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Sultanate of Oman I Highway Design Standards 2017

Coastal Protection of Highways

TABLE OF CONTENT

13.1 COASTAL ROADS AND BRIDGES 13-1

13.1.1 General 13-1
13.1.2 General Coastal Characteristics in Oman 13-2
13.1.3 Tides 13-3
13.1.4 Waves 13-4
13.1.5 Currents 13-4
13.1.6 Wind 13-4
13.1.7 Freeboard 13-4
13.1.8 Materials 13-4
13.1.9 Collision 13-4
13.1.10 Environmental Impact of Structures 13-5
13.1.11 Tsunami Conditions 13-5
13.1.12 Coastal Dune Characteristics 13-5
13.1.13 Bathymetric Characteristics 13-5

13.2 TYPES OF STRUCTURES 13-6

13.2.1 General 13-6
13.2.2 Coastal Revetment 13-7
13.2.3 Vertical Seawalls 13-9
13.2.4 Coastal Bridges 13-11

13.3 REFERENCES 13-12

13.3.1 Primary References 13-12
13.3.2 Other Useful References 13-12
LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES

Figure 13.1.1.1: Typical Cross Section of a Coast and Table 13.1.3.1: Tidal Variations for the Omani Coast (m) 13-3
Coastal Terms 13-1
Figure 13.1.1.2: Typical Plan View of a Coast and
Coastal Terms 13-1
Figure 13.1.2.1: Coastal Locations – Keyplan 13-2
Figure 13.1.12.1: Typical Cross Section of a Coastal Dune 13-5
Figure 13.2.2.1: Typical Revetment Section 13-7
Figure 13.2.2.2: Typical Revetment Example 13-7
Figure 13.2.2.3: Schematic Drawing of Weir Flow Failure
Mechanisms 13-8
Figure 13.2.2.4: Sediment from Sea Moved to Corniche
(Salalah 2002) 13-8
Figure 13.2.2.5: Sea Water on Corniche (Salalah 2002) 13-8
Figure 13.2.2.6: Typical Types of Revetment and
Toe Protection 13-8
Figure 13.2.2.7: Overtopping Limits 13-9
Figure 13.2.3.1: Examples of Sea Walls Faces 13-9
Figure 13.2.3.2: Typical Sea Wall 13-9
Figure 13.2.3.3: Some Examples of Sea Walls 13-10
Figure 13.2.3.4: Some Examples of Bulkheads 13-11
Figure 13.2.4.1: Examples of Coastal Bridge 13-11
Figure 13.2.4.2: Examples of Coastal Bridges in
an Estuary 13-11
Figure 13.2.4.3: Definition of Terms Related to a Coastal
Bridge Design 13-12
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13.1 COASTAL ROADS AND BRIDGES 13.1.1.6 Coastal structures such as walls and revetments, are usually designed for a 100-year storm return
period. For coastal road hydraulic structures such as culverts and bridges, which convey catchment runoffs
13.1.1 General towards the sea, in coastal areas reference should be made to the relevant Standards presented in Section 12 of
this document for storm return periods. (Sub-section 12.9.3) These vary depending on specific conditions and
13.1.1.1 This section is a guide for design of coastal road protection and bridge structures. It includes coastal relate also to the Route Classification and Road Design Group. If a catastrophic failure of a bridge or a coastal
revetments, vertical seawalls and coastal bridge designs. This section includes recommendations and general road can release a flood or wave that could possibly result in major loss of life, disruption of essential services,
design considerations for coastal road safety. For detailed design, it is recommended that the reader should or excessive economic damage, the bridge or a coastal road design should receive special consideration such
access other recent international coastal design standards and manuals such as the CEM (Coastal Engineering as being evaluated in terms of a higher than normal maximum flood.
Manual) Ref.1, the British Marine Standards BS 6349 Ref.2, the Rock Manual (CIRIA) Ref.3 and Highways in the
Coastal Environment report (AASHTO) Ref.4.

13.1.1.2 General coast specifications and terms can be seen in Figures 13.1.1.1 and 13.1.1.2. which give a
typical cross section of a coast and a plan view of coast items respectively.

13.1.1.3 From Figure 13.1.1.1 the Littoral Zone is an indefinite zone extending seaward from the shoreline
to just beyond the breaker zone. Still Water Level (SWL), is the surface of the water if all wave and wind
action were to cease. Long Shore Bar is a sand ridge or ridges, running roughly parallel to the shoreline and
extending along the shore outside the trough that may be exposed at low tide or may occur below the water
level offshore. The rest of the terms mentioned in the Figures 13.1.1.1 and 13.1.1.2 can be found in the Glossary.

13.1.1.4 To design a coastal road with bridge structures, oceanographic and meteorological information
should be used such as tidal variations, storm surges, wave height etc. The following items are some of those
that should be considered during the design of a coastal road:
1. Tidal variations, tidal current speed and direction
Figure 13.1.1.1 Typical Cross Section of a Coast and Coastal Terms
2. Wave height and direction
3. Long shore and cross shore currents
4. Wind speed and direction
5. Water quality assessment
6. Oceanographic, physical and chemical specifications of sea water
7. Sediment characteristics
8. Bathymetric conditions
9. Water pollution caused by road and construction

13.1.1.5 If the road design is located in a tidal channel or requires a sea crossing, the following items should
also be considered:
w Ship specifications
n Erosion caused by ships propellers
n Ship accidents
n River hydrology and water discharge characteristics such as current speed, discharge rate, water depth etc.
Figure 13.1.1.2 Typical Plan View of a Coast and Coastal Terms

13.1.1.7 If a design project requires an estuary bridge or coastal road around an estuary, oceanographic
conditions should be considered concurrently with river flow data, during design. These data are given in
the Hydrological Analysis in Section 12 of these Standards. These data include, but are not limited to: river
discharge rates, current speed, water level, scour analysis, vegetation and flood analysis results. If there is a
navigational channel or navigation is required under a bridge, the safety and clearance requirements should
be sought from the concerned Authority

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13.1.1.8 There are two types of geomorphological and hydrological conditions that can exist in an estuary, a that erosion caused by waves is the dominant issue for this area. Occasional rainfall is also another influence.
bay or a lagoon system. These are constricted situations and unconstricted situations; the latter case existing Should a coastal road be designed in this area, special attention should be given to erosion control and strong
when a bridge opening does not significantly constrict flow. Therefore, constricted and/or unconstricted wave force on the road embankment and road structures. There are two river beds between Hadbaran and
situations should be investigated when a bridge is designed in an estuary, lagoon, or bay area. The following Ras Al Muntajib which have small delta formations in the estuary and there are no coastal beach formations
items are a sample of situations that should be considered during a coastal road protection and/or bridge north of this bay. There is, however, a deep shelf slope between the sea level and ground level in that region,
design in an estuary location: the formation of which can be seen all the way along the bay which is located in al Shuwamiyah. Evidence of
1. Water-level hydrograph at the project location resulting from combined astronomic tides and storm-surge landslides can be seen in this high cliff area.
conditions
2. Discharge hydrograph at the project location resulting from combined astronomic tides and storm-surge
conditions
3. Wind-generated wave heights
4. Peak discharge rates for riverine floods along with approximate riverine flood duration and time-to-peak
estimate
5. Estimating the magnitude and timing of the ocean’s rise and fall for the event or condition of interest
6. Estimating the discharge hydrograph or the peak discharge rate at the location of interest in response to the
tidal rise and fall
7. If appropriate, combining the tidal discharge information with the riverine flow
8. Estimating the water-surface elevation associated with the peak discharge
9. Developing an appropriate design wave height prediction, usually a function of the wind speed, the fetch,
and the depth of the waterway

13.1.1.9 Results of worse case analysis of the coastal effects or riverine effect should also be considered
during the design process.

13.1.2 General Coastal Characteristics in Oman

13.1.2.1 This Sub-section presents general information relating to coastal conditions in Oman. Place names
are taken from the Oman Naval Charts which can be referenced for more detailed information. Figure 13.1.2.1
is provided as a small scale guide to major place name locations, spellings of which are sometimes slightly
different.

13.1.2.2 The lower south Omani coast generally has steep slopes on the sea side; therefore, these parts of
the coastal area do not have wide and long beaches. The sharp and rapidly rising sides of the coastal strip
are prone to landslides, possibly caused by wave attacks and other natural events. There are, however, several
parts of the seaside of the lower south Omani coast that do have beaches. Rivers or flood beds are the source
of sediment on the beaches, transporting the sediments from upper inland levels. It is reasonable to conclude
that beach erosion is strong if the beach width and length are small. If a road is designed on the beach side,
protection of the road is therefore an important issue.

13.1.2.3 A narrow coastal strip from the Yemen border to Al Mughsayl, close to Raysut. After Al Mughsayl,
high mountains replace the lower coastal formations, but these formations still have cliffs. Cliff formation
continues to Salalah which has a large sandy beach. This beach is approximately 60km in length. It is mainly a
sandy beach, but does have rocky outcrops, with the beach being protected by 2 headlands.

13.1.2.4 Hard rock and cliff formations continue north fromTaqah and reach up to Hadbaran.The beach formation
are not visible because of high ground levels on the sea side, however, there are some small visible beach
formations between Taqah and Hadbaran. These beach formations are the result of river and flood bed action.
The river mouth and estuary does not have a large degree of sedimentation in that region, and it is concluded
Figure 13.1.2.1 Coastal Locations – Keyplan

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13.1.2.5 There are beach formations in Al Shuwaymiyah, where sediments transported by the river and wind 13.1.2.16 To conclude, it can be said very broadly that there are two dominant types of coastal areas in Oman.
erosion, are the sources for the material on this beach. Where there are hard rock formations, the coastal strips One is a beach formation with surrounding flat areas and the second consists of a cliffs and plateau formation
have no beach. Where there are soft rock formations, erosion and/or rivers, the coastal area tend to have beach with or without narrow steeply shelving beaches. Additionally, there are lots of dry ravines and estuaries where
formation. There is no beach formation from Fagharah, until the east side of Manji where beach formation exists storm water runoff will flow at high speed (supercritical flow) during rain storms. Most of the river mouths and
between Manji and Sharbathat. estuaries have no delta formation because of the erosion from littoral drift currents, wave action, low rain fall and
fast shelving sea beds on shorelines.
13.1.2.6 Cliff formations exist between Manji to Sawqrah and there is a delta formation at Sawqrah. Northwards
after Sawqrah, there is a narrow beach formation all the way up to the north of Juwayrah with high ground
13.1.3 Tides
levels just off the beach.
13.1.3.1 Tidal variation should be considered during the design of structures for a coastal road. Allowances
13.1.2.7 The coastal characteristics, described up to this point, have covered the coastline from the Yemen
for the effects of minimum and maximum tidal variations shall be made as necessary. Tidal levels in coastal
border northeastwards up to Juwayrah. Continuing northwards, high ground levels start southwest of Madrakah
areas are controlled by river flow and/or tidal fluctuation and is characterized by both of these items.
and continue until Al Duqm.

13.1.2.8 There is an offshore barrier island formation in the northern part of Duqm, approximately 6 km in 13.1.3.2 Tidal current and speed is an important issue for erosion control and stability of coastal roads.

length, following which there is a narrow sandy beach in the area known as Ghubbet Kuwaeirat Bay. Northwards Therefore, the effects of maximum current speed and direction shall be duly incorporated into the design of

from the bay, high ground levels and a steep slope characterize the coast again with no beaches or sedimentation coastal roads and bridges. To find the maximum current direction and speed, tidal levels should be established

in evidence along the shore up to Al Salutiyat. and analyzed.

13.1.2.9 Al Salutiyat comprises a bay with a beach formation up to al Khaluf.There are also wetland and lagoon 13.1.3.3 More detailed information about tidal effects and how they relate to the design of structures in
systems existing in the Ghubbet Hashish Bay, which has shallow water areas. Wetland and lagoon systems are coastal areas can be found as listed in References 1 to 4. A 100-year return period for tide evaluation should be
important ecological sites and are often unique habitats for wildlife. The design of roads in such areas should be used for a bridge or a coastal road design.
avoided, but if absolutely necessary, full recognition of environmental issues and processes would be needed.
13.1.3.4 A hydraulic report is required for any coastal bridge being designed over a channel or river stream
13.1.2.10 East of al Khaluf, another lagoon and beach formation exists called Bar al Hikman Lagoon which has area. The report must provide a hydraulic analysis, flood profiles for the design year, 100-year and 500-year
sporadic dune formations on the beach. This part of the coastline has long and wide beaches with barrier islands floods, and recommendations which are dependent upon the road category.
and rock exposure in the sea.
13.1.3.5 The analysis of tidal waterways is very complex. The hydraulic analysis for scour must consider the
13.1.2.11 Continuing, a long and wide beach and lagoon system exists between Shnah and An Najdah, after magnitude of the 100- and the 500-year storm surge which depends upon road specifications, the characteristics
which the ground level rises moderately but not to the same extent as those existing on the southern coasts of the tidal body, and the effect of any constriction of the flow due to the natural geometry of the waterway or
of Oman. This formation continues to the south of Al Had where a beach formation starts and where there are the presence of a roadway and/or bridge.
two large lagoons.
13.1.3.6 Additionally, the analysis must consider the long-term effects of the normal tidal cycles or long-term
13.1.2.12 Continuing north of Al Had, the coastline rises to higher ground levels without beaches on the sea aggradations or degradation, natural scour, contraction scour, local scour, and stream instability. Some tidal
side. This formation continues until the north of Tiwi. Hilly areas come very close to the sea so basically there is variations have been given in Table 13.1.3.1 for different areas of the Oman coast according to the 2009 version
no beach formation in this region, except for estuaries. Estuary areas contain a lot of sediment carried down by of the Oman Marine Handbook, Ref.5. From the Maritime Book, the diurnal component of the tide appears to
the rivers but the lack of any delta formations or sand spits indicate that fast moving water, with high erosion be significant given that the spring tidal range is more than 1 meter near the border with Yemen and almost
potential is common. This typical formation continues until the north of Qurayyat where lower land levels and a 2 meters in the northern Sea of Oman. Location Z0 MHHW MLHW MSL MHLW MLLW
delta formation exist. Therefore, it is not recommended to use Port Salalah 1.3 1.68 1.64 1.30 1.33 0.65
less than these values for the design of Masirah 1.79 2.46 2.39 1.66 1.58 0.8
13.1.2.13 Hilly formations continue for approximately 10 km north of Qurayyat, after which, a narrow and long
structures on the coast of Oman.
beach formation occurs, but in general, this area is moderately higher than water level just a short distance from Qalhat 1.85 2.57 2.47 1.74 1.59 0.83
the coastline. This formation continues to al Sifah. 13.1.3.7 The tidal current is usually less Port Sultan Qaboos 1.93 2.64 2.55 1.73 1.67 0.91

than 1 knot (1.852 km/hr) but strongly SBSNB Wudam 1.87 2.62 2.51 1.79 1.57 0.83
13.1.2.14 A new, more rugged type of coastal formation is seen after al Sifah. This coastal area has high levels
depends upon geomorphological Khasab 1.55 2.27 2.21 1.65 1.12 0.62
and sharp edges from the sea level and includes a lot of bays, headlands etc.
conditions. Therefore, locally, tidal Table 13.1.3.1 Tidal Variations for the Omani Coast (m)
13.1.2.15 In general, the southern part of the coastal side of Oman has a relatively undulating and uniform currents have been observed at 3 knots Notes:
shape up to al Sifah. Between al Sifah and Mutrah, coastal areas are irregular in shape comprising of lot of bays (5.556 km/hour) according to the Oman 1) MHHW is Mean Higher High Water, 2) MLHW is Mean Lower High Water,
and headlands etc. After Mutrah, westwards, a large flat area on the coastal side continues until Saham. Inland 3) MHLW is Mean Higher Low Water and 4) MLLW is Mean Lower Low Water.
Marine Handbook.
5) MSL is Mean Sea Level 6) Z0 is the vertical separation between Chart Datum
of Saham, a mountain formation runs close to the seaside in addition to a narrow and flat beach formation and Mean Sea Level.
which continues to the northern border of the country.

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13.1.4 Waves 13.1.6.2 Although tropical cyclones affecting the Arabian Peninsula and the Gulf are not common, they are
becoming more frequent, possibly due to the effect of global warming. These can be severe and hazardous,
13.1.4.1 Waves are important for the design of coastal roads, with wave height and direction being the main as demonstrated by the cyclone Gonu in June 2007. Therefore, the selection of a higher return period of wind
variables considered to describe wave dynamics. Significant and maximum wave height should be calculated speed shall be chosen depending on the road category and on the potential effects of a disaster.
as a basic input for the proper design for coastal roads.
13.1.6.3 A 100 year return period wind speed shall be used for the structural design of coastal roads and
13.1.4.2 Internationally based methods should be used to find the significant wave height and other wave bridges for all major roads and evacuation routes and a 50 year return period for rural roads. As noted in
specifications using references given. For guidance on the estimation of the design wind wave characteristics, previous sub-sections, these return periods should be increased to 200-years or more depending upon the
refer to Primary References Nos. 1, 2 and 3 listed under Clause 13.3 Para 13.3.1. situation.

13.1.4.3 A return period for the design wave should be chosen to reflect the type and importance of road.
The classifications and design group for roads are presented in Section 1 of these Standards. A 50 year return 13.1.7 Freeboard
period shall be chosen for rural coastal areas, with a 100 year return period for emergency evacuation routes
13.1.7.1 Freeboard is also an important factor for a bridge in an estuary or for a coastal bridge. Freeboard
and strategic highways. If coastal weather action on these roads could affect strategic structures, create
means the distance between maximum design water level and the soffit of the bridge deck. Minimum freeboard
human life hazards or could result in large scale environmental disasters, then these return periods should be
would be 1.0m between the design water level (DWL) and the soffit of the bridge beam. DWL should include
increased to a 200-years or more, depending on individual situations.
storm surge, significant wave height, tidal fluctuation, and potential global warming sea level rise. Where
13.1.4.4 The highest offshore wave height that reaches the project area (before breaking) shall be chosen for necessary, flood water level shall be also added to the DWL.
the stability analysis. Higher wave heights that break before reaching the project area shall not be considered
13.1.7.2 DWL is a 100-year return period for flood water level or maximum design water level of the sea. If
for analysis.
it is a navigational channel, freeboard distance would be the distance between the highest point of the design
ship and the soffit of the bridge deck in the navigational area.
13.1.5 Currents
13.1.7.3 If the estuary or coastal bridge is designed as an opening bridge, design consideration for freeboard
13.1.5.1 Knowledge of currents is important for evaluating erosion control and stability of structures. There should include both the structural and oceanographic conditions which are equally relevant and should be
are two types of currents found in coastal areas; tidal currents and wave induced currents. Tidal currents have considered accordingly.
been mentioned earlier in Sub-section 13.1.3.
13.1.7.4 For the establishment of freeboard, tide, and design wave height should be considered. If there is
13.1.5.2 Wave induced currents are divided into 2 parts: long shore and cross shore currents. All wave an estuary or river located at the structure site, river conditions and parameters should also be factored into
directions and heights should be considered in order to find the current speed and direction. Structures in the the determination of bridge freeboard. Should a structure require a navigational area for a vessel, the vessel
coastal area, if not properly protected, could be prone to failure by erosion and scouring due to current speed design height should be added to the total height of the bridge.
and direction.
13.1.7.5 Higher freeboards may be necessary for bridges over streams that are prone to heavy debris loads
13.1.5.3 Although the Oman Maritime Book (Ref.5) quotes that regular current speed is generally less than such as large tree limbs and to accommodate other clearance needs.
1 knot (1.852 km /h), geomorphologic conditions are the main factors governing the current which may vary
around this figure. Therefore, before designing a structure close to the sea, local current conditions should be
13.1.8 Materials
investigated.
13.1.8.1 There are several types of material that could be used for the protection of coastal roads and bridges.
13.1.5.4 When analyzing a current with respect to a structure, the main factors such as wave induced or wind Quarry stone, concrete, timber, steel, geotextile bags etc. could all be used in coastal areas. These materials
induced current, should be determined as the basis for design of protection works. If the design of a road is in an should be protected or designed to resist chemical and physical attacks due to direct exposure to the sea and
estuary, lagoon etc., then the currents associated with the adjacent river should also be considered in the equation. other environmental conditions. Material specifications should conform to international coastal engineering
standards and manuals as quoted previously.
13.1.6 Wind
13.1.9 Collision
13.1.6.1 Wind direction is critical for the determination of significant wave height and current speed. Each
direction of wave shall be considered for the design. Long term wind analysis shall be used to estimate the 13.1.9.1 Where the possibility of collision exists from highway or river traffic, an appropriate risk analysis
design wave characteristics for the stability of structures and for erosion investigations. For guidance on the should be made to determine the degree of impact resistance to be provided and/or the appropriate protection
estimation of the design wind wave characteristics, refer to Primary References Nos. 1, 2 and 3 listed in Sub- system. This collision could be caused either by a vessel or car. The structure of the bridge shall be strong
section 13.3. enough to resist these collisions.

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13.1.10 Environmental Impact of Structures 13.1.12 Coastal Dune Characteristics

13.1.10.1 The following environmental items should be considered during the design of coastal roads and 13.1.12.1 Dune fields are composed of rhythmically spaced mounds of sand that range from about 1m to more
bridges: than 200m in height and may be spaced apart by up to 1.5km. There are several reasons for dune existence in a
coastal area. There are wind induced dunes, wave induced dunes and dunes induced by geological conditions
n Physical Impacts,
where historic water levels have been prevalent. Typical dune formations are shown in Figure 13.1.12.1.
n Water Quality Impacts,
n Biological Impacts,
n Short-term Impacts,
n Long-term Impacts,
n Socioeconomic and Cultural Impacts,
n Evaluation of Alternatives,
BACKDUNE
13.1.10.2 These basic issues should be investigated in accordance with environmental legislation and at the
critical design stages of the project cycle. Water table

13.1.11 Tsunami Conditions

Figure 13.1.12.1 Typical Cross Section of a Coastal Dune
13.1.11.1 Recent studies indicate tsunamis may reach up to 5m along the northern coast of Oman. A review
of various tsunami catalogs reveal that tsunamis in the Indian Ocean basin are generated by two subduction 13.1.12.2 If it is an accumulative area, the dune system moves from offshore to land. If it is a geologically
zones, namely, the Sunda Subduction Zone located offshore of Indonesia and the Makran Subduction Zone cumulated area, the dune system would be the main sediment deposit for the beach area. In general, designing
(MSZ) in the northwest of the Indian Ocean. They are the rift systems, strike slip and normal faults, joints, a road on a dune formation should preferably be avoided because dune systems tend to be is ecologically
lineaments, subduction and collision zones. important and active.

13.1.11.2 The Zagros Thrust Fault demarcates the plate boundary between the Arabian and the Eurasian 13.1.12.3 If it is not absolutely necessary, a coastal road should not be designed through a coastal dune
tectonic plates and is a seismically active zone. Large Richter Magnitude Scale “M” (M ≤ 5) earthquakes occur area. When necessary, the design of the road shall consider environmental and ecological issues as well as
frequently along this thrust. These faults produce many tsunami waves. Therefore, all coastal structures should movement of dunes. (See Section 14.7 and 14.8 of these Design Standards).
be designed to resist the effects and floods that may result from a tsunami wave.
13.1.12.4 The dune range on the Omani coast is between 1 to 4m high. Examples of dune formation can be
13.1.11.3 Normally, tsunami waves do not directly attack the shoreline, but their effect could reach the coast. found at Al Musanaah, Al Quraym, Al Bidayah, Al Uwwayd, Khawr Yiti and Sur along the Omani coast.
For example, in 2004 Indonesia tsunami waves broke on the offshore of Indonesia and reached the coast and
inland area provoking a huge flood such as the Sumatra Island case. All the area was flat with a low level of 13.1.13 Bathymetric Characteristics
land, therefore, the flood reached the other side of the island. The 2004 Indonesia tsunami wave reached the
13.1.13.1 Omani coast has two different bathymetric formations, a narrow shallow area with beach formation
Omani coast and measured 1.65 m high at the port of Salalah. Three major tsunami incidences have been
and the other consisting of cliffs and deep water areas. There are also some islands offshore. In many places
experienced in the last 100 years as well as many smaller ones in Oman.
along the Oman coast, 100m water depth exists just a short distance from the shore line. Shallow water areas
13.1.11.4 During seismic action or a tsunami attack, several kinds of damage could be inflicted on coastal are associated with low ground levels on the coastline. In the southern part of the country, deep sea depths
structures. In general, tsunami waves break offshore and then continue as a flood. Therefore, coastal structures which reach more than 1000m within a 6km distance from the shore line are common and in some cases, this
should be strong enough to resist this kind of inundation. If the tsunami reaches a reclaimed area or an area depth is occurring just 3km away from headlands.
with a high groundwater level, liquefaction of the ground could result. Therefore, during the design of a
13.1.13.2 The southern coast of Oman does not have shallow areas except for isolated places such as Dawhat
structure, the following water forces should be considered:
Shawqirah and the northern part of the Khalij Masirah Bays. The northeast sections of the Omani coast lack
i. Liquefaction, sediment.
ii. Flooding caused by tsunami wave
13.1.13.3 The lower southern Omani coast has high cliffs that enter the sea directly therefore, the bathymetric
13.1.11.5 To analyze the tsunami effect on a structure in a coastal area, international standards and literature conditions comprise of deep water close to the coast line. Water depths sometimes reach 20m and more within
should be referenced such as Seismic Design Guidelines for Port Structures (Ref.6), etc a short distance of the shore line. Offshore waves can reach the near shore without any reduction to the wave
height and deep water waves could therefore reach and break near the shoreline. In these conditions, the
erosion effects would be higher than in shallow coastal areas and especially so for large waves.

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13.1.13.4 The above conditions could be noted almost everywhere on the Omani southeast coast except 13.2.1.4 In general, the following items should be investigated and analyzed as appropriate for any type of
between Port Salalah to Mirbat and the west side of Dawhat Shawqirah Bay. In these areas, cliff formations structural design used in a vulnerable coastal area:
and high coastal ground levels change to low level ground topography and sandy beaches. Therefore, these 1. Functional Design Shoreline Use
bays have gentle slopes and long shallow areas. 2. Shoreline Form and Composition
3. Seasonal Variations of Shoreline Profiles
13.1.13.5 After Dawhat Shawqirah Bay, the same high cliff and rock base formations start again. Khalij Masirah
4. Design Conditions for Protective Measures
Bay has different types of bathymetric conditions than other coastal areas in Oman because of the low ground
5. Design Water Levels
level and Masirah Island, and it has several marsh lands and shallow water areas. Steeply sloping sea-beds
6. Design Wave Estimation
occur on the offshore side of Masirah Island.
7. Wave Height and Period Variability and Significant Waves
13.1.13.6 There are narrow beach formations and shallow areas at the next bay at Masirah Island. After the bay, 8. Filters
the bathymetric condition is a narrow coast line and steeply sloping sea bed. This formation continues up to 9. Wave Gauges and Visual Observations
Muttrah where the depth of the sea is expected to reach 2000m within a short distance of the shoreline. The slope 10. Wave Hindcasts
of the sea bed decreases after Muttrah, with this formation continuing along the north coast up to the border of 11. Wave Forecasts
Oman. 12. Breaking Waves
13. Height of Protection
13.1.13.7 The peninsula of Oman, to the far north, generally has cliff formations and no beach formations of 14. Wave Run-up
any size or shallow water depths, although some small beach formations do occur at the bottom of the bays. 15. Wave Overtopping
Because of reverse erosion, Dibaa, Limah and Bukha are the exceptions and do have beach formations. 16. Stability and Flexibility
17. Armor Unit Stability
13.1.13.8 In collating this information, erosion was identified frequently on most parts of the Oman coast, except
18. Layer Thickness
some naturally protected areas. To design a road in this type of terrain, offshore waves should be considered
19. Reserve Stability
very carefully in the design of road protection and bridges, referencing appropriate international standards and
20. Toe Protection
practice.
21. Flank Protection
13.1.13.9 Existing bathymetric maps and other information prepared by the Oman Hydrographic Survey 22. Corrosion
Unit should be used as necessary during conceptual and preliminary design. Supplementary, more detailed 23. Marine Borer Activity
bathymetric mapping should be undertaken as necessary prior to detailed design. 24. Ultraviolet Light
25. Abrasion
26. Vandalism and Theft
13.2 TYPES OF STRUCTURES
27. Geotechnical Considerations
28. Wave Forces
13.2.1 General
29. Impact Forces
13.2.1.1 This section describes the type of structures that would be used for coastal roads, and may include 30. Hydraulic Model Tests
several types of structure as given below: 31. Two-Dimensional Models
32. Three-Dimensional Models
n Coastal revetments
33. Previous Tests
n Vertical seawalls
n Coastal bridges 13.2.1.5 Each item has a different type of prominence for different types of structures, but this check list
provides a minimum subject consideration that should be applied, with additional items where necessary for
13.2.1.2 These structures should be designed to international marine standards. Coastal revetments can be specific projects.
used for erosion control and protection against wave attack. Vertical seawalls should be designed considering
wave force, wave run-up, overtopping etc. Coastal bridges can be used for the connection of two shore lines 13.2.1.6 Under extreme unforeseen conditions, where the superstructure may fail and collapse, it is
such as an estuary crossing, island connection etc. preferable that the substructure (foundations and superstructure supports) remains largely reusable to
re-open bridges with either temporary superstructure or permanent superstructure. Retention of the structural
13.2.1.3 It is common to use groin or jetty types of structures to control erosion on a coastline, thus, coastal integrity of the sub-structure shortens the time taken to reinstate the bridge and reduces reconstruction costs.
roads could be indirectly protected. These kinds of structures are, however, rarely used for the direct protection Therefore, designs which recognize this need to minimize damage to the substructure in extreme events, are
of a coastal road and are more usually used only for protection against beach erosion. This type of protection recommended.
is therefore not included in this section.

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13.2.2 Coastal Revetment 13.2.2.4 Coastal revetment works
includes the following items: armor
13.2.2.1 Coastal revetment structures are designed for the protection of roads from wave attack and erosion. layer, filter layer if necessary, and
Revetments are specifically designed to prevent or halt bank erosion by providing protection from wave and shaped natural ground (Figure
current induced erosion. There are several types of revetment material commonly used in the design these 13.2.2.1). The armor layer shall
structures such as rock, gabion, reinforced concrete, geo-textile bags, asphalt, formed concrete etc. Either one be constructed with natural rock,
type or a combination of these materials can be used for the design of a revetment. A general sketche of a concrete block, bituminous material,
revetment can be seen in Figure 13.2.2.1: gabion, geo-textile bags or tubes. The
design limits and design standards
of an armor layer shall conform to
international coastal engineering
standards (Ref.2 and 3). The Hudson
formula shall be used to find the
armor layer size. If the armor layer
size is large, it may be necessary to Figure 13.2.2.2 Typical Revetment Example
use under/filter layers to stop the washing out of the original fill or ground level material in the project area.
H Filter layers shall also be designed to the same standards. Depending on the armor layer and the filter layer,
V
it may be necessary to use a second filter layer comprising of geotextile. The type and design of the geotextile
H
V
material shall be implemented according to international standards previously noted. During the design of the
armor layer, the following items should be considered:
n Total stability analysis
n Armor layer collapse
Figure 13.2.2.1 Typical Revetment Section n Wave run-up and overtopping

13.2.2.2 An example of a coastal revetment structure is presented in Figure 13.2.2.2. Sea water cannot 13.2.2.5 Wave run-up and overtopping limits depend upon road category and revetment type. Therefore, the
impact the coastal strip in this picture. When there is a storm the revetment protects against embankment minimum freeboard would be different for each type of armor layer and bathymetric condition. Calculation
erosion and wash-away. of the minimum freeboard depends upon the combined effects of the armor material, wave characteristics,
bathymetric and oceanographic conditions. Therefore, during the design of revetments, there should be a toe
13.2.2.3 The primary advantage of rubble mound revetments is their flexibility. Revetment structures can protection study.
settle into the underlying soil and experience minor damage and yet still function. It is also easier for the
maintenance of the damaged area and for ease of construction. They also experience less wave run-up, 13.2.2.6 Where necessary, if there is a flood risk over the revetment from the road side to sea or vice versa,
reflection and overtopping than smooth-faced structures. A primary disadvantage is that stone placement the revetment should be analyzed for total stability during a flood, especially at low points in the road and at
generally requires heavy equipment. Maximum 1V: 2H slope is recommended for revetment faces. Current naturally occurring depressions on the inland side of the road, where overtopping could occur via potential
velocity is important for tidal inlets and may predominate the wave effect, depending of the actual height of flood discharge routes. Flow across the road and down the low landward shoulder can cause significant
the wave. Therefore, revetment design should consider both current velocity and wave height. Depth of the damage to the road pavement; this is a “weir-flow” damage mechanism. Two types of weir flow can be seen in
revetment and distance limit of the revetment should be designed considering oceanographic and bathymetric Figure 13.2.2.3. This mechanism can firstly be seen if there is a level difference between the road and original
conditions as well as current and sediment parameters. ground such as an embankment. Secondly, weir flow damage can be seen if the sea wave attack is no stronger
than the inland flood and the flood then reaches the other side of (sea side) embankment. Therefore, flood
analysis should be undertaken especially where the revetment is located around a river or low lying land area.
Low lying land areas are generally the critical areas for coastal road flooding. For example, flooding from
sea water and sedimentation is shown in Figure 13.2.2.4 and 13.2.2.5. These pictures record events after an
extreme weather event occurring in Salalah during 2002. This is a typical problem of an inadequately protected
low level road.

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13.2.2.7 It is not recommended to use a revetment if the design wave height exceeds 1.8 m. If it is more than 5. Filter blanket (uniformly graded stone filter, geo-textile filter fabric or both to prevent embankment material
1.8 m wave height, other types of structure shall be considered for road protection. from being infiltrated through the voids of the face stone)
6. Slope of face (usually determined by the slope stability analysis)
13.2.2.8 The designer should be aware that in some instances, a lower water level or discharge may produce
7. Determine the water level range for the site
hydraulically worse conditions with respect to revetment stability. It is suggested that several discharge levels
8. Determine the wave heights
be evaluated to ensure that the design is adequate for all discharge conditions up to that selected as the design
9. Provide for local surface runoff and overtopping runoff, and make any required provisions for other drainage
discharge for structures associated with the revetment scheme.
facilities such as culverts and ditches.
10. Design toe protection
11. Develop cost estimates for each alternative

13.2.2.10 The toe stone is typically of the same size as the armor stone and is placed on a filter fabric. If bedrock
is not within reach, the toe should be carried below the depth of the scour. If the scour depth is questionable,
an extra thickness of rock should be placed at the toe that will adjust and provide deeper protection.

13.2.2.11 Where inlets are provided along a revetment, the degradation at an inlet is usually caused by a
sediment imbalance in the tidal flows through it. The degradation trend can be offset by construction of coastal
protection works that stop or impede the littoral drift of sediment from reaching the inlet, or by closing another
nearby inlet to the same bay. Where the scour potential is being estimated for a short-duration event, such as
a hurricane storm surge condition, the designer should consider the possibility that the scour-causing flows
may not last long enough to develop the full equilibrium scour potential. Scour calculations should therefore
be modified to account for this possibility.

Figure 13.2.2.3 Schematic Drawing of Weir Flow Failure Mechanisms 13.2.2.12 Typical types of toe protection detail can be seen in Figure 13.2.2.6.

Figure 13.2.2.4 Sediment from Sea Moved to Corniche Figure 13.2.2.5 Sea Water on Corniche (Salalah 2002)
(Salalah 2002)

13.2.2.9 During design of a coastal revetment, the following items should be considered:
1. Size and type of stone or armor layer material
2. Foundation depth (below scour depth or to solid rock and foundation treatment and subsurface drainage if
necessary)
3. Height of revetment placement (at an elevation above wave run-up or deep water wave height for protection
from splash and spray)
4. 
Thickness (sufficient to accommodate the largest stones; additional thickness on the slope will not
compensate for undersized stones)
Figure 13.2.2.6 Typical Types of Revetment and Toe Protection

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13.2.2.13 For overtopping limits, Figure 13.2.2.7 should be used for the safe design of coastal road structures. 13.2.3 Vertical Seawalls
This Figure is provided in the CEM (Ref.1). A similar figure is also given in the Rock Manual (Ref.3). Both figures
could be used for overtopping analysis for coastal roads. This Figure can be also used for the vertical wall 13.2.3.1 The vertical sea wall is a massive structure primarily designed to protect land from waves and

overtopping limits. current forces and to resist wave action along high value coastal property. It is possible to divide vertical
seawalls into two main types of structures: seawalls and bulkheads. Construction material for seawalls can be
13.2.2.14 A further critical issue affecting the future performance of revetments on consolidated cohesive concrete, rock or piled material which is normally used, but other materials can also be acceptable. There are
shores is the flanking erosion of adjacent unprotected shores. The ends of the revetment may have to be many different profiles that have been used successfully for sea walls such as curved face, stepped face, sheet
periodically extended back to the shore to address flanking. This situation is also valid for a revetment around piling, post-supported bulkheads, used rubber tires and timber posts, concrete blocks etc. It is possible to use
a bridge. more than one material at the same time. Examples of seawall face shapes are provided in Figure13.2.3.1.

Figure 13.2.3.1 Examples of Sea Walls Faces

13.2.3.2 An example of a Non Reentrant sea wall is shown in Figure. 13.2.3.2. Vertical sea wall types are
shown in Figure. 13.2.3.3

Figure 13.2.2.7 Overtopping Limits Figure 13.2.3.2 Typical Sea Wall

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13.2.3.5 Different types of structural systems for the sea walls will be studied in order to select the most
appropriate based on soil condition, wave action, economics and operational considerations. Definition of the
sea wall, its support system and deck framing system will be produced. Expansion joints, according to the type
Supports of selected sea wall, will be allocated to best suit both operational and structural requirements for the sea wall.

13.2.3.6 The drainage system of the sea wall should be designed and configured to ensure that no polluted

Rubble
liquid substances will be discharged into sensitive water channels. Anti-scour protection, if necessary, shall be
designed and shown on the design drawings.

13.2.3.7 Necessary durability measures to guarantee the minimum required design life expectancy for all
structural elements shall be addressed at all levels of design, detailing, and specification production.

13.2.3.8 Water level and range, wave height and period, suitable seawall shape and configuration, pile
foundation, suitable armor layer units shape and size, run-up and rundown, overtopping, suitable under
drainage features, toe protection, suitable filter layer and/or geotextile bags, firm fill and backfill materials
Rod are the main concerns and control points for coastal seawalls. This kind of structure is generally used to
defend against large wave attacks. When the wave reaches the wall face, the kinematic wave energy transfers
the potential energy and splash to the ground and/or seaward. Therefore, this kind of structure should be
massively strong with an adequately constructed foundation to guard against wave attack. The design of
seawalls should be performed to international standards as noted previously.

13.2.3.9 For vertical walls, three types of analyses should be considered for seismic loads. These analyses
are Simplified Analysis, Simplified Dynamic Analysis and Dynamic Analysis respectively. Simplified Analysis is
appropriate for evaluating the approximate threshold limit for displacement and/or elastic response limits and
to evaluate an order of magnitude of the permanent displacement due to seismic loading. Using Simplified
Dynamic Analysis it is possible to evaluate the extent of displacement, stress, ductility, and strain. When using
Figure 13.2.3.3 Some Examples of Sea Walls
Dynamic Analysis it is possible to do the above for both failure modes and also establish the extent of the

13.2.3.3 The alignment of the sea wall will match the boundary line of the project’s construction limits. displacement, stress, ductility, and strain. For all wall structures, there should also be analysis for total failure,

The coping level will be determined in coordination with the planning recommendations for the scheme in liquefaction, settlement and displacement if necessary. For piled systems, in addition, it shall also include

order to respond to the surrounding environmental conditions and to prevent overtopping during storms. analysis of deformation.

The foundation level will be determined by the soil conditions and geotechnical recommendations. Design 13.2.3.10 Designs to anchor the foundation, minimize settlement and secure the protection of the toe, are the
of the sea wall side will take into consideration the marine and environmental conditions including the tidal remaining major concerns regarding seawall integrity since these are potential causes of failure.
fluctuation, direction of prevailing wind, wave heights, and currents. The sea wall structure will be subject to a
variety of stresses, including surcharge loads from loading and unloading of supplies at the apron behind it, 13.2.3.11 Bulkheads are retaining walls which hold backfill and provide protection against wave action by
wind loads, and seismic loads. The design approach will therefore address the following items: erosion. They are used to protect coastlines, roads and bluffs by retaining soil at the toe, by protecting the
1. Design Codes and Standards. toe from erosion and undercutting. They are also typically used in reclamation projects, where fill requires
2. Seismic zone. protection. Typical shapes and combinations for bulkhead sea walls are given in Figure 13.2.3.3 with typical
3. Basic wind speed and class of wind exposure. toe protection shown in Figure 13.2.3.4. There are several types of material that can be used for a bulkhead
4. Surcharge loads. structure such as sheet pile, timber, concrete, etc. and several types of shapes can be designed for the bulkhead
5. High and low water levels. structures.
6. Essential load combinations to be considered in design.
13.2.3.12 Critical design elements of seawalls are a secure foundation to minimize settlement and toe protection
7. Safety factors against sliding and overturning according to the structural system of the sea wall.
to prevent undermining. The design procedure checklist needed to develop an adequate seawall design is as
13.2.3.4 The most stringent loads combinations will be considered in sizing of all structural elements which follows:
make up the sea wall. Dynamic effects of seismic forces on the sea wall structure will also be considered, 1. Determine the water level range for the site
together with the stability of the sea wall under different load combinations. Stresses on the foundation layer 2. Determine the wave heights
will be determined and compared to the allowable stresses according to the type of foundation system adopted. 3. Select suitable seawall configurations
Slope stability of the sea wall shall be studied and settlement analysis for construction stages will be carried out.

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4. Design pile foundations 13.2.4 Coastal Bridges
5. Select a suitable armor unit type and size
6. Determine the potential run-up to set the crest elevation 13.2.4.1 Bridges serving coastal areas can provide crossings for a variety of marine conditions and landforms.
7. Determine the amount of overtopping expected for low structures There are, however, three types of tidal waterway crossings in general: 1-estuary; 2-connection ocean and/or
8. Design under drainage features if they are required. bay by an inlet; 3- bridge between mainland to an island or a connection between two islands. Representative
9. 
Provide for local surface runoff and overtopping and runoff, and make any required types can be seen in Figures 13.2.4.1 and 13.2.4.2. The four essential considerations for designing a coastal
provisions for other drainage facilities such as culverts and ditches. bridge which depend on hydraulics and oceanographic effects, are noted below:
10. Consider end conditions to avoid failure due to flanking 1. The effects of constructing the bridge on the existing water regime should be kept to the minimum. National
11. Design the toe protection oceanographic conditions shall be used to determine the form of coastal bridge, the bridge structure and
12. Design the filter and under layers current force. The design shall satisfy the afflux of flow capacity
13. Provide for firm compaction of all fill and backfill materials. 2. The structural design of the bridge should aim to prevent failure under the various types of hydraulic
14. Develop cost estimate for each alternative actions described herein. It is necessary to calculate potential scour depths and various hydrodynamic
forces, in order to check the adequacy of the structural design. Where necessary in an estuary, flood and
tidal current shall be considered together. For flood recurrence recommendations, see Section 12 of these
Design Standards.
3. It is also necessary to provide adequate freeboard for the passage of vessels. The design shall satisfy the
afflux navigational requirements, as necessary.
4. If a bridge substructure is constructed in a navigational waterway, there should be protection of that bridge
substructure against collision. To determine this protection, a design vessel impact load, estimated according
to navigational speed and other aspects such as gross tonnage should be considered in accordance with
international standards.

Figure 13.2.3.4 Some Examples of Bulkheads Figure 13.2.4.1 Examples of Coastal Bridge Figure 13.2.4.2 Examples of Coastal Bridges in an Estuary

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13.2.4.2 The return period shall be chosen according to the road category and other features of the location. 13.2.4.10 If there is a need for a temporary bridge in the project area, the following items should be considered
For details, see Clause 12.9.3 of Section 12 of these Standards. for design.

13.2.4.3 A sectional drawing for a coastal bridge is shown in Figure 13.2.4.3 for clarification of design n National and Arterial Routes: Design temporary bridges to remain open to traffic while experiencing the
parameter definitions. DWL is Design Water Level which includes storm surge, tidal level and design wave highest astronomic tide plus the 10-year wave height.
height. Freeboard is the distance between DWL and the soffit of the bridge and SWL is the still water level n Other Route Classifications: Design temporary bridges to remain open to traffic while experiencing the
which includes tidal level and storm surge. highest astronomic tide plus the 2-year wave height.

13.2.4.4 If the current and waves are strong enough to cause river bed erosion in the area of the bridge, the
Low Chord Elevation: Minimum elevation of the beam
bottom of the river or the coastal area should be lined by protective cover such as rock or gabion mattresses.
H max : Maximum Design Wave Height
The size and specifications should be calculated according to current and oceanographic conditions.
Y max: Difference between Design
DSW level
SWLand
andcrest
DWL of the DWH
13.2.4.5 The fluctuation value also strongly depends upon the distance from the ocean. If a crossing is located
upstream of a river, the tidal effect would be of minor influence at the crossing point. If the crossing point is
located in an estuary close to the ocean, the tidal effect would likely be considerably stronger at the crossing
point. This effect is referred to as tail water.

13.2.4.6 As a general rule, bridges should not be located on a bend or where crosscurrents can be expected. (DWL)
When more than one bridge is required in a given locality, the bridges should be close together with piers Roadway
and fender systems in line or far enough apart to permit towing by a tugboat passing one bridge to become Clearance or
freeboard (Min. = 1m)
properly aligned for passage through the next bridge.
Low Chord Elevation
13.2.4.7 Water flowing past a bridge pier, exerts a force upon that pier. This force can be resolved into two Pile cap
components: one along the direction of flow, which is referred to as the drag force; and one normal to the Design Water Level

direction of flow, which is referred to as the lift force. Therefore, during the design of a bridge in a coastal area,
H max Y max
these forces should be analyzed and countered since their action will affect stability. Additionally, if the bridge
could be affected by the wave action, during the design procedure, wave force should also be considered. Design SWL
International coastal design standards (Refs.1, 2 and 3) be referenced to calculate these and other forces. Storm
Surge
Pile Pile
13.2.4.8 The following items should be considered by the designer during a bridge study or design in a coastal area: Tide MSL d
Figure 13.2.4.3 Definition of Terms Related to a Coastal Bridge Design
1. Failure due to scour
2. Failure due to bank erosion
Sea Bed Elevation
3. Failure due to hydraulic forces on piers
4. Failure due to hydraulic forces on bridge decks
5. Failure due to debris
6. Failure due to ship collision
7. Failure due to wave and tidal forces
8. Determination of afflux
9. Design for structural stability
10. Design flows
11. Estimating effects of general and local scour
12. Progressive degradation and aggradations

13.2.4.9 These items shall be analyzed using oceanographic, hydraulic and hydrological data with design
return periods as given in these Standards.

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13.3 REFERENCES

13.3.1 Primary References

1. Coastal Engineering Manual. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) April 2002.
2. BS 6349 Maritime Structures 2000. Amendments issued 24 July 2003.
3. The Rock Manual - The Use of Rock in Hydraulic Engineering CIRIA London 2007.
4. Highways in the Coastal Environment, Second Edition. U.S. Department Of Transportation Federal Highway
Administration Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 25 June 2008.
5. Oman Marine Handbook 2009. National Hydrographic Office, Royal Navy of Oman.
6. Seismic Design Guidelines for Port Structures. International Navigation Association, Pianc, 2001.

13.3.2 Other Useful References

Bridge Administration Manual. Commandant United States Coast Guard March 2004. Washington, DC.
n

Design of Coastal Revetments, Seawalls, and Bulkheads. Department of the Army U.S. Army Corps of
n

Engineers, Washington, DC.

Tidal Hydrology, Hydraulics and Scour at Bridges. Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 25 December 2004
n

FHWA.
Highway Hydrology. U.S. Department Of Transportation Federal Highway Administration Hydraulic Design
n

Series No. 2, Second Edition. October 2002.


nDesign of Riprap Revetment. U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration
Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 11. March1989.
Evaluating Scour at Bridges. U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Report. Fourth Edition
n

May 2001.
n BA 59/94 The Design Of Highway Bridges For Hydraulic Action Part 6. The Highways Agency, U.K.

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