ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
PHYSICS
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
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1. 4000 = 4 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 4 × 10 3
2. 400 = 4 × 10 × 10= 4 × 10 2
1. Motion, Forces and Energy
All answers in this IGCSE Physics syllabus can be written in 2
or 3 significant figures.
1.1. Physical Quantities and
Measurement Techniques Common Length Conversions

Length: Measurements Units in meters

The metre rule can measure distances of a few 1 decimetre (dm) 10 −1 meters (m)
centimetres (cm) and the nearest millimetre (mm).
1 centimetre (cm) 10 −2 meters (m)
A tape measure will be used for measuring longer
distances. 1 millimetre (mm) 10 −3 meters (m)
Ensure the line of sight is at 90 degrees to avoid 1 micrometre (μm) 10 −6 meters (m)
parallax error. 1 nanometre (nm) 10 −9 meters (m)

Measurements Units in meters

1 kilometre (km) 10 3 meters (m)
1 gigametre (Gm) 10 9 meters (m)
Volume
A measuring cylinder can measure liquid volume and Scalar and Vector Quantities
volume change when measuring irregular objects.
(Ensure you measure from the bottom of the Scalar Vector
meniscus) ✔ magnitude, X direction ✔ magnitude, ✔ direction
Force, Weight, Velocity,
Distance, Energy,
Acceleration, Momentum,
Temperature, Speed, Time,
Electric Field Strength and
Mass
Gravitational Field Strength

Calculating Vectors (Calculation or Graphically)

If forces W and Q are acting at right angles to each other

from a point
Calculate the magnitude by using:
F = W 2 + Q2 ​

Calculate the force by using:

W
tan(x) = Q ​

Time
Clock, Digital Timers (reading to 0.1s or better) to
measure time intervals

Finding the Thickness of 1 Paper

Measure the thickness of 100 sheets of paper.

Dividing your answer by 100 will then give an accurate
figure for one sheet

Système International (SI) Units 1.2. Motion

SI Units Units Speed: the distance travelled per unit of time.
Length metre (m) Use the equation
Mass kilogram (kg) v= s
t ​

Time seconds (s) Where:

Standard Notation is always in the power of 10 v is speed (m/s)

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s is displacement (m) Calculating Acceleration on Speed-Time Graphs

t is time (s)

d
AverageSpeed = t
​

Velocity: the speed in a given direction.

Distance-Time Graphs

Free Fall
Distance-Time Graphs The acceleration of free fall “ɡ” for an object near the
1 Acceleration surface of the Earth is constant and is approximately 9.8
2 At rest m/s².
3 Deceleration Do note! In free fall, there is No Air Resistance.
From 2023 onwards, the instructions will tell you to use
4 Constant Speed
9.8 m/s². This detail is very important for numerous
calculations in this chapter.

Terminal Velocity

Speed-Time Graphs

Speed-Time Graphs
1 Increasing Acceleration
2 Constant Speed
3 Decreasing Acceleration
4 Uniform Acceleration
5 Uniform Deceleration
6 Decreasing Deceleration
7 Increasing Deceleration

Acceleration
1. As speed increases, air resistance increases.
Acceleration: the change in velocity per unit of time.
2. The acceleration will decrease.
Δv
a = v−u
Δt = Δt ​ ​
3. Eventually, air resistance = weight, leading to zero
resultant force. This reaches terminal velocity.
Where:
4. When the parachute is deployed, the parachute
a is acceleration surface area increases, leading to increased air
v is the final velocity resistance, decelerating the skydiver.
u is the initial velocity 5. As the skydiver decelerates, air resistance will
Δt is the change in time. decrease until it equals the weight. A new terminal
velocity is reached again.
The difference between the initial and final velocity finds the 6. At last, when it touches down, the velocity quickly
change in velocity. drops to zero.

Change in velocity = final velocity − initial velocity

Δv = v − u 1.3. Mass and Weight
NOTE: Deceleration is the same as Negative Acceleration. Mass: a measure of the quantity of matter in an object at rest
relative to the observer. The mass of a body is a measure of
the amount of matter in it.
Weight: a gravitational force on an object that has mass.

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Gravitational field strength g: as force per unit mass. Forces may produce changes in an object's size, shape
The equation for gravitational field strength is : and motion.
Solid friction is the force between two surfaces that may
g=W
m
​

impede motion and produce heating.

Friction (drag) acts on an object moving through a liquid
Gravitational field strength is equivalent to the
acceleration of free fall. or a gas (air resistance).
Weights (and masses) may be compared using a balance.
The weight of an object is the effect of a gravitational field Springs
on its mass.
Hooke’s Law
Weights (and masses) may be compared using a balance. Extension is directly proportional to force
This is only true if the limit of proportionality is
not exceeded
1.4. Density
The limit of proportionality is the point at which the load-
Density: mass per unit volume. extension graph becomes non-linear.
The equation for density is:
p = mv ​ Properties of Hooke’s Law

p = density The graph starts from the origin (0)

m = mass The graph is regular and in a straight line
v = volume

With this equation, you can determine the density of a liquid,

of a regularly shaped solid

Finding the Density of an Irregularly Shaped Object

Use a balance to measure the mass of the object

Find the volume using the water displacement method

Spring Constant

The spring constant k is defined as force per unit extension.

\n Recall and use the equation:
k = Fx ​

Where:

F is the force or load (N)

x is the extension (cm)
k is the spring constant (N/m, N/cm, N/mm)

Use the formulae p = m

v
​
Forces And Resultants

Sinking Phenomenon It has magnitude and direction (vector quantity)

Usually, there is more than one force acting on the object
An object will sink in a liquid of lower density than its own
Newton’s First Law
e.g., Wood has a lower density than water, so it floats
For, steel has a higher density than water, so it sinks An object stays at rest or continues to move in a straight
line at a constant speed unless acted on by a resultant
force.
1.5. Forces
For example, if these forces were absent, an object would
A force is a push or a pull. move on forever

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The lesser the external forces opposing a moving body, no resultant force
the smaller the force needed to keep it moving with clockwise = anticlockwise
constant velocity
Center of Gravity
Newton’s Second Law
Centre of Gravity: the position at which all the mass of the
F = ma object is acted at

F= force If the centre of gravity passes through the base of the

m= mass object, the object can topple
a = acceleration
Conditions for Making an Object Stable
This is the force that acts on an object going from point A
to point B Lower the centre of gravity
increase the area of the bottom
Friction

Friction is the force that opposes one surface moving or 1.6. Momentum
trying to move.
Momentum: as mass x velocity (kg m/s)
Static Friction: when the force is applied on the object at
the start, and the friction is at its highest value
The equation for momentum is p = mv
Dynamic Friction: when friction acts on the object when it Where:
moves, it is less than the maximum value.
p is momentum
m is mass
Centripetal Force v is velocity

The force that acts towards the curve's centre and keeps The resultant force is defined as the change in momentum
a body moving in a circular path is called the centripetal per unit of time:
force.
Describe the motion in a circular path due to a force F = Δp
Δt ​

perpendicular to the motion. ∴ F = mΔv

Δt ​

In a circular motion, if speed increases, the force needed

Impulse of a force: as force x time for which force acts:
increases (mass and radius are constants).
In a circular motion, if the radius decreases, the force Impulse = F Δt = Δ(mv)
needed increases (mass and speed are constants). In a
circular motion, an increased force is required to keep The Principle of the Conservation of Momentum
speed and radius constant if mass is increased.
the direction of the force is always towards the centre of The general law of physics, according to which the quantity
the circle called momentum that characterises motion, never changes
in an isolated collection of objects; that is, the total
Moments of Forces momentum of a closed system remains constant.

Moment of a force as a measure of its turning effect. 1.7. Energy, Work and Power
The moment of a force is defined as Energy 'stores’ are kinetic, gravitational potential,
moment = force x perpendicular distance from pivot chemical, elastic (strain), nuclear electrostatic and
internal (thermal).
Applying the Principle of Moments Energy is transferred between stores during events and
processes.
When a body is not moving the sum of the
Energy is transferred by forces (mechanical work done),
clockwise moments about any point equals the
electrical currents (electrical work done), heating,
sum of the anticlockwise moments about the
electromagnetic, sound, and other waves.
same point. There is no resultant moment on
an object in equilibrium
The Principle of the Conservation of Energy
clockwise = anticlockwise
The principle of energy conservation states that energy is
Apply the principle of moments in situations with more
neither created nor destroyed. It may transform from one
than one force on each side of the pivot.
type to another.
Conditions for No Resultant Force

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Energy can only be used by converting it from one form to

another. Unless energy is added from the outside, a
system always possesses the same quantity of energy.
The chemical energy of the batteries is transformed into
electrical energy in a torch, which is then converted into
light and heat. This energy is either absorbed or reflected
by the environment.

Kinetic Energy Formula

Mechanical or electrical work done is equal to the energy
transferred.

The Equation for (mechanical) Work Done is:

W = F d = ΔE
Units: Joules (J)
Where:

W = Work Done
F = magnitude of the force
d = the distance in the direction of the force

Energy Resources
Change in Gravitational Potential Energy
Useful energy may be obtained, or electrical power
generated, from:
Non-Renewable Energy
Renewable Energy Sources
Sources
Fossil Fuels Wind
Oils Tidal
Coal Hydro-electric
Natural Gas Geothermal
Solar (EM Waves from the
Nuclear
sun)
- Biofuels

Some sources of energy derive their energy from the sun.

These are:
Energy Transfer Diagrams
Coal: formed from dead trees that have used energy from
the sun to produce hydrocarbons that have become coal
under pressure
Biofuels: organic matter that is burned to produce energy
Hydroelectric: energy relies on the sun’s energy to run the
water cycle so energy can be harnessed
Wind - gets heated and rises and cooler air flows to fill the
space
Solar - Electromagnetic waves from the sun are captured
by photocells and turned into energy

Sankey Diagrams Environme

Renewability Availability Reliability Scale
Impac
Wind ✓ high low high on bird
Solar ✓ high low high low impa
Almost
Geothermal ✓ low high low
impac
Biofuels ✓ high high high low impa

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Environmentalchange in pressure = density x gravitational field strength x

Renewability Availability Reliability Scale
Impact change in depth
Hydro- impacts Δp = ρgΔh
✓ high high high
electric marine life Where:
Tidal ✓ high low low - Δp = pressure difference in pascals (Pa)
ρ = density in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3)
Greenhouse
Coal ☓ high high low g = gravitational field strength (N/kg)
gases
Δh = change in height/height of vertical column (m)
Radioactive
Nuclear ☓ low high high
substances
2. Thermal Physics
Boilers, turbines, and generators generate electricity in a
power plant.
2.1. Kinetic Model of Matter
Properties of the 3 States of Matter: The Molecular Model

Efficiency

Useful energy output

Efficiency = × 100
Total energy input
​

Power

Power: work done per unit of time and energy transferred per
unit of time.
W Particles that make up matter can be made of one or
P= ​

more atoms
t
ΔE As particles of gas strike the walls of containers, their
P= ​
momentum changes and a force is created, which can be
t calculated using the following:
P = power (watt)
W = work done (J) ΔP
Fnet =
ΔE = energy transferred (J) Δt
​ ​

T = time (s)
The temperature has an Absolute Zero: -273 ℃ (Zero
Kinetic Energy)
1.8. Pressure Brownian Motion is the random motion of particles
suspended in a fluid resulting from their collision with
Pressure is defined as force per unit area and measured in fast-moving atoms or molecules in the fluid.
N/m or Pa. 1 Pa = 1 N/m

The equation for pressure is: p = Fa ​

Pressure and Volume at Constant Temperature
Where: (Boyle’s Law)
p is pressure
F is force P, V, T (Constant)
1
a is area P ∝ P is inversely proportional to V
​

V
k
Pressure in Liquids P = ​

V
∴ k = PV
Pressure beneath a liquid's surface changes with the liquid's
depth and density. The equation gives the change in pressure
P1 V1 = P2 V2
​ ​ ​ ​

beneath the surface of a liquid:

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Temperature Conversions Δθ = change in temperature ( o C )

Celcius to Kelvin o C → K : K = o C + 273 Note: 1 Joule = 1 Watt for 1 sec \n J = W x t (s)

Kelvin to Celcius K → o C : o C = K − 273
Melting, Boiling, and Evaporation

2.2. Thermal Properties of Matter and Melting Boiling Evaporation

Temperature Occurs at a fixed Occurs at a fixed Occurs at any
temperature temperature temperature
Expansion Speed depends on Relatively fast Relatively slow
the energy supply process process
All materials expand as they get warmer
It takes place at the It takes place
It is impossible to restrict the thermal expansion of solids It takes place at the
surface of the solid throughout the
and liquids surface only
only liquid
In Solids, particles vibrate faster and expand slightly in
No bubbles Bubbles are formed No bubbles
volume when temperature increases.
In Liquids, particles move faster around each other and Temperature Temperature Temperature may
expand when temperature increases. remains constant remains constant change
In Gases, the volume increases by a large amount as they The heat from Heat from
External thermal
spread out surroundings or surroundings is
energy source
The increasing internal energy of an object : external source required enough
Heating
Rubbing
Shaking
2.3. Thermal Energy Transfers
Increased temperature → Increased Internal Energy →
Conduction Convection Radiation
Increase in average kinetic energy of particles
Infrared Radiation
e.g.- Bimetallic Strip Fluid Conductors and
Thermal
are trapped in air Electromagnetic
When two equal lengths of metals are attached, one conductors Particle
pockets to prevent waves. All objects
metal expands more, and the strip bends. to Particle
convection flow emit and absorb
The Expansion of Ice radiation
As water is cooled to 4°C, it contracts. However, between 4°C Through movement Fluid with more
It depends on
and 0°C it expands; water has its maximum density at 4°C and vibration of energy rises above
temperature,
delocalized less energy to
colour, surface
Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer electrons \n Not for create a convection
area, and texture
Vacuums current.
It tells us how hot the body is Ex: Radiators or Ex: Vacuum of
the liquid in a glass bulb expands up a capillary tube when Ex: Kitchen Pans
heaters space
the bulb is heated
this tells us the temperature of the object
Radiation vs Colour and Texture
Specific Heat Capacity

The mass of the object

The material of the object
The temperature change required
The amount of energy required to change the
temperature of a material depends on its Specific Heat
Capacity.

ΔE
c=
mΔθ
​

Where :

m = mass (kg)
c = specific heat capacity ( J/K g o C )
ΔE = energy provided ( J )

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Radiation vs Temperature and Surface Area

Temperature ∝ Surface area ∝ Energy emitted

3. Waves
3.1. Sound
Longitudinal waves produced by vibrating sources are known
as sound waves. Wavelength (λ): distance between two crests or troughs,
measured in mm cm or m
Sound waves require a medium to be transmitted (such
Frequency: Number of complete waves that go past a given
as air).
point per unit of time.
Compressions: high pressure
Measured in hertz (Hz) 1Hz = 1 complete wave per unit
Rarefactions - low pressure
second
Solids transmit sound the fastest, liquids are slower, and
Amplitude: The maximum particle displacement of the wave
gases are the slowest.
from the undisturbed position, measured in mm cm or m
Speed: Distance travelled by the wave per unit time,
Pitch, Amplitude, Frequencies and Echoes
measured in m/s, cm/s or mm/s
The louder a sound wave is, the greater its amplitude. Wavefront: A line drawn to represent the peaks of a wave in
The higher the pitch of a sound wave, the higher its two dimensions. The distance between two adjacent
frequency. wavefronts is the wavelength of the wave. Wavefronts can be
An echo is a reflection of sound waves. used to show some properties of waves.

Methods of Determining the Speed of Sound in Air Relationship between speed,

Make a noise at a known, significant distance from a solid frequency and wavelength:
wall and record the time it takes for the echo (reflected
sound) to be heard, then use speed = distance/time, wave speed = frequency × wavelength ; v =f ×λ
considering that the sound has to travel there and back. Reflection, refraction and diffraction (using water waves in a
ripple tank) :
Speed of Sound in Matters and the Human Audible
Range

Sound travels at 343 meters per second in air, 1493

meters per second in water, and 5130 meters per second
in steel.
The audible frequency range for a healthy human ear is
20 Hz to 20000 Hz.

Ultrasound

Ultrasound: sound having a frequency of more than 20000 Hz

Ultrasound is partially reflected when it reaches a border

between two media. The remaining waves pass through.
A transceiver can produce ultrasound and collect the
reflected waves to determine the distance of objects
below the surface. Ultrasound is utilized for SONAR and
medical imaging without ionizing radiation.

3.2. General Properties of Waves

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Waves
3.3. Light
Light: an electromagnetic wave capable of passing through
free space or a material medium in the form of varying
electric and magnetic fields.

Normal is a line drawn at right angles between the

boundary of two materials.
The angle of incidence is the angle made by the incident
ray to the normal. The angle of reflection is the angle
made by the reflected ray to the normal.
The image formed by a plane mirror has the following
characteristics: same size, same distance from the
mirror, and virtual.
The Law of Reflection states that the angle of incidence is
equal to the angle of reflection.
The angle of refraction is the angle made by the refracted
ray to the normal.
The critical angle is the angle made to the normal in the
denser material when the angle of refraction is 90°.

The Equation for Critical Angle is:

Refractive index, n: as the ratio of the speeds of a wave in

two different regions

The Equation for the Refractive Index is:

1 1 Optical fibers are used mainly in telecommunications.

Frequency = f= A thin, converging lens converges a parallel beam of light.
period (s)
​ ​

T A thin diverging lens diverges a parallel beam of light.

1 1 The principal focus (focal point) is the point on the
Period (s) = T=
Frequency Frequency principal axis where parallel waves passing through the
​ ​

lens meet.

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The principal axis is a line of symmetry passing through The magnetism is strongest at the poles.
the centre of the lens. Unlike poles attract and like poles repel.
The focal length is the distance from the centre of the lens A magnetic material is defined as something that can be
to the principal focus. magnetised temporarily or permanently.
A virtual image is formed when diverging rays are When we refer to a 'magnet', we are referring to a
extrapolated backwards and do not form a visible permanent magnet, made of magnetically hard materials.
projection on a screen. Permanent magnets remain magnetic (hard) whereas
temporary magnets lose their magnetism (soft).
Position of The Relative Size Nature of A soft magnetic material can be induced by attracting it to
Position of Image
Object of an Image Image a strong magnet, however it loses its magnetism once it is
Point-sized, very Real and removed.
At Infinity At Focus
small Inverted A magnetic field is a region in which a magnetic pole
Real and experiences a force.
Beyond 2F Between F and 2F Diminished The direction of a magnetic field at a point is the direction
Inverted
of the force on the north pole of a magnet at that point.
Real and
At 2F At 2F Same size
Inverted
Between F Real and
Beyond 2F Enlarged
and 2F Inverted
Real and
At Focus F At Infinity Huge, very large
Inverted
On the same side
Between F Virtual and
of the lens as the Enlarged
and O Erect
object

A single lens is used as a magnifying glass.

A converging lens is used to correct long-sightedness.
A diverging lens is used to correct short-sightedness

Dispersion of Light
The Dispersion of Light is shown by the refraction of white Magnetic field lines can be plotted using a compass or
light passing through a glass prism. iron filings.
The spacing between the magnetic field lines shows how
strong the field is. As the field lines get further away, the
force gets weaker.
Electromagnetism is explained in the next few lessons.

4.2. Electrical Quantities

Electric Charge (measured in Coulombs)

positive or negative
similar charges repel, and opposite charges attract
Electrical conductors and insulators Conductors: are
The seven colours (red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
materials that let electrons pass through them. Metals
indigo, and violet) of white light increase from red to
are the best electrical conductors as they have free
violet, and the wavelength decreases from red to blue.
electrons. E.g. copper
Visible light of a single frequency or wavelength is
described as monochromatic.
Insulators: materials that hardly conduct at all. Their
electrons are tightly held to atoms and hardly move, but
4. Electricity and Magnetism they can be transferred by rubbing. E.g. Rubber Charging
insulators by friction

4.1. Magnetism Suspend one of the insulating materials using a cradle

and a string length so that the material can rotate freely.
A magnet has a north pole and a south pole. Rub one end of the material using a cloth (to give it a

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charge). Now take a second piece of insulating material Current: a flow of charge; the SI unit is the Ampere (A).
and charge that by rubbing with a cloth. An ammeter measures the current in a circuit and is
Hold the second piece's charged end close to the first connected in series
piece's charged end: If the first piece rotates away (is Current is a rate of flow of charge
repelled) from the second piece, then the materials have In metals, the current is caused by a flow of electrons
the same charge. If the first piece moved towards (is
attracted to) the second piece, then they have opposite
charges.

Simple Electrostatic Experiments

Current follows the path of least resistance

Conventional current flows in the direction opposite to
that which electrons flow in.
Red = Conventional Current
Green = flow of electrons

Attraction and Repulsion of Point Charges

Alternating Current vs Direct Current

Direct Current (dc)

Direct current is produced when using dry cells and

batteries (and sometimes generators, although these are
usually AC)
The electrons flow in only one direction, from the
negative to the positive terminal.
Conventional current flows from the positive to the
Current negative terminal

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Alternating Current (ac)

Alternating current typically comes from mains electricity

and generators
It is needed for use in transformers in the National Grid
(covered later in this topic)
The direction of electron flow changes direction
regularly
A typical frequency for the reversal of ac current in
mains electricity is 50 Hz

Electromotive Force (EMF)

The energy the source supplies in driving a unit charge
around a complete circuit.
A cell's maximum voltage is called the electromotive force
(EMF), measured in volts.
When a current is supplied, the voltage is lower because
of the energy wastage inside the cell.
A cell produces its maximum PD when not in a circuit and
not supplying current.

Potential Difference (P.D)

The potential difference, or PD for short, is also known as

voltage.
Voltage is the energy the cell gives the electrons it pushes
out. Voltage is measured in volts (V) and is measured by a
voltmeter (connected in parallel). A cell with 1 Volt
delivers 1 Joule of energy to each coulomb of charge (J/C).

Measuring potential difference and voltage

Potential difference is measured using a voltmeter.

Voltmeters are connected in parallel with the component
being tested. The potential difference is the difference in
electrical potential between two points, therefore, the
voltmeter has to be connected to two points in the circuit.

Resistance
Resistance is the opposition to the current. For a given
potential difference, the higher the resistance, the lower the
current. Therefore resistors are used in circuits to control the
current. The unit of resistance is the ohm Ω.

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Voltage
Resistance (Ω) =
Current
​

(Ohmic Conductor = Resistor)

Electrical Energy and Electrical Power Electrical energy is
transferred from the battery or power source to the circuit
components and then into the surroundings.
ΔE
1 Watt is 1 J/s P = ​

t
P = IV ∴Electrical power = Voltage (V) × Current (A)
ΔE
IV = ∴Electrical energy = Voltage (V) × Current (A) ×
​

t
Time (s)
E = V It

The Kilowatt Hour ​

This energy is commonly measured in kilowatt-hour (kW h),

which is then used to calculate the cost of energy used. 1 kWh
is the electrical energy transferred by a 1 kW appliance in 1
hour
Energy in kWh = power in kW x time in hours.
To convert between Joules and kWh:

Explanation:
ΔE = Pt ⟹ 1kWh = 1kW × 1h
1J
1Watt = and 1kW = 1000W ⟹ 1kW =
​

s
1000J
Factors affecting resistance: ​

s
Length ⟹ 1kWh = 1000J × 3600s = 3.6 × 106 J
Circuit diagrams and components
Ω∝L
Component Symbol Function
The electrons have to travel a longer length and thus
encounter more resistance.
In open position the
Cross-sectional area Switch circuit is broken so
no current flows
1
Ω∝ ​

Supplies the
A
More electrons can flow per unit of time, increasing the Cell electrical energy to
current and decreasing the resistance. the circuit

Current Voltage (IV Graphs)

As the potential difference (voltage) across a component

increases, the component's current also increases. The A battery is more
Battery
precise relationship between voltage and current can be
than one cell.
different for different types of components and is shown by
an IV graph:

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Component Symbol Function Component Symbol Function

A power supply is a Electromagnetic
device that converts coils are used in
one voltage to electrical
Power Supply d.c.
another more engineering, in
and a.c.
convenient voltage applications where
while delivering electric currents
power. Magnetising interact with
Instrument used to Coils magnetic fields, in
Ammeter measure electrical devices such as
current. electric motors,
Instrument used to generators,
Voltmeter measure potential inductors,
difference. electromagnets and
transformers.
Converts electrical A safety device
Lamp
energy to light. which melts to break
Restricts the flow of the circuit if the
Fuse electrical current
electrical current.
flowing through it
Can be used to limit
Fixed Resistor exceeds a specified
the flow of current to
a particular value.
component. The relay permits a
small amount of
Used to control
electrical current to
current and
Variable Resistor control high current
resistance in a
loads. When voltage
circuit.
is supplied to the
Converts heat to coil, small current
Thermistor Relay
electrical resistance. passes through the
coil, resulting in a
larger amount of
Light-Dependent Converts light to
current passing
Resistor electrical resistance.
through the contacts
to control the
Converts electrical
Heater electrical load.
energy to heat.
An electric generator
To provide a variable is a device that
potential difference. converts mechanical
To split the potential Generator energy obtained
Potential Divider difference of a from an external
power source source into electrical
between two or energy as the output.
more components. A motor is a device
A transformer is a that can convert
device that transfers Motor
electrical energy into
electric energy from mechanical energy.
one alternating-
current circuit to one
A device which only allows
Transformer or more other Diode
current to flow in one direction
circuits, either
increasing (stepping Light Emitting
A diode that emits light
up) or reducing Diode (LED)
(stepping down) the
voltage.

5. Atomic Physics

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called nucleons. They are bound together by the strong

5.1. Nuclear Model of The Atom
nuclear force.
Electrons: almost massless particles which orbit nucleus
All matter is made up of atoms.
in shells
Proton number: number of protons in an atom
Nucleon number: the number of nucleons (protons +
neutrons) in an atom
The following is the nuclide notation for atoms

ISOTOPES

Atoms of the same element that have different numbers

of neutrons e.g. Carbon 12 and Carbon 14.
They have identical chemical properties but can have
The structure of an atom is simple.
different physical properties eg: radioactive
Alpha Scattering Gold Foil experiment
Nuclear Fission
(Rutherford’s)
Nuclear fission is a reaction in which the nucleus of an atom
splits into two or more smaller nuclei, because of the addition
of an electron. The fission process often produces gamma
photons, and releases a very large amount of energy.

Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear Fusion reactions power the Sun and other stars. In a

fusion reaction, two light nuclei merge to form a single
heavier nucleus. The process releases energy because the
total mass of the resulting single nucleus is less than the
mass of the two original nuclei. The leftover mass becomes
energy.
The Atom

Nucleus: central part of atom made of protons (positively

charged) and neutrons. These two types of particles are

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However, human activity has added to the amount of

radiation that humans are exposed to on Earth.
Background radiation is defined as the radiation that
exists around us all the time.
The sources of it include : radioactivity in air, cosmic rays,
rocks and buildings, food and drink, medical, nuclear
power and testing.

The three types of nuclear emission

Atomic nuclei of most isotopes are unstable.

To become stable they give out radiation. As the radiation
moves away it takes some energy with it. This makes the
nucleus more stable. This is called radioactive decay.
This cannot be controlled by external factors so it is
known as a spontaneous and random event.
The 3 types of radioactive emissions are:
5.2. Radioactivity
Detecting radiation

It is important to regulate the exposure of humans to

radiation
Ionising nuclear radiation is measured using a GM Tube
detector connected to a radiation counter.
Count rate is the number of decays per second recorded
by a detector and recorded by the counter. It is measured
in counts/s or counts/min
The count rate decreases the further the detector is from
the source. This is because the radiation becomes more
spread out the further away it is from the source

-Short
-Helium Nucleus \n - -
wavelength EM
Relative charge of +2 \n Electrons/Positrons
− + waves \n -
-2p and 2n \n -1e /1e
Uncharged

Effects of electricity & magnetism on radioactive

emissions, and ionisation caused by them.

Alpha Beta Gamma

Electric Move away from Move towards
No change
fields + particles + particles
Magnetic Use the left hand Use the left
No change
fields rule hand rule
Ionises most Ionises least
Ionises lesser
Ionisation particles due to particles because
particles
great mass no charge

Radioactive Decay

During α-decay or β-decay, the nucleus changes to a

Background Radiation different element
The initial nucleus is often called the parent nucleus
It is important to remember that radiation is a natural The nucleus of the new element is often called the
phenomenon daughter nucleus
Radioactive elements have always existed on Earth and in During α-decay, 2p and 2n is lost and hence the nucleon
outer space number and proton number changes and a new element

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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS

is formed. The time it takes for the activity of the sample to decrease
During β-decay, one neutron from the nucleus changes from 100 % to 50 % is the half-life
into a proton and electron. The electron is removed from It is the same length of time as it would take to
the atom and given out as radiation. decrease from 50 % activity to 25 % activity
During gamma ray decay, the nucleus releases an EM The half-life is constant for a particular isotope
wave and rearranges itself internally. No change is made
in the number of subatomic particles. Uses of isotopes

Medical procedures including diagnosis and treatment of

cancer
Sterilising food (irradiating food to kill bacteria)
Sterilising medical equipment (using gamma rays)
Checking the thickness of materials
Smoke detectors (alarms)
Medical and industrial tracers

Safety Precautions

Minimise the amount of time you handle sources for and

return them to their boxes as soon as you have finished
using them
During use, keep yourself (and other people) as far from
the sources as feasible. When handling the sources do not
point at human tissue, using a pair of tweezers
Store the sources in lead-lined boxes.
Sometimes you can wear lead lined aprons

Nuclide Notation and Nuclear reactions.

There are 2 basic types of questions:

Half Life

It is impossible to know when a particular unstable

nucleus will decay
But the rate at which the activity of a sample decreases
can be known. This is known as the half-life. Half-life is
defined as:

The time taken for half the nuclei of that isotope in any Nuclide notation is the notation of an element when it is
sample to decay
written with its proton number and nucleon number. \n A
nuclear reaction would take place like this.
The activity of a source is measured in becquerels. (Bq)
Different isotopes have different half-lives and half-lives
can vary from a fraction of a second to billions of years in
length
Half-life can be determined from an activity–time graph

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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS

6. Space Physics The Formation of A Solar System

Our solar system was formed when a molecular cloud
6.1. Earth and Other Bodies collapsed into itself because of its gravity. Gasses and dust
particles start to come together, getting closer and faster.
The Earth rotates around its axis, which is tilted 23.5 They gain speed in a spinning motion. This process is called
degrees from West to East and revolves around the sun in accretion. The disk formed by accretion is called the accretion
365.25 days. disk.
The Earth has a Southern Hemisphere and a Northern
Hemisphere divided by the Equator.
Hemisphere: half of a sphere; Earth is divided into 2
hemispheres.

https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?
q=tbn:ANd9GcRhn2q4cvaoJd08MCr6EiNBafbyhktMBpjbfz_DIn7M

Gravity pulls heavier particles close together toward the

https://qph.cf2.quoracdn.net/main-qimg- centre.
c99eb0c0beb3e19bef78e8bfed6bc564 The gasses get hot and pressurised enough to start
nuclear fusion.
Countries at the equator do not experience season
The dust particles clump together and form the inner
changes as the sun hits them at the same angle at all
rocky planets while gasses orbit the centre farther away
times.
and form gas giants.
The solar system consists of eight planets: Mercury,
The centre of the accretion disk starts to form a new star
Venus, Earth, and Mars are the inner, rocky planets.
called a protostar. At this point, gravity is still pulling mass
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are the outer gas
together.
giants.
Millions of asteroids and meteoroids are orbiting the sun,
mainly found between Mars and Jupiter. Our Solar System
Comets are balls of ice, dust and gas. They orbit the sun in a The Sun makes up about 99.8% of the solar system's
very elliptical orbit, leaving behind a trail of gas and dust. mass. It has a strong gravitational pull, keeping all the
However, this is not the comet's tail because the tail always planets in orbit.
faces away from the Sun.
We know from the chapter on circular motion that for an
object to move in a circular path, a force needs to act on the
object towards the centre of its orbit.

All the planet’s orbits are elliptical, and the measure of

how elliptical it is is called eccentricity.
The centre of the orbit is not directly on the sun but close
enough to the centre that we say that we orbit the sun.

Source: IGCSE textbook 0625

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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS

Light Year and Distances

A light-year is the distance travelled by light in one year. So:
one light-year = 3 × 10 8 m/s × 365.25 days ×
24 hours × 3600 seconds = 9.5 × 10 15 m
Astronomers can also use other ways to measure distances.
They can be done using parallax. This is when the stars
appear to move across the sky when we view them from
different points on our orbit.

https://static8.depositphotos.com/1163607/1070/i/950/depositphotos_10706068-
stock-photo-our-solar-system.jpg
All orbits are not perfectly circular because of the energy
changes during its orbital period.
The star pulls the body of mass towards itself. This pull Point A is Earth in the summer and point B is Earth in the
generates speed which, we know, will cause the body to move winter. The telescope is pointed towards X at point A and the
away from the star. (Increasing speed increases the size of stars are seen. The telescope is pointed in the direction of X
the orbit.) at point B - denoted by the dotted line - and shows that the
We need to consider only two main energy types in space. same stars cannot be seen. The telescope is moved twice the
parallax angle to see the point Y.
1. Kinetic Energy We can use trigonometry to calculate the distance between
2. Gravitational Potential Energy the stars and the Earth.

A planet near the sun has a low GPE but a high KE. A planet
far from the sun has a high GPE and a low KE. Stars and Star Life Cycles
How to calculate orbital speed:
There might be 200 billion stars in the Milky Way. A star starts
The formula for speed is distance/time. We consider the out as a protostar. Interstellar clouds are dust clouds that
orbits to be perfectly circular in this situation. The formula exist between stars. Molecular clouds are clouds mostly of
is: hydrogen that is cold and dense enough to collapse and form
stars.
2πr
Orbital speed = ​

Accretion begins to pull matter in.

t
A protostar is formed (refer to previous card for revision)
A stable star is born when gravity is equal to the radiation
Universe and Stars pressure exerted by the high temperature and nuclear
fusion.
Radiation pressure - the outward force due to the high
6.2. Sun
temperature of the star.
The Sun produces energy through nuclear fusion of hydrogen
into helium.

It is made of 75% hydrogen, 24% helium and the rest is

made of other elements like oxygen and carbon.
40% of its energy is visible light, 50% of it is infrared
radiation and 10% is ultraviolet.
Matter exists as plasma in the sun’s core which has a
temperature of 15 000 000K, and a surface temperature
of 5800K.
It has a mass of 2 × 10 30 Kg which is often referred to as
solar mass.

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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS

The Life Cycle of A Star Exceeding Eight Solar

Masses

It begin as a protostar but the core is more massive and hot

enough to fuse heavier elements further from the core. The
outer shell expands into a red supergiant.

Red Supergiants - similar to red giants, they form when

stars with at least 8 times the mass of the sun run out of
hydrogen fuel in their core but fusion of hydrogen
continues in their outer shell

http://www.cosmos.esa.int/documents/519784/1188283/Hydrostatic_equ_standfordUni/7ad412ee-
be12-4a56-9da8-592533719992?t=1476554115279

Life Cycle of a Star Less Than Eight Solar Masses

Like the sun, a stable star fuses hydrogen into helium. This is
a stable main sequence star. Our sun is 4.5 billion years old
and about half-way though its time as a stable star.

Main sequence - stable star that is burning up hydrogen in

its core; once it has used up 12% of its hydrogen it goes
onto another stage of its life cycle.

Once it burns through the hydrogen, it starts to fuse helium.

This requires a higher temperature at the core. It becomes a
red giant which are larger stars with cooler surfaces.
Eventually the core will collapse into a white dwarf star not
exceeding 1.4 solar masses.
https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/H58eVHSXEQH37qkPX2qdU
It is not hot enough to fuse the elements inside it and cools to
U0kITDK1YQqFDsIe1kN2SRXc5cd66h-
become a black dwarf.
Kyh4n5JZweLHyFi8lSqL0HSpIER3PubnM-
The outer shell is blown off by radiation pressure and
RwIRzk3yVsK88RyJuwaDholouMZFGrQuzShftvpurUk
becomes a planetary nebula.
The layers go in order of outer-most to inner-most:
Red Giant - a star that began with fewer than eight solar HYDROGEN, HELIUM, CARBON, OXYGEN, NEON,
masses and is burning helium at its core; the shell of MAGNESIUM, SILICON and then IRON.
hydrogen has expanded and cooled.
It is not possible to make elements heavier than iron by
White dwarf - the final stage of a star that started with
nuclear fusion.
fewer than eight solar masses after all its fuel has been
Once all the fuel runs out, the star collapses in a
used up
supernova, providing the energy to fuse the iron into
heavier elements and pushing matter out into space as a
nebula.
After the supernova, the core becomes one of two things:
a neutron star or a black hole.
A neutron star is formed if the mass of the core is less
than about 3 solar masses. It forces protons and
electrons together to form neutrons.
A heavier core will keep collapsing till it becomes so
dense that not even light can escape it. It becomes a
black hole.

https://schoolworkhelper.net/wp-
content/uploads/2010/05/life-cycle-of-star.jpg
Spectroscopy

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There are many dark lines in the wavelengths of visible light approaches and observer B hears a rising pitch.
coming from the Sun. This is because the cool gas in the Sun’s The wave emitted behind the car is moving in the opposite
atmosphere absorbs them. A spectrum with these absorption direction. The car is moved away before emitting a
lines is known as an absorption spectrum. second wave.
The waves behind the ambulance are further apart giving
it a receding pitch as the waves are stretched behind the
vehicle. Observer A hears a receding pitch.

The Doppler effect is a property of all waves including light. It

is proof that the Universe is expanding and suggests that the
galaxies must have been close together in the past.

The Big Bang Theory and Cosmic Microwave

Background Radiation

The theory that the Universe had a beginning is the Big

Bang Theory which states that the Universe (space, time,
matter, energy) was created at a single point 13.8 billion
years ago and has been expanding and cooling ever
since.
https://www.redshift-
The Big Bang was not an explosion. The singularity was
live.com/binaries/asset/image/18408/image/Redshift_of_spectral_lines_in_the_optical_spectrum.jpg
unimaginably hot and dense which has been expanding
The top line represents the absorption spectrum observed in
and cooling. Neutral atoms could not form due to the heat
an experiment in earth and the bottom line is a redshifted
of the early Universe; they would ionise.
one from a distant galaxy.
Light continuously scattered around until the universe
cooled.
Redshift is the shifting of light to the red end of the
spectrum which has longer wavelengths. The expansion of the Universe has caused the wavelength
Redshift is caused by the Doppler effect of the light to redshift.

( For a detailed understanding, refer the new text book,

The Doppler Effect Chapter 25, Page 477 - 478 )

The doppler effect is the rise or fall in pitch as the source of

Hubble’s Law
the wave moves closer or away from us. Here is an example.
The Doppler effect can be used to work out how fast galaxies
are moving away from us. The speed at which galaxies are
moving away from us is proportional to the distance away
from us.

https://www.youphysics.education/wp-
content/uploads/Doppler2.webp

The ambulance is moving at a certain speed towards the

right.
As the siren rings once, the sound wave is produced and
starts to move away from that point.
By the time the siren rings again, the ambulance has https://physicsanduniverse.com/wp-
content/uploads/2014/02/Hubble-Law-2010.jpeg
moved.
The line of best fit is Hubble’s Law:
The ambulance closes that gap between itself and the
wave in front of it.
V = Ho d where v is the recession speed of the galaxies, d is
​

This causes the second wave to be released closer to the their distance from us and Ho is the Hubble Constant
​

first wave. The waves ahead of the vehicle compress as it The Hubble constant is the gradient of this graph:
v

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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS

v distance
Ho = ​ ​

time = So:
d speed
​

Estimate for the age of the Universe:

d 1 d 1
= tuniverse = =
v Ho
​ ​

​ ​

v Ho
​

Therefore the age of the Universe is:

The reciprocal (inverse) of the Hubble constant is known as
1 1
Hubble time because it can be used to work out the age of the tuniverse = = = 4.5 × 1017 s =
2.2 × 10−18
​ ​

universe. The current estimate for Ho is 2.2 x 10^-18 per Ho ​

second. 14.4 × 109 years

We know that: The Universe began at a single point (called a singularity)
about 14.5 billion years ago.

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CAIE IGCSE
Physics

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