. Electrolysis

Aqueous solution contains additional H+ and OH- ions of water.

At the cathode, all metals that are higher in reactivity than hydrogen it remains in electrolyte
and hydrogen is discharge at cathode.
At the Anode, all halides are less reactive than OH- So they discharge at anode and hydroxide
remains in electrolyte, but other anions such as in the table below they remain in electrolyte and
hydroxide discharge at anode.

At The Cathode At The Anode

Potassium K+

Sodium Na+ Halide ions (F-, Cl-,

Calcium Ca2+ Br-, I-)

Magnesium Mg2+
More reactive

More Complex
Aluminum Al3+

Zinc Zn2+
Hydroxide (OH-)
Iron Fe2+, 3+

Lead Pb2+

Hydrogen H+

Copper Cu2+ Other anions

Mercury Hg+ (SO42-, NO3 -,

Silver Ag+ CO32-)

Gold Au3+
The less complex is discharged at
The least reactive is discharged at the cathode
the anode

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 3
13. Electrolysis

Example 1: Aqueous copper sulphate (CuSO4)

Cu2+ SO42
Cu
At cathode -ve
+ -
H OH-
O2 + H2O
At anode +ve

Oxidation at anode: 4OH- - 4e-  2H2O + O2

Reduction at cathode: Cu2+ +2e-  Cu
Observation at anode: Bubbles of colorless gas (oxygen gas)
Observation at cathode: Red brown metal (Copper) is formed.
Observation in electrolyte: Changes from blue to colorless as copper sulphate changes to
sulphuric acid.
Electrolysis of tin sulphate and zinc sulphate are similar to copper sulphate.

Example 2: Aqueous hydrochloric acid (HCl)

H+ Cl-
H2 Cl2
At cathode -ve
H+ OH-
At anode +ve

Chlorine

Test: litmus paper

Oxidation at anode: 2Cl-  Cl2 + 2e- Result: bleaches

Reduction at cathode: 2H+ +2e-  H2

Observation at anode: Bubbles of green gas (chlorine gas).
Observation at cathode: Bubbles of colorless gas (hydrogen gas).

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Example 3: Aqueous sulphuric acid (H2SO4)

H+ SO42
H2 O2 + H2O
At cathode -ve
+ - At anode +ve
H OH-
Oxidation at anode: 4OH- -4e-  2H2O + O2
Reduction at cathode: 2H+ +2e-  H2
Observation at anode: Bubbles of colorless gas (oxygen gas).
Observation at cathode: Bubbles of colorless gas (hydrogen gas).
Observation in electrolyte: Changes from sulphuric acid to concentrated sulphuric.

The volume of hydrogen is twice that of oxygen.

Example 4: Aqueous sodium chloride (NaCl)

Na+ Cl- Cl2

H2 At anode +ve
At cathode -ve H+ OH-
Solve the following
Oxidation at anode:
Reduction at cathode:
Observation at anode:
Observation at cathode:
Observation in electrolyte:

Example 5: Dilute sodium chloride (NaCl)

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13. Electrolysis

Na+ Cl-
H2
At cathode -
ve
H+ OH- O2 + H2O
At anode Oxygen
+ve
Test: glowing splint

Result: relight
Oxidation at anode: 4OH- -4e-  2H2O + O2
Reduction at cathode: 2H+ +2e-  H2
Observation at anode: Bubbles of colorless gas (oxygen gas).
Observation at cathode: Bubbles of colorless gas (hydrogen gas).
Observation in electrolyte: The solution is concentrated sodium chloride solution.

Electrolysis of concentrated aqueous sodium chloride (brine solution):

It is used in the manufacture of 3 important chemicals in our lives:
1. Chlorine (poisonous yellowish green gas)
2. Hydrogen (colorless, flammable gas)
3. Sodium hydroxide (alkaline)

Na+ Cl-
Cl2
H2
H+ OH-
At anode
At cathode -
+ve
ve

Oxidation at anode: 2Cl-  Cl2 + 2e-

Reduction at cathode: 2H+ +2e-  H2
Observation at anode: Bubbles of green gas (chlorine gas).
Observation at cathode: Bubbles of colorless gas (hydrogen gas).
Observation in electrolyte: changes from sodium chloride to sodium hydroxide.

 Electrolysis using active electrodes.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 3
13. Electrolysis

If the electrodes especially the (anode) are made of a metal which is of the same metal ions in
the electrolyte this is an active electrode case.

Examples:
 Electrolysis of tin sulphate using tin electrodes.
 Electrolysis of copper nitrate using copper electrodes.
 Electrolysis of silver nitrate using silver electrodes.

Example:
The case here is simply ions move from anode to the cathode and the solution is just a pathway
for the ions (it does not change).
 The anode (decrease in mass and size) as it goes into the solution as positive ions.
 The cathode will increase in mass and size as copper metal deposits.

Let us explain that in equations which ions go to anode, and which will go to cathode.
Cannot apply the cross method here just ions go from anode to cathode.

Oxidation at anode: Cu  Cu2+ + 2e-

Reduction at cathode: Cu2+ + 2e- Cu
Observation at anode: Decrease in size as copper goes as positive
ions.
Observation at cathode: Increase in size as copper metal forms.
Observation in electrolyte: No changes (this always in case we use active electrodes).

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 Applications on electrolysis using active electrodes:

1- Purification.
Electrolysis of copper sulphate using copper electrodes.
Electrolysis is used to purify metals. Atoms of the anode go into the solution as positive ions, it
releases electrons to the external circuit and they meet again on the cathode forming the pure
metal. The impurities accumulate down in the bottom of the cell.

 Rules when you purify any metal:

1. The anode = Impure metal.
2. The cathode = pure metal.
3. The solution = a solution of the metal to be purified.

Example when you purify copper:

1. The cathode = pure copper.
2. The anode = impure copper.
3. The solution = aqueous copper sulphate or copper nitrate.

Electrolytic chemistry of purification of copper:

• Copper anode dissolve and convert into copper ions
Cu Cu2+ + 2e-
• Copper ions from electrolyte deposit at cathode
Cu2+ + 2e-  Cu
• Observation at anode: Decrease in size as copper goes as positive ions.
• Observation at cathode: Increase in size as copper metal forms.
• Observation in electrolyte: No changes (this always in case we use active electrodes).

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 3
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2- Electroplating.
It is the process of coating a metal with a thin layer of another metal by electrolysis to improve
the metal's corrosion resistance.

 Rules when you plate any abject with any metal:

1. The anode = pure metal.
2. The cathode = object to be plated.
3. The solution = a solution of the metal used in
electroplating.

In this case clearly our object will be the cathode and connected to the (-ve) pole of the
battery, and a rod of pure silver will be the anode connected to the positive pole of the
battery. Also, if you want to plate an object with other metal you can follow the previous
rules.

Example:
When you electroplate an object with silver metal:
1. The anode = pure silver.
2. The cathode = object to be plated (pan).
3. The solution = aqueous silver.
Electrolytic chemistry of electroplating with silver:
• Oxidation at anode: Ag  Ag+ + e-
• Reduction at cathode: Ag+ + e-  Ag
• Observation at anode: Decrease in size as silver
goes as positive ions.
• Observation at cathode: Increases in size as silver
metal forms.
• Observation in electrolyte: No change (this always in case we use active electrodes).

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13. Electrolysis

Purposes of electroplating:
 Giving a protective coat of the metal to prevent rusting of this metal.
 Giving attractive appearance of the plated metallic object.

Electroplating must be carried out under careful control:

1. The object must be very clean and free of grease to make sure that the metal layer sticks
firmly.
2. The object must be rotated so that the layer forms evenly on all sides.
3. The current, the temperature and the concentration of the electrolyte must be controlled
so that the layer does not from too fast otherwise it will flake off.

What happens to electrolyte?

Using molten electrolyte Using aqueous or solution Purification or electroplating

(inert electrodes) (inert electrodes) (active electrodes)

Concentration never
changes because metal ion
Electrolyte changes from
deposit at cathode is
solution to another
Electrolyte is always used up replaced from metal anode
according to what elements
by the same rate. Thus, the
are attached to electrodes
concentration of electrolyte
does not change

Terminology
Anode: A positively charged electrode in electrolysis.
Cathode: A negatively charged electrode in electrolysis.
Electrode: The carbon or metal material that delivers electric charge in electrolysis reactions.
Electrolysis: The breaking down of ionic compound molten or aqueous solution by passing an
electric current through it.
Electrolyte: A substance that allows electric current to pass through it when molten or dissolved
in water.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 3
14. Metal Extraction

Metal Extraction
 Aluminum extraction
Aluminum is extracted from its ore by is using electrolysis.

Electrolysis is the only method of extraction available for the most reactive metals.
Metals of Group I and II and aluminum are too reactive to be extracted by chemical reduction using
carbon.
 Aluminum ore is bauxite (Al2O3)
 Pure aluminum oxide is dissolved in molten cryolite (Sodium aluminum fluoride) Na3AlF6.
The purposes of cryolite.
1. To reduce its melting point.
2. Increase conductivity.
3. Reduce cost.
 Electrolysis takes place in a cell of iron lined with graphite that is connected as a cathode, and
finger like anode that is connected as anode. The produced molten aluminum is collected at
the bottom of the cell.
 The liberated oxygen burns the anode as the temperature is about 950-1000°C giving carbon
dioxide. Therefore, they have to be replaced regularly.

Reactions take place during extraction of Aluminum:

1. At cathode: Al3+ + 3e-  Al

2. At Anode: 2O2- - 4e-  O2

 Gases formed at anode:

 Oxygen (from electrolyte)
 Carbon dioxide (reaction between oxygen and carbon anode)
 Carbon monoxide (reaction between oxygen and carbon anode incomplete)
 Fluorine (from cryolite)

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 3
14. Metal Extraction

Uses of aluminum
• Food containers.
• Making cables.
• Cans.
• Aircraft.

 Iron extraction
Iron is extracted from its ore by reduction in a blast furnace.
 Iron ore is hematite Fe2O3

Material used.
1. Coke (carbon).
2. Iron ore (Hematite).
3. Limestone (calcium carbonate).

 Hot air is blown through holes near the bottom of

the furnace.
 A series of chemical reactions take place to
produce molten iron.

Reaction 1:
Coke burns giving off heat (exothermic reaction)
 Carbon + Oxygen  Carbon dioxide
C + O2  CO2
Function of coke:
• Release energy
• Reduce hematite to iron

Reaction 2:
Carbon dioxide is reduced to carbon monoxide.
 Carbon dioxide + Carbon  Carbon monoxide
CO2 + C  2CO

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14. Metal Extraction

Reaction 3:
The iron ore is reduced by carbon or carbon monoxide
 Iron III oxide + carbon  iron + carbon dioxide
2Fe2O3 + 3C  4Fe +3CO2
 Iron III oxide + carbon monoxide  iron +carbon dioxide
Fe2O3 + 3CO  2 Fe + 3CO2

Reaction 4:
One of the major impurities in iron is sand (silica SiO2). Limestone is added to the furnace helps
to remove this impurity.

Heat
1. Limestone Lime + Carbon dioxide
Heat
CaCO CaO(s) + CO2(g)

2. Lime + Silica  calcium silicate (slag)

CaO + SiO2  CaSiO3 (Acid base reaction)

Generally:

Limestone + silica  Slag + carbon dioxide

CaCO3 +SiO2  CaSiO3 + CO2

Finally, there are two layers formed at the bottom of blast furnace:
1.Slag (less dense ).
2. Molten iron (more dense).

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 3
14. Metal Extraction

Steel making:
The iron produced by the blast furnace is known as 'cast iron’ and it is not pure.
It contains about 3 - 5% Carbon that makes iron brittle and other impurities such as sulphur,
silicon and phosphorous.
Cast iron is converted into steel in the tilting furnace.
A high-speed jet of oxygen is blown over the iron.
1. Carbon oxidizes into carbon dioxide.
C + O2  CO2 (g)
2. Sulphur oxidizes into sulphur dioxide.
S + O2  SO2 (g)
3. Silicon and phosphorous produce solid oxides (not gaseous oxides)
Si + O2  SiO2 (s)
So lime (CaO) is added to the furnace to form slag with these solid impurities that float on top
of the molten iron.
CaO + SiO2  CaSiO3

Waste gases

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 3
14. Metal Extraction

Recycling metals

Advantages of recycling metals:

• Save mineral resources
• Use less energy to recycle than extraction (save energy)
• Avoid the need to landfill sites
• Avoid pollution

 Why Aluminum metal is an ideal candidate for recycling?

1) Cost so much to extract from its ore
2) Using recycled aluminum saves 95% energy needed to make new aluminum

 Why steel is easy to recycle?

A lot of steel is recycled because:
1) It is magnetic
2) Easily to separate from rubbish
3) Cheaper to recycle

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 3
15. Electrochemical Cell

Electrochemical Cell
 A cell is a device that converts chemical energy into electric energy in an exothermic
reaction.
 A cell is a portable source of electricity.
 Electrochemical cell is an important example for exothermic reactions.

More reactive metal is more likely to form ions than less reactive metal.

 Mechanism of electrochemical cell.

 It consists of two different metals in an electrolyte.
 The more reactive metal loses mass.
 The flow of electrons are from more reactive metal to less reactive metal.
 The more reactive metal dissolves, it becomes the negative pole and electrons flow from it
to the less reactive.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 3
15. Electrochemical Cell

Example 1:

Oxidation and reduction in power cells:

In electrical power cells, the electrodes made from the more reactive metal which releases
electrons.

Zinc atoms become zinc ions.

Zn(s) - 2e-  Zn+2(aq) (oxidation)
While at the other terminal, hydrogen ions (from electrolyte)
become hydrogen gas.
H+(aq) + 2e-  H2(g) (reduction)
The overall reaction is shown in the ionic equation:
Zn(s) + 2H+  Zn+2 + H2

At copper electrode, Electrons are gained by hydrogen ion in the solution to from hydrogen
molecules

Example 2:
Zinc atoms become zinc ions.
Zn(s) - 2e-  Zn+2(aq) (oxidation)
While at the other terminal, copper ions (from electrolyte) become copper atom.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e-  Cu(s) (reduction)
The overall reaction is shown in the ionic equation:
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq)  Zn+2(aq) + Cu (s)

At copper electrode, Electrons are gained by copper ions in the solution to from copper atom.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 3
15. Electrochemical Cell

Example 3:

A half-cell is one part of a voltaic cell in

which either the oxidation or reduction half-
reaction takes place. The left half-cell is an
electrode of zinc metal in a solution of zinc
sulfate. The right half-cell is an electrode of
copper metal in a solution of copper(II)
sulfate.A porous membrane is placed
between the two half-cells to complete the
circuit.

The various electrochemical processes that

occur in a voltaic cell occur simultaneously. It is easiest to describe them in the following
steps, using the above zinc-copper cell as an example.

1. Zinc atoms from the zinc electrode are oxidized to zinc ions. This happens because zinc is
higher than copper on the reactivity series and so is more easily oxidized.

Zn(s)Zn2+(aq)+2e−

The electrons that are generated at the zinc travel through the external wire and register a
reading on the voltmeter. They continue to the copper electrode.

2. Electrons enter the copper electrode where they combine with the copper(II) ions in the
solution, reducing them to copper metal.

Cu2+(aq)+2e−Cu(s)

3. Ions move through the membrane to maintain electrical neutrality in the cell. In the cell
illustrated above, sulfate ions will move from the copper side to the zinc side to compensate
for the decrease in Cu2+ and the increase in Zn2+.

The two half-reactions can again be summed to provide the overall redox reaction occurring
in the voltaic cell.

Zn(s)+Cu2+(aq)Zn2+(aq)+Cu(s)

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 3
15. Electrochemical Cell

 Suggest how could you increase the amount of electricity produced?

- Increase the concentration of the electrolyte.

- Increase the gap between the metals in the reactivity series.

Example:

K Na Ca Mg Al C Zn Fe Sn Pb H Cu Hg Ag Au Pt

Increase in gap

The gap between el zinc and iron is The gap between el zinc and copper is
small larger, so the voltage increased

 Note
 In electrolytic cells (electrolysis) the electrons flow from the anode (+ve pole of the battery)
to the cathode (-ve pole battery).
 While in cells, flow of electrons is from the –ve pole (the more reactive) to the +ve pole
(less reactive).

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 3
15. Electrochemical Cell

 Fuel cells:
A fuel cell is a type of electrochemical cell, which converts chemical energy into electricity via
a chemical redox reaction.

Hydrogen fuel cells reactants are:

 Hydrogen (is a fuel used as a source of energy)
 Oxygen (from the air)

While, the product is water only. (that causes no

pollution)

 A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell in which a

fuel (H2) loses electrons at one electrode and
oxygen gains electrons at the other electrode.

It consists of two platinum electrodes that coated onto a porous material that allow gases to
pass through it and an electrolyte which is usually phosphoric acid or sodium hydroxide.
Hydrogen gas is bubbled through the positive electrode (anode) while Oxygen is bubbled
through the negative electrode (cathode).

 Electrons flow from anode to cathode.

Hydrogen is oxidized which lose electrons to form hydrogen ions while oxygen is reduced
which gain electrons and reacts with hydrogen ions to form water as the only product of
this reaction.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 3
15. Electrochemical Cell

Reactions:
 At the anode

2H2 (g) – 4e-  4H+ (oxidation)

 At the cathode

O2 (g) + 4e-  2O2- (reduction)

If you add both reactions, the overall reaction would be

2H2 (g) + O2 (g)  2H2O (g)

Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages

It releases more energy per kilogram than Expensive to produce and requires energy
any other fuel (except for nuclear fuels) for the production process

It does not pollute as it only produces

Difficult and dangerous to store and
water on combustion, no other product is
move around (usually stored as liquid)
formed
Fuel cells are affected
No batteries to dispose of which is better
by low temperatures, becoming less
for the environment
efficient
High pressure tanks are needed to store
Continuous process and will keep
the oxygen and hydrogen in sufficient
producing energy as long as fuel is
amounts which are dangerous and difficult
supplied.
to handle.

Terminology
Cell: A device for turning chemical energy into electrical energy.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 3
16. Rusting

Rusting
 Rusting is the corrosion of iron and steel.
 Rusting is the slow oxidation of iron to form hydrated iron (III) oxide.
 Both air and water are needed for rust to occur.
Iron + air Water Iron rust
2Fe + O2 Water Fe2O3
 Rust is the red-brown solid layer which forms on iron and steel.
 Salt (NaCl) increases conductivity so the rate of rusting increases.

 The diagram shows the conditions needed for rusting:

Water and air Anhydrous calcium Boiled distilled No air no water

chloride only to water to remove air
Rusting absorb water (water only) No rusting
occur
vapour (air only)

No rusting No rusting

Iron can be prevented from rusting by stopping oxygen (from the air) and water coming into
contact with it.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 3
16. Rusting

Methods of rust prevention:

1) Painting
Ships, Lorries, cars, bridges, and many other iron and steel structures are painted to prevent
rusting however, if the paint is scratched, the iron beneath it will start to rust.

2) Oiling (greasing)
The iron and steel in the moving parts of machinery are coated with oil to prevent them from
rusting, but the protective film must be renewed.

3) Plating
Food cans can be made from steel coated with tin, by dipping the steel into molten tin. Some car
bumpers and bicycle handlebars are electroplated by chromium to prevent rusting and to give a
decorative finish look.

4) Galvanization
Some steel girders used in the construction of bridges and buildings are galvanized.
Galvanization is done by coating iron or steel by zinc. Zinc is more reactive than iron, so zinc
corrode by losing electrons to the iron.

5) Sacrificial protection (Cell)

Connect steel (Iron) with more reactive metal such as Zinc or Magnesium. So, more reactive
metals lose electron, the electrons flow from more reactive metal to the less reactive metal (Iron).
Therefore, Steel doesn’t lose electrons, Oxidized and rust.

6) Cathodic Protection (Electroplating)

This method involves setting up an electrolysis using the iron or steel object as cathode, while
any other metals as anode. The power supply is needed to complete this form of protection,
which is used to protect Oil-Rings.

Terminology
Rusting: The chemical reaction in which iron is oxidized to iron(III) oxide in the presence of
air(oxygen) and water.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 4
17. Chemical Reactions and Physical Change

Chemical Reactions and Physical Changes

 Physical change
 A change in which the substances do not change identity, but changes from one state to
another.
 These changes are often easy to reverse.
 Some examples of physical changes are:
 Change in state of matter. Melting, freezing, evaporation and condensation
 Dissolving a substance in water
 Grinding the substance such as salts or sugar

 Chemical reaction
 A change in which a new substance is formed.
 The process is not easily reversed.
 Types of chemical reactions are:
 Synthesis reaction
 Displacement reaction (single and double displacement)

1) Synthesis reactions
This type occurs where two or more substances react together to from one product.

Examples:
Iron + Sulphur  iron II sulphide
Fe + S  FeS
Magnesium + Oxygen  Magnesium oxide
2Mg + O2  2MgO
Hydrogen + Oxygen  water
2H2 + O2 → 2 H2O

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 4
17. Chemical Reactions and Physical Change

2) Displacement reactions
A- Single Displacement
1.Metals displacement
Zinc + copper II sulphate  zinc sulphate + copper
Zn + CuSO4  ZnSO4 + Cu

Magnesium + iron II sulphate magnesium sulphate +iron

Mg + FeSO4 → MgSO4 + Fe

2.Non-metals displacement
Chlorine + potassium bromide  potassium chloride + bromine
Cl2 + 2KBr → 2KCl + Br2

Bromine + potassium iodide  potassium bromide + iodine

Br2 + 2Kl → 2KBr + I2

B-Double Displacement
1.Neutralization reactions
A reaction that takes place between an acid and base to produce a salt and water.
Acid + alkali  salt + water
Hydrogen chloride + potassium hydroxide  potassium chloride + water
HCl + KOH → KCl + H2O

Sulphuric acid + potassium hydroxide potassium sulphate + water

H2SO4 + 2KOH  K2SO4 + 2H2O

Metal carbonate + acid → salt + carbon dioxide + water

Calcium carbonate + sulphuric acid calcium sulphate + water + carbon dioxide
CaCO3 + H2SO4 → CaSO4 + H2O + CO2

Copper carbonate + hydrochloric acid → copper chloride + water + carbon dioxide

CuCO3 + 2HCl  CuCl2 + H2O + CO2

Ammonium salts + base → salt + ammonia + water

Ammonium chloride + sodium hydroxide  sodium chloride + ammonia + water
NH4Cl + NaOH  NaCl + NH3 + H2O

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 4
17. Chemical Reactions and Physical Change

2- Precipitation reactions
Potassium sulphate + calcium chloride  calcium sulphate +potassium chloride
K2SO4 + CaCl2 → CaSO4 + 2KCl

 Ionic equation
Ionic equations are equations expressing the ions only involved in the reaction. Ionic equations
are derived from the general symbol equations.

How could you write the ionic equation for the following reaction?
Step 1:
Write a balanced symbol equation:
FeCl2 (aq) + 2AgNO3 (aq)  2AgCl (s) + Fe(NO3)2 (aq)
Step 2:
Write all aqueous chemicals in the form of ions. Solids liquids and gaseous chemicals are
written as they are, because they contain no ions.

Fe Cl2 (aq) + 2 Ag NO3 (aq)  2 AgCl (s) + Fe (NO3)2 (aq)

Fe2+ 2Cl- + 2 Ag+ 2 NO3-  2AgCl + Fe2+ 2 NO3-

Step 3:

Fe2+ 2Cl- +2 Ag+ 2NO3-  2AgCl + Fe2+ 2NO3-

Step 4:
Write down what you did not cancel in the equation.
2Ag+ + 2Cl-  2AgCl

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 4
17. Chemical Reactions and Physical Change

Example:

Write the ionic equation for the following equation

HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq)  NaCl (aq) + H2O (I)

Answer: Step 1: HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq)  NaCl (aq) + H2O (I)

Step 2: H+ + Cl- + Na+ + OH-  Na+ + Cl- + H2O (l)

Step 3: H+ + Cl- + Na+ + OH-  Na+ + Cl- + H2O (l)

Step 4: H+ (aq) + OH- (aq)  H2O (l)

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 4
18. Rate of Chemical Reactions

Rate of Chemical Reaction

Some reactions are fast have high rate and take short time to react and some reactions are slow
have low rate and take long time to react.

Reaction starts: Fast Slow Stop

Due to High concentration Concentration of reactants Reactants used

of reactants decreases up

There is an exception with aluminum because it has protective oxide layer.

Reaction starts: Slow Fast Slow Stop

Due to Protective layer to break High concentration Concentration of Reactants

of reactants reactants decreases used up

For any reaction to occur, molecules must collide, and for any collision to make a reaction, it must
exceed a certain amount of energy called the activation energy.
As number of collisions increases, the rate of reaction increases and number of collisions can be
increased by some factors.

Factors that affect rate of reaction are:

1. Concentration 5. Surface Area

2. Temperature 6. Light
3. Pressure 7. Stirring
4. Catalyst

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 4
18. Rate of Chemical Reactions

1. The Concentration of reactants:

Increasing the concentration of a reactant increase

the number of particles per unit volume to produce
more collision per unit time, hence the rate of the
reaction increase.

2. Temperature:

A reaction can be made fast or slow by changing the temperature

of the reactants. Therefore, as temperature increases, the rate of
reaction increases as well.

 Why does the rate increase with increasing

temperature?
As temperature increases, the particles gain more energy and move faster, so they collide more
frequency with each other , as more particles have enough energy to react . Thus, the rate of the
reaction increases eventually.

3. The pressure of gases:

We often use the term concentration in chemistry when talking about Solutions.
However, in case of gases, we use the term pressure. A gas at high pressure is
more concentrated than at low pressure because at high pressure, the gas is
compressed into smaller volume. Increasing the pressure decreases the
distance between particles so give more collision per unit time.

The increase in the reaction rate due to increase in concentration of a solution or

gas pressure can be explained by the collision theory, which states that:

A solution of higher concentration means that it contains more reactant particles

in a given volume, and as the concentration of a solution (or gas pressure
increases), Collisions between the particles increase. The more frequent
collisions, the more chance the particles react, and finally, the faster the rate of the reaction.

4. Catalyst:

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 4
18. Rate of Chemical Reactions

Definition: catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of chemical reaction without being
used up or changed at the end of the reaction.

Presence of a catalyst in a reaction will increase the rate of chemical reaction, as it lower the
activation energy by providing alternative route.

 Note
 Increasing the mass of the used catalyst increases the rate of chemical reaction.
 If the catalyst is more finely divided (powdered means greater surface area), the rate of
chemical reaction increases.
 Activation energy is the minimum energy needed to start the reaction.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 4
18. Rate of Chemical Reactions

5. The surface area of solid reactants:

If one or more reactants are solids, the more finely divided the solid the greater surface area
thus, the rate of reaction increases.

If we look at diagram A we will see that it is a large piece this means it has a small surface
area. Therefore, not all the particles are exposed to the other reactant, so there is a less
chance of particles to collide. On the other hand, if we look at diagram B the surface area
increased as it became small pieces. Therefore, more particles are exposed to the other
reactant, so the chance of more successful collision per second increased. Thus, the rate of
reaction increased.

Hint: Lumps (large piece)  small surface area

Powdered (small pieces)  large surface area

6. Light:
Some chemical reactions are affected by light energy including important reactions such as:

Photosynthesis

 Photosynthesis process is carried out by the help of chlorophyll (green pigment) that traps
light energy when sun light falls on leaves (containing the green chlorophyll).
 The reaction converts water and carbon dioxide into glucose and oxygen.
 Reaction equation of photosynthesis.
Sunlight
Carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen
Chlorophyll

Sunlight
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
Chlorophyll

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 4
18. Rate of Chemical Reactions

7. Effect of stirring:
Stirring increases the rate of chemical reaction because:
Increasing the speed of stirring increases kinetic energy of particles so the speed of particles
increases, which leads to increase the chances of collision, thus the rate of reaction increases.

 How to measure rate of chemical reaction?

There are two methods to measure rate of chemical reaction:
1. Monitoring the rate of decrease in reactants as they are being consumed.
2. Monitoring the rate of increase in products as they are being formed.

Measuring the rate by monitoring/ following rate of decrease in reactants:

1) Reaction between limestone or marble chips (two forms of calcium carbonate) and dilute
hydrochloric acid.
Calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid  Calcium chloride + Carbon dioxide + Water
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCI (aq)  CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) +H2O (l)
 We compare two samples of marble chips, one sample (B) being more
powered than the other (A).
 The experiment is carried out twice, once with sample A and once with
sample B.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 4
18. Rate of Chemical Reactions

For fair comparison the following should be followed:

1. Same mass of samples A and B.

2. Same volume and concentration of hydrochloric acid.

3. The flask sits on the balance during the reaction.

4. A loose cotton wool plug prevents liquid spraying out of the flask but allows the carbon
dioxide gas to escape into the air.

 The flask will lose mass (as reactants being used in the reaction) during the reaction.
 Balance readings are taken at regular time intervals.
 The loss in mass (decrease in reactants) is plotted against time.
 Curves are obtained as in figure 2.

Figure 2

 Important points about the graph:

1. The reaction is fastest at the start this is shown by the steepness of the curves over
the first few minutes.
2. Curve B is steeper than curve A. This means that the gas (CO2) produced faster with
sample B. The finely powdered sample, with a greater surface area reacts faster.
3. Both reactions slow down as the concentration of reactants decreases by time.
4. Both curves flatten out at the same final mass loss.
5. Sample B reaches the horizontal part of the curve (the plateau) first.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 4
18. Rate of Chemical Reactions

Measuring rate of reaction by monitoring the rate of increase in products:

1) The reaction between magnesium and excess hydrochloric acid.
Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid  Magnesium chloride + Hydrogen
Mg(s) + 2HCl (aq)  MgCl2 (aq)+ H2 (g)
 The used apparatus is shown figure 3.
 The experiment is carried out twice in Figure 3
two different cases: Case C in which
the concentration of the acid is
twice that in case D.
 For fair comparison between the
effects of concentration on the
reaction rate, everything else must
stay the same in both experiments: the volume of acid, the temperature and the mass of
magnesium used.
 The produced gas (hydrogen) in this reaction is collected in a gas syringe.
 The volume of gas produced is measured at regular time intervals.
 We can then plot a graph of volume of gas collected against time as shown in figure 3.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 4
18. Rate of Chemical Reactions

Figure 4

 Important comments on the graph:

1. The curve for C is steeper than for D. This shows that the reaction C uses more
concentrated acid than reaction D, and hence, reaction C is faster than reaction D.
2. The curve for experiment C starts off twice as steeply as for D. This means that the
reaction C is twice as fast as reaction D doubling the concentration doubles the rate of
reaction.
3. The total volume of hydrogen produced is the same in both experiments. (Both reactions
produce the same volume of hydrogen) because same mass of magnesium is used.

Note:
 The reaction in this case is carried out using a divided flask with two rooms. The acid is put
in one, and the metal is put in the other. Therefore, to start the reaction, the flask is turned
up side down to mix the reactants to begin a reaction.
 The rate of this reaction can also be studied by allowing the gas to escape. The total mass
will decrease by time (follow decrease in reactants). Record the mass reduction at
frequent time intervals and plot the graph against them.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 4
18. Rate of Chemical Reactions

2) Another example of following increase in products:

The reaction between Sodium thiosulphate and hydrochloric acid is used to measure the
rate of formation of a sulphur precipitate (product) at different temperatures.
Sodium thiosulphate + Hydrochloric acid  Sodium chloride + Sulphur + Sulphur dioxide +
Water
Na2S2O3 (aq) + 2HCl (aq) 2NaCl (aq) + S (s) + SO2 (g) + H2O (l)

The experiment is shown in figure 5.

 A cross is marked on a piece of paper. A flask
containing sodium thiosulphate solution is
placed on top of the paper. Hydrochloric acid
is added quickly.
 The yellow colour of the produced sulphur is
very fine and stays suspended in liquid. With
time as more sulphur is formed, the liquid Figure 5
becomes more cloudy and difficult to see through. The time taken for the cross to
disappear is measured. The faster the reaction, the shorter the length of time during which
the cross is visible.
 The experiment is carried out several times with solutions pre-warmed to different
temperature (at higher the temperature ,the particles gain energy so move faster and collide
more resulting in faster rate of reaction).
 Remember that for fair comparison, all conditions of all the experiments must remain the
same except for the temperature.
 A graph can then be plotted of the time taken for the cross to disappear against temperature.
As in figure 6.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 4
18. Rate of Chemical Reactions

Figure 6

 The graph shows two important points:

1. The cross disappears quicker at higher temperature. The shorter the time needed for the
cross to disappear, the faster the reaction.
2. The curve is not a straight line.

Note:

The rate of the reaction double with every 10°C rises in temperature. (This is true of many
reactions but is only an approximation)

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 4
18. Rate of Chemical Reactions

3) The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.

Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 decomposes to form water and oxygen.

Hydrogen peroxide Water + Oxygen

2H2O2 (l)  2H2O (l) + O2 (g)

We can follow the rate of this reaction by collecting the oxygen in a gas syringe. The formation
of oxygen is very slow at room temperature. However, the addition of 0.5 gram of powdered
manganese (IV) oxide, MnO2 (catalyst) makes the reaction go much faster. The black powder
(MnO2) does not disappear during the reaction.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 4
18. Rate of Chemical Reactions

Reasons for differences in rates.

• Between B and C
Curve C has:
1. Higher temperature
Or
2. More surface area
Or
3. Catalyst
Or
4. Higher concentration of reaction in excise
•Between B and A
Curve A has:
Higher concentration / Mass of reaction in limited factor

Terminology
Activation Energy: Energy needed to start a chemical reaction.
Catalyst: A chemical that is added to speed up a reaction, but remains unchanged at the end.
Enzyme: Biological catalyst.
Concertation: Amount of chemical dissolved in 1 litre of solvent.
Collision Theory: A theory used to explain differences in the rates of reactions as a result of the
frequency and energy associated with the collisions between the reacting particles.
Photochemical: A reaction affected by light.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 4
19. Chemistry and Energy

Chemistry and Energy

During a chemical reaction, energy cannot be created or destroyed. However, one form of
energy can be transferred into another form.

Energetics is the study of energy transfer between reaction chemicals and their

surroundings

Whether this energy change is given out or taken in during a chemical reaction.

Well every reaction differs from the other and both cases occur in reality that’s why a chemical
reactions are classified into:

1. Exothermic reaction: is the reaction which releases energy to the surroundings. Which
means that heat is given out and temperature of surroundings increases.

Such as combustion and freezing

2. Endothermic reaction: is the reaction which absorbs energy from the surroundings. Which
means that heat is taken in and temperature of surroundings decreases.

Such as melting and bonds formation


 From where does the energy change ( H) come?

During a chemical reaction, bonds of reactants break and new bonds of products are formed,
which leads to an energy change. For bonds to be broken, energy is taken in from the surroundings
and when bonds are formed energy is given out which leads to an energy change. The overall
change of the reaction depends on the total energy needed and the total energy released.

Bond breaking requires energy, it is endothermic.

Bond formation releases energy, it is exothermic.

 If energy given out in bond formation is more than energy absorbed during the bond
breaking, the reaction is exothermic.
 If energy given out is less than that energy absorbed, the reaction is endothermic.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 4
19. Chemistry and Energy

 Energy diagrams
Exothermic energy:
 Less energy is needed to break
bonds than energy released during
bonds formation.


The overall H is negative.
 The heat energy is transferred from
the system to the surroundings is
heat is given out.

Exothermic energy:
 More energy is needed to break
bonds than energy released during
bonds formation.
 The overall H is positive.


 The heat energy is transferred from

the system to the surroundings is
heat is taken in.

Catalysts are used to decrease the activation energy of the reactions.

Activation energy is required because initially some bonds must be broken before any reaction
can take place.

Bond energy is the amount of energy in kJ that must be supplied to break one mole of a bond. It
is a measure of the strength of the bond.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 4
19. Chemistry and Energy

Examples for
Exothermic reactions Endothermic reactions
1. Neutralisation reaction
1. Thermal decomposition
HCl + KOH  KCl + H2O
2. Melting of ice and evaporation of
2. Displacement reactions
water
Mg + H2SO4 MgSO4 + H2
3. Bonds breaking
3. Bonds Formation

 To calculate the energy change ( H) of a chemical reaction.



H = Energy In of bond breaking – Energy Out of bond formation

Example 1:
Reaction between hydrogen and chlorine to produce hydrogen chloride
H2 (g) + Cl2 (g)  2HCl (g)
The bond energies of:
HH Cl  Cl H  Cl
436kJ 242kJ 431kJ

 Calculate the heat change and deduce if the reaction exothermic or endothermic?
H  H + Cl  Cl  2 H  Cl
Solution:
Energy taken in to break bonds:
For a mole of H2 molecule: 436 kJ
For a mole of Cl2 molecule: 242 kJ
Total energy in: 678 kJ
Energy given out from bond formation:
For 2 moles of HCl= 2 x 431 = 862
Energy change:
Energy in - energy out = 678 – 862 = -184 kJ
the reaction gives 184 kJ more energy than it takes in. Since it gives out energy, the reaction is
exothermic.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 4
19. Chemistry and Energy

Example 2:
Reaction of burning methane
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g)  CO2 (g) + H2O (g)
The bond energies of:
Bond Bond energy in kJ/mol
HH 436
CH 435
OH 464
O=O 498
C=O 803

 How could you use the values from the table to find the heat of reaction (energy
difference) for the burning methane?
H
H-C-H + 2 O=O  O=C=O + 2 H  O  H
H
Solution:
Energy taken in to break bonds:
Four C-H bonds 4x435 = 1740 kJ/mol
Two O=O bonds 2x498 = 996 kJ/mol
Total energy needed = 2736 kJ/mol
Energy given out from bond formation:
Two C=O bonds 2x803 = 1606 kJ/mol
Four O-H bonds 4x464 = 1856 kJ/mol
Total energy given out = 3462 kJ/mol

The heat reaction, H, is the energy change on going from reaction to products.

Energy change:
Energy in - energy out = 2736 – 3462 = -726 kJ

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 4
19. Chemistry and Energy

Example 3:
The equation for the combustion of methane is shown
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g)  CO2 (g) + H2O (g)
The energy change for the combustion of methane is -890 kJ/mol
The bond energies are shown in the table.
Bond Bond energy in kJ/mol
CH + 410
O=O + 496
HO + 460

 What is the bond energy of the C=O bond?

H
H-C-H + 2 O=O  O=C=O + H-O-H
H
Solution:
Energy needed (to break the bonds in reactants) – energy release (bonds formed in
products) = Energy change
(4 × 410 + 2× 496) - (2 × C=O + 4 × 460) = -890

2632 - 2 × C=O - 1840 = -890

2632 – 1840 + 890 = 2 × C=O

1682 = 2 × C=O

C=O = 8

Terminology
Endothermic reaction: A type of reaction in which energy is taken in from the surroundings.
Exothermic reaction: A type of reaction in which energy is transferred out to the surroundings.
Enthalpy Change ( H): The heat energy change when the reactants shown in a chemical
equation react together.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 4
20. Reversible Reaction

Reversible Reaction

Reversible reactions are the reactions that can be reversed to backward direction (the direction of
formation of reactants from the reaction of products together).

 Chemical equilibrium:
When the rate of forward reaction equal the rate of backward reaction and the concentration
of the reactants and products does not change.
Forward
A+B C+D
Backward

Condition: the products must all be in the reaction system i.e. no product has escaped like a gas.

Example:

CuSO4.5H2O CuSO4 + 5H2O

Blue White

Heating blue hydrated copper (II) sulphate produces white anhydrous copper (II) sulphate and
water vapour on adding drops of water white anhydrous copper (II) sulphate turns back again to
blue hydrated copper sulphate.

Factors that affect rate of reaction are:

1. Concentration
2. Pressure
3. Temperature

Note: That catalyst only increase the rate of the reaction; it does not affect the position of the
equilibrium.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 4
20. Reversible Reaction

1. Concentration
When concentration of reactants increase the reaction shifts forward in the direction of forming
products.
Forward
A+B C+D
Backward

 Increasing concentration of reactants A or B, the reaction shifts equilibrium to forward direction.

 Increasing concentration of products C or D, The reaction shifts equilibrium to backward direction.
 Decreasing concentration of reactants A or B, the reaction shifts equilibrium to backward direction.
 Decreasing concentration of products C or D, The reaction shifts equilibrium to forward direction.

Example: The thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate in a closed system is a

reversible reaction.

CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g) H= +178 kJ

 Describe a way of moving the position of the above equilibrium towards the right-hand side?
Answer: adding more calcium carbonate or removing carbon dioxide.

2. Pressure
In gaseous reactions, increasing pressure shifts the reaction to the direction of the smaller
number of moles because increasing pressure decreases volume and smaller number of moles
occupies smaller volume.
Both of the following reactions are reversible.
Reaction 1: N2 (g) + O2 (g) 2NO (g)
Reaction 2: 2NO (g) + O2 (g) 2NO2 (g)

 Suggest a reason why an increase in pressure does not affect the position of equilibrium
for reaction 1?
Answer: both sides have the same number of moles 2 moles reactants and 2 moles products.
 How does increasing pressure for reaction 2 effect the position of equilibrium?
Answer: Increasing pressure shifts the reaction forward (right hand side) because it has smaller
number of moles.
Note: increasing or decreasing pressure affects only gases.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 4
20. Reversible Reaction

2. Temperature
In any chemical reversible reaction, if the forward reaction is exothermic so the backward is
endothermic and vice versa.
In general, raising temperature favors the endothermic direction and lowering the temperature
favors the exothermic direction.
Exothermic
A+B C+D
Endothermic
Example 1:
An alternative method of transporting hydrogen is to change it into methanol. This liquid is easily
transported and can be decomposed to re-form hydrogen. Methanol can be made by the following
reaction.
CO (g) + 2H2 (g) CH3OH (g) (The forward reaction is exothermic)

 What would be the effect of decreasing the temperature on the concentration of

methanol at equilibrium? Give a reason for your answer.

Answer: methanol will increase, as the reaction will move forward with the exothermic direction as
it is favored by lowering temperature (cooling).

Example 2:
Nitrogen containing Fertilizers used to be made by the following reaction.
N2 + O2 2NO (The forward reaction is endothermic 3000 °C and no catalyst)
They now made using the reaction below.
N2 + 3H2 2NH3 (The forward reaction is exothermic 450 °C and iron as a catalyst)

 Suggest why a high temperature is needed for the first reaction but a lower temperature
for the other?

Answer: first reaction is endothermic, so it is favored by high temperature and moves forward with
high rate. However, the second reaction is exothermic and it is not favored by high temperature so
it will move backwards and the yield decreases.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 4
20. Reversible Reaction

 Other reversible reactions:

1- The formation of calcium oxide (lime) and carbon dioxide from calcium carbonate (limestone)

CaCO3 (g) CaO (g) + CO2 (g)

2- The formation of hydrogen chloride from hydrogen and chlorine

H2 (g) + Cl2 2HCl (g)

3- The synthesis of ammonia - The Haber process

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)

4- The formation of Sulphur-trioxide – The Contact process

2SO2 (g) + O2 2SO3 (g)

Terminology
Anhydrous: A compound with no water of crystallization
Equilibrium: A chemical reaction in which the rate of forward reaction equals to the rate of
backward reaction, with constant concentration of all reactants and products becomes
constant.
Reversible reaction: A reaction in which reactants form products and products form reactants.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 5
21. Air and Water

Air and Water

 Air composition
Oxygen
Proportion in air
Gas Boiling point °C
mixture%
Nitrogen -193 78%

Oxygen -183 21%

Carbon dioxide -32 0.04%

Argon -186 0.093%

0.87%
Other gases
(very small percent)
Nitrogen

 How could you separate oxygen and nitrogen from liquid air?
Fractional distillation is used to separate the two gases from each other.
1. Air is liquefied by compression.
Air is passed through NaOH (base) to remove any acidic gases such as CO2, SO2 and NO2. Then
through concentrated sulphuric acid to remove water vapor. Air is cooled (by high pressure) at –
200 ° C Then it is allowed to warm up.
2. Then the gases are separated according to their different boiling points by fractional
distillation.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 5
21. Air and Water

 Properties, preparation and uses for elements and compounds.

1. Oxygen
Oxygen occurs in the atmosphere all around us as diatomic molecules O2.

Properties:
 Oxygen is a colourless and odourless gas.
 It is slightly soluble in water.
 It is not flammable but helps burning.

Preparation in lab:
Oxygen is prepared in lab by decomposing of hydrogen peroxide H2O2 into water and oxygen in the
presence of catalyst manganese IV oxide.

MnO2
2H2O2 2H2O + O2

Collection:
Over hot water as it is slightly soluble in water or by using a gas syringe.
Test for oxygen:
By using a glowing splint, it relights.
Uses of Oxygen:
1. In oxyacetylene flame that is used in welding metals.
2. In steel industry to burn carbon thus converting iron into steel.
3. for breathing in diving, hospitals and at high altitudes.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 5
21. Air and Water

2. Nitrogen
Physical properties:

 Colourless, odourless and tasteless.

 It is a very unreactive gas.
 It is a diatomic gas (N2).

∗ Two nitrogen atoms are covalently bonded by a triple bond. The triple bond is very strong to break,
so nitrogen is very stable.

∗ Only high temperature or an electric spark will cause it to react with oxygen like in the internal
combustion engine of a car producing oxides of nitrogen (NOX)
Collection:
By displacement of water (insoluble in water)
Uses of Nitrogen:

1. Making ammonia by the Haber process.

2. Making nitric acid.

• Nitric acid is used in making explosives such as TNT (trinitrotoluene)

3. Used as a refrigerant for freezing food.
4. Making fertilizers

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 5
21. Air and Water

 Air pollution
The common pollutants in the air are carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and lead
compounds
Pollutant Its source Harmful effect
Incomplete combustion of Poisonous gas, It can cause death.
Fossil fuels, such as the It prevents hemoglobin in the blood
Carbon monoxide
incomplete combustion of petrol from carrying oxygen. It is colorless
CO
in car. The main source of CO is and odorless therefore you cannot
from car exhausts expect its presence.
Burning of fossil fuels which 1- Main cause of acid rain.
Sulphur dioxide
contain sulphur like coal and 2- Damage to lungs, causing
SO2
petroleum. breathing difficulties.
At high temperature and electric
1- Causes acid rain.
spark in the car engines or in
Oxides of nitrogen 2- Brown fumes prevent sun light
factories oxygen reacts with
NO, NO2 (leads to smog).
nitrogen. Main sources are car
3- Respiratory diseases.
exhausts, factories and fires.
Burning petrol which containing
lead additives (tetraethyl lead) 1- Damage to brain causing mental
Lead compounds
which is added to improve the retardation.
function of petrol.
Inefficient combustion of petrol 1- Increases the risk of cancer.
Unburnt Hydrocarbon
inside the car engines. 2- Leads to smog

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 5
21. Air and Water

 Can you figure out a way to remove these air pollutants or at least some of them?
Well, catalytic converters are being used to remove the oxides of nitrogen and carbon monoxide
from car exhausts.

A converter containing a platinum catalyst fitted to the exhaust system would convert the harmful
gases into carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen and water vapour. These gases are all normally present in
air and therefore do not cause pollution.
Nitrogen oxide is reduced to Nitrogen.
2NO  N2+ O2
Carbon monoxide is oxidised to carbon dioxide.
2CO + O2  2CO2
Over all equation
2NO + 2CO  2CO2 +N2
Unburnt Hydrocarbon react with O2 to form Carbon dioxide and water
C5H12 + 8O2  5CO2 + 6H2O
 Unleaded petrol is used in the catalytic convertors, as the lead compounds are harmful to their
catalysts.
 Catalytic convertors work in high temperatures.
 Platinum used as a catalyst.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 5
21. Air and Water

 Carbon cycle.

There are 3 processes that control the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

These processes are: respiration, combustion and photosynthesis. We have to balance between
these processes.

Respiration: the chemical reaction (a

combustion reaction) by which biological cells
release the energy stored in glucose for use by
the cell or the body. (This process increases
the amount of CO2)

Combustion: a chemical process in which a

substance (C) reacts rapidly with oxygen and
gives off heat. (This process increases the amount of CO2)

Photosynthesis: the chemical process by which plants synthesis glucose from atmospheric carbon
dioxide and water giving off oxygen as by-product: the energy required for the. (This process
decreases the amount of CO2)

Process is captured from sunlight by chlorophyll molecules in the green leaves of the plants.

 It is an essential process made by plants to reduce carbon dioxide.

 It is a reaction between carbon dioxide and water to produce glucose and oxygen in the
presence of chlorophyll and using energy from light.

Carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen

6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

Unfortunately, this balance has been disturbed due to:

1- Burning of fossil fuels frequently leads to increase the amount of carbon dioxide.

2- The destruction of forests and cutting trees which increases the amount of carbon dioxide.

The increasing concentration of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases such as methane has
resulted in a rise in the average temperature of the Earth's atmosphere called global warming.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 5
21. Air and Water

Greenhouse gases Effect:

It is the natural phenomenon in which thermal energy (heat) from the sun is trapped at the Earth’s
surface by certain gases in the atmosphere (greenhouse gases)
1. The greenhouse gases allow high energy and radiation from sun
to pass through the atmosphere and reach the Earth’s surface.
2. Some of this thermal energy is absorbed and heats the oceans
and land, and some is radiated (reflected) back into the
atmosphere.
3. The greenhouse gases such as CO2 and CH4 can absorb this
infrared radiation and then reradiate (re-emit) in all directions.
Some (re-emitted radiation) comes back towards the Earth’s
surface.
4. This reduces the heat loss to space and increases the
temperature of the lower atmosphere.
5. This phenomenon is called greenhouse effect because the absorption and reflection of heat that
warms the atmosphere works similar way to a greenhouse.

Sources of carbon dioxide:

1- Burning of fossil fuels.

2- A product of respiration.
3- A product of the reaction between an acid and a carbonate.
4- From the thermal decomposition of a carbonate.
Sources of methane (main constituent of natural gas):

1- Produced by the decomposition of vegetation.

2- As waste gases from digestion of animals.

To reduce the effects of these environmental issues like climate change should:

1. Planting trees (Reduce the amount of CO2 in air by photosynthesis)

2. Reduction in livestock farming (Reduce the amount of CH4)
3. Decreasing the use of fossil fuels (Decrease the combustion of coal which reduce CO 2)
4. Increasing use of hydrogen and renewable energy, e.g. wind, solar ( Reduce the combustion of coal
which decrease CO2)

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 5
21. Air and Water

 Acid rain.
 Rain water has a pH of 7
 Oxides of nitrogen and sulphur dioxide
dissolve in water to form acids and
decrease the pH.

Acid rain harmful effects:

1. Damages trees and limestone buildings.
2. Makes lakes too acidic for fish to live in.
3. Removes minerals from soil and increases the acidity of the soil.
4. Can speed up corrosion of metals, causing damage to metal work.

To reduce the effects of these environmental issues like acid rain should:

1. Use of catalytic converters in vehicles.

2. Use low-sulfur fuels to reducing emissions of sulfur dioxide.
3. Use calcium oxide to remove flue gas (desulfurisation).

Controlling the acidity in soil is important as plants do not grow properly in acidic soils. Lime (CaO) or
limestone (CaCO3) are used for neutralizing acidic soils.

Calcium oxide used in desulfarisation of flue gases.

calcium oxide (base) neutralised sulfur dioxide (acid) present in flue gas.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 5
21. Air and Water

 Water
 Colourless and odourless substance found all over Earth.
 Made up of billions of molecules.
- Each molecule is made of one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms held together by strong covalent
bonds.
Two sources of water

 Natural source like ( Lakes ,Rivers ,Oceans ,Seas ,Rain water and Ground water)
 Artificial sources like (canals and dams)
Natural sources of water compose of many substances such as:
o Dissolved oxygen
o Metal compounds
o Plastics
o Sewage
o Harmful microbes
o Nitrates from fertilizers
o Phosphates from fertilizers and detergents
Also, these substances are classifying in to two categories beneficial and potentially harmful

Beneficial Harmful

Some of Metal compounds

are toxic
e.g.
Dissolved oxygen lead can cause liver and kidney damage
for aquatic life Mercury damage the nervous system

Plastics
are polymers
harm aquatic life

Sewage
produced by humans includes a range of contaminants
Metal compounds
contains harmful microbes which cause disease
provide essential minerals for life
e.g
Nitrates and Phosphates
Calcium salts
These fertilizers when enter the waterways, such as
Magnesium salts
streams and rivers they cause a rapid growth of algea.
lead to deoxygenation of water and damage to aquatic
life

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 5
21. Air and Water

Types of water

1. Tap water is the water supplied through a tap and its contains natural minerals (dissolved salts)
Generally sourced from a dam or river, treated at a water treatment facility, stored in a reservoir, and
then supplied to homes through water pipelines.
2. Distilled water produce for laboratory purposes
A pure water that has been purified by distillation.
3. Sea water (is water contain salt)
Is a water that makes up the oceans and seas, including dissolved inorganic and organic materials.
 Which type is the best to use it in the lab experiments? Give a reason for your choice?
Distilled water because substances dissolved in tap water 0028metal ions) may interfere with
experiments giving unwanted side reactions. They would also interfere with the results of standard
analysis e.g metal ions.

Water treatment:

No need to prepare water. It comes from rivers, lakes and oceans, but it is first stored in reservoirs
where the process of purification starts.
There are 3 stages that water must go through it before using it

1- Sedimentation and Filtration:

Filtration/Screening: to remove LARGE insoluble object.

Sedimentation: to remove SMALL insoluble object the water passed through fine sand to filter out
these particles.

2- Use of Carbon

To remove tastes and odors

3- Chlorination:

It is treated with chlorine to kill bacteria.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 5
21. Air and Water

Reactions that produce water:

1. Burning hydrogen in air or oxygen.

2H2 + O2  2H2O

2. Reducing a metal oxide by hydrogen

CuO + H2  Cu + H2O

3. Burning of hydrocarbons (compounds that consist of C and H only.

CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O

Test for water:

1. Water turns anhydrous cupper (II) sulphate from white to blue.

CuSO4 (s) + 5H2O (l)  CuSO4.5H2O (s)

White Blue
2. Water turns anhydrous cobalt II chloride from blue to pink.

CoCl2(s) + 6H2O (l)  CoCl2 .6H2O (s)

Blue Pink

Test for water purity:

To find out if liquid water is pure; its boiling point must be measured. Pure water boils exactly at
100°C and freeze, exactly at 0°C.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 5
21. Air and Water

Uses of water:

Water is used at home in:

1. Washing

2. Drinking

3. Cooking

Water is used in industry:

1. Manufacture of ethanol.

2. Making sulphuric acid in the contact process.

3. Solvent Water is an excellent solvent to most ionic compounds.

4. Coolant in electric power stations.

5. Manufacture of hydrogen and oxygen by electrolysis of water. Hydrogen gas is formed at the
cathode and oxygen is collected at the anode.

 Why is some dilute sulphuric acid added during the electrolysis of water?
Pure water is very poor conductor of electricity. Therefore, to enable water to conduct electricity
better, some dilute acid is added.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 5
22. Non-Metals

Non-Metals

Halogens are elements of group VII (7). They are non-metals.

 Lower
 Properties of group 7: melting point
 Most reactive
As we go down the group:
Reactivity decreases
Melting point increase
Density increases
 Highest
Colour becomes darker
melting point
 Least reactive

Halogen State at room temperature Colour

Fluorine Gas Yellow
Chlorine Gas Pale gareen
Bromine Liquid Red-brown
Iodine Solid Grey
Astatine Solid Black solid

 Halogens have similar properties because their atoms all have 7 electrons in the outer shell.
 Elements of group VII are all poisonous.
 All halogens exist as diatomic molecules. The two atoms in the molecule are joined by a
covalent bond.
 Ions of group 7 (Cl- , Br-, I-, F-) are colourless.
 They undergo displacement reactions a more reactive halogen will displace a less reactive halogen
from its compounds.
Chlorine + Potassium Iodide  Iodine + Potassium Chloride
Cl 2 (g) + 2KI (aq)  I2 (aq) + 2KCl (aq)
colourless brown

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 5
22. Non-Metals
 Why are the halogens very reactive?
Because their atoms are only one electron short of a full shell.
 Why do they have similar properties?
Because atoms with the same number of valence electrons react in a similar way.

 Noble gases (group zero)

 The elements of this group are Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon, and the radioactive element
Radon.
 They are colorless gases they exist as individual atoms (monoatomic).
 They are very uncreative as they have completely outer-most shell.

Uses of Noble gases:

1- Helium: used in filling balloons and airships.

 Although hydrogen is also very light, helium is used instead of hydrogen as helium is
very unreactive.

2- Neon: used in advertising signs and in lasers.

 It glows red, but its color can be changed by mixing it with other gases

3-. Argon: used to fill light bulb to prevent the tungsten filament reacting with air.

 Argon is very unreactive and helps protect the filament therefore it lasts longer.

4- Krypton: used in lasers. For example for eye surgery and in car headlamps.

5- Xenon: used in lighthouse lamps.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 5
22. Non-Metals
 Chlorine

Properties:

It is a pale green gas, denser than air and soluble in water.

Preparation in lab:

By heating manganese IV oxide with concentrated

hydrochloric acid.

MnO2 + 4HCI  MnCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O

Collection:

Chlorine is collected by downward delivery since it is denser than air.

Test:

Chlorine bleaches damp litmus paper.

Production:

By electrolysis of brine solution, (concentrated aqueous sodium chloride) chlorine evolves at the
anode.

Uses of chlorine:

1. As a bleaching agent.

2. Water treatment to kill microbes.

3. In making hydrochloric acid.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 5
22. Non-Metals
 Hydrogen
 Hydrogen is the simplest element.
 It is a diatomic molecule H2.
 It has a very low density.
It was used to fill airships but due to its flammability, helium is used instead, which is non-
flammable.
Preparation (in lab):
1. By displacement of hydrogen in water by very reactive metals such as potassium, sodium and
calcium.
Sodium + water  Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen
2Na (s) + 2H2O (l)  2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
2. Less reactive metals for example magnesium, zinc and iron react with steam releasing
hydrogen.
Magnesium + steam  magnesium oxide + Hydrogen
Mg (s) + H2O (l)  MgO (aq) + H2 (g)
3. The most usual lab preparation is the reaction between zinc and dilute hydrochloric acid.
Zinc + Hydrochloric acid Zinc chloride + Hydrogen
Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq)  ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
4. Water electrolysis: produces hydrogen that evolves at the cathode.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 5
22. Non-Metals
Test for hydrogen:

Using a bright splint, hydrogen burns with a pop sound.

Production of hydrogen:

1. By electrolysis of brine solution (concentrated sodium chloride) to produce sodium hydroxide,

hydrogen is produced at the cathode

2. From crude oil by cracking.

Uses of hydrogen:

1. Used as a non- pollutant source of energy with more energy than other fuels.

2. In making ammonia in Haber process.

3. In making margarine from oil.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 5
22. Non-Metals
 Ammonia

Properties:

 Ammonia is a colourless gas with distinctive smell.

 Less dense than air.
 Very soluble in water to give an alkaline solution.

Preparation in lab:

Alkali + ammonium salt  ammonia gas

Calcium hydroxide + ammonium cholride  calcium chloride + water + ammonia

Ca(OH)2 (s) + 2NH4Cl (s)  CaCl2 (s) + 2H2O + 2NH3 (g)

Collection of ammonia:

 By upward displacement of air (lighter than air)

 Ammonia is dried by calcium oxide CaO. Sulphuric acid is not used because ammonia is a
base, so it reacts with acids.

Test for ammonia:

1. Ammonia turns damp red litmus paper into blue (as ammonia is a base).

2. Ammonia forms white fumes with hydrogen chloride gas.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 5
22. Non-Metals
Production of ammonia by the Haber process:
200 atm.pressure
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)
450°C/iron (catalyst)
The reaction is exothermic and reversible.

Reaction conditions: Temperature: 450 °C

Pressure: 200 atm/ 20000 KPa

Catalyst: Iron

 The temperature (450 °C) is high enough for fast (economic) rate of reaction.
 If the temperature is decreased, the reaction would be slow.
 Using iron as a catalyst and temperature 450 °C gives high yield with economic rate.
 Pressure 200 atmospheres is used to obtain high yield of ammonia as the pressure favors the side
with less number of moles which is the ammonia.
Source of nitrogen and hydrogen:
1) Nitrogen is obtained from air by fractional distillation of liquid air.
2) Hydrogen is now obtained from methane (natural gas).
Methane is heated with steam over a nickel catalyst.
CH4 (g) + H2O (g)  CO (g) + 3H2 (g)

Uses of ammonia:
In making fertilisers:
Fertilizers are substances which added to soil to promote plant growth.
2NH3 + H2SO4  (NH4)2SO4

Fertilisers:
 It is a natural or artificial substance containing the chemical elements that improve growth and
productiveness of plants.
 Made from 3 essential elements NPK (Nitrogen, Phosphorous, and Potassium) to improve plant
growth
 Also, Ammonium salts and nitrates are used as fertilisers because nitrogen(essential element of
fertiliser) in their components.

In making nitric:
Acid that is used in making fertiliser and explosives.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 5
22. Non-Metals
 Sulphur trioxide
Production of Sulphur trioxide by the Contact process:

2SO2(g) + O2 (g) 2 atm.pressure 2SO3(g)

450°C/V2O5(catalyst)
The reaction is exothermic and reversible.

Reaction conditions: Temperature: 450 °C

Pressure: 2 atm / 200 KPa

Catalyst: Vanadium (v) Oxide V2O5

 The temperature (450 °C) is high enough for fast (economic) rate of reaction.
 If the temperature is decreased, the reaction would be slow.
 Using iron as a catalyst and temperature 450 °C gives high yield with economic rate.
 Increasing the pressure favors the side with less number of moles which is the right hand side.
o Using 2 atmospheric pressure produce high yield of SO3 (98%) thus, no need for increasing
the pressure.

Source of sulfur dioxide and oxygen:

1) Sulfur dioxide by burning sulfur or roasting sulfide ores
2) Oxygen from air by fractional distillation.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 5
22. Non-Metals
 Carbonates (Carbon)
 Carbon is a non-metal lies in group IV (4) of the periodic table.
 It is tetravalent that form four bonds.
 Carbon atoms bind together in different ways forming allotropes of carbon.

Allotropy: The existence of an element in two or more different forms (allotropes) in the same
physical state.
Diamond and graphite are both solid forms of carbon.
Burning is a chemical properties of carbon.
a. In sufficient supply of air (oxygen) complete combustion takes place producing carbon dioxide.
C + O2  CO2
b. When oxygen supply is limited, carbon monoxide can be produced where incomplete
combustion takes place.
2C + O2  2CO

 Carbon dioxide
Properties:
1. Carbon dioxide is a colourless, odourless gas.
2. Denser than air.
3. Slightly soluble in water.
4. Does not burn and does not help burning.
Preparation in lab:
CO2 can be prepared in laboratory by the reaction between an acid and a carbonate salt such
as calcium carbonate.
Calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid  calcium chloride + water + carbon dioxide
CaCO3 + 2HCl  CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
Collection of carbon dioxide:
1) Downward delivery since it is denser than air.
2) Over warm water because it is slightly soluble in water.
Test for carbon dioxide:

Carbon dioxide turns the lime water (Ca(OH)2) milky(cloudy) due to the formation of CaCO3
(white ppt).
CO2 (g) + Ca(OH)2 (aq)  CaCO3 (s) + H2O

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 5
22. Non-Metals
Production:
By heating lime stone or marble chips (both are calcium carbonate)
Calcium carbonate (Marble chips or limestone)  Calcium oxide (Lime) + Carbon dioxide
CaCO3  CaO + CO2
Uses of carbon dioxide:
1. In making fire extinguishers.
- The fact that CO2 is denser than air means that a layer of CO2 covers the fire and isolates it
from oxygen.
2. In making dry ice.
- Solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) sublimes (converts from solid to liquid without passing by the
liquid state). Dry ice is used in refrigerating.
3. In fizzy drinks.
Uses of calcium carbonate:
1. Making cement.
2. Making glass.
3. In blast furnace to react with the impurities giving slag.
4. Making lime and slaked lime.
Lime is used in:
1. To neutralize soil acidity.
2. To neutralize acidic gases and industrial acidic wastes.

 Calcium carbonate and calcium oxide are used to neutralise the soil acidity
 What do you think is better using CaCO3 or CaO?
Limestone is the better choice as its pH cannot rise above 7 and it will not be washed by rain since it is
insoluble.

Terminology
Diatomic: Two atoms combined together.
Monatomic: An element composed of separate atoms.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 6
23. Organic

Organic
Fuel: is a substance that burns and give out energy.

Fossil fuel: They are substances that are formed in the earth crust due to the decomposition of
fossils of dead animals and plant.

Formation of fossil fuel:

When forests and animals die, they are buried and covered by layers of soil under the effect of
high temperature and pressure, fossil fuel is formed.

Coal

 A black solid fossil fuel mainly composed of the element carbon, and traces of other non-
metals like Sulphur
 It is the cheapest fossil fuel, the most abundant and the longer life on earth than petroleum and
natural gases.

Natural gas

 Natural gas exists as gaseous layers over petroleum. This gas contains mainly 94% methane
gas.

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Petroleum

The third fossil fuel and the second most important liquid on earth after water nowadays is
petroleum (also is called “black gold” or “crude oil”)

 Petroleum is a mixture of liquids named “hydrocarbons”. This mixture can be separated into its
components according to their different boiling points in a process known as “Fractional
distillation”
 In fractional distillation, Petroleum is heated slowly up to 500 °C.
 Components of smaller size (and hence lower boiling point) will vaporize first and will be
separated first up in the fractionating tower. While components with larger size (and hence
higher boiling point) will vaporize and be separated later down in the fractionating tower.

Small Molecules

 Low boiling
point
 Light in colour
 Esay to light
 Runny

Large molecules

 High boiling
point
 Dark in colour
 Hard to light
 Thick

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Name of fraction Uses of the fraction – depends on its properties

Refinery Gases  Gas cylinders at homes for cooking

 Easily vaporized, highly flammable, easily, ignited,

Gasoline, Petrol
car fuel

Naphtha  Producing chemicals

 Jet fuel (air crafts)

Paraffin, Kerosene
 Home stoves

Diesel oil (Gas oil)  Large vehicle fuel

Fuel oil  Ships and factories

 Lubricating oils
Lubricating oils and waxes  Clear waxes
 Polishes

 Water proofing material

Bitumen (Asphalt)  Sticks rock chips on roofs
 Road surfaces

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 Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons are compounds that are made up of hydrogen and carbon only.

 The hydrocarbons that will be studied at this level will be alkanes and alkenes only.

Homologous series

It is a family of organic-compounds of same general chemical properties due to the presence of

same functional group

 What is a functional group?

A functional group is a certain arrangement of atoms that exist in organic molecules that makes it
behave different from other organic compounds in chemical reactions.

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Examples of functional groups:

1) All alkenes contain the functional group C=C.
2) All alcohols contain the functional group –OH.
O
ll
3) All carboxylic acid contain the functional group C-O-H.
O
ll
4) All esters contain the functional group C-O.

Examples on homologous series:

1. Alkanes:

All alkanes having C-C single covalent bonds. They have no

functional group to talk about but they have similar chemical
properties. Alkanes form homologous series.

2. Alkenes:

All Alkenes have C=C double covalent bonds as a functional

group. Alkenes are a homologous series as they all have the
same functional group.

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3. Alcohols:

All Alcohols have the functional group of –OH. Alcohols

form a homologous series as they all have the same
functional group.

4. Carboxylic acids: O
ll
Carboxylic acids have the functional group -C-OH. Carboxylic
acids form a homologous series as they all have the same
functional group.

5. Esters:

Esters have the same functional group. Esters form a homologous series as they all have the
same functional group.

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Properties of homologous series:

1. Same functional group.

2. Same general chemical properties.
3. Same way of preparation.
4. Same general molecular formula
5. Usually a member differs from the next one by –CH2
6. Different physical properties; they have trend in their physical properties for example: melting
point increases as the size of the compound increase

 Naming of organic compounds.

The names of organic compounds are determent by number of carbon atoms, functional group and
the position of functional group.

Step 1: should start with prefix (number of carbon atoms).

Carbons in chain 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Prefix meth- eth- prop- but- pent- hex- Hept- Oct- Non- Dec-

Step 2: functional group.

1. C – C  the name will end with –ane

2. C = C  the name will end with –ene
3. – OH  the name will end with –anol

For example: organic compounds that contain one carbon atom have the prefix meth-

Methane: the alkane which 1 carbon atom.

Methanol: the alcohol which has 1 carbon atom.

Methanoic acid: the carboxylic acid which has 1 carbon atom.

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Step 3: Position of functional group

Example:

The position of the functional group at The position of the functional group at
the second C, so it will be but-2-ene. the first C, so it will be propanol.

The position of the functional group at

the second C, so it will be propan-2-ol.

If the compound contain:

1. Chlorine atom ( Cl ): its name will start with “Chloro-“ such as

chloromethane

2. Bromine atom ( Br ): its name will start with “Bromo-“ such as

bromomethane
3. –CH3 branched  its name will start with “Methyl-“
4. –C2H5 branched  its name will start with “Ethyl-“
5. –C3H7 branched  its name will start with “Propyl-“

Example:
2-Methyl butane

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Examples 1:

1. Number of carbon atoms: 4  But-

2. Functional group: C=C  -ene
3. Position of functional group : 2  But-2-ene OR 2-Butene

Examples 2:

1. Number of carbon atoms: 5  Pent-

2. Functional group: -OH  -ol
3. Position of functional group: 3  Pentan-3-ol OR 3-Pentanol

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 Types of formulas.
1. Molecular formula: a formula that shows the actual number of atoms of each element
present in a molecule of the compound
Example: C2H4
2. General formula:
Example: CnH2n
3. Structure formula – displayed formula: the structure formula of an organic molecule
shows how all the groups of atoms are arranged in the structure.
Example:

4. Empirical formula: a formula for a compound which shows the simplest ratio of atoms
present.
Example: C2H4 /2 = CH2

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 Isomerism

Isomers are organic compounds which have same molecular formula but different structural
formula.

5. Isomers of alkanes:

- The first three alkanes CH4, C2H6 and C3H8 have no isomers.

Example: Isomers of Butane (C4H10)

Butane 2-methyl propane

6. Isomers of alkenes

The alkenes with four or more carbon atoms show isomerism. In this case changing the
position of the C= C double bond gives a new isomer.

Example: Isomers of the molecular formula C4H8.

But-2-ene 2-methylpropene
But-1-ene

Cyclobutane

Isomers of the same molecular formula could belong to different families (different
homologous series). Such as butene and cyclobutane.

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Isomers of C5H11Cl:

1-Chloropentane 2-Chloropentane

3-Chloropentane

7. Isomers of alcohols
Example: isomers of C3H7OH

1-Propanol 2-Propanol

OR OR
Propan-1-ol Propan-2-ol

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 Important Notes

Cycloalkanes

Organic compounds found in nature contain rings of carbon atoms.

Properties of cycloalkane:

 They have the same general formula as the alkenes.

 They are saturated contain only single bonds.
 They are isomers of the alkenes.

Difference between unbranched and branched

Unbranched chain compounds consist of a straight-chain of molecules only that may contain
single, double or triple bonds.

Branched chain compounds consist of a straight chain molecules forming bonds with one or more
carbons (in the middle not at the end of the chain)

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 Hydrocarbons

1. Alkanes:

1. Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds (C-C).
2. The general formula of alkanes is CnH2n+2 (where n is the number of present carbon atoms).
3. They end with – ane.
4. Alkanes from: C1 to C4 are gases, C5 to C19 are liquids, and C20 till (the remaining) are solids.

The following table shows the names and the formulas of the first six members of the series
of alkanes:

Physical
Molecular
No. of carbon Boiling state at
Alkane formula Structural formula
atoms point room
CnH2n+2
temp.

Methane CH4 1 -164 Gas

Ethane C2H6 2 -87 Gas

Propane C3H8 3 -42 Gas

Butane C4H10 4 0 Gas

Pentane C5H12 5 +36 Liquid

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Reactions of alkanes

1. Burning (Combustion)
All alkanes burn exothermally (give out heat) {that's why they are used as fuels}
a) Complete combustion (in presence of excess oxygen): alkanes burn producing carbon
dioxide, water vapour and energy.
Example:

Methane + Oxygen  Carbon dioxide + Water vapour

CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g)  CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)
Ethane + Oxygen  Carbon dioxide + Water vapour
2C2H6 (g) + 7O2 (g)  4CO2 (g) + 6H2O (g)
b) Incomplete combustion (no enough oxygen): alkanes burn producing carbon monoxide,
water vapour and energy

Example:

Methane + Oxygen  Carbon monoxide + Water vapour

2CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g)  2CO (g) + 2H2O (g)
2. Substitution reactions: (reaction with halogens)

Light is required to make the reaction happen. Any of the hydrogen can be replaced .The
reaction can continue until all the hydrogen have been replaced by the halogen atoms and so a
mixture of products is often obtained.

Examples:

Methane + Chlorine → Chloromethane + Hydrogen chloride

Note: Substitution of propane produces a mixture of products (2 isomers).

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3. Cracking reactions:

Cracking is the breakdown of large molecules into smaller, more valuable molecules.

All cracking reactions of long chain alkanes give

Alkane (shorter chain than the original)

Alkene + Hydrogen
+ Short chain alkene

Note: Shorter chain alkane produced from cracking reaction can undergo further cracking
producing alkene + hydrogen. Therefore, overall reaction will produce: alkene + alkene +
hydrogen.

Examples:
1. Decane octane + ethane

C10H22  C8H18 + C2H4

2. Decane octene + ethene + hydrogen

C10H22  C8H16 + C2H4 + H2

3. Decane decene + hydrogen

C10H22  C10H20 + H2

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2. Alkenes:

1. Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons.

2. At least one C=C double bond.
3. Alkenes are unsaturated due to the ability to break this double bond (C=C) and add extra atoms
to the molecule (that's why alkenes are generally more reactive than alkanes)
4. The general formula of alkenes is CnH2n (where n is the number of present carbon atoms).
5. They end with - ene.
6. Alkenes from: C2 to C4 are gases, C5 to C19 are liquids, and C20 till (the remaining) are solids.
7. First member of alkene is Ethene

The following table shows the first alkenes and some more details:

Molecular No. of Physical

Boiling
Alkene formula carbon Structural formula state at room
point
CnH2n atoms temp.

Ethene C2H4 2 -104 Gas

Propene C3H6 3 -47 Gas

Butene C4H8 4 -6 Gas

Pentene C5H10 5 +30 Liquid

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Reactions of alkenes

1. Burning (Combustion)
a) Complete combustion (in presence of excess oxygen): alkenes burn producing carbon
dioxide and water vapour
Example:

Ethene + Oxygen  Carbon dioxide + Water vapour

C2H4 (g) + 3O2 (g)  2CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)

b) Incomplete combustion (no enough oxygen): alkenes burn producing carbon monoxide and
water vapour
Example:

Ethene + Oxygen  Carbon monoxide + Water vapour

C2H4 (g) + 2O2 (g)  2CO (g) + 2H2O (g)

2. Addition reactions

Addition reaction is characteristic for unsaturated hydrocarbons. Hydrogen, water (steam) or

bromine can be added across the C = C double bond

a) Addition of hydrogen (Hydrogenation)

𝟏𝟓𝟎−𝟑𝟎𝟎°𝐂
Alkene + Hydrogen → Alkane
𝐍𝐢𝐜𝐤𝐞𝐥

Examples:
𝟏𝟓𝟎−𝟑𝟎𝟎°𝐂
1. Ethene + Hydrogen → Ethane
𝐍𝐢𝐜𝐤𝐞𝐥

𝟏𝟓𝟎−𝟑𝟎𝟎°𝐂
2. Propene + Hydrogen → Propane
𝐍𝐢𝐜𝐤𝐞𝐥

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b) Addition of water/steam (Hydration)

𝟑𝟎𝟎°𝐂/𝟔𝟎 𝒂𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆
Alkene + Water → Alcohol
𝑷𝒉𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅(𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒚𝒔𝒕)

Examples:

𝟑𝟎𝟎°𝐂/𝟔𝟎 𝒂𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆
1. Ethene + steam → Ethanol (Ethyl alcohol)
𝑷𝒉𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅(𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒚𝒔𝒕)

𝟑𝟎𝟎°𝐂/𝟔𝟎 𝒂𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆
2. Propene + steam → Propanol
𝑷𝒉𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅(𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒚𝒔𝒕)

𝟑𝟎𝟎°𝐂/𝟔𝟎 𝒂𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆
3. But-2-ene + steam → 2-Butanol
𝑷𝒉𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅(𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒚𝒔𝒕)

This way produced alcohol more pure than fermentation.

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c) Addition of bromine (Bromination):

1. Addition of Br2:

Bromination is a characteristic test for unsaturated hydrocarbons. When bromine water is added
to any alkene, color changes from red brown to colourless.

2. Addition of HBr:

Example:

Ethene + Hydrogen bromide  Bromo-ethane

 How to prepare chloro-ethane?

Answer: chloroethane can be prepared by 2 methods:

1. Substitution of ethane using sunlight and chlorine

2. Addition of HCl to ethene

 Which method is better?

Addition of HCl to ethene is a better method for preparation of chloro-ethane because:

1. No catalyst is needed.
2. Alkenes are generally more reactive.
3. No waste product such as HCl (which is produced in substitution of alkanes).

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d) Polymerizations reactions: Addition polymerization

 Alkenes such as ethene can undergo addition polymerization reaction where large number of
monomers (small molecule) combines to form a long chain molecule called polymer.
 Monomer: a small molecule which can be polymerized to make a polymer
 Polymer: a macro-molecule made by polymerizing monomers
 High pressure, temperature (room temperature or higher) and a catalyst are needed.

Example 1:

Monomer (Ethene) Polymer (poly ethene)

Example 2:

Monomer (Propene) Monomer (Propene)

Polymerization

Polymer
(polyprpene)

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The following table shows some example, for monomers, their polymers and uses of these
polymers:

Monomer Polymer Uses

1. Plastic bags
2. Bowls, bottles, packaging

Ethene Poly(ethene)

1. Crates and boxes

2. Plastic rope

Propene Poly(propene)

Insulation, pipes and gutters

Poly(chloroethene)
(also called Polyvinyl chloride,
Chloroethene PVC)

Non-stick frying pans

Poly(tetra-fluoroethene)
(Teflon)
Tetra fluoroethene

Insulation, packaging
Styrene Poly(styrene)
(foam)

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 Organic compounds containing carbon, oxygen and hydrogen.

1. Alcohols

 Alcohols form a homologous series of compounds that contain -OH (hydroxyl) as a functional
group.
 Their names end with -ol
 General formula: CnH2n+1OH

Properties of alcohols:

 Neutral (pH = 7)
 Colourless liquids
 Bad electric conductor
 Volatile (evaporates easily or have low boiling point)
 Flammable

The following table shows examples of some alcohols, their molecular formula and their
boiling points:

Alcohol Molecular formula Boiling point °C

Methanol CH3OH 65
Ethanol C2H5OH 78
Boiling point
Propan-1-ol C3H7OH 97 increases
Butan-1-ol C4H9OH 117
Pentan-2-ol C5H11OH 137

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The structural formula of some alcohols

Methanol Ethanol

Prop-2-anol
Propanol

The following are two isomers for butanol:

Butan-1-ol Butan-2-ol

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Reactions of Alcohols:

1. Oxidation to carboxylic acids:

Example:

𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
→

Ethanol Ethanoic acid

2. Alcohols react with metals such as sodium (Na) and potassium (K) producing salt and
hydrogen:

Alcohol + Metal  Salt + Hydrogen

Example:

3. Alcohols undergo dehydration ( loss of water) to form alkenes:

𝑫𝒆𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
Alcohol → Alkene
−𝑯𝟐𝑶

Example:

Dehydration
-H2O

Ethanol Ethene

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Dehydration of alcohol to alkene can be done by 2 methods, either:

1) Heating alcohol with excess H2SO4

2) Passing alcohol vapor over hot Al2O3

Making ethanol:

Ethanol can be made by two ways:

1. Hydration of ethene: (addition of steam)

300°C, 60 atmosphere
Ethene + Steam Ethanol
Phosphoric acid

2. Fermentation

Ethanol can be made by fermentation of sugar by yeast, In this reaction sugar gets convert to
ethanol and carbon dioxide.
Zymase, enzyme
Glucose Ethanol + Carbon dioxide
Yeast - 37°C

Zymase, enzyme
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
Yeast - 37°C

 What is yeast?

Yeast is a type of living organism called fungus. Yeast gains energy by anaerobic respiration
(respiration in absence of oxygen) by fermentation of sugar.

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Fermentation stops if:

1) The sugar runs out.

2) When the ethanol concentration has reached about 15% because yeast denature (or die) at
high concentration of ethanol.
3) When temperature increases above 37°C because the yeast denature. The best temperature
is 37°C and the reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme zymase present in yeast.

Fermentation can be carried out in the laboratory using the apparatus in

the figure. The air-lock allows gas (CO2) to escape from the vessel but
prevents entry of bacteria and oxygen (to prevent oxidation of ethanol
to ethanoic acid)

Uses of ethanol:

1. As a Fuel ethanol burns with a clear flame, giving out quite a lot of heat
C2H5OH + 3O2 (g)  2CO2 (g) + 3H2O
2. Ethanol is a good solvent in paints, glues, perfumes, etc.
3. It is a raw material for other organic chemicals.
4. It is used in making wine and beer (alcoholic drinks).

 Which method for making ethanol is better? Hydration of ethene or Fermentation?

Fermentation Hydration of ehtene

Advantages 1) Produces pure ethanol
1) Uses renewable source 2) Fast method
3) Continuous process

1) Slow method
2) Require large reaction vessels
Disadvantages 1) Uses non-renewable
3) Produces ethanol in mixture with other
source
substances, so fractional distillation is
2) Require high energy
required to obtain pure ethanol (fractional
distillation is expensive process)

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2. Carboxylic acids (organic acids)

 Carboxylic acids are another homologous series of organic compounds.

 They have the functional group - COOH attached to the hydrocarbon chain.
 pH < 7 (weak acids).
 General formula CnH2n+1COOH (where n is the number of carbon atoms minus 1).

Examples of carboxylic acids:

Methanoic acid Ethanoic acid (vinegar)

Propanoic acid Butanoic acid

Preparation of carboxylic acids

Oxidation of alcohols gives the corresponding carboxylic acids.

𝑶𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒛𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕
A. Alcohol → Carboxylic acid
Examples of oxidizing agents:
1. Copper (II) oxide.
2. Potassium (VII) Manganate.
3. Potassium Dichromate.

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Example: Preparation of ethanoic acid by oxidation of ethanol

Copper (II) oxide

1. Ethanol → Ethanoic acid

C2H5OH  CH3COOH

𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑚 (𝑉𝐼𝐼)

2. Ethanol → Ethanoic acid (colour changes from purple to colorless)
𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑒)

𝐴𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑚
3. Ethanol → Ethanoic acid (colour changes from orange to green)
𝐷𝑖𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒)

B. Bacterial oxidation during fermentation process

The presence of bacteria in fermentation reaction leads to convert ethanol to ethanoic acid
this process is called bacterial oxidation.

Air contains a large proportion of bacteria called Acetobacter. Acetobacter bacteria use
atmospheric oxygen from air to oxidise ethanol, producing a weak solution of ethanoic acid
(vinegar).
The bacteria used are naturally present in the air and wine (ethanol) can be simply become
“vinegary” if it left open in the air.

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Reactions of carboxylic acids: (like any acid)

1. Reacts with base to form salt + water:

Ethanoic acid Sodium ethanoate

2. Reacts with metals to form salt + hydrogen.

Ethanoic acid Sodium ethanoate

3. Reacts with metal carbonates to form salt + carbon dioxide + water.

Na

Propanoic acid Sodium propanoate

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3. Esters

 Esters form a family of organic compounds formed by esterification reaction which is the
reaction of an alcohol with a carboxylic acid.
 Esters are characterized by strong and pleasant tastes and pleasant smells.
 In this reaction, a water molecule is eliminated when a molecule of the acid react with a
molecule of an alcohol, and since this reaction is reversible, So conc. H2SO4 is added to
remove the formed water so that the reaction goes to the forward direction producing the
ester.
 Conc. H2SO4 is used as a catalyst.

Example 1:

Methanoic acid will react with ethanol in the presence of few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid
producing ethyl methanoate (an ester).

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐. 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4
Ethanol + Methanoic acid → Ethyl methanoate + Water

Ethyl methanoate

Example 2:
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐. 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4
Methanol + propanoic acid → methyl propanoate + Water

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐. 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4
+ →

Methyl Propanoate

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 6
23. Organic

Show the structure of the ester formed and name it when:

a) Methanol reacts with ethanoic acid.

b) Propanol reacts with methanoic acid.

Uses of esters: Did you know that esters are

responsible for the pleasant

 As food flavorings characteristic smell (odour) of the

fruits?
 In making perfumes For example: Propyl methanoate is

 As a solvent responsible for the smell of the apples

while pentyl ethanoate is responsible
for the smell of the banana.

Ester hydrolysis:

Ester linkage is hydrolysed (broken down) by addition of water forming carboxylic acid and alcohol.

When the ester hydrolysed, the bond between C=O and O breaks down. The side that contains
C=O is the acid side and the side that contains –O bond is the alcohol side. O-H is then added to
side containing the C=O forming carboxylic acid and H is added to the side containing -O forming
alcohol.

Example:

Methyl propanoate Propanoic acid Methanol

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 6
23. Organic

 Polymerisation

Polymerisation is the chemical reaction in which molecules (monomers) join together to form a long
chain polymer.

There are two types of Polymerization

Addition polymerization Condensation polymerization

1. Addition polymerization:

1. Addition polymers are formed by the joining up of many monomers and only occurs in
monomers that contain C=C bonds. (it involves the removal of a C=C double bond to form a –
C-C- bond, it joins up unsaturated molecules to form a long saturated molecule)
2. Produce only one product
3. Addition polymers are non-biodegradable and take many years to break down

2. Condensation polymerization:

1. Condensation polymers are formed when monomers are joined together with the elimination
of water. (involves the reaction of two different functional groups to form one long molecule by
the removal of a small molecule, such as water H2O).
2. Produce two products (the polymer and water).
3. Condensation polymers are broken down naturally by hydrolysis into their monomer units.
Therefore they are biodegradable and easier to dispose off than addition polymers.
4. Condensation polymerization usually involves two monomers, each one having a functional
group on each end.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 6
23. Organic

 Condensation polymerization

Condensation polymers are basically polymers formed through a condensation reaction, they are
formed when monomer molecules are linked together with the removal of a small molecule usually
water.

Catalyst used in condensation polymerization is sulfuric acid.

Condensation polymers can be divided into natural polymers and artificial (synthetic) polymers.

Note:
Natural polymers such as proteins, carbohydrates and fats are biodegradable compounds so they
save resources WHILE synthetic polymers such as nylon and terylene are non-biodegradable so
they may cause:

 Visiual pollution
 Shortage of landfill sites
 Toxic gases when burnt
- In condensation polymerization, conc H2SO4 is used as a catalyst (dehydration agent)

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 6
23. Organic

Polymers

I. Poly amides:

1. Proteins:
 Proteins are natural macromolecules (polymers)
 Proteins are made up of different monomers of same type called amino acids. An amino acid
contains two functional groups, amine group NH2 - and Carboxylic group –COOH.

When a large number of amino acids react together, the formed product is known as protein or
poly peptide, it has the following structure:

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 6
23. Organic

2. Nylon
 Is a synthetic polymer / polyamide (man - made fibers).
 It has the same linkage as protein, the amide / peptide linkage

But the difference is in the monomers used in nylon, which are di-amine and di-carboxylic acid

The formed polymer. Nylon has the following structure:

 Nylon can be turned into fibers (threads) that can be woven into fabric to make shirts, ties,
sheets, parachutes, racket strings and ropes.
 Nylon is hydrolyzed by concentrated hydrochloric acid {acid hydrolysis} (as proteins).

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 6
23. Organic

II. Polyesters:
1. PET (Terylene) (a man-made fiber).
 Terylene is polyester with the same linkage as fats, it has ester linkage

Formation of terylene and its structure:

 Terylene is formed of two different monomers: dicarboxylic acid and diol

 Terylene can also be turned into fibers which can be woven to be used in making clothes.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 6
23. Organic

 Plastics

The alkenes formed in cracking are very useful because they are used to make plastics. The
alkenes are heated under pressure with a catalyst and the alkenes double bonds open up causing
them to join together to form very long chain molecules called polymers. Ethene produces the
plastic polyethene or polythene by addition polymerization.

Plastics are extremely useful (advantages) for many things. However, they cause some pollution
problems (disadvantages).

Advantages Disadvantages
Cheap Non-biodegradable
Produces toxic gases such as carbon
Lighter than metal monoxide, hydrogen chloride, and
hydrogen cyanide when burnt
Resist Corrosion Visual pollution
Used as Insulator Shortage of landfill sites

 What is meant by Biodegradable and Non-Biodegradable?

Biodegradable: substances decompose by bacteria

Non-Biodegradable: substances do not decompose by bacteria and cause accumulation in

nature

 What is the main difference between Hydration and Hydrolysis?

Hydration: Water molecules are added into the substances with no breakdown of the
substances.

 It Produce one product ( e.g: ethene + steam  ethanol)

Hydrolysis: Is the process by which molecules are broken down when it reacts with water.

 It Produce two products ( e.g: methyl ethanoate + water  methanol + ethanoic acid)

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 6
23. Organic

Terminology
Alkane: Hydrocarbon where the carbon atoms are bonded together by single bond.
Alkene: Hydrocarbon that contains a single carbon-carbon double bond.
Biodegradable: can be broken down by microbs.
Cracking: The process by which long-chain alkanes are broken down to form short-chain alkanes
and alkenes, using high temperatures, pressures and a catalyst.
Condensation polymerization:
o Condensation: two monomers joining with the removal of a small
molecules.
o Polymerization: to form a large molecule.
Fermentation: The process by which ethanol is made from sugar and yeast.
Fossil Fuel: Fuel made from remains of decayed animal and plant matter compressed over
millions year.
Fraction: A collection of hydrocarbon that have similar molecular masses and boil at similar
temperatures.
Fractional Distillation: A process for separating liquids with different boiling points.
Hydrocarbon: A compound containing ONLY hydrogen atoms and carbon atoms.
Hydrolysis: Breaking down a compound using its reaction with water or steam.
Isomers/Structural Isomers: Compounds that have the same molecular formula but different
structure formula.
Monomer: Small molecules that can be joined in a chain to make a polymer.
Polymer: A large molecule made up of linked smaller molecules (monomers).
Polymerization: Making polymers from monomers.
Substitution: A reaction in which an atom or group of atoms is replaced by another atom or
group of atoms.
Saturated: Describes an organic compound that contains only single bonds (C-C).
Unsaturated:Describes carbon compound that contain carbon-to-carbon double bond.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 6
24. Moles and Chemical Equations

Moles and Chemical Equations

We need to be able to predict the amounts of substances involved in chemical reactions.

Relative atomic mass Ar:

 Is the average mass of an atom compared with the mass of a standard atom of carbon-12.
 You can get the Ar from the periodic table which is the mass no.

The relative molecular mass Mr (formula mass):

 It is the sum of the relative atomic mass of all atoms in a molecule. The relative molecular mass
of a compound is found by adding up the relative atomic masses of the elements in the
compound according to the number of each element's atoms.

Examples:

Calculate the relative molecular mass of each of the following if the following if the:

(Ar of O = 16, Ca = 40, C = 12, Na = 23, S = 32)

1. Oxygen molecule O2 = 2x16 = 32

2. Calcium carbonate molecule CaCO3 = 40 + 12 + (16x3) = 100
3. Sodium sulphate Na2SO4 = (2x23) + 32 + (16x4) = 142

Mole: The relative atomic or molecular mass expressed in gram.

For example:
The relative molecular mass of sulphuric acid = 98
A mole of sulphuric acid = 98 gram.

Scientists have found that one mole of a substance contains 6x1023 particles this no. is called
Avogadro's number.

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 6
24. Moles and Chemical Equations

 Calculations using solid:

The mass of a substance present in any number of moles can be calculated according the following
relation.

Mass = Number x Mass of 1 mol

(in grams) of moles (Ar or Mr)

Example 1:

1. Calculate the mass of:

a) 1 mole of Al (Ar of Al = 27)

Answer: 1 mole of Al = 27 grams

b) 0.2 mole of NaOH (Ar of O = 16, H = 1, Na = 23)

Answer: 1 mole of NaOH = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40 gram, 0.2 mole of NaOH = 40 x 0.2 = 8 gram

2. Calculate the no. of moles exist in 80 gram sodium hydroxide.

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 80
Answer: no. of moles = = 40 = 2 moles
𝑀𝑟

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 6
24. Moles and Chemical Equations

Mole Ratio

 It is the ratio between the moles of two different substances in a balanced equation.
 To determine the mole ratio between two substances all you need to do is look at the balanced
equation for the number on the left of the compound/substance.
1. CaCO3  CaO + CO2

Ratio: 1 : 1 : 1

If number of moles of CaCO3 = 0.2

So number of moles of CaO and CO2 = 0.2 (According to their Ratio)

2. MgO + 2HCl  MgCl2 + H2O

Ratio: 1 : 2 : 1 : 1

If number of moles of MgO = 0.4

So number of moles of HCl = 0.4x2 = 0.8 (According to their mole Ratio)

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 6
24. Moles and Chemical Equations

Example 2:

Thermal decomposition of Calcium carbonate form 11.2g of calcium oxide and V of carbon dioxide?

CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

1. Find mass of calcium carbonate used?

Answer:

Step 1: Find mole ratio

CaCO3 : CaO : CO2

1 : 1 : 1

Step 2: Find number of mole of the compound that have givens number of mole of

CaO = 11.2/56 = 0.2

Step 3: From mole ratio you can predict number of mole of CaCO3 and CO2

CaCO3 : CaO : CO2

Ratio 1 : 1 : 1

So number of moles = 0.2 for the 3 compounds

Step 4: Now you can solve questions easily:

Mass of CaCO3 = n x Mr = 0.2 x100 = 20

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 6
24. Moles and Chemical Equations

 Calculations involving gases

Many reactions involve gases. Weighing a gas is quite difficult. It is much easier to measure their
volume.

 The volume of one mole of any gas is 24 dm3 (liters) at room temperature and pressure (r.t.p.).
This is known as the molar gas volume.
 This rule is applied to all gases.

Volume = number x 24
(in dm3) of moles

Remember that: 1 dm3 = 1 litre = 1000cm3

Reactions involving gases:

Sulphur + Oxygen  Sulphur dioxide

S + O2  SO2

1 mol + 1 mol  1 mol

1. If 8 grams of sulphur are burnt. What volume of SO2 is produced?

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 8𝑔
No. of moles of Sulphur = = = 0.25 mol.
𝐴𝑟 32

Observe the equation, you will find that the ratio between the no. of moles of sulphur and the no. of
moles of sulphur dioxide is 1 : 1 Therefore, the no. of moles of SO 2 is 0.25. So the volume of SO2 =
0.25 x 24 = 6 dm3

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 6
24. Moles and Chemical Equations

2. When dealing with gases, you only need to use the mole ratio and the volume

CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

1 2 1

If the volume of methane is 40 so what is the Volume of oxygen?

O2 = 2x40 = 80

And volume of carbon dioxide = 40

3. The complete combustion of an alkane gives carbon dioxide and water.

10 cm3 of butane is mixed with 100 cm3 of oxygen, which is an excess. The mixture is ignited. What
is the volume of unreacted oxygen left and what is the volume of carbon dioxide formed?

1
C4H10 (g) + 6 2O2 (g) → 4CO2 (g) + 5H2O (l)

Volume of oxygen left = ………………….….. cm 3

Volume of carbon dioxide formed = ………………..….... cm3 [2]

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 6
24. Moles and Chemical Equations

 Calculations using solution concentrations

When a solute is dissolved in a solvent, we can measure the quantity of solute in two ways:

1- The mass of solute (in grams)

2- The no. of moles

It is more useful to measure the amount of dissolved solute in moles.

A molar solution: it is the solution in which one mole of a substance is dissolved in a liter solvent.

The following equation is useful when working out the number of moles of a substance present in a
particular solution:
Number = concentration x volume of solution
of moles (in mol/dm3) (in dm3)

𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆
 Volume = 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄.
𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆
 Concentration = 𝑽𝒐𝒍.

Calculate the concentration of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, that contains 10 g of NaOH in a final
volume of 250 cm3.

Follow the following steps

Find out the no. of moles of NaOH if its Mr is 40.

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 10
Step 1 : No. of moles = = 40 = 0.25 mol.
𝑀𝑟

Step 2 : Find the concentration

𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 0.25

Concentration = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑚3) = 0.25 = 1 mol/dm3

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 6
24. Moles and Chemical Equations

 How to find excess reagent:

0.7 mole of silicon react with 25 g of bromine

Si + 2Br2 → SiBr2

Which one is the excess reagent?

Step 1: Get number of moles of bromine

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 25
Number of moles = = = 0.158
𝐴𝑟 158

Step 2: Get number of 1 mole of bromine

0.158
= 0.079
2

Finally: 1 mole of Si : 1 mole of Br2

0.07 : 0.079

Bromine is the excess reagent because it has greater number of moles

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 6
24. Moles and Chemical Equations

 Percentage yield and percentage purity

A reaction may not always yield the total amount of product predicted by the equation. The loss
may be due to several factors.

1- The reaction may not be totally complete.

2- Errors may be made in weighing the reactants or the products.
3- Material may be lost in carrying out the reaction, or in transferring and separating the product.

𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒚𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 (𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏)

Percentage yield = 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒚𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 (𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅) x 100

𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

Percentage purity = 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 x 100

Example:

12.4 gram of cupper (II) carbonate in a crucible produced only 7.0 of copper oxide. What was the
percentage yield of copper II oxide?

CuCO3  CuO + CO2

1 mole 1 mole 1 mole

Solution:

Mr. of CuCO3 = (64 x1) + (12x1) + (16x3) = 124

12.4
No. of moles of CuCO3 = 124
= 0.1 mol

No. of moles of CuO = 0.1 mol

Mass of one mole of CuO = 64 +16 = 80

Mass of CuO produced = 0.1 x 80 = 8 g

7
Percentage yield = x 100 = 87.5%
8

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 6
24. Moles and Chemical Equations

 Empirical formula and molecular formula

The Molecular formula: (the actual formula): is a formula which shows the actual element present
in a molecule of the compound.

The empirical formula: is the formula for a compound which shows the simplest ratio of atoms
present.

Example:

The molecular formula of butane is C4H8 and its empirical formula is CH2.

Examples to show how to get the empirical formula

Find the empirical formula of silicon (IV) oxide from the percentage mass? (data given
below)

Silicon is 47%, Oxygen is 53%

To answer follow the following steps:

Si O

1. Percentage by mass 47% 53%

2. Mass in 100g 47 g 53 g

3. Molar mass (get it from the

28 g/mol 16 g/mol
periodic table)

47 53
4. Number of moles = 1.68 mol. = 3.31 mol.
28 16

1.68 3.31
5. Simplest ratio (by dividing by 1.68 1.68
the smallest number)
1 2

6. Empirical formula SiO2

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 6
24. Moles and Chemical Equations

 The Mr of oxalic acid is 90 and its composition by mass is: Carbon = 26.7%, hydrogen =
2.2%, oxygen = 71.1%?
I. Calculate the empirical formula of oxalic acid.
II. What is the molecular formula of the acid?

Solution:

C H O

1. Percentage by mass 26.4% 2.2% 71.4%

2. Mass in 100g 26.4 g 2.2 g 71.4 g

3. Molar mass
(calculated from the 12 g/mol 1 g/mol 16 g/mol
periodic table)

26.4 2.2 71.4

4. Number of moles = 2.2 = 2.2 = 4.4
12 1 16

2.2 2.2 4.4

5. Simplest ratio =1 =1 =2
2.2 2.2 2.2

6. Empirical formula CHO2

To get the molecular formula follow the following steps:

1. The relative mass of the empirical formula

CHO2 = 12 + 1 + (2 x 16) = 45
2. Divide the Mr of oxalic acid by the relative molecular mass of the empirical formula. 90/45 = 2
(two units of empirical formula)
The molecular formula is C2H2O4

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 6
24. Moles and Chemical Equations

 Water of crystallization

Crystals of salts carry water molecules known as water of crystallization. These water molecules are
bonded into the crystal lattice.

Examples:
1. Hydrated copper sulphate CuSO4.5H2O
2. Iron sulphate FeSO4.7H2O
3. Sodium carbonate Na2CO3.10H2O

How to calculate water of crystallization?

Hydrated salts contain water of crystallization. If we heat hydrated salts till a constant mass, water
of crystallization is released and we get anhydrous salt.

Hydrated salt anhydrous salt + water vapour

A 5 gram sample of hydrated copper sulphate was heated to constant mass leaving anhydrous
copper sulphate with 3.2 gram. Calculate the no. of molecules of water of crystallization?

Anhydrous salt CuSO4 H2O

Mass 3.2 g 1.8 g

Molar mass (RMM) 160 g/mol 18 g/mol

3.2 1.8
No. of moles = 0.02 = 0.1
160 18

0.02 0.1
=1 =5
0.02 0.02
Simplest ratio

1 5

Formula Water of crystallization

CuSO4.5H2O 5

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 Chemistry for Cambridge IGCSE Unit 6
24. Moles and Chemical Equations

Terminology
Mole: The amount of a substance containing 6x1023 particles.
Relative atomic mass (Ar): Average mass of atoms of an element. Relative to 12C. C has the
value 12.
Relative Formula Mass (Mr): The sum of the relative atomic masses of each of the atoms or ions
in one formula unit of a substance.
Relative Molecular Mass (Mr): The sum of the relative atomic masses of the atoms in a
molecule.
Yield: The amount of substance produced in a chemical reaction.

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