Sys-Plan Part 2

12.
Interference 109
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Reception of signals in telecommunication systems

may be marred by noise, which can originate from a 7<3,&$/
variety of sources. Many of these sources are man- T = 300 K
made and could, in principle, be eliminated. B= 6 MHz
Pn =-106 dBm
Fundamental noise sources do however exist, and
must be understood to enable proper design of
telecommunication equipment.
12.1.1 Thermal noise
Random motion of electrons due to thermal energy result in an average

noise power given by
106) 3Q = N7% [W]
where k - Boltzmann’s constant (N = 1.38 ⋅ 10−23 - . )

7 - temperature in Kelvin
% - bandwidth of noise spectrum [Hz]
110 12. Interference
12.1.2 Noise factor
Other fundamental kinds of noise are the VKRWQRLVHin pn-junction diodes,

SDUWLWLRQQRLVHin transistors and IOLFNHUQRLVH In amplifiers the available
61 power ratio is degraded due to these additional noise sources within
the amplifier. The noise factor of an amplifier (or any network) may be
defined in terms of the signal-to-noise ratio as follows [41]:
available 6 1 power ratio at input

107) ) =
available 6 1 power ratio at output
12.1.3 Noise in digital systems
Figure 56 shows the bit-error-ratio (BER) as a function of receiver input

level. The receiver
threshold level is a
function of the thermal
noise (a function of the Most disturbing, barely understandable, sync. loss
receiver bandwidth) and
Disturbing, understandable
the noise factor of the
receiver front end. Any Audible, understandable
additional noise will Barely audible
increase the BER and
consequently reduce the Not audible
system performance.
BER 10
-6
10 -5 10 -4 10 -3 10
-2
For traditional telephony

the system may survive
with a BER close to 10-3,
and as indicated above, a BER=10-6 represents no audible degradation.
Systems carrying data traffic and in particular multi-media applications
including live video normally require a very low BER for high quality
transmission. A background BER below 10-12 is normally required, and the
limit for operation is about BER = 10-6. This results in more stringent
requirements for noise limits in digital systems compared to former
demands, and has an impact on acceptable interference levels.
12. Interference 111
To operate correctly, a digital system usually requires a signal-to-

interference ratio 6, of 15 - 25 dB, according to the modulation scheme.
This ratio may be found using
108) 6 / 1 ( G% ) = /7H − 10 log(N7% )− )( G% )
where
/7H - Receiver threshold level for a given BER
(no interference) [dBW]
N - Boltzmann’s constant
7 - the absolute temperature in Kelvin
% - the IF bandwidth in Hertz
) - the receiver noise figure in decibel
Equation 108) gives the theoretical ratio. For practical systems an

implementation margin (∼ 1 dB) should be added to this number, giving a
practical (61) ratio & 5 . The & 5 -values for Nera radios can be derived as
given in table 9. Adding a 1 dB implementation margin results in the
right-most column.
Radio Threshold Noise IF 6/1 &5

type (BER 10−3 ) figure bandwidth theoretical practical
4x2 Mb/s -87.0 dBm 5.0 dB 6 MHz 14 dB 15 dB
34 Mb/s -82.5 dBm 4.5 dB 26 MHz 13 dB 14 dB
Table 9 Typical & 5 -values for Nera equipment
The values in table 9 may vary slightly for the different frequency bands,
mainly due to variations in noise figures. The numbers will of course be
totally different if other modulation schemes are deployed. The modulation
method both affects the required S/N-ratio and the IF bandwidth of the
receiver.
,QWHUIHULQJVLJQDO VLPSDFWRQUHFHLYHUWKUHVKROGOHYHOV
Only digital radio relay systems

will be considered here. In 10-3
analogue systems (FDM/FM
systems), the noise contribution
from interfering signals is 10-4
added on a power basis to the
thermal receiver noise, giving a
Bit Error Ratio (BER)

deterioration of the system-
value curve. 10-5
In digital systems (TDM

systems), the presence of
10-6
interfering signals increases the
UHFHLYHU V WKUHVKROG OHYHO for a
given bit-error ratio (BER).
When an interfering signal is 10
-7
present, the S/I ratio is

decreased, giving a receiver S/I ∞ 20 dB 16 dB
WKUHVKROG GHJUDGDWLRQ To
-8
maintain the system 10
performance (for an unchanged -85 -80 -75 -70
fading margin) the receiver Receiver input level [dBm]

input level during fading free
time must be increased. Figure 56 Typical BER-curves
Maintaining the receiver input 34 Mb/s radio
unchanged would degrade the
BER performance.
During fading free time the S/I ratio is far better than the critical limit. The
influence of the interfering signal is thus not detectable most of the time.
The influence of interfering signal is first noticeable during fading
conditions as a deterioration of the receiver threshold level. This is the
same as a decrease of the path’s fading margin. The conditions are that the
interfering signal’s field strength remains unchanged (non-faded) while the
wanted signal fades. It is therefore of interest to discuss the correlation
between fading of the wanted and the interfering signals. The signals are
generally non-correlated when the wanted signal and the interference
follow different paths.
12.2.1 Co-channel interference
Presence of interfering
signals will move the BER-
curve in figure 56 to the
Degraded threshold
right, giving a receiver -84 dBm due to interference
threshold degradation. Let
us consider a given receiver -87 dBm Undisturbed receiver
threshold level
with 6 MHz bandwidth and
a noise figure of 5 dB. The
resulting thermal noise floor
is -101 dBm. This receiver
Noise floor with
requires a 14 dB S/I ratio -98 dBm interfering signals
for a given BER, giving a
threshold level of -87 dBm. -101 dBm Thermal noise floor
An additional interfering
signal with an input level of Figure 57 Threshold degradation
-101 dBm gives a total noise
level of -98 dBm (3 dB
increase). The resulting
degraded threshold level is -84 dBm (3 dB degradation) as indicated in
figure 57.
The degraded receiver threshold level / for a given interference level /

7H, ,
may be calculated using the formula:
109) (
/7H, = /7H + 10 log 1 + 10(
(− / 7H
+ &5 + /, )/10 )
) [dBm]
This gives a typical interference curve as shown in figures 58 and 60.
An interference level of -101 dBm corresponds to a threshold level of -84

dBm in figure 58 (compare with figure 57). The threshold degradation in
figure 60 is found by finding the S / I ratio with the degraded threshold
level (17 dB) using a few graphical iterations.
Receiver threshold [dBm]
-75 -75
Receiver threshold [dBm] LTeI

-77 -77
-79 L Te= -87 dBm -79 L Te = -87 dBm

-81 C R = 14 dB -81 C R = 14 dB
-83 -83
-85
L TeI
-85
-87
-87
-103
-89
-91
-93
-95
-97
-99
-107
-109
-101
-105
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
Interference level [dBm] LI Signal-to-interference ratio [dB] L TeI /L I
Figure 58 Interference curve (type 1) Figure 59 Interference curve (type 2)
The graph in figure 58 has got two asymptotes; one horizontal being the
threshold level for the undisturbed receiver (no interference) LTe (the x-
axis). The other is the dashed line in figure 58, giving a dB by dB
threshold degradation as a function of interference level.
The same two asymptotes for the graph in figure 60 are: One horizontal
being the threshold level for the undisturbed receiver (no interference).
The other is the vertical line (close to the y-axis) for a 61 ratio where the
given BER no longer can be achieved. This asymptotic value corresponds
to the CR -value. If the 61 ratio gets poorer the required conditions to
achieve the given BER is no longer maintained, and the BER is increased.
12.2.2 Adjacent channel interference
The channel filter will suppress any signal outside the receiver bandwidth
of the radio. The channel filter attenuation for
a specific frequency offset should thus be
subtracted from the values given in table 9 to channel 1 channel 2
give the required & 5 -values for adjacent
channel interference. The adjacent channel
separation for the given frequency plan will
determine the channel filter attenuation.
Table 10 gives some typical values for a few
examples based on the & 5 -values from table Interference
9. In computerised interference calculations,

& 5 -values in table 9 may be combined with
channel filter attenuation for interfering signals with various frequency

offsets in complex systems to calculate degraded threshold levels with
several interfering signals.
The & 5 -values for Nera equipment for a few various frequency plans are
given in table 10.
Radio Frequency Frequency Filter &5

type band separation attenuation practical
4x2 Mb/s 15 GHz 7 MHz 25 dB -10 dB
34 Mb/s 7 GHz 14 MHz 30 dB -16 dB
140 Mb/s 6 GHz 40 MHz 36 dB -12 dB
155 Mb/s 6 GHz 29.65 MHz 26 dB -3 dB
Table 10 Examples of & 5 -values for adjacent channel interference.
In complex radio relay

systems with several receivers
operating in the same -7 7
frequency band at the same
Receiver threshold [dBm] L TeI
station, interference -7 9
L = -87 dBm
calculations should be Te
performed to verify acceptable -8 1 C = 14 dB

R
interference levels. Possible
receiver threshold degradation -8 3
may be found using formula
109) and & 5 -values similar to -8 5
those given in tables 9 and 10.

-8 7
In computerised interference
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
calculations, & 5 -values are

more convenient to use than
S ig n a l-to -in te rfe re n c e ra tio [d B ] L TeI /L
the interference curves shown I
in figures 58 and 60. These

values make automatic
Figure 60 Adjacent channel interference
checking of threshold
curve (type 2)
degradations possible for very
complex systems, involving
both co-channel and adjacent channel interference.
116 13. Propagation in interference calculations
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Before interference calculations are performed, the relevant disturbing

radio relay stations should be selected from a numerous collection of
stations in the area of interest. This chapter introduces techniques for
systematic selection based on statistical assumptions [50].
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The co-ordination area between radio relay stations is defined as the area
around a given station where a possible interfering station may be situated.
Stations outside this area will not affect the given station.
Since microwave antennas are highly directive, a keyhole concept is used

in co-ordination distance analysis.
Keyhole
region
Keyhole Coordination distance

distance for off-keyhole region
Figure 61 Keyhole concept

13. Propagation in interference calculations 117
The co-ordination distance is found using
110) / = 3 + [* − '
, 7[ 7[ 7[
(θ’)]+ [* 5[
−' 5[
(θ)]− /(G )
where
LI = Received interference level [dBm]
PTx = Transmitted power from disturbing station [dBm]
GTx / Rx = Antenna gain transmitter/receiver [dB]
DTx / Rx = Antenna discrimination transmitter/receiver [dB]
L (d ) = Path loss [dB]
θ and θ’ are defined in figure 62.
Interferer
Tx
’
boresight
Interfered
station Rx Interfered station
Figure 62 Simplified radio relay Figure 63 Station distribution

network
Assume that a signal to interference ratio S − I ≥ X dB is required for your

system to operate correctly. The required signal level is then given by
111) 6 ≥ 37[ + [*7[ + '7[ (θ’)]+ [*5[ − '5[ (θ)]− /(G ) + ;

The required signal level may be calculated for different values of

θ and θ’. For '7 (θ’) = 0 (worst case) all interfering stations are assumed
to point directly towards the interfered station. The co-ordination distance
calculated under this condition will specify a region within which all
interfering stations will be located (max37 and *7 ) must be guestimated.
The worst case assumption

('7 (θ’) = 0) may give a large
co-ordination distance 4 GHz [km]
200
co-ordination area including a key-hole

large number of stations. 180 distance
Instead consider homogenous

160
distributed and randomly
oriented possibly interfering off-axis
140 distance
stations as indicated in figure
63. Calculate the co-ordination
area for angles θ ’= θ’1 or larger.
120
100
1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5
reliability
The reliability of this co-
ordination area will be:
θ’1
112) 5(θ’1 ) = 1 −
180
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13.2.1 Long-term interference mechanisms
The long-term interference mechanisms are
- diffraction
- troposcatter
- line-of-sight
Figure 64 Long-term interference mechanisms
13.2.2 Short-term interference mechanisms
The short-term interference mechanisms are
- layer refraction/reflection
- hydrometer scatter
- enhanced line-of-sight
Figure 65 Short-term interference mechanisms.

3UHGLFWLRQPHWKRGV
There are one global and one European prediction model. The European
method offers improved precision for north-west Europe. The two
methods are essentially the same apart from the method of defining the
radio-meteorological influences affecting the anomalous propagation
conditions on the path.
13.3.1 Global procedure
2XWOLQH
1. Decide whether an average year or worst-month prediction is

required.
2. Assemble the basic input data.
3. Derive the annual or worst-month radio-meteorological data

from the maps provided (figure C1 through C4).
4. Analyse the path profile, and classify the path according to the
path geometry.
5. Identify which individual propagation models need to be

invoked.
6. Calculate the individual propagation predictions using each of

the models identified in step 5.
7. Combine the individual predictions to give the overall statistics.
Let us go through the procedure outline step by step:
67(3
The choice of average year or worst-month prediction is dictated by the

quality (i.e. the performance and availability) objectives of the interfered-
with radio system.
67(3
The input data applicable to the calculation procedure is found in table 11.
Parameter Preferred Description

resolution
f 0.01 GHz Frequency [GHz]
p 0.001% Required time percentage(s) for which the calculated
basic transmission loss is not exceeded
ϕ t , ϕr 0.001° Latitude of station
ψ t , ψr 0.001° Longitude of station
htg , hrg 1m Antenna centre height above ground level [m]
Gt , Gr 0.1 dBi Antenna gain in the direction of the horizon along the
great-circle interference path [dBi]
Table 11 Input data
67(3
The purpose is to find the diffraction loss for 50% (or less) of the time.
The median effective earth radius factor k50 is found by:
157
113) k50 =
157 − ∆N
where ∆N is found from figures D1 and D2 in appendix D [50].
The corresponding effective earth radius is then
114) ae = 6 375 ⋅ k50 km
The effective earth radius and radius factor for other percentages of time
may be found using:
1.7 − log( S )
115) N (S ) = N50 + (5 − N50 ) p% < 50%
1.7 − log(β0 )
where β 0 is found using figures D3 and D4 in appendix D [50].
116) D( S ) = 6375 ⋅ N ( S ) [km]

67(3
13.3.2 Path classification
7HVWIRUWUDQVKRUL]RQ
L th terrain
point
mean sea level KL
G
G L θ Interfered-with
U
Interfering θ W station (R)

station (T)
K K
WV UV
D

N

H
D
Figure 66 Model for path classification
The path is transhorizon if θ max > θ td
where
n−1
117) θ max = max θi
i =1
hi − hts 10 3 ⋅ di
118) θi = − mrad
di 2 ⋅ ae
hrs − hts 10 3 ⋅ d
119) θ td = − mrad
d 2 ⋅ ae
7HVWIRUVXESDWKGLIIUDFWLRQ
The path has sub-path diffraction if θ fmax > θ td
where
n−1
120) θ fmax = max θ fi
i =1
(K + 5L ) − KWV 103 ⋅ GL
[mrad]
121) θ I = −
L
L
GL 2 ⋅ DH
G (G − G ) [m]
122) 5 = 17.392
L L
G⋅ I
L
67(3
Analyse of the path profile for p = 50% is done using table 12.
Classification Models required (with conditions)

Line-of-sight with first Fresnel zone clearance Line-of-sight
Line-of-sight with sub-path diffraction (1) Line-of-sight; diffraction
Trans-horizon Diffraction (G ≤ 200 km and β 0 < 50% )
Troposcatter (θ ≥ 8 mrad)
Ducting/layer reflection (G > 20 km )
(1) Sub-path diffraction is defined by a terrain incursion into the first Fresnel zone.
Table 12 Path analysis
13.3.3 Ducting interference
The transmission loss between two terminals immersed within a duct is

given by
123) Lb = 92. 45 + 20 log f + 10 log d + C1d + Lc
where
C1 is a constant
Lc is a coupling loss given by
 ∆θ 
/F = 10 log  for ∆θ < θ B
 θ% 
Lc = 0 for ∆θ ≥ θ B
limited duct half-power

angle beamwidth
∆θ θB
Figure 67 Rays in radio duct.

14. Frequency planning 125
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This chapter will cover the principles of frequency planning without going
into detailed interference calculations and countermeasures to interference
problems. This will be covered separately in chapter 15.
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Certain basic rules should be followed setting up the frequency plan. This
is necessary in order to utilise the available frequency range in the most
economical way, and for making the planning work more efficient. All
frequencies used in a radio-relay network should normally be selected from
an established frequency plan, established either by an international or
national organisation.
14.1.1 Conditions
Radio signals have to be frequency-separated if neither antenna

discrimination nor topographical shielding provides the necessary
suppression of interfering signals. The degree of separation depends on
the transmitted bandwidth - the VSHFWUXP EDQGZLGWK. This separation -
called DGMDFHQWFKDQQHOVHSDUDWLRQ - should be as small as possible to give
a frequency economic solution. This requires some kind of standardisation,
a IUHTXHQF\SODQ.
126 14. Frequency planning
The system uses two different frequencies, one for the JR and one for the
UHWXUQ direction. Their separation - called WUDQVPLWWHU 7[ WRUHFHLYHU 5[
or GXSOH[ separation - depends on the filters in the receiver that have to
suppress their own transmitter’s frequency (in the order of 140 dB
suppression!). The larger duplex separation, the easier it is to realise the
filters. The duplex separation is specified in the frequency plan.
The next problem is LQWHUPRGXODWLRQ SURGXFWV. When more than one

radio frequency is present, inter modulation products will appear due to
non-linearities in the equipment. It must be avoided that these or other
inter modulation products disturb a third receiver. A pre-established
frequency plan considering this aspect is a requisite for a rational
frequency allocation.
As we know, interfering radio signals do not stop at a country’s border.

This motivates international agreements and co-operations, established
world-wide by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU).
14.1.2 International frequency plans
The total radio spectrum available is allocated to the various services

(radio astronomy, radar, mobile communications, etc.) by the ITU’s World
Administrative Radio Conference (:$5&). In the 5DGLR5HJXODWLRQV [35],
the frequency bands apportioned to the fixed services are listed. Within
the ITU, Radiocommunication Bureau (,785) is responsible for providing
RF-channel arrangements, i.e. frequency plans. These plans are published
asUHFRPPHQGDWLRQV or UHSRUWV. [50]
There are basically three ways of utilising these frequency plans,

depending on the type of equipment, interference considerations and need
for spectrum efficiency.
14.1.2.1 Alternated channel arrangement
The most widely used utilisation is the alternated channel arrangement as

indicated in Figure 69. In this case every second channel is utilised using
the same polarization, whereas adjacent channels operate on opposite
polarizations.
DS
XS
Polarizations
1 3 1′ 3′
H(V)
a) Alternated pattern
Main frequencies
V(H)
XS 2 4 N 2′ 4′ N′ Channel number
2 XS YS ZS
A B
Figure 68 Alternated channel arrangement
This arrangement can be used (neglecting the co-polar adjacent channel

interference contribution) if the following holds:
124) ;3'min + ( 1)' − 3) ≥ (& , )min
where
XPDPLQ is the minimum cross polar discrimination as defined in chapter

11 Cross-polar interference.
11.
NFD is the net filter discrimination defined as
Adjacent channel received power

125) 1)' =
Adjacent channel power received after RF, IF and BB filters
(C/I)min is the minimum carrier (or signal) to interference ratio for a given
BER limit (typically 10-3 or 10-6). The requirements in equation 125) is
normally easily fulfilled by standard performance antennas and radio
equipment, but the spectrum efficiency is limited with use of single
polarised antennas as only every second channel can be used on the same
path as indicated in equation 125).
An example for an ITU-R-recommended frequency plan is the one for the

upper 6 GHz band, Recommendation 384 [48]. This recommendation
consists of one frequency plan for systems with up to 2700 telephone
channels (140 Mb/s or synchronous digital hierarchy bit rates) using up to
8 go and 8 return radio channels. Another frequency plan is obtained by
interleaving additional channels for systems with up to 1260 telephone
channels using up to 16 go and 16 return channels.
a) Channel arrangement for antennas with double polarization

b) Channel arrangement for antennas with single polarization
or common TX/Rx antenna with double polarization.
(All frequencies are in MHz)
Figure 69 ITU-R rec. 384 [48] (the upper 6 GHz band).
Figure 69 shows the main frequency plan for the 2 times 8 channels
arrangement. The frequency band is divided into two half bands, one half
band for the go or transmitter (Tx) frequencies, the other one for the return
or receiver (Rx) frequencies. The half bands have space for 8 paired radio
channels. To each of the channels in the lower half band corresponds one
with the same channel number in the upper half band. The GXSOH[
separation is the same for all channels (340 MHz). The channel spacing Γ
is 40 MHz. The exact channel centre frequencies can be calculated from
the formulas
126 a) lower half of the band: fn = f0 − 350 + 40 n

b) upper half of the band: f ’n = f0 − 10 + 40 n
where n = 1, .., 8
f 0 = 6770
The frequency unit is MHz
$GMDFHQWFKDQQHOV can be operated simultaneously with the radio waves on

orthogonal polarizations. The degree of discrimination between the
polarizations depends on the azimuth angle and the antenna type used.
14.1.2.2 Co-channel arrangement
Where frequency congestion is a problem, co-channel operation may be a

solution. In this arrangement every radio-channel is utilised twice for
independent traffic on opposite polarizations for the same path.
DS
XS
Main frequency
Polarizations
1 2 3 4 N 1′ 2′ 3′ 4′ N′
H(V) pattern
b) Band re-use in the
co-channel mode
V(H)
1r 2r 3r 4r Nr 1′r 2′r 3′r 4′r N′r Channel number
YS ZS
A B
Figure 70 Co-channel arrangement
This arrangement puts more stringent demands on the antenna and radio
performance, as the following demand must be fulfilled.
≥ (& , )min
1
127) 10 log
1 1
;3' + ;,) + 1)'D − 3
10 10
10 10
where
NFDa is the net filter discrimination evaluated at XS frequency spacing
XIF is the XPD improvement factor for the XPIC device (if implemented)
14.1.2.3 Interleaved arrangement
The interleaved mode is kind of a compromise of the alternated mode and

the co-channel mode. This mode is typically applicable to low capacity
systems where the bandwidth of the signal may be less than the channel
separation. In this case the centre frequency of the radio channel on the
opposite polarization is half-way between the adjacent channels.
DS
XS
Main frequency
Polarizations
1 2 3 4 N 1′ 2′ 3′ 4′ N′
H(V) pattern
c) Band re-use in the
interleaved mode
V(H)
1r 2r 3r 4r Nr 1′r 2′r 3′r 4′r N′r Channel number
XS YS ZS
2 XS
A B
Figure 71 Interleaved arrangement
This interleaved channel arrangement can be used if:

≥ (& , )min
1
128) 10 log
1 1
;3' + ( 1)'E − 3) + 1)'D − 3
10
10 10 10
where
NFDb is the net filter discrimination evaluated at XS/2 frequency spacing.
The other parameters have their previous signification.
Table 13 is a summary of the frequency plans recommended by ITU-R

[50].
Band [GHz] Frequency range [GHz] Channel spacing [MHz] ITU-R rec.
1.4 1.35 - 1.53 0.25; 0.5; 1; 2; 3.5 1242
2 1.427 - 2.69 0.5 (pattern) 701

1.7 - 2.1; 1.9 - 2.3 29 382
1.7 - 2.3 14 283
1.9 - 2.3 3.5; 2.5 (patterns) 1098
1.9 - 2.3 14 1098, Annexes 1,2
1.9 - 2.3 10 1098, Annex 3
2.3 - 2.5 1; 2; 4; 14; 28 746, Annex 1
2.29 - 2.67 0.25; 0.5; 1; 1.75; 1243
2; 3.5; 7; 14; 2.5 (patterns)
2.5 - 2.7 14 283
4 3.8 - 4.2 29 382

3.6 - 4.2 10 (pattern) 635
3.6 - 4.2 90; 80; 60; 40 635, Annex 1
5 4.4 - 5.0 28 746, Annex 2

4.4 - 5.0 10 (pattern) 1099
4.4 - 5.0 40; 60; 80 1099, Annex 1
4.54 - 4.9 40;20 1099, Annex 2
Lower 6 5.925 - 6.425 29.65 383

5.85 - 6.425 90; 80; 60 383, Annex 1
Upper 6 6.425 - 7.11 40; 20 384

6.425 - 7.11 80 384, Annex 1
continued…
7 7.425 - 7.725 7 385

7.425 - 7.725 28 385, Annex 1
7.435 - 7.75 5 385, Annex 2
7.11 - 7.75 28 385, Annex 3
8 8.2 - 8.5 11.662 386

7.725 - 8.275 29.65 386, Annex 1
7.725 - 8.275 40.74 386, Annex 2
8.275 - 8.5 14; 7 386, Annex 3
10 10.3 - 10.68 20; 5; 2 746, Annex 3

10.5 - 10.68 7; 3.5 (patterns) 746, Annex 1
10.55 - 10.68 5; 2.5; 1.25 (patterns) 746, Annex 2
11 10.7 - 11.7 40 387, Annexes 1 and 2

10.7 - 11.7 67 387, Annex 3
10.7 - 11.7 60 387, Annex 4
10.7 - 11.7 80 387, Annex 5
12 11.7 - 12.5 19.18 746, Annex 4, § 3

12.2 - 12.7 20 (pattern) 746, Annex 4, § 2
13 12.75 - 13.25 28; 7; 3.5 497

12.75 - 13.25 35 497, Annex 1
12.7 - 13.25 25; 12.5 746, Annex 4, § 1
14 14.25 - 14.5 28; 14; 7; 3.5 746, Annex 5

14.25 - 14.5 20 746, Annex 6
15 14.4 - 15.35 28; 14; 7; 2.5 636

14.5 - 15.35 2.5 (pattern) 636, Annex 1
14.5 - 15.35 2.5 636, Annex 2
18 17.7 - 19.7 220; 110; 55; 27.5 595

17.7 - 21.2 160 595, Annex 1
17.7 - 19.7 220; 80; 40; 20; 10; 6 595, Annex 2
17.7 - 19.7 3.5 595, Annex 3
17.7 - 19.7 13.75; 27.5 595, Annex 4
23 21.2 - 23.6 3.5; 2.5 (patterns) 637

21.2 - 23.6 112 to 3.5 637, Annex 1
21.2 - 23.6 28; 3.5 637, Annex 2
21.2 - 23.6 28; 14; 7; 3.5 637, Annex 3
21.2 - 23.6 50 637, Annex 4
21.2 - 23.6 112 to 3.5 637, Annex 5
22.0 - 23.6 112 to 3.5 637, Annex 1
continued…
27 24.25 - 25.25 3.5; 2.5 (patterns) 748

24.25 - 25.25 56; 28 748, Annex 3
25.25 - 27.7 3.5; 2.5 (patterns) 748
25.25 - 27.7 112 to 3.5 748, Annex 1
27.5 - 29.5 3.5; 2.5 (patterns) 748
27.5 - 29.5 112 to 3.5 748, Annex 2
27.5 - 29.5 112; 56; 28 748, Annex 3
31 31.0 - 31.3 50; 25 746, Annex 7
38 36.0 - 40.5 3.5; 2.5 (patterns) 749

36.0 - 37.0 112 to 3.5 749, Annex 3
37.0 - 39.5 140; 56; 28; 14; 7; 3.5 749, Annex 1
38.6 - 40.0 50 749, Annex 2
39.5 - 40.5 112 to 3.5 749, Annex 3
55 54.25 - 58.2 3.5; 2.5 (patterns) 1100

54.25 - 57.2 140; 56; 28; 14 1100; Annex 1
57.2 - 58.2 100 1100, Annex2
Table 13 ITU-R recommended frequency plans.
14.1.3 Adjacent-channel separation
For the rest of this chapter the alternated channel arrangement will be used
to explain frequency allocations and utilisation of the frequency plans. For
details on co-channel operation, please refer to chapter 11.
14.1.3.1 Common path
When operating more than one radio circuit on the same antenna (a n+1
frequency diversity configuration) the channels chosen must have a certain
defined separation ∆. This separation coincides with the channel spacing Γ
according to the frequency plan, but may also be a PXOWLSOH of it. For the
main part of the channel arrangements, these separations are stated in the
ITU-R recommendation concerned. In the upper 6 GHz plan (rec. 384
[48]) the recommended adjacent channel separation ∆ for operation on one
common antenna is
129 a) for single polarised systems:

∆ c = x ⋅ 2Γ or ∆ c = x ⋅ 80 MHz
b) for dual polarised systems:

∆ x = y ⋅ Γ or ∆ x = y ⋅ 40 MHz
(Γ = 40 MHz , x = 1, 2, 3; y = 1,.., 8)
When applying co-polar operation, a single polarised antenna can be used.

For cross polarization, a dual polarised antenna has to be chosen, together
with either two waveguide runs, or a circular waveguide. To keep the
costs down, co-polar polarization should be the first choice.
Since these adjacent-channel separations are chosen to avoid mutual

interference between the channels concerned, interference between these
channels can be excluded from the interference calculations.
13.1.3.2 Separate paths
Interference between RF channels on separate antennas or different paths is

negligible if the frequency separation δ between the channels is so large
that the disturbing channel’s centre frequency falls within the stop-band of
the wanted channel’s filter. The exact characteristics of the channel filter
have to be taken from the equipment specification.
Interference paths between RF channels on different paths (antennas) with

a separation ≥ δ (for the equipment concerned) can be excluded from the
interference considerations.
$OORFDWLRQRIUDGLRIUHTXHQFLHV
14.2.1 Preparations
Draw a network diagram to scale and angle the geographical layout of your
system. Include DOO known systems operating (existing and planned)
within the frequency band concerned. (See figure 72.)
14.2.2 Conditions
Each frequency band is divided into two half bands, the lower $, and the
upper %. For a radio path the transmitting (Tx) and receiving (Rx)
frequencies will nearly always be paired: they will have the same channel
number, with opposite $% indices. Channels in the lower half band $ are
unmarked (ch. 3), and channels in the upper half band % are marked (ch.
3’). Only the Tx numbering is shown in the network chart.
Power station
Hill Headquarter
Downtown
Training centre
A-station
B-station Mt. High
Figure 72 Radio-relay network
All transmitter frequencies in the same station have to be selected from the
same half band. Stations with transmitters operating in the lower half band
are called $VWDWLRQV. The receiver on A-stations operates in the upper half
band.
,I WKH WUDQVPLWWHU IUHTXHQF\ RU KDOI EDQG KDV EHHQ FKRVHQ IRU RQH
WUDQVPLWWHUDWRQHVWDWLRQWKHDOORFDWLRQRIWKHKDOIEDQGV $RU% IRUDOO
RWKHUVWDWLRQVDQGWUDQVPLWWHUVLQWKHQHWZRUNLVGHWHUPLQHG
There is an important deviation from this rule. A passive repeater is both

an $ and a % station. Since no frequency conversion is effected, an
incoming $frequency is re-emitted as an $ frequency. The same is true
for the % frequency in the other direction. The same arguments are also
valid to a RF-repeater where no frequency conversion is performed. For
the purpose of frequency allocation, passive- and RF-repeaters can be
disregarded.
14.2.3 Frequency determination
14.2.3.1 General considerations
If your radio link plan already includes existing RL equipment, operating

in the same frequency band, mark them as $ or % stations in the network
chart. In this case, the $ and % designations for all other stations are
determined.
If no equipment is present in the frequency band concerned, find out

whether there might be another station, not included in the planned
network, but close to one of the planned stations, with frequencies already
allocated from that particular band. If this question is affirmative,
- and a future cross connection between the two networks can be

implemented by one radio path only (or an odd number of hops):
GHVLJQDWHWKHKDOIEDQGZLWKWKHRSSRVLWH$%
ODEHOWRWKHQHZVWDWLRQWKXVGHWHUPLQLQJWKHKDOI
EDQGVIRUDOOWKHRWKHUVWDWLRQV
- and a future cross connection has to be implemented by two (or an

even number of hops):
GHVLJQDWHWKHKDOIEDQGZLWKWKHVDPH$%ODEHOWR
WKHQHZVWDWLRQWKXVGHWHUPLQLQJWKHKDOIEDQGVIRU
DOOWKHRWKHUVWDWLRQV
If the answer is negative; start with any of the stations and allocate an
arbitrary half band for it.
14.2.3.2 Backbone network
Frequency allocation for radio relay networks can be done in several ways,
depending on the network complexity, future plans, etc. The frequency
planning procedure also depends on how detailed the available information
is. To illustrate this, two different DRL-networks are used; the one in
figure 72 for the detailed planning, and the one in figure 73 for the straight
forward solution.
To illustrate this method the network in figure 73 is used.

II IV V
I III VI
A-station
B-station
Figure 73 Simplified DRL-network.
Start in the same way as in the detailed method by selecting a frequency in

the lower edge of the band for station I. Selecting channel 1 for the regular
channel, gives the Tx- and Rx-frequencies listed in table 14.
Ch. # Station I (A) Station II (B)

Tx1 1 6460 MHz / V 6800 MHz / V
Tx2 3 6540 MHz / V 6880 MHz / V
Rx1 1 6800 MHz / V 6460 MHz / V
Rx2 3 6880 MHz / V 6540 MHz / V
Table 14 Tx- and Rx- frequencies / A- and B- stations.
Trying to economise the use of RF-channels by using HP antennas all over,

the following procedure should be used:
&KDQJHSRODUL]DWLRQDQGFKDQQHOQXPEHUVRQHYHU\VHFRQGSDWK
WKURXJKRXWWKHV\VWHP
Following this procedure for the system in figure 73, gives the frequency
allocation shown in figure 74. Changing channels and polarization like
this, prevent interference problems due to over-shoot in the system. The
transmitter at station I could interfere with the receiver at station IV, but
using different polarizations, give approximately 30 dB additional
attenuation. This attenuation is sufficient to prevent adjacent-channel
interference in the system.
1,3 V II 2,4 H IV V 1,3 V
I III VI
1,3 H 2,4 V
A-station
B-station
Figure 74 Frequency allocation for simplified DRL-network.
5HSHDWHGXVHRIWKHVDPHUDGLRIUHTXHQF\
The same radio frequency should be used whenever possible to economise

with the radio frequencies available. For digital radio links, the level of the
interfering signal LI, should be x dB below the receiver threshold level
LTe, where x corresponds to the S/I ratio for the threshold level concerned
(see next chapter).
In nodal points this normally requires antenna discriminations in the order

of (6 / , + ) ) where )is the fading margin for the path of interest.
'HWDLOHGSODQQLQJ
The network in figure 72 is used to illustrate the detailed planning

procedure. A 140 Mb/s DRL system is to be implemented following the
ITU-R rec. 384-5 [48] frequency plan. This gives the following technical
data:
Γ = 40 MHz
∆ c = 2 ⋅ Γ = 80 MHz
∆ x = δ c / x = 40 MHz
Start with the nodal point having the largest quantities of transmitters.
This is "Headquarters" in figure 72. This station has been decided to
operate in the upper half band (B-station).
The system is assumed to work in a 1+1 configuration. This gives two RF

channels in each half band, allowing both channels to operate in the same
polarization. If the channel separation is ≥ ∆ , they can also be transmitted
from the same antenna.
Start by selecting a frequency (preferably at the lower edge of the half

band). 1RWH WKDW H[LVWLQJ HTXLSPHQW PD\ UHVWULFW WKLV FKRLFH. The radio
channel for the second channel in this 1+1 system is then selected
according to the rules for DGMDFHQWFKDQQHO VHSDUDWLRQ XVLQJ D FRPPRQ
DQWHQQD. To keep the system cost down, parallel polarization should be
tried as the first choice.
In order to economise frequencies, the first approach should be to apply the

same frequencies for all of the system. Possible interferences call for more
expensive antennas or use of different frequencies. Individual projects
give you different decisions choosing one of these countermeasures. If
new frequencies are chosen, the rules for DGMDFHQWFKDQQHOVHSDUDWLRQIRU
GLIIHUHQWDQWHQQDV should be used.
Example 1
Start with the path Power station - Headquarters.
⊗ Select channel , vertical polarization for the

first channel.
⊗ This gives channel for the second channel,

on common antenna and same polarization.
∆F = 2 ⋅ Γ
The corresponding frequencies / polarizations for the first choice

frequency plan is given in table 14.
These frequencies would apply to all A- and B-stations as a first choice

giving the DRL network in figure 75. This frequency selection will
obviously cause some interference problems at the nodal point
(Headquarters). It should be possible (due to geographical configurations)
to operate the path Power station - Headquarters - Training centre - Mt.
High on the same frequencies. The other paths however will be
investigated later in this chapter as we start with interference calculations.
If the interference calculations show unacceptable interference levels, the
frequency allocation must be modified on these paths. In some systems it
would be preferable to select expensive antennas, adjust output levels and
so on. In other systems frequency economy is not that important, so other
RF-channels could be used.
Power station
1,3 V
1,3 V
Hill Headquarter
1,3 V
Downtown
1,3 V
Training centre
1,3 V
A-station
B-station Mt. High
Figure 75 DRL-network with first frequency allocation.
To avoid overshoot problems, the polarization could be changed for every

second path in general. This would give a reduction of interference level
due to overshoot equal to the antenna cross-polarization discrimination.
This has to be decided during the interference calculations.
14.2.3.3 Meshed networks
Special care must be taken if the DRL-network forms a ring as indicated in

figure 76. If the number of stations in the ring is an even number, the
ordinary allocation of A- and B-station may be used as indicated in figure
76a).
a) even number b) odd number c) odd number

of stations of stations of stations
R R
Different
frequency
A/B-station band
P P
A-station
B-station Q Q
Figure 76 Meshed networks

An odd number of stations in a ring should generally be avoided and needs

special considerations. If the same frequency band is used through the
entire system (figure 76b), one of the stations must be an A/B-station.
That is, this critical station P must transmit in both the lower and the upper
frequency band. This may result in a reduced frequency separation
between the transmitter and the receiver at the critical site. If a limited
number of the radio channels are used, it is possible to achieve the
necessary frequency separation between the transmitter and the receiver.
Consider a 1+1 system operating in the upper 6 GHz frequency band. If
channels 1 and 3 are used as transmit frequencies on the path P towards Q,
channels 5’ and 7’ (or 6’ and 8’) could be used as transmit frequencies
towards R. This gives a frequency separation of 80 MHz (120 MHz)
between transmitter and receiver at P. Depending on the particular type of
equipment, this may be sufficient to avoid interference problems. It must
be verified that the interference level at the receiver is below the critical
limit determined by the receiver characteristics.
Over-shoot interference is also more critical when A/B-stations are needed.

Station Q will disturb station R (and vice versa) unless terrain obstructions
or angle discrimination provide sufficient attenuation of the disturbing
signal.
Figure 77 Upper 6 GHz frequency plan
Another solution is to use a different frequency band for one of the paths in
the meshed network (figure 76c). The frequency separation between the
transmitter and the receiver at the critical site will automatically be
sufficiently large by this approach. If one of the paths is short (∼ 10 km),
using a high frequency band (e.g. 15 GHz) on this path could solve the
frequency allocation problem.
15. Interference calculations 141
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([DPSOHVRI5)FRXSOLQJ
Figure 78 shows some typical examples of undesirable RF-coupling

between radio channels in the same RF-band. The influence of the
different types of interference depends on the network configuration,
terrain obstructions, antenna types and radio equipment, etc.
V f2
f1 f1
Cross-polarization Adjacent channel
f1’ f1
Front-to-back
f1 f1’ f1
Over-shoot
Figure 78 Undesirable RF-coupling between radio channels

142 15. Interference calculations
Cross-polarization
The discrimination between channels operating on opposite polarization is

mainly determined by the cross-polar discrimination of the antenna. De-
polarization in the atmosphere, due to reflections or ray bending may also
increase cross-polar interference,
Adjacent channel
The frequency separation, the channel filter at the receiver and the width of
the transmitted spectrum determined the interference level. Opposite
polarization is often used.
Front-to-back
The interference level is mainly a function of the antenna front-to-back

ratio.
Over-shoot
If the paths are aligned as indicated in figure 78, interference due to over-
shoot is critical. Use of opposite polarization or change of radio channels
is recommended.
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Channels with a channel separation ≥ δ can be excluded from the

interference evaluations due to filter discrimination in the receiver.
There are generally two different ways to include the influence of

interfering signals in the system performance calculations:
Starting from a calculated interference level at the input of the

disturbed receiver, and calculating the influence on the performance
(degraded threshold level).
Starting from an allowed interference level at the input of the

disturbed receiver, and comparing it with the level of the interfering
signal.
Only the first method will be described in this chapter.

7KH LQWHUIHUHQFH FDOFXODWLRQV DUH SHUIRUPHG E\ FDOFXODWLQJ WKH

LQWHUIHUHQFH OHYHO DQG GHWHUPLQLQJ WKH UHFHLYHU WKUHVKROG GHJUDGDWLRQ (if
any).
The simplified RL networks in figures 79 and 80 are used to illustrate the

calculation procedure.
Figure 79 Rectangular network Figure 80 Triangular network
To illustrate the calculation principles figure 80 is used. Path A - B is

assumed to be the disturbed path, and A - C the disturbing path.
The input level during fading free time at A1 (and at B) is /5[. The
receiver threshold level (BER 10-3) for an undisturbed receiver is LTe.
Figure 81 shows the receiver threshold level as a function of the
interference level. For this particular radio /7H = -73 dBm.
The interfering signal C -> A1 reaches the receiver A1 via antenna A1 with
a level /,. If more than one interfering signal has to be considered, /, is
the resulting level of the combined individual levels, /,L:
130) /, = 10 log ∑ 10(/ ,L

− $M )/ 10
L =1
/, ... combined level in dBm of all interfering signals.

/,L ... level in dBm of an individual interfering signal.
$M ... adjacent-channel attenuation in dB of the interfering

signal by the receiver.
From the diagram in figure 81, the degraded receiver threshold level, /7H,,
which corresponds to that interfering signal level, can be found.
The degraded receiver threshold level is approximated by the formula:
131) (
/7H, ≈ /7H + 10 log 1 + 10 ((− / 7H
+ & 5 + /, )/ 10 )
)
&5 ... Numeric constant reflecting the receiver’s ability to withstand

interference signals (normalised S/I-ratio).
-66
-68
-70
-72
-90 -94 -98 -102 -106 -110

Combined interference level [dBm]
Figure 81 Degraded receiver threshold level as a function

of combined interference level.
Example 2
Assume the combined interference level to be -100 dBm. Using figure 81,
it can be seen that the degraded threshold level is -71 dBm That is a 2 dB
threshold degradation of the system.
This new threshold level should be included in the system performance

calculations. 7KHGHJUDGDWLRQRIWKHUHFHLYHUWKUHVKROGOHYHO DQGWKXVWKH
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The approach; starting from a given input level, has some disadvantages:
If radio relay systems already exist in that RF-band and within the
same geographical area, performance and availability predictions can
first be carried out when all data concerning the systems involved are
known.
Each new RL has an impact on the performance and availability of

the existing ones. To avoid a new RL degrading the performance
and availability of the existing ones below the planning objectives,
stringent requirements for discrimination of the new antennas may be
necessary. For each additional link, the requirements will be more
stringent, or new radio frequencies will have to be added.
An interference level higher than the threshold level, /7H, (6, = ∞)

may lock the receiver onto that interference signal in case its own
transmitter at the opposite end breaks down. This may connect a
subscriber onto a non-authorised conversation or data stream, and -
in the case of frequency diversity - prevents the link from switching
over to its diversity channel.
The first two disadvantages can be overcome by allowing for ample fading
margin for the first links in a network, to give some "space" in their
performance and availability for a future degradation.
Locking of a receiver onto an interfering signal can be avoided by planning

for interference levels:
/,L/7H[6, = ∞]
Starting from an allowed degradation of the receiver’s threshold, the

influence on the BER performance and availability can already be
considered when starting the planning. The obtained interference levels
will however always differ from the allowed ones. The performance and
availability calculations have thus to be corrected, applying the obtained
deterioration for /7H.
$QWHQQDVHOHFWLRQ
For paths sharing a common radio site, only the antenna in the nodal point
contributes to the suppression of interfering signal with its back- and side-
lobe attenuation. In fact, this is the only parameter that contributes.
The interfering signal, originated in the transmitter A1 (figure 83), and

disturbing receiver C, is only attenuated by antenna A1. This allows the
selection of an antenna type with the necessary discrimination. The
formulas 132) through 135) give the necessary antenna discrimination .
15.3.1 Nodal station disturbs outstation
Ref. figure 83: TxA1 --> RxC.
132) DA = LTeI + MFI − LIi + ∆G + ∆LTx
'$ ... antenna discrimination in dB

∆* ... difference in gain [dB] between the
two antennas at the nodal point
∆/7[ ... difference in output level [dBm]
of the wanted versus the disturbing signal
0), ... flat-fading margin in dB in the presence of:
/,L ... level of an individual interfering signal in dBm
/7H, ... receiver threshold level in dBm in the presence of
LI (the combined level of all interfering signals)
15.3.2 Outstation disturbs nodal point
Ref. figure 83: TxC --> RxA1.
133) DA = LTeI + MFI − LIi + ∆G + ∆LRx
∆/5[ ... difference in dB between the input levels for

the stations in the nodal point
15.3.3 Optimal conditions
Optimal conditions with respect to DA are achieved if
134) ∆G = ∆LRx = ∆LTx = 0
That is the same gain used for all antennas in the nodal point, and the
network is planned for identical transmitter output and receiver input levels
in this nodal point.
The formulas 132) and 133) above can then be written as:
135) DA = LTeI + MFI − LIi
No higher fading margin should be planned for than the performance

objectives require (to minimise antenna costs).
These considerations are not absolutely correct if the involved paths have
very different length (outage probability). The input level at the receiver
on the longer path should then be higher than the other input level. The
system should be designed for minimum outage probability for the paths
involved.
15.3.4 Attenuation between antennas on the same tower
Normally the coupling between two antennas feed horns is most critical.
To simplify the problem, only this coupling is calculated. If this distance
between the two feed horns is greater than twenty times the wavelength,
we can apply the normal formula for free-space attenuation:
136) $) = 32.45 + 20 ⋅ log( I ⋅ G ) )
$) ... attenuation in dB between antennas installed on the same tower.

I ... radio frequency in GHz.
G) ... distance between the two antennas inP, and G ) ≥ λ. (figure 82)
λ ... wavelength in m.
This formula applies for all normal antenna installations at frequencies

larger than 2 GHz. Notice that the attenuation in formula 136) is
independent of the antennas’ relative discrimination (back-to-back ratio,
etc.). The exact attenuation has to be determined by measurements on the
specific antenna type. If higher values are required, the size and type of
the dish, the type of the radiator and the relative attitude have to be
considered. The standard antenna diagrams are only valid in the antenna
far field, and is thus not applicable in near field situations on the same
tower.
Figure 82 Attenuation between Figure 83 Simplified RL network

antennas on the same tower. (triangular configuration).
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15.4.1 General formula
The calculation of the interference levels, LIi, is discussed in this chapter.

The formulas presented here are implemented in the Microsoft Excel
spreadsheet for efficient calculations. The spreadsheet set-up also includes
the threshold degradation calculations based upon the combined
interference level (ref. formula 131). These formulas are included in the
spread-sheet set-up.
The general formula for the calculation of interfering signal level for co-
polar operation is (the wanted and interfering signals have the same
polarization):
137) /,L /7[$7[*7['7[&S$IV$$*5[$5['5[&S

LTx A G Tx Afs GRx A Rx LIi

Tx AA
Tx Rx
D TxCp DRxCp
Disturbing station Disturbed station
Figure 84 Interference model (co-polar operation)
This formula is more easily understood if it is divided in logical sub-

formulas. The net output power from the interfering source towards the
receiver of interest equals:
/7[$7[*7['7[&S
The total attenuation of the unwanted signal at the receiver (except radio
filters) equals:
*5[$5['5[&S
The general formula for the calculation of interfering signal level for X-
polar operation is (the wanted and interfering signals have opposite
polarization):
/,L= 10log 10^((/7[$7[*7['7[;S$IV$$*5[$5['5[&S)/10)

138)
+ (10^((/7[$7[*7['7[&S$IV$$*5[$5['5[;S)/10)
LTx A G Tx Afs GRx A Rx LIiV

Tx AA
Tx Rx
Vertical
D TxCp component D RxXp
LTx A G Tx Afs GRx A Rx LIiH

Tx AA
Tx Rx
Horizontal
D TxXp component DRxCp

on vertical polarization on horizontal polarization
Figure 85 Interference model (cross-polar operation)

The disturbing station transmits the signal with opposite polarization to the
disturbed station. The suppression of the cross-polar component in the
transmitting antenna is not infinite. In the back-lobe direction most
antennas have approximately the same radiation level for both
polarizations; giving QR cross-polar discrimination in that particular
direction.
Consider the model in figure 85. The disturbing transmitter is transmitting

both a vertical and a (smaller) horizontal component. The receiving
antenna at the disturbed station will receive both polarizations, but the two
components will generally experience a different discrimination in the
receiving antenna. So, the received interference level at the disturbed
station is the sum of a vertical and a horizontal component. In most cases
one of the two components will dominate, depending on the relationship
between DTxXp and DRxXp for the particular angles for a given path.
Again, splitting up the formula gives the following sub-equations:
The net output power of the co-polar signal component (referred to the
receiver) from the disturbing station equals:
/7[$7[*7['7[;S
The attenuation of this co-polar signal in the receiver is given by:
*5[$5['5[&S
The net output power of the cross-polar signal component (referred to the
receiver) from the disturbing station equals:
/7[$7[*7['7[&S
The attenuation of this cross-polar signal in the receiver is given by:
*5[$5['5[;S
Adding the input level of the co-polar and the cross-polar interference
signal on a power basis gives the total interference level at the disturbed
receiver.
The symbols used in the formulas are explained on the following page.
/,L : level of single interference signal in dBm.

/7[ : output level of the disturbing transmitter in dBm.
$7[ : waveguide/branching attenuation in dB in the transmitting
station.
*7[ : maximum antenna gain for the transmitting antenna in dB
(disturbing station).
'7[&S : co-polar antenna discrimination in dB for the transmitting
station.
'7[;S : X-polar antenna discrimination in dB for the transmitting
station.
$IV : free space attenuation in dB.
$$ : additional attenuation in dB due to non-clearance of the
interference path, and/or RF attenuators for level adjustment.
*5[ : maximum antenna gain for the receiving antenna in dB
(disturbed station).
$5[ : waveguide/branching attenuation in dB in the receiving
station.
'5[&S : co-polar antenna discrimination in dB for the receiving station.
'5[;S : X-polar antenna discrimination in dB for the receiving station.
If more than one interfering signal is present, the total interference level,
/,, is obtained according to formula 131).
15.4.2 Formulas for triangular configuration
For triangular network configurations as in figure 80, the formulas 137)

and 138) can be combined and simplified. When the paths of the
interfering and wanted signals coincide, the following formulas can be
used.
15.4.2.1 Nodal station disturbs outstation
7[$!5[&LQILJXUH
139) /,L /5[$*∆*∆/7[
/5[ : input level of the wanted signal in dBm during fading free
time.
$* : antenna discrimination for the angle Θ in dB, for the antenna
in the nodal station, referred to the antenna maximum gain.
∆* : difference in gain in dB between the two antennas in the nodal

point.
+ for larger gain of the disturbing transmitter’s antenna.
- for smaller gain of the disturbing transmitter’s antenna.
∆/7[ : difference in dB between the output power levels of the two
transmitters (A1 and A2).
+ for larger output power of the disturbing transmitter (A1).
- for smaller output power level in A1.
Θ : angle between the wanted and the interfering signal.
15.4.2.2 Outstation disturbs nodal station
7[&!5[$LQILJXUH
140) /,L /5[$*∆*∆/5[
∆* : difference in gain in dB between the two antennas in the nodal

point.
+ for larger gain of the disturbed receiver’s antenna.
- for smaller gain of the disturbed receiver’s antenna.
∆/5[ : difference in dB between the input levels for the wanted signal
at the disturbed receiver (A1) and the receiver subordinated to
the disturbing transmitter (A2). The levels refer to fading free
time (nominal input levels).
+ for lower input level at the disturbed receiver (A1).
- for higher input level at A1.
The other parameters have their previous definitions.
15.4.2.3 Optimal conditions
If the network is planned for equal antennas, receiver and transmitter levels
at the nodal point, (∆* = 0,∆/7[ = 0,∆/5[ = 0 ) the above formulas 139) and
140) can be written as:
141) /,L /5['$
The interference level simply equals the input level of the wanted signal
minus the antenna discrimination. This implies that the antenna
discrimination (as a rule of thumb) should be larger than the sum of the
fading margin and the required S/I-ratio to avoid threshold degradation.
&DOFXODWLRQSURFHGXUH
The explanation of the calculation procedure is based on a "case study"

introduced in figure 86. This case will be used throughout this chapter.
Power station
Hill Headquarter
Downtown
Training centre
A-station
B-station Mt. High
Figure 86 Radio-relay network
15.5.1 Preconditions
To rationalise the work, the following aids are recommended:

Network diagram
Network diagram, drawn to scale and angle, including all radio-relay

circuits within the frequency band concerned, existing, planned and future
extensions. Mark out the RF channel numbers, polarizations and sub-band
labelling. (See figure 86.)
If the site locations are available in co-ordinate values, a program

calculating the distance and angles between stations could be of great help.
Network data
Network data, such as antenna types, antenna radiation patterns (figures 87

- 90), transmitter output power, receiver threshold levels, predicted
receiver input levels and waveguide attenuation.
RL equipment interference data
RL equipment interference data are normally given as diagrams:

Digital to digital interference diagrams.
Digital to analogue interference diagrams.

Analogue to digital interference diagrams.
(Analogue to analogue is not of interest in this document.)
Adjacent-channel attenuation as a function of the channel spacing.
The Excel spreadsheet set-up includes numerical calculations of these

parameters.
Antenna radiation patterns
Antenna radiation patterns for all types of antennas used in the network
should be available. For automatic interference calculations, the antenna
diagrams should be available in a data base, matching the interference
calculation program.
15.5.2 Interference calculations on digital network
The interference calculations are explained by examining the digital

network in figure 86. Let us assume that every possible interference path
contributes. The number of interfering paths is then:
142) N = 2.m.(m-1) = 2.m.n
Each receiver is disturbed by
143) n=m-1
interfering signals
m ... total number of RL paths.

N ... total number of interfering paths in the network.
n ... total number of interfering paths for one receiver.
For a total of 5 RL paths (figure 86) we get:
n=5-1=4 and N = 2.5.4 = 40
Equipment data
Nera digital radio link equipment will be used in these calculations.

Capacity: 140 Mb/s

Radio frequency: 6770 MHz
Transmitter power: 29 dBm
Branching loss: 1.2 dB (1+1 system)
Receiver threshold: -73 dBm (BER 10-3)
Receiver threshold: -69 dBm (BER 10-6)
Adjacent channel separation:

Common antenna: 80 MHz for parallel polarization
40 MHz for cross polarization
Antenna data can be found in figures 87 through 90.

5$ ',$7,213$ 77(5 1(19 (/23 ( 5 $',$7,213$7 7(5 1 ( 19(/23 (
ANTENNA TYPE: STANDARD PERFORMANCE ANTENNA TYPE: STANDARD PERFORMANCE

FREQUENCY : 6.425 - 7.125 GHz FREQUENCY : 6.425 - 7.125 GHz
DIAMETER : 2.0 m DIAMETER : 3.0 m
0 dB 0 dB
GAIN * : 39.7 dB ± 0.2 GAIN * : 43.8 dB ± 0.2
3 dB BEAMWIDTH: ±0.85 ° 3 dB BEAMWIDTH: ± 0.55°
VSWR ≤1.06 VSWR ≤1.06
-10 -10
* At center frequency * At center frequency
-20 -20 HOR. OR VER. POL

HORIZONTAL POL
VERTICAL POL
CROSS POL CROSS POL
-30 -30
-40 -40
-50 -50
-60 -60
-70 -70
-80 -80
0° 5° 10° 15° 30° 45° 60° 75° 90° 105120
° ° 135°150° 165180
° ° 0° 5° 10° 15° 30° 45° 60° 75° 90° 105120
° ° 135°150° 165180
° °
Figure 87 RPE 2.0m SP antenna Figure 88 RPE 3.0m SP antenna
15.5.2.1 Interference evaluations
In principle, it would be necessary to check each antenna discrimination in

the nodal stations for all disturbances. Initially, only the most critical
interference path (intelligent guess) has to be examined. The result of this
check gives an idea about the interference problems for the system in total.
Assuming that figure 86 is drawn in scale, the path Headquarters - Training
centre is most likely to be the critical path in this system.
5$ ',$7,213$ 77(5 1(19 (/23 ( 5 $',$7 ,213$7 7(5 1 ( 19(/23 (
ANTENNA TYPE: HIGH PERFORMANCE ANTENNA TYPE: HIGH PERFORMANCE

FREQUENCY : 6.425 - 7.125 GHz FREQUENCY : 6.425 - 7.125 GHz
DIAMETER : 2.0 m DIAMETER : 3.0 m
0 dB 0 dB
GAIN * : 39.8 dB ± 0.2 GAIN * : 43.0 dB ± 0.2
3 dB BEAMWIDTH: ±0.85 ° 3 dB BEAMWIDTH: ± 0.55°
VSWR ≤1.08 VSWR ≤1.08
-10 -10
* At center frequency * At center frequency
-20 HORIZONTAL POL -20 HOR. OR VER. POL

VERTICAL POL
CROSS POL CROSS POL
-30 -30
-40 -40
-50 -50
-60 -60
-70 -70
-80 -80
0° 5° 10° 15° 30° 45° 60° 75° 90° 105120
° ° 135°150° 165180
° ° 0° 5° 10° 15° 30° 45° 60° 75° 90° 105120
° ° 135°150° 165180
° °
Figure 89 RPE 2.0m HP antenna Figure 90 RPE 3.0m HP antenna
Figure 86 is redrawn in this section to include some more details.
Power station A-station
38 km B-station
1,3 V
1,3 V
Hill Headquarter degrees:
Angles:
15 km 1,3 V / 12 km
Power station - Headquarter - Hill: 117
Downtown
1,3 V Power station - Headquarter - Downtown: 140
42 km Power station - Headquarter -Training centre: 175
Training centre Hill - Headquarter - Downtown: 103
Hill - Headquarter - Training centre: 68
1,3 V Downtown - Headquarter - Training centre: 35
45 km
Headquarter - Training centre - Mt. High: 130
Mt. High
Figure 91 DRL-network with first frequency allocation.
The following evaluation starts with an unrealistic frequency plan. This is

done to show the reader the influence of the interference sources involved,
as well as the effect of the different countermeasures suggested during the
evaluation. It should therefore be noted that figure 91 does not show the
first frequency allocation presented by a trained system designer.
As a start, standard performance antennas are used, and no level

adjustments are made to reduce interference problems. This gives a "worst
case" evaluation. The interference calculations are performed using Excel
spreadsheet, including some extra steps in the print-out to give some
check-points for the reader.
Path Headquarters - Training centre
Training centre towards Head- quarter

Interference from Hill -> Head Down -> Head Power-> Head Train-> High
Item Unit C-pol X-pol C-pol X-pol C-pol X-pol C-pol X-pol
Frequency GHz 6.77 6.77 6.77 6.77 6.77 6.77 6.77 6.77
Distance km 15 15 12 12 38 38 42 42
Tx output power dBm 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 29
Antenna gain Tx dB 40.3 40.3 40.3 40.3 43.6 43.6 43.6 43.6
Losses Tx dB 2.3 2.3 2.5 2.5 3 3 3 3
Dir. discr. Tx (pol) dB 0 30 0 30 0 30 55 62
Net power out dBm 67 37 66.8 36.8 69.6 39.6 14.6 7.6
Space loss int. dB 132.5 132.5 130.6 130.6 140.6 140.6 141.5 141.5
Rx input level (nom) dBm -32.9 -32.9 -32.9 -32.9 -32.9 -32.9 -32.9 -32.9
Antenna gain Rx dB 43.6 43.6 43.6 43.6 43.6 43.6 43.6 43.6
Losses Rx dB 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.1
Dir. discr. Rx (pol) dB 46 53 46 53 55 62 0 30
Interference level dBm -71.0 -78.0 -69.3 -76.3 -85.5 -92.5 -86.4 -93.4
S/I (no fading) dB 38.1 45.1 36.4 43.4 52.6 59.6 53.5 60.5
Threshold 1E-3 dBm -73 -73 -73 -73 -73 -73 -73 -73
Threshold 1E-6 dBm -69 -69 -69 -69 -69 -69 -69 -69
S/I BER 1E-3 dB -2.0 5.0 -3.7 3.3 12.5 19.5 13.4 20.4
S/I BER 1E-6 dB 2.0 9.0 0.3 7.3 16.5 23.5 17.4 24.4
Headquarters towards Training centre

Interference from Head -> Hill Head -> Down Head -> Power High -> Train
Item Unit C-pol X-pol C-pol X-pol C-pol X-pol C-pol X-pol
Frequency GHz 6.77 6.77 6.77 6.77 6.77 6.77 6.77 6.77
Distance km 42 42 42 42 42 42 45 45
Tx output power dBm 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 29
Antenna gain Tx dB 40.3 40.3 40.3 40.3 43.6 43.6 43.6 43.6
Losses Tx dB 2.5 2.5 3 3 3.8 3.8 2.1 2.1
Dir. discr. Tx (pol) dB 53 55 45 45 55 62 0 30
Net power out dBm 13.8 11.8 21.3 21.3 13.8 6.8 70.5 40.5
Space loss int. dB 141.5 141.5 141.5 141.5 141.5 141.5 142.1 142.1
Rx input level (nom) dBm -32.9 -32.9 -32.9 -32.9 -32.9 -32.9 -32.9 -32.9
Antenna gain Rx dB 43.6 43.6 43.6 43.6 43.6 43.6 43.6 43.6
Losses Rx dB 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3
Dir. discr. Rx (pol) dB 0 30 0 30 0 30 54 62
Interference level dBm -87.4 -89.4 -79.9 -79.9 -87.4 -94.4 -85.3 -93.2
S/I (no fading) dB 54.5 56.5 47.0 47.0 54.5 61.5 52.4 60.3
Threshold 1E-3 dBm -73 -73 -73 -73 -73 -73 -73 -73
Threshold 1E-6 dBm -69 -69 -69 -69 -69 -69 -69 -69
S/I BER 1E-3 dB 14.4 16.4 6.9 6.9 14.4 21.4 12.3 20.2
S/I BER 1E-6 dB 18.4 20.4 10.9 10.9 18.4 25.4 16.3 24.2
The path Training centre towards Headquarters will be used to explain the
set-up. The most critical interference comes from the disturbing path
Downtown towards Headquarters. The interference level is calculated both
for co-polar and cross-polar operation to introduce the procedures.
Co-polar operation
LTx A G Tx Afs GRx A Rx LIi

Tx AA
Tx Rx
D TxCp DRxCp
LTx 29.0 dBm GRx 43.6 dB

ATx 2.5 dB DRxCp 46.0 dB
GTx 40.3 dB ARx 3.1 dB
DTxCp 0.0 dB
Figure 92 Calculation example (co-polar operation)
The distance from Downtown to Headquarters is 12 km giving a free space

loss Afs = 130. 6 dB at 6.77 GHz. The values given in figure 92 give an
interference level LIi = −69. 3 dBm for co-polar operation:
LIi = LTx − ATx + GTx − DTxCp − Afs + GRx − DRxCp − ARx = −69. 3 dBm
Cross-polar operation
LTx A G Tx Afs GRx A Rx LIiV

Tx AA
Tx Rx
Vertical
D TxCp component D RxXp
LTx A G Tx Afs GRx A Rx LIiH

Tx AA
Tx Rx
Horizontal
D TxXp component DRxCp

on vertical polarization on horizontal polarization
LTx 29.0 dBm GRx 43.6 dB

ATx 2.5 dB DRxCp 46.0 dB
GTx 40.3 dB DRxXp 53.0 dB
DTxCp 0.0 dB ARx 3.1 dB
DTxXp 30.0 dB
Figure 93 Calculation example (cross-polar operation)
Let us assume that the path Training Centre towards Headquarters operates
on vertical polarization and Downtown - Headquarters on horizontal.
Vertical component
The disturbing station (Downtown) is transmitting on horizontal

polarization, so the vertical component is the cross-polar component at this
station. Consequently the antenna discrimination at the transmitter equals
DTxXp . Similarly, vertical polarization is the co-polar component at the
receiver, so the antenna discrimination equals DRxCp . The vertical
component of the interfering signal is found by:
LIiV = LTx − ATx + GTx − DTxXp − Afs + GRx − DRxCp − ARx = −99. 3 dBm
Horizontal component
The horizontal component is the co-polar component at the transmitting

station Downtown. Consequently the antenna discrimination at the
transmitter equals DTxCp . Horizontal polarization is the cross-polar
component at the receiver, so the antenna discrimination equals DRxXp .
The horizontal component of the interfering signal is found by:
LIiH = LTx − ATx + GTx − DTxCp − Afs + GRx − DRxXp − ARx = −76. 3 dBm
The horizontal component is the dominating part of the interfering signal,

so the total interference level LIi = −76. 3 dBm for cross-polar operation.
Figure 81 shows that the combined interference level should be less than
approximately -105 dBm to avoid any threshold degradation (< 1 dB
degradation). The interference calculations show that the interference level
is much higher, even with opposite polarizations on the different paths. It
is also evident that it is almost impossible to achieve the required S/I ratio
only by use of better antennas. Use of HP antennas would give typically
10 dB improvement in antenna discrimination. Use of SHXP antennas
gives almost the necessary discrimination, but at a rather high cost.
This preliminary interference study shows that it is necessary to use other

RF-channels on some of the paths from the nodal station Headquarters. It
is also preferable to use different polarizations on some of the critical
paths.
The system is supposed to be expandable (up to 3+1) in the future. This

restricts the use of radio channels, and it is desirable to use the same
frequencies as far as possible.
Countermeasures
The interference problems may be reduced by decreasing the output power

on the short paths from Headquarters towards Hill and Downtown. It is
desirable to have approximately the same input level on all receivers in a
nodal point. Inserting a 6 dB attenuator at the transmitter on these two
shorter paths would almost balance the input levels at the nodal point.
Using high performance antennas at all radios in Headquarter, allows us to

use the same frequency on the main route (high front-to-back ratio), and
also the same frequency on the two shorter hops. Keeping the SP-antennas
at Training centre, forces us to change RF-channels on the path Training
centre - Mt. High. To reduce possible interference problems with the paths
Hill - Headquarters - Downtown, the polarization is unchanged (vertical).
Figure 94 shows the network with the new frequency allocations.
Power station
1,3 H
2,4 H
Hill Headquarter
2,4 H
Downtown
1,3 V
Training centre
2,4 V
A-station
B-station Mt. High
Figure 94 DRL-network with second frequency allocation.
The resulting interference calculations show reduced interference levels on

all of the critical paths. The receiver threshold levels are summarised in
table 15. The threshold degradation is limited to ∼1 dB.
3DWK 2XWSXW 7KUHVKROG(

Power station - Headquarters 29.0 dBm -72.3 dBm
Hill - Headquarters 19.0 dBm -71.9 dBm
Downtown - Headquarters 19.0 dBm -71.9 dBm
Headquarters - Training centre 29.0 dBm -72.3 dBm
Training centre - Mt. High 29.0 dBm -73.0 dBm
Table 15 Threshold levels with reduced interference levels.

15.5.2.2 Summary of interference calculations
Having performed the interference calculations after suggesting the

necessary countermeasures, it is time to summarise the resulting system.
Countermeasures
The interference calculations verified the need for high performance

antennas at Headquarter. It was also necessary to use another pair of radio
channels on the two shorter paths (Hill - Headquarters - Downtown). A 10
dB reduction of the output power level at these shorter paths was also
suggested.
7KHIUHTXHQF\SODQ
The frequency allocation is indicated in figure 94 as support for the

interference calculations. The frequency plan is normally presented in
another form as shown in figure 95.
1,3H 1,3V 2,4V
Power Training
Mt. High
station 1’,3’ 1’,3’ centre 2’,4’
Head-
quarter
2,4H 2,4H
Hill Downtown
&&,5UHF )5(48(1&<3/$1 $%%1HUD

6430 - 7110 MHz
Frequency plan case study
Channel sep. 40 MHz
Duplex sep. 340 MHz

Nrsp/InHe A 93.12.18 CASE-U6G.DRW
Figure 95 Frequency plan for case study.

16. Reliability 163
&KDSWHU
5HOLDELOLW\

The total unavailability of a radio path is the sum of the probability of

hardware failure and unavailability due to rain. This chapter will cover
unavailability due to hardware failures. It should be noted that the
unavailability for the equipment has to be considered for both the JRand
the UHWXUQ direction, that is twice the calculated value. The probability that
electronic equipment fails in service is not constant with time. Figure 96
shows that initial failures results in a higher probability of failures during
the burn-in period. Similarly, wear-out failures give higher probability
during the wear-out period. We will concentrate on the useful lifetime
where random failures give a constant probability.
Probability Initial fa
il u
of
re s
failure
s
re
lu
ai
tf
ou
r-
Random failures W ea
Burn-in Useful lifetime Wear-out time

period period
Figure 96 Failure probability

164 16. Reliability
(TXLSPHQWIDLOXUHUDWH
After the burn-in period, the equipment failure rate is assumed to be

constant until the wear-out period starts, and the equipment reliability can
be predicted using analytical methods.
If the failure rate is λ the probability of P failures when testing Q

equipment modules in a unit time is given by the binominal distribution:
Q!
λP (1 − λ )
Q−P
SP =
P!(Q − P )!
144)
The mean value of this distribution is
n
145) ∑ pm ⋅ m = n ⋅ λ
m=0
The average number of surviving equipment modules after one unit time is
thus
146) Navg = n − n ⋅ λ
The variation of number of surviving equipment modules with time is

given by
dn
147) n+ = n − n⋅λ
dt
Solving this equation, it is possible to find how the number of surviving

equipment modules varies with time on average.
dn
= − n ⋅ λ; n = n0 ⋅ e − λ t
148) dt
n0 = inital number of equipment modules
A constant failure rate gives an exponential decrease of surviving

equipment modules.
16. Reliability 165
07%)RIPRGXOHV
If the failure rate per unit time equals λthe average time between failures
is given by
1
149) λ ⋅ ∆t = 1 ⇒ ∆t =
λ
∆t is called 07%) (Mean Time Between Failures). 07%) is more

convenient to use than λwhen calculating unavailability.
&DOFXODWLRQRIXQDYDLODELOLW\
16.3.1 Unavailability of one equipment module
The unavailability of one

equipment module is given 1
by
MTTR
150) N1 =
MTBF + MTTR
where 0775 (Mean Time To Repair) is the expected time before the
failure has been repaired. For telecommunication equipment
MTBF >> MTTR and equation 150) may be approximated by
MTTR
N1 ≈ .
MTBF
Example:
Transmitter group 140 Mb/s - 64 QAM
MTBF = 125000 hours MTTR = 10 hours
10 10
N1 = ≈ = 8 ⋅ 10 −5
125000 + 10 125 000
166 16. Reliability
16.3.2 Unavailability of cascaded modules
The system in figure 97 will be available only if all the modules are
available simultaneously.
1 1 1 1Q
Figure 97 Cascaded modules
The availability of the total system will be
$ = ∏ $ = ∏ (1 − 1 )
Q Q
151) V L L
L =1 L =1
The corresponding unavailability is given by
 
1 = 1 − $ = 1 − ∏ (1 − 1 ) ≈ 1 − 1 − ∑ 1  = ∑ 1
Q Q Q
152) V V L L L
=1 L =1  =1 L L
So, when the unavailability is much smaller than the availability, the
unavailability of a system of cascaded modules is the sum of the
unavailabilities of its individual modules.
16.3.3 Unavailability of parallel modules 1
To improve the system availability, modules may be

connected in parallel. The system will then be 1
unavailable only if all the modules are unavailable
simultaneously.
1
The unavailability is given by
n
153) Ns = ∏ Ni
1Q
i =1
Figure 98 Parallel
modules
16. Reliability 167
16.3.4 Unavailability of a n+1 redundant system
In telecommunication equipment a n+1 redundant system is often used

both to improve system performance due to atmospherical disturbances
and to reduce system unavailability. A protected channel is unavailable if
two of the unprotected channels are unavailable. It is assumed that the
probability for more than two channels to be unavailable is negligible.
If the unavailability of the unprotected channels all equals 1 the

unavailability of one protected channel is given by
1
1 Q +1 = 
(Q + 1)!  1 2 (1 − 1 )(Q +1)− 2
Q  2!((Q + 1) − 2)! 
154)
For telecommunication equipment the unavailability is much smaller than

the availability, and equation 154) may be approximated by
n +1 2
Nn+1 ≈ N .
2
Example:
1/4$00EV
Modulator XMTR RCVR Demod
Relay
Cable
unit
equalizer
XMTR RCVR
Modulator XMTR RCVR Demod
switch Distr.
Figure 99 Simplified block diagram
The block diagram above shows a one-way radio hop in a 1+1 system
configuration. The MTBF values for the modules in the system are given
in table 16.
168 16. Reliability
Module MTBF Failure rate

Cable equalizer 830 000 hours 1. 2 ⋅ 10 −6
Modulator 375 000 hours 2. 7 ⋅ 10 −6
Transmitter 290 000 hours 3. 5 ⋅ 10 −6
Receiver 200 000 hours 5. 0 ⋅ 10 −6
Demodulator 315 000 hours 3. 2 ⋅ 10 −6
Relay unit 3 300 000 hours 0. 3 ⋅ 10 −6
Transmitter switch 555 000 hours 1. 8 ⋅ 10 −6
Receiver distribution unit 830 000 hours 1. 2 ⋅ 10 −6
Table 16 MTBF values
The failure rates for the two redundant paths are
λ U1 = (2.7 + 3.5 + 5.0 + 3.2 )⋅ 10−6 = 14.4 ⋅ 10−6
λ U 2 = (1.8 + 2.7 + 3.5 + 5.0 + 3.2 + 1.2 )⋅ 10−6 = 17.4 ⋅ 10−6
The failure rate for common units:
λ F = (1.2 + 0.3)⋅ 10 −6 = 1.5 ⋅ 10 −6
Mean time to repair: MTTR = 3 hours for all units.
The corresponding unavailabilities will then be:
Nr1 ≈ MTTR ⋅ λ r1 = 4. 32 ⋅ 10 −5 Nr 2 ≈ MTTR ⋅ λ r 2 = 5. 22 ⋅ 10 −5
Nc ≈ MTTR ⋅ λ c = 4. 5 ⋅ 10 −6
The equipment unavailability is thus
1 H = 1 F + (1 U1 ⋅ 1 U 2 ) = 4.50226 ⋅ 10−6
Comparing the values of Ne with Nc clearly indicated that the unprotected

modules in the system dominate the equipment unavailability.
16. Reliability 169
The path unavailability and availability are
N p = 2 ⋅ Ne = 9 ⋅ 10 −6 (or 4½ minute/year)
Ap = 1 − N p = 0. 999991(or 99.9991%)
170 References
5HIHUHQFHV
[1] CCITT Rec. G.801. Digital Transmission models. CCITT Volume

III - Fascicle III.5, Geneva 1989.
[2] CCITT Rec. G.821. Error Performance of an International Digital

connection forming part of an Integrated Services Digital Network.
CCITT Volume III - Fascicle III.5, Geneva 1989.
[3] ITU-T Rec. G.826, "Error Performance Parameters and Objectives

for International, Constant Bit Rate Digital Paths at or above the
Primary Rate", 08/96.
[4] ITU-T Rec. G.827, "Availability Parameters and Objectives for

International, Constant Bit Rate Digital Paths at or above the Primary
Rate", 08/96.
[5] ITU-R Rec. F.557-4. Availability objective for radio-relay systems

over a hypothetical reference circuit and a hypothetical reference
digital path, Geneva 1997.
[6] ITU-R Rec. 594-4. Error performance objectives of the

hypothetical reference digital path for radio-relay systems
providing connections at a bit rate below the primary rate and
forming part or all of the high grade portion of an integrated
services digital network, Geneva 1997.
[7] CCITT Rec. I.411. ISDN User-Network Interfaces - Reference

Configurations. CCITT Volume III - Fascicle III.8, Geneva 1989.
[8] ITU-R Rec. F.696-2. Error performance and availability objectives

for hypothetical reference digital sections forming part or all of
the medium-grade portion of an integrated services digital
network connection at a bit rate below the primary rate utilizing
digital radio-relay systems, Geneva 1997.
References 171
[9] ITU-R Report 1052-1. Error Performance and Availability

Objectives for Digital Radio-Relay Systems used in the Medium
Grade Portion of an ISDN Connection. Reports of the ITU-R, Annex
to Volume IX-Part 1, Geneva 1990.
[10] ITU-R Rec. 697-2. Error performance and availability objectives

for the local-grade portion at each end of an integrated services
digital network connection at a bit rate below the primary rate
utilizing digital radio-relay systems, Geneva 1997.
[11] ITU-R Report 1053-1. Error Performance and Availability

Objectives for Digital Radio-Relay Systems used in the Local-Grade
Portion of an ISDN Connection. Reports of the ITU-R, Annex to
Volume IX-Part 1, Geneva 1990.
[12] S. H. Lin, T. C. Lee, M. F. Gardina: "Diversity Protections for

Digital Radio - Summary of Ten-Year Experiments and Studies".
IEEE Communications Magazine, February 1988 - Vol. 26, No.2.
[13] W. D. Rummler: "A Statistical Model of Multipath Fading on a

Space Diversity Radio Channel".
[14] W.D. Rummler, "A new selective fading model: Application to

propagation data". The Bell System Technical Journal, vol. 58, No. 5,
May-June 1979, pp. 1037-1071.
[15] W. D. Rummler: "A Rationalized Model for Space and Frequency

Diversity Line-of-Sight Radio Channels". Bell Laboratories,
Holmdel, New Jersey 07733 (IEEE 1983).
[16] "Prediction of Transmission Quality on Digital L.O.S. Radio

Relays", ABB Nera, September 9. 1992.
[17] E. Damosso, R. Failli: "Space and frequency diversity in digital

radio: experimental results", CSELT Technical reports - Vol. XIII -
No. 2 - April 1985.
[18] Propagation data and prediction methods required for terrestrial line-
of-sight systems. Report 338-6. Reports of the ITU-R., 1990.
Annex to volume V. Propagation in non-ionised media. Geneva
ISBN 92-61-04211-2.
172 References
[19] Attenuation by atmospheric gases. ITU-R recommendation P.676-3,

Geneva 1997.
[20] Water vapour: surface density and total columnar content. ITU-R
recommendation P.836-1, Geneva 1997.
[21] Characteristics of precipitation for propagation modelling, P.837-1,

Geneva 1994.
[22] R. W. Hubbard: "Angle Diversity Reception for L.O.S. Digital

Microwave Radio", U.S. Department of Commerce, National
Telecommunications and Information Administration, Institute for
Telecommunication Sciences, Boulder, CO 90303.
[23] Lin, Ginger, Alley: "Angle Diversity on Line-of-Sight Microwave

Paths Using Dual-Beam Dish Antennas", AT&T Bell Laboratories,
Andover, MA, ICC ’87.
[24] ITU-R Rec. F.634-4: Error performance objectives for real digital
radio-relay links forming part of the high-grade portion of
international digital connections at a bit rate below the primary
rate within an integrated services digital network. Geneva 1997.
[25] ITU-R recommendation F.1092-1. Error performance objectives for

constant bit rate digital path at or above the primary rate carried by
digital radio-relay systems which may form part or all of the
international portion of a 27 500 km hypothetical reference path.
Geneva 1997.
[26] ITU-R recommendation F.1189-1. Error performance objectives for

constant bit rate digital path at or above the primary rate carried by
digital radio-relay systems which may form part or all of the national
portion of a 27 500 km hypothetical reference path. Geneva 1997.
[27] Availability objectives for real digital radio-relay links forming part
of a high-grade circuit within an integrated services digital network.
Recommendation 695. Recommendations of the ITU-R. 1990,
Volume IX - part 1. Fixed service using radio-relay systems.
Geneva ISBN 92-61-04251-1.
References 173
[28] Radio meteorological data. Report 563-4. Reports of the ITU-R.,

1990. Annex to volume V. Propagation in non-ionised media.
Geneva ISBN 92-61-04211-2.
[29] Effects of propagation on the design and operation of line-of-sight

radio-relay systems. Report 784-3. Reports of the ITU-R., 1990.
Annex to volume IX - part 1. Fixed service using radio-relay
systems. Geneva ISBN 92-61-04251-1.
[30] Attenuation by hydrometeors, in particular precipitation, and other

atmospheric particles. Report 721-3. Reports of the ITU-R., 1990.
Annex to volume V. Propagation in non-ionised media. Geneva
ISBN 92-61-04211-2.
[31] Propagation data and prediction methods required for the design of
terrestrial line-of-sight systems. ITU-R Recommendation P.530-7,
Geneva 1997.
[32] Characteristics of precipitation for propagation modelling. ITU-R

Recommendation P.837-1, Geneva 1994.
[33] Heinz Karl: “The frequency planning of radio-relay networks"

Radiolänk - projektering - workshop 1988-04-24
[34] Heinz Karl: “The planning and engineering of radio-relay networks"

Radiolänk - projektering - workshop 1988-09-13
[35] Radio Regulations, ITU, Geneva 1990, ISBN 92-61-04141-8.
[36] ITU-R, XVIIth PLENARY ASSEMBLY, Düsseldorf 1990, Vol. IX.
[37] ITU-R, XVIIth PLENARY ASSEMBLY, Düsseldorf 1990, Vol. V.
[38] Martin P. M. Hall: "Effects of the troposphere on radio

communication", IEE Electromagnetic waves series 8. London ISBN
0 86341 086 3.
[39] Roger G. Barry, Richard J. Chorley "Atmosphere, Weather &

Climate" 6. edition. Routledge, ISBN 0-415-07761-3.
[40] Henri Sauvageot "Radar Meteorology", Artech House, Boston,

London ISBN 0-89006-318-4.
174 References
[41] Dennis Roddy and John Coolen: "Electronic communications",

Prentice-Hall International Editions, USA 1984,
ISBN 0-13-250440-5.
[42] A.A.R. Townsend: "Digital line-of-sight radio links", Prentice Hall,

Great Britain 1988, ISBN 0-13-212622-2.
[43] "REG 024 Measurement programme", ABB Nera 1993.
[44] "Propagation Measurements Ilfracombe - St. Hilary", ABB Nera

1994.
[45] "XPD Measurements Chasseral - Geneva, 96.02.08 - 98.03.31, Final

report", Nera 1998.
[46] David K. Cheng: "Field and Wave Electromagnetics", Addison-

Wesley Publishing Company 2. edition 1989, ISBN 0-201-52820-7.
[47] Adolf J. Giger: "Low-Angle Microwave Propagation: Physics and

Modelling", Artech House 1991, ISBN 0-89006-584-5
[48] ITU-R Rec. 384-5. Radio-frequency channel arrangements for

medium and high capacity analogue or high capacity digital radio-
relay systems operating in the upper 6 GHz band. Recommendations
of the ITU-R, Volume IX-Part 1, Geneva 1990,
ISBN 92-61-04251-1.
[49] ITU-R Rec. 746. Radio-frequency channel arrangements and

spectrum utilization. 1992 - Recommendations of the ITU-R, New
and revised as of 8 March 1992, Geneva 1992, ISBN 92-61-04531-6.
[50] ITU-R Rec. 452-5. Prediction procedure for the evaluation of

microwave interference between stations on the surface of the earth
at frequencies above about 0.7 GHz. 1992 - Recommendations of the
ITU-R, New and revised as of 8 March 1992, Geneva 1992, ISBN
92-61-04531-6.
[51] ITU-R Rec. F.1397. Error performance objectives for real digital
radio links used in the international portion of a 27 500 km
hypothetical reference path at or above the primary rate, Geneva
1999.
Appendix A 175
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Figure A1 Percentage of time gradient ≤ −100 ( N / km) : February
Figure A2 Percentage of time gradient ≤ −100 ( N / km) : May

176 Appendix A
Figure A3 Percentage of time gradient ≤ −100 ( N / km) : August
Figure A2 Percentage of time gradient ≤ −100 ( N / km) : November

Appendix B 177
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Figure B1 Rain zone contours (Americas)

178 Appendix B
Figure B2 Rain zone contours (Europe and Africa)

Appendix B 179
Figure B3 Rain zone contours (Far East)

180 Appendix C
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Figure C1 Rainfall contours for 0.01% of the time (Americas)

Appendix C 181
Figure C2 Rainfall contours for 0.01% of the time (Europe and Africa)
182 Appendix C
Figure C3 Rainfall contours for 0.01% of the time (Far East)

Appendix D 183
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Figure D1 Average annual values of ∆N
Figure D2 Maximum monthly mean values of ∆N

(for worst month prediction)
184 Appendix D
Figure D3 Average annual values of β0
Figure D4 Maximum monthly mean values of β0

(for worst month prediction)
Appendix E 185
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D - climatic factor
D km radius of earth
$ % Availability
$ m2 Aperture area
$ dB Attenuation
$IV dB free space loss
$7'( - Adaptive Time Domain Equaliser
α degrees angle
E - terrain factor
% dB notch/signature depth
%%( - Background Block Error
%%(5 % Background Block Error Ratio
%(5 - Bit Error Ratio
F m/s speed of light in vacuum
& dB geographic coefficient
&, dB Carrier-to-Interference ratio
&3$ dB Co-Polarised Attenuation
&5 dB receiver constant
G km path length
' m diameter
'HP - Demodulator
'0 - Degraded Minute
'6 MHz Duplex Separation
δ separation
H - base of natural logarithm (e=2.7182818)
H hPa water vapour pressure
( V/m Electrical field strength
(% - Errored Block
(,53 dBW Effective Isotropic Radiated Power
(S mrad path inclination
(6 - Errored Second
I GHz radio frequency
) dB Fade margin
) dB noise figure
)% dB front-to-back ratio
186 Appendix E
) m first Fresnel zone

)'0 - Frequency Division Multiplex
)0 - Frequency Modulation
* dB antenna gain
*36 - Global Positioning System
Γ MHz radio channel spacing
γ dB/km specific attenuation
K m altitude
+ % relative humidity
+ - Horizontal polarization
+5'/ - Hypothetical Reference Digital Link
+5'3 - Hypothetical Reference Digital Path
+5'6 - Hypothetical Reference Digital Section
+5; - Hypothetical Reference Connection
η aperture efficiency
η - fading activity factor
, - Improvement factor
,* - International Gateway
,6'1 - Integrated Services Digital Network
,78 - International Telecommunications Union
N - k-value for ray bending
. - geoclimatic factor
N J/K Boltzmann’s constant
/ dBm signal level
/2 - Local Oscillator
/26 - Line of Sight
λ - failure rate
λ m wavelength
0 - modified radio refractivity
0RG - Modulator
07%) - Mean Time Between Failures
0775 - Mean Time To Repair
Q - index of refraction
1 - radio refractivity
1 % Unavailability
1)' dB Net Filter Discrimination
ν m pitch distance
S hPa air pressure
3 W/dBm power
S W/m2 power density
3 % probability
3 % fading occurrence factor
Appendix E 187
3'+ - Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy

3(3 - Path End Point
3/ % percentage of time gradient ≤-100 (N/km)
π - pi = 3.141593
θ degrees angle
U m radius
5 mm/h rain rate/intensity
5%(5 - Residual Bit Error Ratio
5[ - Receiver
ρ g/cm3 water content
6 m standard deviation of terrain elevations
6 m vertical antenna separation
6, dB Signal-to-Interference ratio
6'+ - Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
6(6 - Severely Errored Second
6(65 % Severely Errored Second Ratio
VI /MHz signature factor
670 - Synchronous Transfer Mode
6:5 - Standing Wave Ratio
7 Kelvin absolute temperature
W Celsius temperature
7'0 - Time Division Multiplex
7[ - Transmitter
τ ns time delay
Y m/s velocity
9 - Vertical polarization
9& - Virtual Container
93 - Virtual Path
96:5 - Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
: MHz Bandwidth
:$5& - World Administrative Radio Conference
;3' dB Cross Polar Discrimination
;3, dB Cross Polar Interference
;3,& - Cross Polar Interference Canceller
;3,) dB Cross Polarization Improvement Factor
ψ degrees angle
188 Index
,QGH[
A/B-station, 140 back-to-back antennas, 52

absorption, 58, 61 BBE
adjacent channel interference, 114 Background Block Error, 40
adjacent channel separation, 132 BBER
adjacent channels, 128 Background Block Error Ratio,
air pressure, 6 40
angle diversity, 93 beam width, 48
improvement factor, 94 BER
antenna, 44 bit-error-ratio, 110
backlobe, 46 binominal distribution, 164
back-to-back, 52 Boltzmann’s constant, 109
beamwidth, 48
data, 155 channel
diameter, 45 filter, 114
far-field, 46 number, 128
front-to-back ratio, 46 spacing, 128
gain, 45 classification, 35
near-field, 46 circuit classification, 35
radiation pattern envelope, 47 clearance, 16
selection, 146 climate, 17
separation, 20, 23 climatic factor, 70
sidelobe, 46 climatic regions, 71
vertical separation, 86 coastal links, 74
antennas on the same tower, 147 co-channel
aperture operation, 100
area, 45 co-channel interference, 113
efficiency, 45 combined diversity, 96
area combined interference level, 143
co-ordination, 116 convection, 11
atmosphere, 5 co-ordination
atmospheric attenuation, 54 area, 116
attenuation, 58 distance, 116
due to absorption, 58 co-polar operation, 158
due to atmospheric gases, 54 cross polar
due to rain, 65 coupling, 142
due to scatter, 58 discrimination, 99
availability, 2, 166 interference, 100
objectives, 34 interference canceller, 100
backlobe, 46 cross-polar operation, 159
Index 189
cross-polarization, 47 failure rate, 164

Cross-polarization, 142 error performance, 30
deflection angle, 48 ES, 34
Errored Second, 32, 40
degraded receiver threshold, 144 ESR
degraded threshold level, 113 Errored Second Ratio, 40
depolarisation, 102 European prediction model, 120
depression, 59
diffraction, 16, 118 F.1092, 42
loss, 16 F.1189, 43
diversity, 83 fading
angle, 93 due to precipitation, 68
combined, 96 event, 68
frequency, 90 flat, 70
hybrid, 92 margin, 68
improvement, 84 multipath, 68
path, 97 occurrence factor, 70, 72
protection, 83 selective, 78
space, 85 failure rate, 164
DM, 34 far-field, 46, 51
Degraded minutes, 32 field survey, 24
duct, 9 flat fading, 70
elevated, 11 flicker noise, 110
ground based, 9 free space
probability, 11 formula, 54
ducting, 8 loss, 53
interference, 123 frequency
duplex separation, 128 allocation, 133
band, 134
earth determination, 135
effective radius factor, 121 diversity, 90
earth bulge, 18 improvement factor, 90
EB plan, 162
Errored Block, 40 plans, 126
effective path length, 63 selective fading, 78
EIRP Fresnel zone, 17
Effective isotropic radiated front-to-back ratio, 46
power, 48
elevated duct, 11
ellipse, 20 G.821, 30
tangent, 20 G.826, 39
equipment G.827, 39
data, 154 gain, 45
190 Index
gain of plane reflector, 50 international portion, 42

geoclimatic factor, 72 ISDN
global model, 120 Integrated Services Digital
ground reflections, 19 Network, 31
ITU objectives, 30
hail, 58
high grade circuits, 35 keyhole, 116
horizontal component, 160 k-value, 7, 18
hot standby, 92
HRDL large water, 74
Hypothetical Reference Digital layer, 9
Link, 31 light, 5
HRDP speed of light, 5
Hypothetical Reference Digital line of sight, 15
Path, 32 line-of-sight, 25, 118
HRDS enhanced, 119
Hypothetical Reference Digital local grade circuits, 38
Section, 32
HRX mechanical stability, 48
Hypothetical Reference medium grade circuits, 37
Connection, 31 medium water, 75
Hybrid diversity, 92 meshed networks, 139
hydrometer scatter, 119 meteorological conditions, 69
MTBF
ice, 58 Mean Time Between Failures,
improvement factor, 84 165
frequency diversity, 90 MTTR
space diversity, 86 Mean Time To Repair, 165
index of refraction, 4, 5 multipath, 8
Inland links, 72 fading, 68
integration time, 63 propagation, 8
interference, 99, 109 transmission, 8
curve, 113, 115
level, 113, 117 national portion, 43
long term, 118 near-field, 46
model, 149 network
short-term, 119 data, 153
signal, 148 diagram, 153
interfering networks
stations, 118 meshed, 139
interfering signals, 112 noise, 109
inter-modulation products, 126 factor, 110
international frequency plans, 126 flicker noise, 110
Index 191
partition noise, 110 rate, 62, 63

power, 109 scattering, 61
shot noise, 110 specific attenuation, 64
spectrum, 109 zones, 64, 178
thermal, 109 rainfall, 62
ray, 5
objectives, 30 bending, 5, 6
optics, 4 RBER
outage, 68 Residual bit error ratio, 32
Over-shoot, 142 receiver
oxygen absorption, 55 threshold degradation, 115
threshold level, 110
parabolic antenna, 44 recommended frequency plans,
partition noise, 110 132
passive repeater, 49 reflection, 119
path coefficient, 18
classification, 26 point, 20
path classification, 74 refraction, 4, 5, 119
path inclination, 72 index of refraction, 4, 5
performance objectives, 33, 41 refractivity, 5
pitch distance, 23 reliability, 118
plane reflector, 50 RF-coupling, 141
PL-factor, 73 RPE
polarisation, 100 radiation pattern envelope, 47
polarization, 133
precipitation, 58 scatter, 119
convectional, 59 scattering, 61
cyclonic, 59 selective fading, 78
orographic, 58 SES, 33
profile, 14 Severely Errored Second, 32,
propagation, 3 40
SESR
radiated energy, 53 Severely Errored Second Ratio,
radio channels, 128 40
radius of earth, 7 shot noise, 110
rain, 58 sidelobe, 46
absorption, 61 signal to interference ratio, 117
attenuation, 61 signal-to-interference ratio, 111
cell, 63 signal-to-noise ratio, 110
drop, 61 signature
drop shape, 63 bandwidth, 79
drop size, 62 curve, 78
intensity, 62, 64, 181 factor, 79
192 Index
sleet, 58 voltage-standing-wave-ratio, 46
Snell
Snell’s law, 4 water vapour, 55
snow, 58 water vapour pressure, 6
space diversity, 85 wave, 3
improvement factor, 86 propagation, 3
specific attenuation, 55, 64
speed of light, 5 XPD
spreadsheet set-up, 157 Cross Polar Discrimination, 99
sub-path XPI
diffraction, 123 Cross Polar Interference, 100
survey, 24 XPIC
equipment, 28 Cross Polar Interference
report, 29 Canceller, 100
switching sections, 92 XPIF
system planning, 1 Cross Polar Improvement
Factor, 104
temperature, 6
temperature inversion, 10
terminal velocity, 62
terrain
profiles, 14
roughness, 71
type, 74
thermal noise, 109
three ray model, 81
threshold degradation, 112, 113,
144
threshold level, 111
transfer function, 77
transhorizon, 122
troposcatter, 118
unavailability, 2, 165
cascaded modules, 166
due to rain, 63
n+1 redundant system, 167
objectives, 38
one equipment module, 165
vertical component, 159

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12.

Reception of signals in telecommunication systems

12.1.1 Thermal noise

Random motion of electrons due to thermal energy result in an average

106) 3Q = N7% [W]

where k - Boltzmann’s constant (N = 1.38 ⋅ 10−23 - . )

12.1.2 Noise factor

Other fundamental kinds of noise are the VKRWQRLVHin pn-junction diodes,

available 6 1 power ratio at input

12.1.3 Noise in digital systems

Figure 56 shows the bit-error-ratio (BER) as a function of receiver input

For traditional telephony

To operate correctly, a digital system usually requires a signal-to-

108) 6 / 1 ( G% ) = /7H − 10 log(N7% )− )( G% )

Equation 108) gives the theoretical ratio. For practical systems an

Radio Threshold Noise IF 6/1 &5

Table 9 Typical & 5 -values for Nera equipment

Only digital radio relay systems

Bit Error Ratio (BER)

In digital systems (TDM

present, the S/I ratio is

fading margin) the receiver Receiver input level [dBm]

12.2.1 Co-channel interference

The degraded receiver threshold level / for a given interference level /

may be calculated using the formula:

This gives a typical interference curve as shown in figures 58 and 60.

An interference level of -101 dBm corresponds to a threshold level of -84

Receiver threshold [dBm] LTeI

-79 L Te= -87 dBm -79 L Te = -87 dBm

Figure 58 Interference curve (type 1) Figure 59 Interference curve (type 2)

12.2.2 Adjacent channel interference

9. In computerised interference calculations,

channel filter attenuation for interfering signals with various frequency

Radio Frequency Frequency Filter &5

Table 10 Examples of & 5 -values for adjacent channel interference.

In complex radio relay

performed to verify acceptable -8 1 C = 14 dB

those given in tables 9 and 10.

calculations, & 5 -values are

in figures 58 and 60. These

Before interference calculations are performed, the relevant disturbing

Since microwave antennas are highly directive, a keyhole concept is used

Keyhole Coordination distance

Figure 61 Keyhole concept

The co-ordination distance is found using

LI = Received interference level [dBm]

PTx = Transmitted power from disturbing station [dBm]

GTx / Rx = Antenna gain transmitter/receiver [dB]

DTx / Rx = Antenna discrimination transmitter/receiver [dB]

L (d ) = Path loss [dB]

θ and θ’ are defined in figure 62.

Figure 62 Simplified radio relay Figure 63 Station distribution

Assume that a signal to interference ratio S − I ≥ X dB is required for your

111) 6 ≥ 37[ + [*7[ + '7[ (θ’)]+ [*5[ − '5[ (θ)]− /(G ) + ;

The required signal level may be calculated for different values of

The worst case assumption

co-ordination area including a key-hole

Instead consider homogenous

13.2.1 Long-term interference mechanisms

111) 6 ≥ 37[ + [7[ + '7[ (θ’)]+ [5[ − '5[ (θ)]− /(G ) + ;

The next problem is LQWHUPRGXODWLRQ SURGXFWV. When more than one