MAP READING SKILLS

 A map is a drawing on a piece of paper which represent the earth’s surface as seen from above.
Maps are drawn from aerial photographs.
 The features of a map are TITLE, SCALE, KEY and DIRECTION.
 The field of map making is called Cartography.

Distances
 Use of rulers, pair of dividers and an edge of a paper and use of LINEAR SCALE to convert map
distance to ground distance.
 Always start at ZERO and final answer is written in kilometre units.
 The mini scale at the beginning of the linear scale is used to measure decimals.

Area
a) Regular shapes- Use of formula for each shape after converting map distance to ground
distance using scale eg. Rectangle : L×W etc. ( use actual ground distance)
NB : USE MAP SCALE TO COVERT MAP DISTANCE TO ACTUAL GROUND DISTANCE

b) Irregular shapes –
Method:
1) Trace the shape from the map using a tracing paper
2) Transfer the shape from tracing paper into a graph paper
3) Count ALL complete squares covered by shape.
4) Count ALL Incomplete/ part squares and divide them by 2 to get another set of full squares.
5) ADD the two totals from step 3 and 4 to get the total squares for the shape.
6) Multiply the total squares from step 5 by the area of one full square.
0.01 km² for smallest squares in graph paper (2mm X 2mm)
0.25 km² for 1cm X 1cm size ) to get area of the shape in km² units.

EXAMPLE (Assuming that squares are 1cm x 1cm size and shape already drawn in graph paper)

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 1. Full squares = 6
2. Incomplete squares = 15 = 7.5
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3. 6 + 7.5 = 13.5 squares
4. 13.5 × 0.25 km²(Area of 1 square) = 3.375 km²

Direction

 It is shown by an arrow pointing to the North.

 A compass is used to identify the North and the 8 & 16 point compass points are used to
describe direction of places in relation to others.

Bearings
 Used to give a more accurate direction of a place from another in degree azimuths or whole
circle bearing.
 A bearing is an angular direction of a place in relation to another and measured in a CLOCKWISE
direction from the North line.
 The North line is drawn at the place of origin and the PROTRACTOR is used to measure angle of
turn.

Method
-Draw a straight line joining points concerned.
-Draw a North line at the point of origin.
-Use the North line to place your protractor in correct position.
-Measure angle in a clockwise direction from North line until you reach line joining the two points
concerned and write your answer in degrees.

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Locating positions on a map

Grid Reference
 Grids are a network of vertical and horizontal lines used to locate places on a map.
 The vertical lines are EASTINGS and horizontal lines are NORTHINGS because they increase in
value to the east and to the north respectively.
 When locating positions using grid reference, the following RULES are observed :

1. ALWAYS start with EASTINGS before NORTHINGS.

2. ALWAYS regard the bottom left corner of the grid square as your point of origin/ reference.

FOUR FIGURE GRID REFERENCE

 The two lines that intersect/ meet at the bottom- left corner of the square are used to describe
the position.

SIX FIGURE GRID REFERENCE

 Used to pinpoint position of a place more accurately by dividing each line of square into 10
subdivisions and estimate the third figure in the Vertical lines ( Eastings) and the sixth figure in
the Horizontal lines (Northings).

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EXAMPLE USING DIAGRAM ABOVE
a) 4- figure grid ref of X and Y is 6311
b) 6-figure grid reference of X is 633114
c) 6-figure reference of Y is 639118

SHOWING RELIEF ON A MAP

 Relief is the physical shape of the earth’s surface giving differences in terms of height above sea
level eg. Hills, valleys, flat plains etc.
 Height in maps is represented by metres.
 The main methods used to show relief in our maps are:

i) CONTOUR LINES

 These are brown lines on a map joining all places of equal height above sea level.
 Contours are numbered in METRES the vertical distance between them is the same.
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  The difference in height between two neighbouring contours is called VERTICAL INTERVAL/
CONTOUR INTERVAL.
 The Contour Interval is usually indicated in the key or it can be calculated by subtracting the
value of any contour line from the next higher contour line.
 Contours never cross each other but distance between them may vary (STEEP SLOPE -
contours close together and GENTLE SLOPE- contours are wide apart).

ii) TRIGONOMETRICAL STATIONS

 They are shown by a triangle with a small dot in the centre. Normally these stations are
found at the top of features marked by pillars on the ground. Height is normally written
below the triangle in metres.
iii) SPOT HEIGHTS
 They show height of a particular spot using a dot with height in metres written beside it.

TYPES OF SLOPES
Several types of slopes can be shown by the arrangement of contours :
a) Steep slope : contours are close together

b) Gentle slope : contours are widely spaced and for a uniform gentle slope, contours are more or
less an equal distance apart.

c) Vertical slope/ Cliff : contours are so close together that they almost merge into one. For a
vertical cliff, all contours form one line.

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d) Stepped slope: Closely spaced contours alternate with widely spaced contours and look like a
series of steps.

e) Convex slope: contours are closely spaced at the bottom (steep) and more widely spaced at the
upper part of the slope (gentle).It is curved like the outside of a circle.

f) Concave slope: contours are widely spaced at the lower part (gentle) and more closely spaced at
the upper part of the slope (steep). It is curved like the inside of a circle.

g) Uneven slope: An uneven slope is shown by spaces in between contour lines which are not
equal.

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OTHER RELIEF FEATURES

a) Plateau: It is a fairly level high area of land with steep slopes falling away from it in all directions.

b) Valley: A narrow lowland surrounded by highlands.

c) Rounded hill: It has even, gentle slopes falling away on every side.

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d) Conical hill: An elevated hill with steep slopes on each side and a narrow summit.

e) Flat topped hill: In this type of hill, the innermost or highest contour enclose a wide open
space.

f) Knoll/ Isolated hill: This is a small isolated hill nearer to larger hills or mountains.

g) Ridge: It is a long, narrow line of highland sloping steeply away on two sides.

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h) Range: This is a line of mountain/ hill ridges with narrow crests stretching for a long distance.

i) Pass/ Gap: A low hollow providing a way through a mountain/ hill barrier.

j) Col/ Saddle: a depression in a range of mountains or hills usually providing a pass through the
range. However this feature is not as deep as a gap.

k) Spur: A narrow piece of land protruding out from the side of a mountain/hill. It points towards
the lower land.

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 l) Gorge: A deep valley or vertical sides forming a v- shaped feature. The contours are very close
together.

GRADIENT
 Gradient is the steepness of the slope usually given as a ratio eg. 1 in 6 meaning that for
every 6 units of measurement horizontally, there is 1 unit rise vertically.

HOW TO CALCULATE GRADIENT

1. Find the difference in height(metres) between two

points. Use spot heights, trigonometrical station heights and nearest contours to find the
difference.

2. Measure the map distance between the given points and convert it to ground distance by
using the linear scale. Express your distance in the same units as the VI (metres by
multiplying kilometres by a 1000 for you to be able to divide. This is called HE (Horizontal
Equivalent).

3. Divide the metres ( from step 1) by the ground distance in metres (from step 2) to find the
gradient and write your answer in ratio form.
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 EXAMPLE :
G = VI
HE
 Example: Using the 1 : 50 000 map , find the gradient of a slope between two towns; X
(700m) and Y (100m). The ground distance is 5 km .

i) VI : 700m – 100m = 600m

ii) HE : 5km × 1000 = 5000m
iii)Gradient = 600m = 1
5000m 8.33
G = 1 : 8.3/ 8

CALCULATION OF LOCAL TIME

 LOCAL TIME refers to time which is mathematically calculated along each meridian line in
relation to GMT (Greenwich Mean Time).

 In order to understand time calculation, we use the earth’s rotation of 360⁰ in 24 hours/ a day.

 It therefore means that the earth passes through 15⁰ in 1 hour and through 1⁰ in 4 minutes.

 The world was then divided into 24 standard time zones and each zone differs from the other
by 15⁰.

 All countries falling within a particular time zone have the same time referred to as STANDARD
TIME (Time observed within a time zone or belt of 15⁰ longitude wide).
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 The Greenwich Meridian line ( 0⁰ line) is used to calculate local time of any place.

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  All places East of this line see the sun earlier and they GAIN time whereas those in the west of
0⁰ line see the sun later and they LOSE time as the earth rotates.

 If we know GMT, finding local time we ADD or SUBTRACT the difference in the number of hours
from the time of a given longitude.
Eg. If GMT or London time is 0900hrs, then time in Botswana would be 1100hrs as it uses 30⁰E
longitude which is 2 hours ahead of GMT.

PROCEDURE TO CALCULATE TIME

i) Find the difference in degrees between longitudes. If all places are on one side of 0⁰line,
subtract to find difference BUT add if places are on either side of the 0⁰ line.
ii) Find the difference in hours by dividing by 15⁰. Remainders are multiplied by 4 to convert
them to minutes
iii) ADD the difference in hours to the given time if you want time on the RIGHT of the given
and SUBTRACT if you want time on the LEFT of the given time.

Example 1 :
 The Zebras are playing a soccer match against Morocco (15⁰E).The game starts in Morocco
at 1545 hours. What would be time in Botswana (31⁰E).
i) 31⁰ - 15⁰ = 16⁰
ii) 16⁰ = 1 hr r( 1⁰ × 4) = 1hr 04 mins
15⁰
iii) We want time on the right of the given time, so we add
1545 hrs
+ 104
16 49 hours

Example 2
 Find time at Hong Kong (63⁰E) when it is 1118hours at Rio (45⁰ W).
i) 63⁰ + 45⁰ = 108⁰
ii) 108⁰ = 7 r( 3⁰ × 4 ) = 7 hrs 12mins
15⁰
iii) 1118 hrs + 7 hrs 12mins = 1830 hours

LONGITUDE CALCULATION

1. Find the difference in hours in between the times given.

2. Find the difference in degrees by multiplying number of hours from step 1 by 15 to convert into
degrees. If minutes are available, they are divided by 4 to get another set of degrees. They are
then added together to find the final answer in degrees.

3. Find the longitude by ADDING the degrees from step 2 to the given longitude if you want the
longitude moving away from 0⁰ line to the West or East. BUT if you want longitude moving
towards 0⁰ line from the given longitude, SUBTRACT the degrees from step 2 from the given
longitude. If you get a negative answer when subtracting it means you have crossed the 0° line
The final answer should be in degrees West or East.
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Example 1
Thabo is watching a televised football game in Gaborone (30⁰E) at 1930 hours. The game is played in
Sao Paulo in Brazil at 1230 hours same day. Find the longitude of Sao Paulo.

i) 1930hrs – 1230hrs = 7 hours

ii) 7hrs × 15 = 105⁰
iii) 105⁰ - 30⁰ = 75⁰W

Example 2
A pilot is flying to Gaborone (28⁰E) and he is listening to 0700 hours RB news. The pilot’s time is 1340
hours. Find the longitude of the pilot.

i) 1340 hrs – 0700 hrs = 6 hrs 40 mins

ii) (6hrs × 15) + (40mins ÷ 4)
90⁰ + 10⁰
= 100⁰
iii) 28⁰ + 100⁰ = 128⁰ E

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