NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY-ANDHRA PRADESH

TADEPALLIGUDEM– 534102, WEST GODAVARI DIST.,

ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ME254-Mechanical Measurements and Metrology

Pressure Measurement
By
Dr.N.S.Balaji
Faculty-Mechanical Engineering Dept.
NIT-AP 1
Introduction
• Force per unit area exerted by a fluid on a containing wall.
• Pressure is not a fundamental quantity. It is derived from Force and area, which in turn are derived from mass,
length and time (Fundamental quantities).
• Unit of Pressure:
• 1 atmosphere (atm) = 1.01325x105 N/m2 (or Pa)
• = 760 mm of Hg
• 1 bar = 105 N/m2 (or 100 kPa)
• 1 torr = 1 mm of Hg
• Fluid pressure results from the momentum exchange between the molecules of fluid and a containing wall. Also,
total momentum exchange is dependent on the total number of molecules striking the wall per unit time and
average velocity of thee molecules.
𝟏
• Pressure for ideal gas 𝒑 = 𝒏𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒓𝒎𝒔 , where n = molecular density, m = molecular mass and vrms = root
𝟑
3𝑘𝑇
mean square molecular velocity = , T is absolute temperature of gas (in K), and k = 1.3803x10-23
𝑚
J/molecule-K (where K =Boltzmann’s constant)
• Absolute pressure: absolute value of force per unit area exerted on the containing wall by a fluid.
• Gauge pressure: Difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure.
• Vacuum: amount by which the atmospheric pressure exceeds the absolute pressure.

Note:
• Absolute pressure may not be negative
• Vacuum may not be greater than the
local atmospheric pressure.
• A variety of devices are available for pressure measurement
• Static, that is, steady-state, pressure is not difficult to measure with good accuracy.
• Dynamic measurements, however, are much more perplexing because they are
influenced strongly by the characteristics of the fluid being studied as well as the
construction of the measurement device.
• In many instances a pressure instrument that gives very accurate results for a static
measurement may be entirely unsatisfactory for dynamic measurements.
Dynamic Response Considerations
• The transient response of pressure-measuring instruments is dependent on two factors:

(1) the response of the transducer element that senses the pressure, and

(2) the response of the pressure-transmitting fluid and the connecting tubing, etc. This factor is frequently
determines the overall frequency response of a pressure-measurement system, and, eventually, direct
calibration must be relied upon for determining this response.

• In a dynamic pressure-measurement application one must also consider the frequency response of the pressure
transducer and its movement in the overall measurement system.

• We should try to design the system so that the natural frequency of the transducer is substantially greater than
the signal frequency to be measured.

• Dynamic pressure measurements are particularly applicable to sound-level determinations (Not in course).
 Pressure Measuring Devices
1. Gravitational type
a) Piston or loose diaphragm and weights (e.g. Dead weight pressure gauge
tester)
b) Liquid column (Fluid Manometer e.g. U-tube manometer)
2. Elastic element type
a. Diaphragm
b. Bellows
c. Bourdon tube
3. Others
a) Variable capacitance transducer
b) Strain gauge transducer
 Deadweight Pressure Gauge Tester
• Deadweight is a device used for balancing a fluid pressure with a known weight →used for static
calibration of less accurate pressure gages.
 Construction and Working
• The chamber and cylinder of the tester are filled with a clean oil by
first moving the plunger to its most forward position and then
slowly withdrawing it while the oil is poured in through the
opening for the piston.
• The gauge to be tested is installed and the piston inserted in the
cylinder.
• The pressure exerted on the fluid by the piston is now transmitted
to the gauge when the valve is opened. This pressure may be
varied by adding weights to the piston or by using different piston-
cylinder combinations of varying areas.
• The viscous friction between the piston and the cylinder in the
axial direction may be substantially reduced by rotating the piston-
weight assembly while the measurement is taken.
• The pressure is slowly built up (increased) until the piston and
weights are seen to "float," at which point the fluid "gauge"
pressure (pressure above atmosphere) must equal the deadweight
supported by the piston, divided by the piston area.
• As the pressure is increased, it may be necessary to advance the
plunger to account for the compression of the oil and any
entrapped gases in the apparatus.
• High-pressure–dead-weight testers have a special lever system
which is used to apply large forces to the piston.
• Deadweight gauges may be employed for absolute- rather than gauge-pressure measurement by
placing them inside an evacuated enclosure at (ideally) 0 Pa absolute pressure.
• Since the degree of vacuum (absolute pressure) inside the enclosure must be known, this really
requires an additional independent measurement of absolute pressure.
1
𝜌∆𝑝 ൗ2 𝑏3
% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 ≈
𝜇𝐷𝐿
where ρ = density of the oil, p = pressure differential on the cylinder,
b = clearance spacing, μ = viscosity,
D = piston diameter, L = piston length
• At high pressures there can be an elastic deformation of the cylinder which increases the
clearance spacing and thereby increases the error of the tester.
Fluid Manometer
• The manometer in its various forms is closely related to the piston gauge, since
both are based on the comparison of the unknown pressure force with the
gravity force on a known mass.
• The manometer differs, however, in that it is self balancing, is a deflection
rather than a null instrument, and has continuous rather than stepwise output.
• The accuracies of deadweight gauges and manometers of similar ranges are
quite comparable; however, manometers become unwieldy at high pressures
because of the long liquid columns involved.
• The fluid manometer is a widely used device for measurement of fluid pressures
under steady-state and laboratory conditions.
U-tube manometer
• The U-tube manometer usually is considered the basic form and has the following relation between
input and output for static conditions:
𝑝1 − 𝑝2
ℎ=
𝜌𝑔
• Water and mercury are the most commonly used fluids.
• The distance h is measured parallel to the gravitational
force and that the differential pressure p-pa is measured
at the location designated by the dashed line.
• Given that manometers inherently measure the pressure
difference between the two ends of the liquid column, if
one end is at zero absolute pressure, then h is an
indication of absolute pressure.
• If the location of the pressure source is at a different
elevation from this point, there could be an appreciable
error in the pressure determination, depending on the
density of the transmitting fluid
• The difference in pressure between the unknown pressure p and the atmosphere is determined as a function
of the differential height h.
𝑔 𝑔
• 𝑝𝑎 + ℎ𝜌𝑚 =𝑝+ ℎ𝜌𝑓
𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐
• Where ρf = the density of the fluid transmitting the pressure p,
• ρm = density of the manometer fluid
• The cross-sectional area of the tubing (even if not uniform) has no effect.
• At a given location (given value of g) the sensitivity depends on only the density of the manometer fluid.
• The sensitivity of the U-tube manometer may be defined as
ℎ 1
𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =
𝑝 − 𝑝𝑎 𝑔Τ𝑔𝑐 𝜌𝑚 − 𝜌𝑓
1
• For a manometer with 𝜌𝑚 ≫ 𝜌𝑓 , 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝜌𝑚 𝑔Τ𝑔𝑐
 Cistern or well-type manometer
• The cistern or well-type manometer is widely utilized because of its
convenience in requiring reading of only a single leg.
• The well area is made very large compared with the tube; thus the
zero level moves very little when pressure is applied. Even this
small error is compensated by suitably distorting the length scale.
However, such an arrangement, unlike a U tube, is sensitive to
nonuniformity of the tube cross-sectional area and thus is considered
some what less accurate.
• Typically, the well-type manometer is filled to a certain level at
zero-pressure differential conditions.
• A measurement is then made of the displacement (h) of the small
column from this zero level.
ℎ′ 𝐴2 = ℎ − ℎ′ 𝐴1
Barometer
• A barometer is a scientific instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure, also
called barometric pressure. The atmosphere is the layers of air wrapped around Earth.
That air has a weight and presses against everything it touches as gravity pulls it to
Earth. Barometers measure this pressure.
• Atmospheric pressure is an indicator of weather. Changes in the atmosphere,
including changes in air pressure, affect the weather. Meteorologists use barometers
to predict short-term changes in the weather.
• Given that manometers inherently measure the pressure difference between the two
ends of the liquid column, if one end is at zero absolute pressure, then h is an indication
of absolute pressure. This is the principle of the barometer.
• It is a "single-leg" instrument, high accuracy is achieved by setting the zero level of the
well at the zero level of the scale before each reading is taken.
• The pressure in the evacuated portion of the barometer is not really absolute zero, but
rather the vapor pressure of the filling fluid, mercury, at ambient temperature. This is
about 0.7 Pa absolute at 21°C and usually is negligible as a correction.
 Inclined manometer (Draft gauge)
• To increase sensitivity, the manometer may be tilted with respect to gravity, thus giving a greater motion of
liquid along the tube for a given vertical-height change. The inclined manometer (draft gauge) of
exemplifies this principle.
• Since this is a single-leg device, the calibrated scale is corrected for the slight changes in well level so that
rezeroing of the scale for each reading is not required.
 RING BALANCE
• The ring balance belongs to mechanical displacement type pressure measuring
devices.
• The ring balance differential manometer, which is also known as a ring balance,
is a variation of the U tube manometer.
• It is composed of an annular ring, which is separated into two parts by a
partition. The lower section of the annular ring is also filled with a sealing fluid
(either water or mercury).
• The ring is balanced on a knife edge at its centre so that it is free to rotate. A mass
to compensate the difference in pressure is attached to the lower part of the ring.
In the ring balance illustrated in Fig.
• P1 and P2 represent high and low pressures, respectively. Application of a
pressure difference across the annular ring causes the displacement of the sealing
fluid away from the high-pressure source. This in turn causes a turning moment
Tm due to which the annular ring rotates by an angle q about its centre. The mass
attached at the lower part produces an opposing or restoring moment Rm, which
balances the turning moment.
• Thus, the differential pressure can be measured using a pointer and scale
arrangement.
 INVERTED BELL MANOMETER
• An inverted bell manometer is another pressure measuring device that is
of the mechanical displacement type.
• In this, as the name suggests, the bell is immersed in the sealing fluid in an
upside-down position. The inverted bell moves in the vertical direction
due to the differential pressure arising out of the pressure difference
between the interior and exterior surfaces of the bell.
• This type of manometer is capable of measuring absolute, positive,
negative, and differential pressures, depending on the pressure on the
reference side of the bell.
• A spring provided on top of the inverted bell balances the vertical motion
of the bell due to a pressure difference or by the weight of the bell.
• The vertical movement of the bell can be translated into a pointer
movement with the help of a linkage system. A variable reluctance pickup
can be employed, which converts the vertical motion of the bell to an
electrical signal instead of a spring. The inverted bell manometer will
measure the absolute pressure if the lower-pressure side is connected to a
vacuum line with an appropriate sealing fluid. The displacement of the
bell is a linear function of differential pressure.
Bourdon tube pressure gage
• The Bourdon tube is the basis of many mechanical pressure
gauges and it is also used in electrical transducers by measuring
the output displacement with potentiometers, differential
transformers, etc.
• The basic element in all the various forms is a tube of noncircular
cross section.
• A pressure difference between the inside and outside of the tube
(higher pressure inside) causes the tube to attempt to attain a
circular cross section. This results in distortions which lead to a
curvilinear translation of the free end in the C type and spiral and
helical types and an angular rotation in the twisted type, which
motions are the output.
• This movement is proportional to the difference between inside and
outside pressures. To measure pressure, movement of the free end is
often magnified and transmitted to a pointer that moves over the scale
through a linkage and gearing mechanism. The pointer indicates
gauge pressure, since the reference pressure is atmospheric.
Diaphragm-Type Transducer
Single diaphragms, stacks of diaphragms, and bellows are some of the
important elastic transducers used for pressure measurement.
Diaphragms are generally used as primary transducers for dynamic
pressure measurement. These may be of a flat or corrugated type, as
shown in Figs

• Pressure signal is converted to a displacement

• The diaphragm (thin metal disc) acts as a spring element that undergoes a displacement under the action of
the pressure.
• One side of the disc is exposed to the pressure to be measured, other side is exposed to atmospheric or a
reference pressure.
• Distortion of the diaphragm is transmitted to a gauge dial by a linkage connected to the center of the
diaphragm
• Deflection curve is linear only for a small range of low pressures and low vacuum applications
• The deflection characteristics of the metal diaphragm can be improved by corrugating the surface of the disc.
A corrugated diaphragm produces approximately four times the deflection of a flat diaphragm subjected to
the same pressure. In addition, the deflection curve is more linear in character.
• Good dynamic sensor
• Pressure transducers based on foil-type metal strain gauges may either apply the strain
gauges directly to a flat metal diaphragm or use a convoluted diaphragm to apply force to
a strain-gauge beam.
• Flat diaphragms exhibit nonlinearity at large deflections, where a stretching action adds
to the basic bending, causing a stiffening effect.
• This nonlinearity in the stresses follows closely the nonlinearity in the center deflection
yc, for which the following theoretical result is available:
 Elastic Transducers
• Flat diaphragms are used along with electrical secondary
transducers for better amplification of small diaphragm
deflections.
• For large deflections, corrugated diaphragms are
preferred. Corrugated diaphragms generally find
application in static pressure measurement due to their
increased size and deflection, which affect the dynamic
response.
• It is a thin, flat, circular plate fixed at the two ends; upon
application of pressure, it will deflect as shown in Fig. And the
resulting differential pressure is given by P1 − P2.
• This can be used only for relatively small movements wherein the
relationship between pressure and deflection is linear. The
deflection attained by flat diaphragms is limited by linearity
constraints or stress requirements.
• Sometimes, a mechanical linkage system or an electrical secondary transducer
needs to be connected to the diaphragm at its centre. To enable this, a metal disc
or any other rigid material is provided at the centre with diaphragms on either
side.
• The diaphragm may be made up of a variety of materials such as nylon, plastic,
leather, silk, or rubberized fabric.
• This type of transducer, which is used for pressure measurement, is known as
the slack diaphragm or fabric diaphragm differential pressure gauge.
• A secondary transducer, which may be an electrical or a mechanical linkage
system, or a recording pen, is connected at the centre.

• Metallic bellows can be employed as pressure-sensing elements.

• A thin-walled tube is converted into a corrugated diaphragm by using a
hydraulic press and is stacked as shown in Fig.
• Due to the differential pressure, there will be a deflection, y0. Normally,
materials such as phosphor bronze, brass, beryllium copper, and stainless steel
are used for making bellows. Metallic bellows are often associated with zero
shift and hysteresis problems.
 Bellows-Type Transducer
• The bellows is a one-piece, collapsible, seamless metallic unit that has deep folds formed
from very thin-walled tubing.
• Pressure signal is converted to a displacement
• The bellows acts as a helical coiled compression spring element that undergoes a
displacement under the action of the pressure.
• Extremely sensitive to low pressures (0.034 to 5.17 bar gauge)
• Doesn't work well with dynamic pressures due to mass and large displacements.
• A differential pressure force causes a displacement of
the bellows, which may be converted to an electrical
signal or undergo a mechanical amplification to
permit display of the output on an indicator dial.
• The bellows gauge is generally unsuitable for
transient measurements because of the larger relative
motion and mass involved.
• The diaphragm gauge, on the other hand, which may be
quite stiff, involves rather small displacements and is
suitable for high-frequency pressure measurements.
• The deflection of a diaphragm under pressure may be
sensed by a capacitance variation, as shown in Fig.
• Such pressure pickups are well suited for dynamic
measurements since the natural frequency of diaphragms
can be rather high.
• The capacitance pickup, however, involves low sensitivity,
and special care must be exerted in the construction of
readout circuitry. A schematic diagram of a LVDT-
diaphragm differential pressure gauge is shown in Fig.
 High-Pressure Measurement
• Pressures up to about 700 MPa can be measured fairly easily with strain gauge pressure
cells or Bourdon tubes.
• Bourdon tubes for such high pressures have nearly circular cross sections and thus give
little output motion per turn. To get a measurable output, the helical form with many turns
generally is used.
• Inaccuracy of the order of 1% of full scale may be expected with a temperature error of an
additional 3.6 percent/100°C.
• Strain-gauge pressure cells can be temperature-compensated to give 0.25 percent error
over a large temperature range.
 The Bridgman Gauge
• It is known that resistance of fine wires changes with the pressure according to a linear relationship
𝑅 = 𝑅1 1 + 𝑏∆𝑝
• R1 is the resistance at 1 atm, b is the pressure coefficient of resistance, and Δp is the gauge pressure.
• The effect may be used for measurement of pressures as high as 100,000 atm.
• A pressure transducer based on this principle is called a Bridgman gauge.
• A typical gauge employs a fine wire of Manganin (84% Cu, 12% Mn, 4% Ni) wound in a coil and enclosed
in a suitable pressure container. The pressure coefficient of resistance for this material is about 1.7x10-7 psi
(1.5x10-11 Pa-1).
• The total resistance of the wire is about 100 Ω, and conventional bridge circuits are employed for measuring
the change in resistance.
• Such gauges are subject to aging over a period of time so that frequent calibration is required; however,
when properly calibrated, the gage can be used for high-pressure measurement with an accuracy of 0.1
percent.
 Fig. Very-high-pressure transducer.

• For fluid pressures above 700 MPa, electrical gauges based on the resistance change of Manganin or
gold-chrome wire with hydrostatic pressure are generally used.
• The sensitive wire is wound in a loose coil, one end of which is grounded to the cell body and the
other end brought out through a suitable insulator.
• The coil is enclosed in a flexible, kerosene-filled bellows, which transmits the measured pressure to
the coil.
• The resistance change, which is linear with pressure, is sensed by conventional Wheatstone-bridge
methods.
• The transient response of the gauge is exceedingly good.
• The resistance wire itself can respond to variations in the MHz range. Of course, the overall
frequency response of the pressure-measurement system would be limited to much lower values
because of the acoustic response of the transmitting fluid.
 Low-Pressure (Vacuum) Measurement
• The science of low-pressure measurement is a rather specialized field which requires considerable care on the
part of the experimentalist.
• Manometers and bellows gauges arc usable to about 0.1 torr, Bourdon gauges upto 10 torr, and diaphragm
gauges to 10-3 torr.
• For moderate vacuum measurements the bourdon gauge, manometers, and various diaphragm gauges may be
employed.
• Below these ranges, other types of vacuum gauges are necessary.
• McLeod Gauge
• Knudsen Gauge
• Pirani Thermal conductivity Gauge
• Ionization Gauge
• Dial-Gauge Technique
 McLeod Gauge
• McLeod gauge amplifies the low pressure and was developed to extend
the range of vacuum measurement significantly.
The McLeod Gauge measures the vacuum pressure in the range between
10-1 and 10-5 torr. This can be used as a primary standard device for
calibrating other low-pressure gauges.
• McLeod gauge is essentially a mercury manometer in which a volume
of gas is compressed before measurement. It operates by compressing a
low-pressure gas of known volume into a smaller volume so that its
pressure is sufficiently higher enough to be read. The resultant final
volume and pressure provide the indication of applied low pressure.
• The movable reservoir is lowered until the mercury column drops below
the opening O.
• The bulb B and capillary C are then at the same pressure as the vacuum
source p.
• The reservoir is subsequently raised until the mercury fills the bulb and
rises in the capillary to a point where the level in the reference capillary
is located at the zero point.
 Knudsen Gauge
• Pressure is determined by the interaction of particles with a surface, its kinetic energy,
and is temperature dependent.
• When a particle hits a hotter surface, heat transfer will take place and the particle will
gain energy. When a particle hits a colder surface, the opposite occurs.
• Particles that interact with a hotter or colder surface will exert a force on that surface.
• A Knudsen manometer uses this temperature-effect to make a plate with dual
temperatures rotate.
• It consists of a rotating plate, of which the centre of rotation is in the centre of the
plate. Image the plate rotating, the parts that push the 'air' are the plate parts that are
'normal' temperature, the other sides are heated.
• At the heated sides the particles that interact will gain kinetic energy and push to plate
to rotation. By reading the speed of this rotation the pressure can be determined.
 Knudsen Gauge
• Unknown pressure pi is admitted to a chamber
containing fixed plates heated to absolute temperature
Tp, which temperature must be measured, and a spring
restrained movable vane whose temperature Tg, also
must be known.
• The spacing between the fixed and movable plates
must be less than the mean free path of the gas whose
pressure is being measured.
• The molecules striking the vanes from the hot plates
have a higher velocity than those leaving the vanes
because of the difference in temperature. Thus, there is
a net momentum imparted to the vanes which may be
measured by observing the angular displacement of
the mirror, similar to the technique used in a light
beam galvanometer.
 Pirani Thermal-Conductivity Gauge

• At low pressures the effective thermal conductivity of gases decreases with pressure.
• The Pirani gauge is a device that measures the pressure through the change in thermal conductance of the
gas.
• An electrically heated filament is placed inside the vacuum space.
• The heat loss from the filament is dependent on the thermal conductivity of the gas and the filament
temperature. The lower the pressure, the lower the thermal conductivity and, consequently, the higher the
filament temperature for a given electric-energy input.
• The temperature of the filament could be measured by a thermocouple, but in the Pirani-type gauge the
measurement is made by observing the variation in resistance of the filament material (tungsten, platinum,
etc.).
• The resistance measurement may be performed with an appropriate bridge circuit.
• The heat loss from the filament is also a function of the ambient temperature, and, in practice, two gauges are
connected in series, as shown in Fig., to compensate for possible variations in the ambient conditions.
• The measurement gauge is evacuated, and both it and the sealed gauge are exposed to the
same environment conditions.
• The bridge circuit is then adjusted (through resistance R2) to produce a null condition.
• When the test gauge is now exposed to the particular pressure conditions, the deflection of
the bridge from the null position will be compensated for changes in environment
temperature.
• Pirani gauges require an empirical calibration and are not generally suitable for use at
pressures much below 1 μm. The upper limit is about 1 torr (133 Pa), giving an overall
range of about 0.1 to 100 Pa.
• Electrons are passing through a potential difference. These are cathodes and anodes. Let us consider this is
a close chamber; and to that chamber, the vacuum source is connected. So, we are measuring very very low
pressure of say a gas stream. So, there will be gas molecules in this chamber.
• Now, when the electrons passes through this potential difference, they will acquire kinetic energy which is
proportional to the potential difference that is being applied. Now, if this kinetic energy is large, and if the
electron collides with this gas molecules, the gas molecule will be converted to a positively charged ion.
• Because this electron when collides with the gas molecule and if this kinetic energy of the electron is very
high, it can knock out a secondary electron and then the gas molecule will be converted to a positively
charged ion.
• So, number of these positively charged ion will depend on the number of gas molecules present in the
chamber.
• Number of gas molecules present in the chamber is nothing but a measure of pressure.
• More number of gas molecules in the chamber means more pressures; very few number of gas molecules
in the chamber means very low pressures.
• So, the basic principles of ionisation gauge is that we have to emit electrons which will acquire kinetic
energy, and those electrons will collide with the gas molecules, whose pressure we want to going measure.
After this collision, positively charged ions will be formed; I can measure the current due to projection of
the positively charged ions; and that current will be a measure of the number of gas molecules or the
pressure.
 Alphatron gauge
• The Alphatron is a radioactive ionization gauge, shown in Fig.
• This is the chamber which is connected to the vacuum source.
• A small radium source serves as an alpha-particle emitter.
• So, it produces alpha-particles.
• These alpha-particles collides with the gas molecules that are present
and the negative ions are collected using this ion collector.
• So, the current due to this is a measure of the number of ions formed
which is dependent on the number of gas molecules present in this
chamber because that decides the number of collisions and number of
collisions decides by number of ions formed.
• So, ultimately the current due to this negative ions is a measure of this
vacuum.
• These particles ionize the gas inside the gauge enclosure, and the
degree of ionization is determined by measuring the voltage output Eo.
• The degree of ionization is a direct linear function of pressure for a
rather wide range of pressures, from 10-3 to to 103 torr (0.1 to 105 Pa).
Figure: Summary of applicable range of pressure gages