021 - 01 System Design, Loads, Stresses, Maintenance

Relationship between Probability & Severity of Failure Condition

Metal Fatigue
- Weakened condition induced in metal parts by repeated stresses or loadings, ultimately resulting in fracture under a stress
much weaker than that necessary to cause fracture in a single application
- Most amount of cycles per day
Mechanical Stress
- Term used for pressure  Pascals (Pa)
- Force / Area
Stress Corrosion
- Combined effect of sustained tensile stresses & a corrosive environment
- Particularly characteristic of Aluminum, Copper, certain Stainless Steels, & high strength Alloy Steels
Deformation
- Aircraft components are subjected to stresses & these will tend to elongate, compress, bend, shear or twist the component
 Elastic Deformation = Within Elastic Limit  Component will return to its original dimension once the deforming load has
been removed
 Plastic Deformation = Beyond the Elastic Limit  Deformation will be permanent
Structural Design Principles
- Safe Life Design
 Min. life during which it is known that no catastrophic damage should occur. After this period has been reached the
structure should be replaced, inspected or overhauled per manufacturers recommendations.
 Eg. Cycle / Flight Hours / Pressurization Events / Calendar Time
- Fail Safe Design
  When a structure fails there is alternative load-path provided by an adjacent part which is able to take over the loads for a
limited amount of time. Should be enough time until the next periodic inspection where the damage should be identified
& the damaged part replaced.
Young’s Modulus
- Measure the stiffness of a solid material
- Defines the relationship between Stress & Strain in a material in the linear elasticity regime of a uniaxial deformation
 Stress: Force per unit area
 Strain: Proportional Deformation, Ratio of the change in size of the deformed structure to the size of the non-deformed
structure. Change in dimensions of a material as a result of an applied stress
Torsion
- Form of stress a structure can endure
Traction
- Mechanical force which can put something in motion
On Condition Maintenance
- Need maintenance once it has a condition which needs repair.
- When a part gives a failure by itself / When some parameters are out of limits
Hard Time Maintenance
- Require a specific action at a specific interval (Flight Hours / Cycles / Calendar Time) per the manufacturers recommendations
Cyclic Loading
- Application of repeated or fluctuating stress, strains, or stress intensities to locations on structural components
- Dynamic load & the direction of loads changes during the life cycle of a structure there it is a reversible load

021 - 02 Airframe
Fuselage Structure
- Skin / Frames / Stringers
Wing Spar
- Web + Girders
Torsion Box
- Wing Spars + Ribs + Wing Skin reinforced by Stringers
Mass Balance
- Adding a balancing mass in front of the control surface hinge line
- Prevent flutter
Structure
- Truss Structure
 Light steel tubes welded together to form a frame which has very rigid forms which can carry the loads which the aircraft
has to endure whether on the ground or in the air.
 Covered with light type of skin, such as aluminum or even a fabric skin
- Pure Monocoque
 Skin takes all of the loads with some light internal frames to give the required shape to the skin.
 Small damages can severely weaken the structure & therefore extra strength will need to be built around windows &
doors, etc
- Semi Monocoque
 Loads are distributed over additional structures such as stringers & longerons. Stringers are used to stiffen the skin &
assist the loads the skin has to endure along its length
Wing Structure
- Spanwise: Spars & Stringers
 Spars: Main structural member of a wing, supporting
all distributed loads & concentrated weights
- Chordwise: Ribs
 Ribs: Perform similar functions to those performed by
fuselage frames.
 Maintain the shape of the wing section
 Assist in transferring loads to the wing spars
 Reduce the column length of the stringers
Fuselage Structure

Stringers
- Assist the skin to absorb longitudinal compressive loads
- Prevent tension & compression stresses from being the fuselage
Skin
- Gives the fuselage its aerodynamic shape

- Support a major portion of the flight loads

Longerons
- Hold the bulkheads & formers. Supplemented by other longitudinal members known as stringers
- Prevent tension & compression stresses from being the fuselage
Vertical Structural Members
Bulkhead, Rings, Formers (Frame): Hold the stringers
Cantilever Wing
- No external bracing is needed. They are supported internally by structural members assisted by the skin of the aircraft
 Stationary on Ground: Wings are drooping under gravity, stretching the top skin (tension) & compression the bottom skin
 In Flight: lift is pulling the wings up (bent upwards), stretching the bottom
(tension) & compressing the top
Composite vs. Metal
- Lighter: Up to 70% lighter than metal
- High Strength-to-Weight Ratio: CF weighs about 25% as Steel, 70% as Aluminum.
Much stronger & stiffer than both materials per weight.
- Stronger
 Metal: When increasing the strength of metal, it must be equally strong in all
directions
 Composite: Engineered & designed to be strong in a specific direction while keeping it lightweight
- Corrosion Resistant: Composite resist weather damage & other harsh chemicals that would typically damage metal
- Nonconductive: Unlike steel, composites are nonconductive

021 - 03 Hydraulics
Hydraulic Actuator
- Hydraulic Power is converted to mechanical power by means of an Actuator
- Hydraulic Actuators may deliver a linear “push-pull” motion via a Rod & Piston within a cylindrical tube or rotary motion,
where they will produce a turning moment / torque
 Single Acting Actuator
 Acts on only one side of the piston; the other side of the piston utilizes a mechanical load to push the piston back in
the other direction
 Double Acting Actuator
  Acts on both sides of the piston. Can produce linear motion in 2 directions. It contains 2 fluid ports: one of the “Blind
End” & one on the “Rod End”
Hydraulic Reservoir
- Provide storage space for the fluid
- Provide sufficient air space to allow for any variations of fluid in the sys
- Usually pressurized to provide a positive fluid pressure at the pump inlet, prevent air
bubbles (cavitation) from forming in the fluid at high altitude & entering the supply
of a hydraulic pump, pressurization is normally provided by the pneumatic sys.
- Relief Valve is fitted to prevent excessive pressure build up due to heating or sys
malfunction
Stack Pipe
- Ensure hydraulic fluid supply in case of a leak in the Main Reservoir
- Can be used in case of emergency
Hydraulic Accumulators
- Store Energy / Hydraulic Fluid under pressure (allow limited operation of hydraulic services when
the pump is not operating or in case of an emergency)
- Dampen Pressure Fluctuations
- Improve hydraulic-sys efficiency, consisting of a piston moving in a cylinder
Power Transfer Unit (PTU)
- Transfers hydraulic power between 2 hydraulic sys.
- Transfer of power is mechanical, no fluid transfer between sys
 Hydraulic Motor
 Motor in one sys is used to drive a hydraulic pump in the other sys
 Hydraulic Pump
Hydraulic Fluid Overheat
- Fluid temp measurement is usually performed in the fluid reservoirs
- Only overheat indication is for the Hydraulic Pump
- OVERHEAT Light illuminates + HYD Annunciator + MASTER CAUTION Lights
Check Valve / Non-Return Valve (NRV)
- If hydraulic fluid comes from the inlet port it will push in the spring allowing fluid to flow from the inlet to the outlet
- If the pressure on the outlet side would be greater than that on the inlet, this will push the ball to the right closing the valve
& not allowing any hydraulic fluid movement
Constant Delivery Pump / Fixed Volume Pump
- Automatic Cut-Out Valve is fitted
- Provides the pump with an idling circuit when no services are used.
- Cut-In Position: Allows delivery from the pump through the Non-Return Valve & pressurize the sys
- Cut-Out Position: When the sys has reached the required pressure the piston moves up allowing fluid from the pump to flow
back into the reservoir
Hydraulic Failure
- Loss 1 Sys  Master Caution & Amber light & the loss of pressure reading for the affected system
Hydraulic Fluids
- Transmission of pressure & energy / Lubricating medium, Reducing friction between moving parts / Carrying away heat
- Operating Pressure (3,000 – 5,000 PSI)
- Handle with care as they are skin & eye irritant
- Type
 DTD 585: Refined Mineral Based Oil / RED / Synthetic Rubber Seals
 SKYDROL: Phosphate Ester Based Oil (Synthetic) / PURPLE & GREEN / Synthetic Rubber Seals
- Properties
 Low Compressibility: Ensure instantaneous operation
 Good Lubrication & Anti-Corrosion: Act as a lubricant for the pumps, actuators & motors within the sys
 High Flash Point / Low Flammability: Fluid ignition should not occur at the
normal operating temp of the surrounding components
 Low Volatility: Be resistant to evaporation
 Adequate Viscosity: Must flow easily at very low temp but must also maintain
adequate viscosity at high temp.
 Low Freezing Point & High Boiling Point
 Thermal Stability
Selector Valve
- Direct fluid to either side of the piston of an actuator with just one pressure line
Hydraulic Fuse
- Shut of the flow if there is a sufficient pressure drop occurs across the fuse
- Prevent total system loss in the event of a hydraulic leak

021 – 04 Landing Gear, Wheels, Tyres, Brakes

Auto-Brake System (ABS)
- Anti-Skid Function has to be operative
- An armed ABS at low settings will start operating with a certain time delay after main wheel touchdown
- Never deactivate without pilot action
- Not deactivate below a certain speed
- OFF
- ARMED
 Is ready to be used but there are conditions which have to be met before the Auto-Brakes start operating
- ACTIVATED
- Disarming the Autobrakes will occur by…
 Manual Braking
 Advancing any thrust lever after landing
 Moving the speed brake lever to down after speed brakes have been deployed on the ground
 Moving the autobrake selector to DISARM / OFF
- In RTO mode, Auto-Brake Sys will only activate above 85 knots. Once above this speed the auto-brakes will brake until the a/c
stops
Anti-Skid System
- Failure of Anti-Skid Sys  At least double the min. braking distance on a DRY rwy
- Help braking by maintaining an optimum wheel-slip value
- Based on tachometers (wheel speed sensors) that measure the rotation speed of each wheel. Tachometers are connected to
a computer Anti-Skid Unit (ASU). The ASU compares the a/c ground speed as a reference with precise wheel RPM
measurements from tachometers, determines the slip ratio required for optimum braking
- Anti Skid Operative, by fully pressing the brake pedals the a/c will decelerate at Max force = Auto Brakes on RTO
Brakes
- Steel Brake
 Wear is directly proportional to the kinetic energy absorbed by the brakes
 Max. life  Using large # of small, light brake applications, allowing some time for brake cooling between applications
- Carbon Brake
 Wear is primarily dependent on the total # of brake applications.
 One firm brake application causes less wear than several light applications
Protection System
- Weight on Wheels Switches (Squat Switch)
 Avoid gear from being retracted while the a/c is on the ground
- Anti-Retract Latch
 Prevent inadvertent up selection of the landing gear when on the ground
 Physically prevents the gear selector from being moved
 In emergency, pilot might be able to override & retract the gear
 Gear warning horn will sound & a red gear unsafe light will illuminate
- Fusible / Thermal Plugs
 Commonly installed & held in position in the WHEEL HUB
 Braking (especially following aborted TO) imposed very large thermal loads can cause already high pressure in the tyres to
rise to the point that the tyre might burst.
 Operate as a Safety Valve & should a critical temp be reached in the wheel assembly, the thermal plug will melt which
provides a relief mechanism, allowing controlled TIRE DEFLATION
Landing Gear Position Indications
- Green: Gear is locked down
- Red: Gear is unlocked / Gear position disagrees with the lever position
- No Lights: Gear is locked up
Nose Wheel Steering
- Nosewheel will not move once in the AIR
- Hand Wheel Steering (Tiller)
 Larger Deflection, up to 78 degrees
- Rudder Pedals Steering
 Max. of 7 degrees
Typical Tread Wear Patterns
-
Types of Locks for Landing Gear
- Geometric Lock (Over Centre)
 Only used as a DOWN LOCK. Requires mechanical forces to unlock it
 Can use the stays bracing the struts
- Hook Lock
 Engage without hydraulic pressure but require hydraulic pressure to release. They are typically used for UP LOCK but can
in some rare cases be used as downlocks
Tire Creep
- The Circumferential movement of the tyre in relation to the Wheel Rim
Nose Wheel Shimmy
- Rapid side to side oscillation of the steerable part of the nosegear & wheel, resulting in a sinusoidal motion on the ground &
possibly causing vibrations of the entire airframe
 Imbalance in the nose tire & wheel assembly
 Uneven tire wear
 Overly inflated nose tire
Landing Gear Component
- Torsion Link
 Connects the upper cylinder & lower piston to prevent rotation of the piston within the cylinder & to maintain alignment
of the wheel.
 Prevent shimmy vibrations in an a/c landing gear
Emergency Gear Extension
- Hand Crank
- Hand Pump Hydraulic
- Free Fall
  “Free Fall” under the influence of gravity from their retracted & up-locked position to an extended & down-locked
position
 Emergency release handle connects to the gear up locks through a mechanical linkage. Up-Locks will be released, either
by mechanic or electronic means.
 Weight of the gears will push the doors open.
- Pressurized Nitrogen Bottle Sys
 By pulling the red EMER GEAR CONTROL handle, allowing one shot extension of the landing gear
Reject Take Off (RTO) Mode
- Max. Anti-Skid is applied as you will need max. braking power
- Auto Brakes always decelerate at the most efficient way than Manual Braking
- Brake will NOT be released until pilot action
- Will apply the Max. Possible Deceleration but not constant

021 – 05 Flight Controls

Protection System
- Double Trim Switch
 Prevent Trim Runaway on the stabilize, if 1 switch runs away then the other can be used to stop it
 Trimmable Horizontal Stabilizer (THS) or other trim device on the a/c tail fails to stop at the desired position & continues
to deflect up or down.
- Excessive Rudder Deflection: 2 main systems used to prevent excessive rudder deflection
 Rudder Ratio Changing: Rudder pedals move through their full range at all speeds but the rudder deflection reduces with
increasing IAS
 Variable Stop Systems: Movement of the rudder is directly proportional to pedal travel. The movement are reduced with
increasing IAS. Usually begin at 165 kt
- Auto Slat System
 Enhance the airplane stall characteristics
 Upon receiving a signal from the stall warning sys, the ASS automatically operates the slats, extending them from the
midrange position to the fully extended landing position
 Slats retract a few seconds after the signal is removed
- Gust Lock / Control Lock
 Internal / External lock & may be fitted to the control surface or the cockpit control.
 Made in a way that it is impossible to move the control column / surface
- Flap Load Relief Sys
 Retract the flaps to an intermediate position when the airspeed exceeds a predetermined speed
 Once the speed has decreased below this speed, the flaps will be automatically return to the selected flap setting
Artificial Feel Units
- Designed to give the pilot control feel which is proportional to the speed of the aircraft & the amount of control surface
movement made.
 Full Powered Flying Control  Irreversible  Requires an artificial feel system
 Power Assisted Flying Control Unit  Reversible  Allows feedback to the cockpit controls, not require Artificial Feel
System
- Elevator Trim: Zero force position of the control column DOES NOT change
- Aileron Trim: Zero force position of the control column changes (Control wheel turns in the direction of the trim)
- Rudder Trim: Zero force position of the control column changes (Pedals move in the direction of the trim)
Speed Brakes
- Flight Spoilers & Ground Spoilers
 Ground Spoiler shut-off valve which remains closed until the main landing gear operates a “weight on” switch
Fly by Wire (FBW) Systems
- Convert the mechanical input into an electrical output which is amplified, processed by computers with the processed
command signal providing the input to the servo valve which controls the movement of a hydraulic actuator.
- Weight
 Lighter than conventional as it doesn’t require the heavy control cables. Stabilizing surfaces can be made smaller.
Reduction in fuel consumption
 Conventional sys tend to fail slowly. FBW loss of control immediately
- Pilot Workload
 Can be reduced by computers making many of the inputs & through support including automatic control features such as
turn co-ordination & auto trim
- Flight Envelope Protection
 Sys will prevent the pilot pitching the a/c beyond the stalling AOA. Also allow the pilot to operate the controls positively
up to the 2.5g limit without fear of overstressing the a/c
 Pitch Attitude / Load Factor / Bank Angle / AOA / High Speed
Pressure Relief Valve
- Open once the pressure on the valve exceeds a predetermined limit
- If a/c has high speed / experiences turbulence, the forces on flight controls can get too high & might cause failure or damage.
Relief Valve is placed for when that happens, the valve will open allowing the surface to retract.

021 – 06 Pressurization & Air Conditioning Systems

Air Cycle Machine = Air Conditioning Packs = Bootstrap System
- First pre-cooled in the Primary Heat Exchanger
- Bleed air is then compressed in the Compressor section
- Fed through the Secondary Heat Exchanger to remove as much heat as possible
- Expanded & introduced to the Turbine section which is used to drive the compressor
- Air is then ducted through a Water Separator to remove excess
moisture from the conditioned air before it enters the cabin &
cockpit via a one way check valve
- Air passes through a Humidifier to increase the moisture
content of the conditioning air
- Main Function: Cool the Bleed Air
- Slow Flight / On Ground: “Ground Cooling Fan” is responsible to
draw air through the Ram Air Duct so that the Heat Exchange is
possible when the aircraft is stationary
Temperature Regulation
- 3 Things needed
 Selector: Temperature is set
 Way to measure whether this target is reached
 Regulator: Make changes to the airflow coming in
Cabin Differential Pressure
- Cabin Pressure – Ambient Air Pressure
- Maximum is generally between 7 – 9 PSI
- Cruising  Outflow Valves will remain slightly open
Pressurization Systems
- Feeding air into the cabin & Restricting its Flow Out (By using Electric Motor operated Outflow Valves)
 If a higher pressure is needed  Outflow is reduced but closing the outflow valves  Increase the pressure
 To reduce cabin pressure, the outflow valve slowly opens  Allow more air to escape
- Normal Rates of Climb: 500 ft / min Normal Rate of Descent: 300 ft / min
- Pax A/C: Max is 6 – 8,000 ft / 15,000 ft in the event of any reasonably probable failure / malfunction in the pressurization sys
- ↑Cabin Altitude  ↓Cabin Pressure
- Safety Valve / Positive Pressure Relief Valve
 Prevent the over-pressurization of the a/c cabin
 Open at a preset differential pressure & allow air to flow
out of the cabin
 Opens if the pressure rises to max differential plus 0.25
psi
- Inwards Relief Valve / Negative Pressure Relief Valve
 Prevent the pressure in the cabin from becoming lower than the ambient outside pressure, avoiding excessive negative
differential pressure
 Opens if the pressure outside exceeds than inside by 0.5 to 1.0 psi
Bleed Air System
- Air that is “bled” from the compressor stage of an engine. Usually extracted from the 5th stage (LP Stage of the turbine’s HP
compressor)
- Pressurization / Air Conditioning / Ice Protection
- Provides a means of cooling since the bleed air supply is always at a higher temp than required for pax comfort.
- Cabin pressure is controlled by outflow valves
- Bleed Air Pressure Gauge
 Monitor bleed air manifold temp & pressure
 Measured relative to the Atmospheric Pressure
Temperature Regulation
- Mixing hot air with cooled air
- Mechanical & Electro-Mechanical
- Not Automatic Method: Uses a separate circuit to control the operation
of the Outflow Valve
 Enable the outflow valves to be positioned with the DC motor
 Separate circuit for the operation
- Automatic Method: Comparing the temp set in the cockpit with the temp in the cabin & the supply ducts.
 If there is a difference, hot air valve will be adjusted to allow more or less hot air to go through the duct until the desired
temp is reached
Refrigerant
- Dichlorodifluromethane (Freon-12/R12)
 Used before, but it dampens the environment, degraded the Earth’s ozone layer
- Tetrafluoroethane (R134a)
 Safer for Environment
- Regardless of Manufacturer, Refrigerants are sometimes called Freon, trade name owned by Dupont Company

021 – 07 Anti-Icing & De-Icing Systems

Fluid Anti-Ice System
- Weeping Wings: Typically protect wings, tails surfaces, propellers, & windshields.
- Pump forces a mixture of ethylene glycol, isopropyl alcohol, & water through the holes. Fluid runs back over the surface,
forming a thin liquid film that prevents structural ice from forming.
Hot Rod Detector
- Mounted outside the cockpit window in a location where it can be observed by the flight crew
- If the a/c enters an icing environment, ice will build-up on the leading edge of the probe
- Deicing is achieved by a heater element within the rod, & is operated by a press button in the
cockpit
 Visible to Pilot
 Detector represents the wing; no ice on detector = none on wing
 May incorporate a heater to remove ice
Smith Ice Detector
- Consists of a Hollow Tube which contains a series of small holes & one large hole positioned in its leading edge & a separate
series in its trailing edge. The detector monitors pressure differential between the 2 edges.
- In flight under Normal Conditions, holes remain open & pressure differential is ZERO
- In Icing Conditions, holes in the leading edge rapidly become blocked by ice. This causes a decrease in Dynamic Pressure,
causing the relay unit to give a warning.
 Small Holes are heated first
Rosemount Ice Detector
- Consist of a short cylindrical probe mounted on a vibrator housing which vibrates the probe axially at a specified frequency
- Detector vibrates at a fixed rate when there is NO ICING. When ice accumulates, the frequency of vibration DECREASE,
indicates ice accretion measuring resonant vibration frequency
- Can be heated
Ice Control System
- Pneumatic Boots
 Expand & Break Ice off aerofoils, protect wing & tail surface leading edges
 Fabric-reinforced rubber sheet that contains built in inflation tubes. Boots are installed in sections along each leading
edge surface. On wings & horizontal stabilizers, they operate simultaneously to provide symmetrical airflow between both
sides of the plane
- Thermal System
 Use bleed air / electricity to heat protected surfaces & prevent ice
 Protect leading edge & the slats (most large a/c do not have anti-ice protection on the inboard section of the wing)
 Not disrupting the airflow over the leading edge. BUT, a/c performance & max thrust will be reduced, since bleed air is
extracted from the engine
- Windshield Ice Control
 Defroster consisting of vents that direct heated air across the windshield on the inside of the cabin.
 To prevent ice formation, most windshields are electrically heated; small wires or electrically conductive materials are
embedded in the windshield or in a panel of glass installed over the exterior of the windshield. By passing electric current
through the windshield or panel, sufficient heat is produced to prevent ice formation
 Power: 3 Phase AC at 400 Hz

021 – 08 Fuel System

Fuel System Purposes
- Storing Fuel / Delivering a steady flow of fuel from the tanks to the engine at adequate pressure & temp / Ensuring engine
operation / Ensuring fuel balance via a cross-feed / Optimization of CG position

Fuel System Indicators

- Fuel Temp
 Inform the pilot when fuel temp approaches that could cause ice to form in the fuel sys, especially at the fuel filter
- Fuel Pressure
 Sensor with a transducer located at the fuel inlet to the metering device that sends electrical signals to a cockpit gauge
- Fuel Quantity
 Electric indicators or electronic capacitance type indicators
Jet Fuel Additives: Blended into the fuel to improve the operating ability of the fuel
- FSII (Fuel System Icing Inhibitor): Contains an icing inhibitor & fungal suppressant to combat the followings
 Icing: Ice crystals which can block fuel sys components
Ideal Fuel
- Ease of flow under all operating conditions
- Complete combustion under all conditions
- High calorific value
- Non-corrosive
- No damage to the engine from combustion by-products
- Low fire hazard
- Ease of engine starting
- Lubricity
AVGAS
- Piston engine aircraft use gasoline fuels. Higher octane fuels are used with high performance engines having high
compression ratios
MOGAS
- Low octane rating, but sometimes be used in certain airframe engine combinations
-
Centrifugal Pumps
- Most common type auxiliary / booster fuel pumps used on a/c
- Low Pressure & Electric Motor Driven variable displacement pump
- Submerged in the fuel tank enabling pump priming & preventing cavitation
Unusable Fuel
- Due to the fuel sys design & the fact that the fuel pickup is not at the absolute bottom of the tank, there is always fuel at the
bottom of the tank which is not considered to be accessible for running the engine
- Not indicated on the fuel quantity indicators
Cloudy Fuel
- If cloudiness appears to rise quite rapidly towards the top of the sample then air is present
- If cloudiness appears to fall quite slowly towards the bottom of the sample then water is present
Water in the Fuel
- Water Drain: Water is heavier than the fuel, can be drained off through the water drain valve
- Fuel Heater: Prevent water in the fuel freezing & blocking fuel filters.
- Atmosphere Exclusion: If the tanks are topped up to full then the atmosphere is excluded together with the moisture it
contains.
Waxing
- Depositing of heavy hydrocarbons from the fuel at low temperatures
- Minimize by keeping the levels of heavy hydrocarbons low, inclusion of a fuel heater in the engine fuel sys
Vent System
- May include vent valves & vent surge tank. Allows the air pressure above the fuel in the tank to equalize with the ambient
pressure & may also provide for ram air to be introduced to partially pressurize the tanks in flight to assist the fuel flow &
help to reduce fuel boiling at altitude.
- Any fuel overflowing into the vent sys is collected by the vent/surge tank & recycled back to the main tanks
- Vent Space in each fuel tank is 2% of the tank volume
Filters (Screens)
- Prevent any debris in the tank being drawn into the booster pumps
Booster Pumps
- Normally fitted in pairs in each tank
- Pump fuel from the tank to the engine
- Necessity in high altitude a/c to prevent cavitation of the engine driven pump
Collector Tank (Feeder Box)
- Always hold a measured quantity of fuel (typically 500kg) to allow the pumps to be continually submerged in fuel
Cross-Feed & Shut-Off Valves
- Enable fuel to be fed from any tank to any engine & isolated in the event of a fault or emergency
High & Low Level Float Switches / Level Sensors
- HL Switch  Automatically close the refuel valve when the tank is full during refuelling
- LL Switch  Maintain a required min. fuel in the main tanks during fuel jettison or dumping
Fuel Drains
- At the lowest point in the tank to allow water to be drained from the tank
Baffles
- Fitted in the tanks to dampen rapid movement of fuel (surging / sloshing) during maneuvering
Overpressure Relief Valve
- Prevent structural damage to the tank in the event of over pressurized
Aircraft Fuel Systems (Twin Engines)
- Cross-Feed Valve
 Allows both engines to be fed from one side or one engine to be fed from both sides
- Suction Valve
 Allow the engine to be fed by gravity or suction by the engine driven pump in the event of both booster pumps failing in
one tank
- Temperature Sensor
 In No. 1 tank which will transmit the fuel tank temperature to an indicator on the control panel
- APU takes its fuel from the No. 1 tank from a bypass valve if there are no booster pumps operating, but could be fed from any
tank if a booster pump in that tank was selected on
- Fuel imbalance in flight between 1 & 2 tank can be corrected by selective switching of the booster pumps & cross-feed valve
Fuel Jettison or Dump
- Pumping fuel out of a dump master valve, typically one on each wing at the trailing edge, well outboard to enable the fuel to
be dumped safely with no danger of it entering the aircraft or any of its sys
- Amount of fuel to be dumped can often be selected & automatically controlled
- Fuel remaining after jettisoning must be sufficient to enable the a/c to climb to 10,000 ft & thereafter allow 45 mins cruise at
a speed for max. range
Fuel Quantity Measurement
- Measuring Volume, subject to maneuvering error & cannot compensate for variations of density
- Measuring Weight / Mass, doesn’t subject to maneuvering error & can compensate for variations of density
Aircraft Refueling
- Fueling zones at least 6 m / 20 feet radially from the filling & venting points
- No Smoking
- APU should start before filler caps are removed or fueling connections made
- Should not start APU until fueling has ceased
- Ground Power Unit GPU should be located as far away as practical from the fueling zones & not be connected or
disconnected while fueling is in progress
- Fire Extinguishers should be located so as to be readily accessible
Precautions before / during Fueling
- Should be bonded (grounded) to the fueling equipment using dedicated wires & clips
- All steps, trestles, jack etc. should be moved clear
- Main engines should NOT be operated
- Strobe Lighting should NOT be used
- Kept min. authorized personnel & vehicles around when refueling

021 – 09 Electrics
Electrical Current - Amperes
Electrical Potential - Volts
Electrical Work - Joule
Electrical Resistance - Ohms
Electrical Power - Watts
Voltage - Volts
AC Frequency - Hertz
Constant Frequency AC Sys - kW, kVA, kVAR
Power
- Rate of doing work
- Power (P) / Watts (W) = Voltage x Current
 1 kV = 1,000 Volts
Electrical Work
- Electrical Work = Voltage x Current x Time
- W=UxIxT
- Rate of doing work
- P = Watts (W) / t (Time)
- P=UxI
Ohm’s Law
- Current = Voltage / Resistance
Battery provides DC
Constant Speed Drive (CSD)
- Hydromechanical Unit & Can be Disconnected
- A mainly mechanical device, which is positioned between the plane engine & the brushless AC Generator
- CSD is designed to keep the generator running at a constant speed
- Failure of the CSD: Excessive CSD Oil Temp / Low Pressure / Low Oil Levels
 Prevent damage to the accessory gearbox & engine, the pilot is required to disconnect the CSD in flight through a “DOG
CLUTCH” remotely operated from the flight deck.
 Can be reset on ground only, after engine shut-down
“Disconnect” Switch
- Disconnect  The whole IDG, not only the CSD part
Fuse
- Thermal Circuit protection device that protects distribution system cables & components against excessive electrical current
when failures occur
- Light Duty Fuses / Cartridge Fuses
 Consist of a ceramic or a glass body with metal terminal at the ends. A thin copper fusible wire runs inside connecting the
terminals.
- Current Limiters
 When a certain amount of an overload condition is allowed to exist for a brief period of time before the fuse ruptures.
 Fuse element has a higher melting point that the light duty fuse, this allows the overload condition to exist for a
predetermined period of time before the fusing element melts
 Metal Strip with a waisted area in the middle that provides the actual fusing function
- Heavy Duty / High Rupture Capacity (HRC) Fuses
 Used in High Current Circuits. Can be equipped with one of typically more fusible elements.
 Quartz Sand is used.
 Robust design, operation without a flame, rapid & precise operation
Fuse Rating
- Higher Rating: Allow the current to exceed its max intended current for the circuit which could cause serious damage &
potentially lead to fire
- Lower Rating: Lead to a scenario where the fuse needs constant replacing which prevents the full usage of whatever is
connected to that circuit
Aircraft Bonding
- Ensure Zero Voltage difference between a/c components
- Provide a single earth for electrical devices
- Using Woven Copper Wire Strips to provide a low resistance path to discharge points on the structure
- Static Electricity build-up in the airframe is discharged into the atmosphere in flight via the Static Discharger / Static Wicks,
these are copper strips extending from points of static concentration such as trailing edges of wing
- Lightning Protection. If the a/c is struck by a lightning the bonding will provide a “path” of low resistance to the lightning
charge & thus minimizing any potential airframe damage
Circuit Breaker
- Automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short
circuit.
- Interrupting continuity, discontinue electrical flow
- Once operated to interrupt a circuit, can be reset (manually/automatically) to resume normal operation
- Non-Trip Free Type
 You push the button, circuits closes & current flows
 Maybe dangerous in case of overload
- Trip Free Type
 You push the button, circuits DOES NOT close (it remains open) & current DOES NOT flow
 Safe from overload
Alternating Current (AC)
- Electric flow changes direction frequently, that’s why the term “Frequency” is used in context with AC
 DC no frequency
- Frequency: # of complete cycles formed per second
- SI Unit: Hertz (Hz)  1 Hz = 1 Cycle Per Second
Logic Gates
- OR Gate / Any or All Gate
 Either or both inputs are at 1, output will be 1
 Both inputs are 0  Output = 0
- NOT Gate / Invert Gate
 Reverse the state of the input
 Single input & output & is used to invert a function
 If input = 0, output = 1, vice versa
- AND Gate / All or Nothing
 4 possible input combinations & 2 possible output
 Both inputs have to be 1 in order to produce 1 on the output
Relay
- Electromagnetic Switching Devices
Braided Wire
- Form of shielding that is built into electrical cables
 Protect the cable from Electromagnetic Interference from other electrical systems
 To increase the mechanical strength & flex life of the cable
Battery
Thermal Runway
- A problem which occurs primarily with Nickel-Cadmium batteries in case of overcharging
- High charge rate causes an↑Battery Temperature
- Higher temperature↑the speed of the chemical reactions inside the battery, which again releases more heat
- A vicious circle develops which ultimately leads to boiling of the Electrolyte, violent gassing & a meltdown of plates & casing.
Battery can even catch fire or explode
Battery
- Capacity  Amount of Ampere-hour (Ah) a fully charged battery can supply
- 5 Ah = Able to deliver 5 Amperes in 1 Hour / 2.5 Amperes in 2 Hours
- Parallel: Output Voltage (Same), Capacity (Double)
- Series: Output Voltage (Double), Capacity (Same)
- 2 x 12 Volt 40 Ah
 Parallel: 12V 80 Amp
 Series: 24V 40 Amp
- 2 Dissimilar metals are immersed in an electrolyte. A chemical reaction in the electrolyte causes a flow of electrons between
the plates.
 One plate becomes positively charged, while the other one is negatively charged. When both plates are connect by a line
with a load, a direct current will flow through the load
- Nickel-Cadmium Battery has a Positive Plate made from Nickel Hydroxide, Negative Plate made from Cadmium Hydroxide
- Plates are immersed in an electrolyte consisting 70% Distilled Water & 30% Potassium Hydroxide
Lithium-ion Batteries
- Significant flight safety risk due to the sheer # of batteries used within pax & crew personal electronic devices (PEDs)
- Thermal Runaway, where the energy stored within the battery is suddenly released as a result of a rapid increase in temp of
the battery. It initiates an unstoppable chain reaction that can lead to self ignition/explosions & fire that are difficult to
extinguish using conventional means
Lithium Battery Storage Boxes
- Used as Thermal Runaway Protection. These are made from Galvanished or Stainless Steel, & incorporate fire insulation
materials
Voltage of a fully charged
Lead  2.2V per cell
Nickel  1.2V per cell
Lithium  3.6V per cell
Battery Ammeter
- + 24  Being charged with 24A
Battery Capacity
- Determined by multiplying a current flow in Amperes by the time in hours that the battery is being discharged
- NOT Voltage
Generations
Electric Load
- Electric Load on the generator↓, Voltage↑Intensity of the Excitation (Generator Field) Current↓
Transformer Rectifier Unit (TRU)
- Used in the conversion of AC to DC
- An a/c regulated 3-Phrase AC Power Supply (typically 115V or 200V) is stepped down by transformers to 28V & then rectified
from AC to DC in combined TRUs  To supply the 28V DC bus bars for battery charging & other DC loads
Inverter
- Used in the conversion of DC to AC
- Rotary Unit & Static Unit
- Rotary Inverter
 DC is used to drive a DC motor at constant speed. This in turn drives an alternator (AC Generator) to provide alternating
current at constant frequency (Usually 115V, 3 Phase AC at 400 Hz).
- Static Inverter
 No moving parts & achieve the same result electronically.
 The circuitry of the static inverter contains such electronic components as Diodes, Transistors, Capacitors & Transformers.
These solid state components form an oscillator circuit that converts DC input into a 400 Hz constant frequency AC
output.
Pole Pairs
- AC Generator Output Frequency = Rotor RPM x # of Pairs of Poles / 60
AC DC
- Use Slip Rings - Use Commutators
- Stator: Induced Winding (Output) - Stator: Inductor Coils (Magnetic Field) are
- Rotor: Inductor Coils (Magnetic Field still supplied stationary
by DC) move - Rotor: Induced Winding (Armature)(Output) move
AC Generator
- Frequency Wild
 Confined only to light a/c & turboprops
 Generators are not rotated by the engines at a constant speed, they DO NOT employ any CSD units, therefore the
rotational speed of the generator is dependent on the rotational speed of the engine.
 Rotational speed of the generator determines its output frequency, then the frequency will vary with the engine speed
- In Parallel
 In Phase
 Have the same Voltage (Within 10V)
 Have the same Phase Angle (Within 90 degrees)
 Have the same Frequency (Within 3 – 5 Hz)
 Real & Reactive load sharing must be effective
Generator & Exciter  Fire / Fault  Flying Flight
Generator  Underspeed  Under
Tie Breaker  Imbalance  Instrument
Hot Battery Bus
- Connected directly to the battery without any switches
- Always powered
- Most critical systems are powered from this bus to ensure their operation in emergency under any circumstances
Switched Battery Bus
- Can be powered from the Battery if the Battery Switch is switched to ON
Essential Bus
- Opposite of Non-Essential Bus
- Critical flight systems & devices are powered from this bus
- In case all generators fail & the battery is the only source of power in flight, this bus remains powered
Non-Essential Bus
- Non-essential electrical devices are powered from this bus
- When all generators fail & only emergency power from the battery is available, this bus is NOT POWERED
Load Shedding
- Disconnecting non-essential loads in the electrical system, whether permanent or temporary, manual or automatic
- Used in abnormal situations such as after a generator failure where the output of the remaining generator may not be
sufficient to safely power entire electrical system
- Non-Essential services must be shed-turned off
- If load on the Generators is excessive, the system will automatically disconnect non-essential power consumers (Ovens in the
Galleys, Coffee-Pots, etc)
Without Load / Runload / Runaway
- Motor Speed↑, EMF↑, Current↓, Torque↓
If Load Increases
- Motor Speed↓, EMF↓, Current↑, Torque↑
Voltage Regulator
- Control the output voltage of the generator at varying Loads & Speeds
- Output varying the Field Strength
- Control the power required for Field Excitation of the Main Rotor in modern constant frequency alternators
- If the electrical load of an AC Generator providing a constant output voltage↑, the Voltage Regulator will↑the excitation
current of the field coil, thus↑the output of the Generator & keeping the Voltage constant for the↑load.
Generator Breaker
- Generator Voltage > Battery Voltage  Generator Breaker will close in order to supply the batteries with current & charge
them
Generator Control Unit (GCU)
- Modern GCUs are provided with a permanent indication to record the failure
- All the commands originating from the control panel are applied via the GCU, except dog clutch release
- Checks for faults in the AC Generator
- If Over-Excitation / Over-Voltage, the GCU will open the Exciter Control Relay to protect the Generator from potential further
damage. At the same time, GCU will also open the generator circuit breaker (GCB) to disconnect the Generator from its bus
bar.
-
Split System Breaker
- Closed when one of the Generator fails
Priority
- AC 1 BUS: GEN 1, APU GEN, External Power, GEN 2
- AC 2 BUS: GEN 2, External Power, APU GEN, GEN 1

021 - 11 Turbine Engines

Aeroplane Propulsion
- Jet Engine produces thrust by accelerating a mass of air / gas
- If we expel a mass of air rearwards, there will be an equal & opposite reaction forwards
- Adv: Dealing with much larger amounts of energy for a given size & weight
- Propulsive Power = Engine Thrust x TAS
- Efficiency = Propulsive Power Developed / Fuel Power Consumed
Compressor Stall
- Occurs when there is an imbalance between the air flow supply & the airflow demand
 Pressure Ratio that is incompatible with the Engine RPM
- Occurs when the AOA of the blades > the Critical AOA.
 Low Speed: Acceleration of the Engine is exceeding the Acceleration at which air can move towards the intake of the
engine, causing Stagnation of air at the rear of the Compressor Stages, lack of air ahead of the front stage of the
Compressor, making it stall.
Bypass Ratio
- Cold Air Mass / Hot Air Mass
- Bypass Mass Flow = Inlet Mass Flow – HP Compressor Mass Flow
- Bypass Ratio = Bypass Mass Flow / HP Compressor Mass Flow
Maximum Thrust
- Alt↑, Density↓,↓Thrust (Less air is entering the GTE)
Specific Fuel Consumption
- Temp↑, SFC↑
- ↑Pressure Alt  Temp↓ SFC↓
Fuel Nozzle
- Fuel delivered at High Pressure to the Atomizers (nozzles) goes through tangential grooves/holes into a concentric conical or
cylindrical Swirl Chamber situated just before the final Orifice
- Swirl Vanes provide better fuel burn by slowing down the incoming air & creating a swirl motion
- Impulse Turbine vs. Reaction Turbine

-
Power Setting with Constant Speed Propeller & Free Power Turbine
- Power↑ RPM of HP Spool↑ EGT↑
 Free Turbine & Propeller Assembly will remain Constant
 ↑Propeller’s Blade Angle
Oil to Fuel Heat Exchanger
- Cools the Oil & Heats the Fuel
Can-Type / Multiple Combustion Chamber
- # of individual chambers, disposed around the engine, between the compressor & turbine
sections. Within each chamber is a flame tube.
- Only 2 Igniters located in the 2 lower chambers. Cans are interconnected via a pivoted tube, flame is passed through the
tubes to every single can, ensuring a uniform ignition.
Tubo-Annular Combustion Chamber
- Consists of several tubes radially disposed around the engine between the compressor & turbine, all sitting in the same
annular casing.
- Adv: Airflow is carefully controlled & is more evenly spread over the first stage turbine
Annular Combustion Chamber
- Uses the entire annulus casing between the compressor & the turbine for combustion
- Thermal load distribution on the HP Turbine is more favorable & reduce turbine wearing
Hung Start
- N2 speed stabilizing at a lower than normal RPM & a subsequent↑in EGT.
- Engine fails to accelerate sufficiently because of a too low Pneumatic Starter Pressure before the fuel is supplied to sustain
combustion
- Shut Down the Engine, Conduct a Cranking, Initiate a cooling sequence before attempting a new engine start
Hot Start
- Caused by an early starter cut-out, fuel mis-scheduling (leading to excess fuel in the combustor), or strong tailwinds.
- Continue to accelerate
- Abort the start immediately
Dry Start
- Fuel fails to be delivered to the engine & light-up will not take place. Compressor will only reach a given RPM (rather low)
because it will be driven only by the starter motor
Gas Turbine Engine Igniters
- 2 Igniters / Engine
- Provide a source of heat to help ignite the fuel & air mixture inside the Combustion Chamber
- During Engine Start
 Engine is still cold & needs a high source of heat to help ignite the combustion process. (HIGH energy level mode)
- Flight during Heavy Precipitation
 Common to engage the continuous ignition to prevent engine flame out. (LOW energy level mode)
Magnetic Chip Detector
- Small magnetic plugs are fitted into the lubrication sys at specific positions to trap the worn residuals
- Accumulation of debris on the magnetic plug will indicate the source & the rate of wear & will trigger a warning of impending
failure without having to remove the filters for inspection
Free Turbine Engine
- DOES NOT drive the compressor, NO mechanical connection between the Compressor & Power Output Shaft
- Driving a propeller or rotor via a Reduction Gearbox
- Propeller & Free Turbine assembly will be able to rotate at an independent speed from that of the HP Spool
- Power↑, RPM of the HP Spool↑, EGT↑
 Free Turbine will be maintained at Constant RPM by the Constant Speed Unit (CSU) that will do so by↑the Propeller’s
Blade Angle
Accessory Gearbox
- Drives the accessories like Fuel Pumps, Oil Pumps, Generators, Hydraulic Pumps, etc
- Commonly driven by the HP Shaft, via a Gearbox Radial Drive Shaft
Flat Rating Concept
- Rating of the Jet Engine  Thrust Performance that is guaranteed by the manufacturer for a new engine under specific
operating conditions such as TO, Max. continuous, Climb, Cruise
Internal Sealing of the Lubricating Sys
- Using cooling air
- Directed inwards towards the bearings or oil supply, thus preventing the escape of oil from the bearing surface
- Labyrinth Seal
 Mechanical seals providing tortuous guidance to oil lines to prevent leakage.
 Compose of small grooves that are tightly fitted inside the axle & have long guides for oil, making it impossible for the oil
to escape
Self Sustaining RPM
- Minimum revolution speed of the engine that may be maintained without any started motor assistance
- As long as there is a stable flame front, the engine sustains burn without provided ignition
Spool Up Time
- How long it takes to increase RPM from idle to maximum value (approx. 7 seconds)
FADEC (Full Authority Digital Engine Control)
- Digital control sys mounted on the engine’s fan case, performs the entire engine mgmt. tasks
- Has a dual channels Electronic Control Unit (ECU) for redundancy, with one channel always active & second one on standby
 Automatic thrust rating control
 Engine operation within safe limits
 Fully automatic engine starting
 Thrust reverser control
 Engine overspeed &/ an EGT protection function
 Engine monitoring & help for maintenance & troubleshooting
Engine Net Thrust
- Total Thrust = Thrust caused by the Acceleration of the air mass flow + Thrust caused by the Pressure Difference at the
Exhaust
- Mass of Air x (Exhaust Nozzle Gas Velocity – Forward Speed of the A/C) + Nozzle Area (Nozzle Static Pressure – Ambient Static
Pressure)

Auxiliary Gearbox (Gas Turbine Engine)

- Driven by the HP compressor shaft via an internal gearbox to an external gearbox
- Mounting support for the engine
- Accessory Units
 AC Generator through its constant speed drive (CSD)
 Oil Pumps
 Hydraulic Pumps
 High-Pressure Fuel Pumps
Engine Vibration Monitoring System
- Detect mechanical deficiencies in the rotating parts (bearings & spools)
- Measures the Radial & Transverse vibrations using accelerometers operating on the Piezo-Electric principle
 The frequencies of the detected vibrations will be filtered so that only those indicating a potential malfunction are
considered
Heat Intense Spark
- Most convenient & satisfactory igniter
- Temperature of the Spark is around 60,000K & therefore heats the gases rapidly ensuring ignition in conditions of high alt &
low temp
Engine Tailpipe Fire
- Only occur at Engine Start / Engine Shutdown
- Result of an excess fuel in the combustion chamber, in the turbine, or in the exhaust nozzle, that ignites
- Tailpipe fire is an internal fire in the engine. Engine fire that occurs outside the engine core & gas path
- No critical areas are affected in the engine  A/c Sys, damage the wing & flaps
- Abnormal high EGT  Stop the fuel flow & ventilate the engine
Engine Trending
- Enhance maintenance planning & detect anomalies
Gas Turbine Engine Start Sequence
- Start Selected: Start valve admits air supplied by the pneumatic sys to operate the starter. Nowadays FADEC controls the start
valve electrically & operates it pneumatically with bleed air
- Ignition ON: Igniters are selected ON & are ready to light the mixture
- High Pressure Fuel ON: After fuel is delivered by the HP shut off valve, It sprayed into the combustion chamber by fuel
nozzles under HP where it is mixed with compressed air & lights up
- Light Up: Mixture starts burning & the flame spreads all along with the combustion chamber (since it is interconnected).
Flame becomes self-sustainable
- Self-Sustaining Speed: All the engine’s spools have reached a self-sustaining speed where assistance from the air starter is no
needed anymore. Air starter is disengaged by the coupling between N2 Spool & starter by the use of centrifugal forces
- Starter circuit canceled
Auxiliary Power Unit (APU)
- Small gas turbine located on the tail of the a/c able to deliver pressurized air, electrical power, air for cabin air conditioning, &
main engine starting
- It has its own electric starter motor powered either by the airplane’s main batteries or by the Ground Power Unit.
- Use fuel from the main fuel tanks & burns about 130 kg / h on ground
- APU Control Panel
 Master Switch: Energize the APU sys & its internal computer. Open the air intake flap & open the fuel isolation valve
 Start Switch: Ignition ON & starts the automatic start sequence
- Will shut down in one of the following cases
 Overspeed / No acceleration / Low oil pressure / EGT overtempt / High oil temp / Underspeed / Reverse flow
Specific Range
- Specific Air Range (SAR): Range through the air
- Specific Ground Range (SGR): Ground range
- Difference is due to wind strength & direction. When wind is to be considered, Specific Range is assumed to mean SGR
- Distance flown per unit of fuel: Nm / kg
- Dividing by Time: TAS / Fuel Flow
Compression Ratio
- Axial Compressors
 Single Spool 10 : 1
 Multi Spool 30 : 1
 Avg Ratio per stage 4 : 1
- Centrifugal Compressors
 Single Stage 4.5 : 1
 Two Stage 6 : 1
Turboprop Engines
- Through Constant Speed Unit, propeller controls the power output by varying the propeller blade pitch angle to maintain
engine RPM.
- ALPHA Control Range: Accelerate (Flight Idle to Max Power)
- BETA Control Range: Brake (Flight Idle to Max Reverse)
 Ground Idle Detent: Produce min level of thrust, just enough power to taxi the a/c
 Maximum Reverse Power: Full aft of the BETA range, lower the blade pitch angle

Active Clearance Control (ACC)

- Method used in Gas Turbines to improve fuel efficiency
- Managing the clearance between the gas turbine casing & the tops of the rotating blades, referred to Turbine Tip Clearance
 Monitors & varies the diameter of the turbine engine’s casing to minimize the clearance between the Rotor & the Casing
 ↑Tip Clearance  ↓Turbine Efficiency
Blocker Type System
- Only reverse the bypass air, & not both the bypass air & the air passing through the core of the engine
- 777X 10:1 Bypass Ratio, use blocker reverse thrust system, only a little will be list by not reversing the core
Diffuser
- Divergent area located between the compressor & combustion chamber
- Reduce Velocity & Increase Air Pressure

Inflight Restarting Sequence

- Rotation: Provides air for combustion & also to clear the engine of fuel if the engine does not light up
- Ignition
- Fuel
- On Ground: Starter  Rotation  Ignition  Fuel
- In Flight: Rotation  Ignition  Fuel
Theoretical Gas Turbine Cycle
- Gas Turbine: Capable of dealing with much larger amounts of energy for a given size & weight
 Whole working cycle is continuous & entirely rotational providing an overall smoother operation
 Jet Engine: Process is CONTINUOUS & Combustion is at constant PRESSURE
 Piston Engine: Process is INTERMITTENT & Combustion is constant VOLUME
Thrust Reverser
- Warning: Amber light &/ audio alert will be triggered
 Reverse Levers are in the stowed position but the reverser doors are unlocked
  Reverse Levers in the deployed position but the reverser doors remaining stowed
- Contaminated Rwy 50% contribution / Dry Rwy 1%
Propelling Nozzle
- Directs the exhaust gas aft & regulates the gas streamflow.
- Obtain the correct balance of pressure & velocity to prevent flow separation
- Converging  Induce a decrease in pressure & temp & an increase in exhaust gases velocity resulting in a higher thrust
Compressor Surge
- Due to excess fuel being injected into the combustion chamber
- Pressure can get so high that the airflow in the compressor stage gets reversed. The reversal of airflow causes the AOA of the
compressor blades to exceed their max, which further worsens the surge
- To avoid this, FADEC will monitor the fuel flow to prevent flooding of the combustion chamber during hard accelerations
EPR
- Ratio between the LP turbine exhaust pressure (engine’s last stage) & the engine inlet pressure (fan’s pressure)
Loading
- Creep: Permanent & Cumulative physical extension of a component under loads
 Higher the temp  Greater the amount of creep
FLEX Take Off Mode
- Reduced thrust take-off, save engine life due to reduced low cycle fatigue damage, save maintenance cost
Compressed Air / Bleed Air
- De/Anti-Icing
- Air Conditioning
- Engine Start
- Mass flow of air will be reduced  Increase in fuel flow, Gas Generator Speed (N1), Turbine Outlet Temp (TOT)
Turbine
- Compressor  V decrease, P increase
- Turbine  V increase, P decrease

021 - 13 Oxygen System

2 Independent Oxygen Systems
- Flight Crew: Gaseous
- Pax System: Chemical Oxygen Generators (Continuous Flow Sys)
-

Flight Crew Oxygen Mask

- Normal / Diluter Demand: Mixture of Cabin Air & Oxygen
 Oxygen/Cabin Air Ratio increases with an increase in altitude
 Flow when inhales & Shut down for exhale
- 100% Demand
 100% Oxygen
 Flow when inhales & Shut down for exhale
 > 35,000 ft, automatically 100% Oxygen
- Emergency
 Continuous flow of 100% Oxygen at positive pressure
Passenger Oxygen System
- Chemical Oxygen System (Continuous Flow System)
 Electrical latching mechanism, mask drops if cabin pressure alt > 15,000 ft
 Generation of oxygen begins when the pax pulls the mask towards the pax seat
 Approx. 15 mins
 Mixture of Oxygen + Cabin Air
Smoke Hood
- Completely covers the head, protecting the eye & respiratory sys of one member of crew
while he/she is fighting a fire, or if smoke or noxious gases enter the cabin.
- Constant flow of Oxygen for 12 – 15 mins

040 – 01Human Factors: Basic Concepts

ICAO Annex 1
- Competency: Relevant knowledge, skills & attitudes to carry out activities or task under specified conditions
High / Low Power Distance Culture
- High: Obedience to authority (parent, boss, officials) is expected, language filled with power or hierarchy indicators;
managers / teachers tend to be autocratic while subordinates expect direct supervision
- Low: Emphasis is on challenging decisions, expecting autonomy & indepdence
Safety Management System (SMS)
- Safety Policy
- Safety Risk Management
- Safety Assurance
- Safety Promotion
TEM Model
- Threats
 Environmental Threats: Occur due to the environment in which flight operations take place. Some environmental threats
can be planned for & some will arise spontaneously, but they all have to be managed by flight crews in real time
 Weather / ATC / Airport / Terrain
 Organizational Threats: Can be controlled (removed / minimized) at source by aviation organizations, Organizational
threats are usually latent in nature
 Operational Pressure / Aircraft / Cabin / Maintenance / Ground / Dispatch / Documentation
SHELL Model
- Software: Includes procedures, training, support, manuals, checklist layouts, maps & charts, computer programmes
- Hardware: Relates to machines & equipment. Including cockpit layout, physical aircraft structure, instruments presentation &
position of controls
- Environment: The working environment in which the rest of the L-H-S system must function – conditions both inside &
outside the cockpit
- Liveware: Man, the most valuable & flexible component of the system. The second “L” represents other humans whether
inside or outside the aircraft
Safety Culture
- Informed Culture: Organization collects & analyzes relevant data, & actively disseminates safety information
- Learning Culture: Organization must possess the willingness & the competence to draw the right conclusions from its safety
information system & the will to implement major reforms
- Just Culture: At atmosphere where errors & unsafe acts will not be punished if the error was unintentional. However, those
who act recklessly or take deliberate & unjustifiable risks will still be subject to disciplinary action
- Flexible Culture: Organization is able to reconfigure themselves in the face of high tempo operations or certain kinds of
danger – often shifting from conventional hierarchical mode to a flatter mode
 Accountability  Management
 Responsibility  Individuals
Countermeasures
- Planning: Essential for managing anticipated & unexpected threats
- Execution: Essential for error detection & error response
- Review: Essential for managing the changing conditions of a flight

040 – 02 Basic of Aviation Physiology & Health Maintenance

Hyperventilation
- Breathing deeper & more rapid than normal
- ↓in the amount of Carbon Dioxide in the blood. When breathing too fast/deep & carbon dioxide levels drop too low, the pH
of the blood rises & becomes too alkaline. This disturbance of the acid balance has a # of effects, the major one being that
haemoglobin gives up its oxygen readily only in an acid medium
- Carbon Dioxide is Acid / Oxygen is Alkaline
- pH of blood↑  More Alkaline / Less Acidic
Illusion

Hypoxia
- Occurs when the tissues in the body do not receive enough oxygen.
- Causes: Insufficient supply of oxygen / Inadequate transportation of oxygen / Inability of the body tissues to use oxygen
- Symptoms
 Euphoria: False sense of well being (prevent pilot from recognizing a potentially hazardous situation)
 Headache, Blue Fingernails & Lips (Cyanosis), Increased response time, Impaired judgement, Drowsiness, Dizziness,
Tingling fingers & toes, Numbness, Visual disturbances, Lack of concentration, Fatigue & limp muscles
Autokinesis
- Occurs when a fixed light (Star / Individual ground light / Wingtip light) seen against a featureless dark background appears to
move about in the pilot’s field of vision
- Result of the normal small oscillations of the eyeball
Flicker Vertigo
- An imbalance in brain-cell activity caused by exposure to the low-frequency flickering (or flashing) of a relatively bright light
- Can result in Nausea / Dizziness / Headache / Panic / Confusion / Disorientation / Seizures & Loss of Consciousness, result in
pilot’s loss of control of an aircraft
Barodontalgia (Flyer’s Toothache)
- Tooth pain occurring with changes in ambient pressure
- May be related to pulpal hyperemia, or to gases that are trapped in the teeth following incomplete root canal treatment
Incapacitation
- Safe Operation / Control of the a/c
- Help! Declare an emergency & alert other crew
- Assess the situation
- Secure the victim & cockpit
- Explain your plan to ATC & other crew member
Nervous System
- Central Nervous System (CNS)
 Includes the Brain & Spinal Cord
- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
 Includes all of the nerves that branch out from the brain & spinal cord & extend to other parts of the body including
muscles & organs
 Contains sensory receptors which help in processing changes in the internal & external environment. This info is sent to
the CNS via afferent sensory nerves.
 Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
 Involuntary control of internal organs, blood vessels, sweating, body temp, smooth & cardiac muscles
 Digestive system is controlled involuntarily as it moves food throughout the stomach & intestines
 Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
 Voluntary control of skin, bones, joints, & skeletal muscle. The two system function together, by way of nerves from
the PNS entering & becoming part of the CNS, & vice versa
Sleep Stages
- Stage 1: Very light sleep. A transitional phase between waking & sleeping. If woken at this stage, the sleeper may claim that
he has not ever been asleep. In early sleep we pass through about 10 mins of Stage 1 before moving to the deeper Stage 2
- Stage 2: In early sleep we spend about 20 mins in Stage 2 before moving on to the deeper Stage 3 & 4. About 50% of a
normal spent is spent in Stage 2
- Stage 3 & 4: The brain is semi-active emitting long slow waves, it is commonly referred to as “Slow Wave” or Orthodox Sleep.
The eyes are still behind the eyelids & the muscles are relaxed. Slow wave sleep refreshes the body & is necessary for tissue
restoration. After strenuous physical activity, the body will require more sloe wave sleep
- Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep: Brain is active. REM behind the eyelids are detected & muscles twitch. It is complex,
bizarre & emotionally colored dreams take place. REM sleep refreshes the brain. It strengths & organizes the memory. After a
period of learning new tasks or procedures REM sleep will increase
Seat-of-the-Pants
- Proprioceptors are components of the nervous system & are located under the skin in the neck & the major parts of the
body, as well as muscle activity sensors
- Under IMC, pilot loses vital visual input & the seat-of-the-pants is no longer able to tell the cause of a sensed pressure & will
not provide any valuable data.
- System becomes unreliable for lack of visual support & must not be used for spatial orientation
EAR
Eustachian Tubes
- Small tubes that run between the middle ears & the upper throat
- Responsible for equalizing ear pressure & draining fluid from the middle ear, the part of the ear behind the eardrum
- End of the Eustachian Tube acts as a flap valve which allows air to escape with relative ease (required in the ascent) but can
restrict air entering the middle ear (required in the descent)
EYE
Glaucoma 青光眼
- Disease of the eye which causes a pressure rise of the liquid around the eye
- Fluid protects the lens & nourishes the cornea. It passes through a small shutter which can either be flawed or can become
jammed causing a rise in pressure of the eye.
- Damages the optic nerve & may cause severe pain & even blindness. The cure can either be by eye drops or by an operation
in which a hole is made in the shutter. Glaucoma doesn’t usually cause any symptoms to begin with. This condition can be
inherited or may result from the aging process.
Retina 視網膜
- A thin layer of light-sensitive nerve tissue that lines the back of the eye
- Images are focused at its center (known as the Macula) & converted into electrical impulses that are carried to the brain by
the optic nerve, where they are translated into sight.
 Cones
 Active at higher light level, capable of color vision & are responsible for high spatial acuity
 Rods
 Vision at low light level, able to detect black & white only.
 Sensitive to movement & the movement of an object to the side of us is quickly picked up
Accommodation
- Refers to dynamic changes in the refractive power of the lens, which is achieved by modifying the shape of the lens through
the ciliary muscles, in order to achieve the final focusing on to the retina.
- Power of accommodation can be affected by the aging process or fatigue
Flight Crew Oxygen Requirements for Non-Pressurized Aircrafts

050 – 01 The Atmosphere

Pressure Area
- Colder Airmass than ISA: Altimeter will overread. True alt will be lower than indicated
- Warmer Airmass than ISA: Altimeter will underread. True alt will be higher than indicated
- Low Pressure Area: Altimeter will overread. True alt will be lower than indicated
- High Pressure Area: Altimeter will underread. True alt will be higher than indicated
Vertical Position
- Altitude: Vertical distance between the aircraft & MSL. Measured on an altimeter set to QNH
- Height: Vertical distance between the aircraft & ground level, or sometimes aerodrome level. An altimeter with the QFE can
be used
- Elevation: Height of the terrain, airport or obstacle
Advection
- Horizontal transport of air or atmospheric properties
- Occurs any time an airmass moves
- Warm Air Advection: When a warm airmass moves into an area which was previously occupied by a cooler airmass
- Cold Air Advection: When a cold airmass moves into an area which was previously occupied by a cooler airmass, replaces a
warm airmass
Tropopause
- Boundary between the troposphere & the stratosphere & it is where the temp ceases to fall with an increase in height
- Warmer the air, higher the tropopause, the colder the temp
- Colder the air, lower the tropopause, the warmer the temp
- Exist: 23,000 ft @ Poles in Winter, , 33,000 ft @ Middle Lat, 65,000 ft @ Equator
- Temp: -40 @ Poles, -80 @ Equator
 Avg 16 km – 20 km, Temp -80 Degree
- ISA: 36,000 ft, -56.5 degree
- Tropopause Height: ( 16 x cosθ) x 3280
 Winter: – 3,000 ft
 Summer: + 3,000 ft
Tropopause Break / Tropopause Gap
- Exists where 2 masses of different temp come together. Large horizontal temp difference changes within a short distance lead
to huge pressure gradients (rise to high wind speeds)
- Core of Jet Stream can be located near these brakes
Zero Degree Isotherm
- Zero Line Altitude
- Represent the alt in which the temp is at 0 degree Celsius
- Above it is Negative, Below it is Positive
- ZDI in the “Polar Regions” is at ground level
- ZDI in “Temperate Regions” is at MSL in winters & at about 10,000 ft in summers
- ZDI in “Tropics” is at about 15,000 ft in winters & 17,000 ft in summers
Flying from high to low, look out below

Height Above Ground

- 1. Adjust for QNH Deviation
 QNH > 1013  True Alt > Indicated Alt
 QNH < 1013  True Alt < Indicated Alt
- 2. Adjust for Temperature Deviation from ISA
 4% for each 10 degree deviation from ISA
 Temp Error Correction is only applied above QFE Datum (Aerodrome Level)
 Temp Warmer than ISA  True Alt > Indicated Alt
 Temp Colder than ISA  True Alt < Indicated Alt
Q Code
- QNH: Atmospheric pressure adjusted to MSL
  If you are on the ground at an airport & turn in the local QNH at your altimeter’s subscale, it will display the airports alt
above MSL
- QFE: Pressure indicates the height above the reference
elevation being used (height above current ground
level)
 If you set QFE on ground, altimeter would read 0
feet. Get to know the height above the ground
- QNE: Indicated alt at the landing rwy threshold when
1013.25 is set in the altimeter subscale.
 Pressure Alt at the landing rwy threshold
- QFF: MSL pressure, derived by taking into acc the
actual temp conditions
 Above (+) x Colder (-) = QNH is less (-)
Above (+) x Warmer (+) = QNH is more (+)
Below (-) x Colder (-) = QNH is more (+)
Below (-) x Warmer (+) = QNH is less (-)
 Above MSL & Temp Warmer than ISA  QFF < QNH
Above MSL & Temp Colder than ISA  QFF > QNH
Below MSL & Temp Warmer than ISA  QFF > QNH
Below MSL & Temp Colder than ISA  QFF < QNH
Radiation Inversion
- Standard: Temp↓with Alt
- Inversion: Temp↑with Alt
 Air is cooled by contact with a colder surface until it becomes cooler than the overlying atmosphere. This occurs most
often on clear nights, when the ground cools off rapidly by radiation. If the temp of surface air drops below its dew point
fog may result
 050 – 02 Wind
Pressure Gradient
- Force that acts on air & makes it move from HP area to LP area (Pressure differences set the air in motion)
- Closer the isobar spacing  Strong / Steep Pressure Gradient  Stronger the wind
- Magnitude of the Pressure Gradient Force is INVERSELY proportional to the spacing of the isobars
Land Breeze & Sea Breeze
- Land Breeze
 Around 5 – 6 kts max
 Early morning, before the sun starts to heat up the surface
 During the night, land cools down quicker than the sea, & temp differences
between land & sea surface cause pressure gradient  Air moves from
High (Cold) to Low (Warm)  LAND to SEA
- Sea Breeze
 Around 10 – 15 kts max
 During the day, sun heats up the surface quicker than sea, temp differences
cause air moves from High (Cold) to Low (Warm)  SEA to LAND
Geostrophic Wind (地轉風)
- Air moves from HP to LP because of the pressure gradient force. When the air parcel begins to move, it is deflected by the
Coriolis Force to the right in the NH. As the wind gains speed, the deflection increases until the Coriolis Force = Pressure
Gradient Force. Wind will then be blowing parallel to the isobars  Geostrophic Wind
- Directly parallel to isobars & the strength is directly proportional to the spacing of the isobars.
- Above the friction layer
- At a latitude greater than 15∘
- When the pressure situation is not changing rapidly
- With the isobars straight & parallel
- Wind Speed: Sea↓30%, Land↓50%
- Wind Direction: SeaΔ10%, LandΔ30%
Gradient Wind vs. Geostrophic Wind
- Gradient > Geost  PGF + Centrifugal Force
- Gradient < Geost  Coriolis Force + Centrifugal Force
Surface Wind
- Wind blows across the isobars towards the lower pressure
 Over Land: In NH, the Surface Wind backs by 30∘compared to the geostrophic wind & speed is↓50%
 Over Sea: In NH, the Surface Wind backs by 10∘from the geostrophic wind & speed is↓70%
Wind Circulation
- Rotation of Winds around a LOW
 NH: Inward to center & Anti-Clockwise
 SH: Inward to center & Clockwise
- Rotation of Winds around a HIGH
 NH: Outward from center & Clockwise
 SH: Outward from center & Anti-Clockwise
Fronts
- NH
 Warm (HP) Front moves Clockwise (veers)
 Cold (LP) front moves Anti-Clockwise (backs)
Clear Air Turbulence (CAT)
- Caused by vertical & horizontal windshear
- Strong on the cold/LP side of the jet next to & just underneath the axis of the Jet Stream, approx. at the cold air tropopause
level
- Highest probability of turbulence  Cold air side of the core
Jet Stream
- Length: 1500 nm / Width: 200 nm / Speed: Min. 60 kts Max. 100 kts / Depth: 12 – 18,000 ft
- Moves NORTH in the Summer, speed↓
- Moves SOUTH in the Winter, speed↑
- Arctic Jetstream  20,000 ft
- Polar Jetstream  30,000 ft
 Winter: 35 – 55 N
 Summer: 45 – 60 N
- Sub-Tropical Jetstream  40,000 ft
 Winter: 20 – 30 N
 Summer: 25 – 35 N
- Equatorial Jetstream  50,000 ft
- Equatorial Jet Stream
 Seasonal easterly jet stream. Occurs during summer in the NH
 Located over: SE Asia, Southern India & Central Africa
 Core located at high altitudes between FL 450 – 500
 Typically located at 15N
- Norther Hemisphere
 North of Front  Cold Air Mass  Closer Isobar Spacing (Polar Airmass)
 Polar Air Mass Tropopause: Lower Alt & Temp is higher
 South of Front  Warm Air Mass  Wider Isobar Spacing (Tropical Airmass)
 Tropical Air Mass Tropopause: Higher Alt & Temp is lower
Ridge & Trough
- Two air masses of different temp (warm & cold) come together is where we get the largest pressure gradients (which may
give rise to high wind speed)
- Ridge: Extension of a high, warm
- Trough: Extension of a low, cold
Mountain Waves
- Develop on the lee / downwind side of mountains, can go as high as FL600
- Wind Direction: Generally perpendicular fashion, raised up over the
mountains. No significant change in direction with altitude
- Wind Speed: Strong, at least 20 kts, increasing with alt, at the summits
- Marked layer of stability/strong inversion around altitude of summits – which will work as a barrier over the mountains
Turbulence
- Mechanical / Frictional Turbulence
 Caused by physical obstructions to the normal flow of air such as hills, mountains, coasts, trees & buildings.
 ↑as the Wind Speed↑
- Convective / Thermal Turbulence
 Expected on warm summer days when the sun heats the surface
unevenly.
 Insolation gives rise to convection currents – with warm air rising &
cooler air descending, which are responsible for bumpy conditions as an airplane flies in & out of them
Anabatic vs. Katabatic Wind
- Anabatic
 Local air current that blows up a hill or mountain slope
during the day
 Sun heats such slope & the air in contact with the ground
will be heated by conduction & will rise up the hill. Free cold
air will replace the lifted air & so a light wind will blow up the
hillside.
 Light wind around 5 kts
- Katabatic Wind
 Caused by a flow of cold air down a hill or mountain side at night, when the highlands radiate heat & are cooled
 Speed avg 10 kts & the flow of cold air into the valley helps frost & fog to form
 050 – 03 Thermodynamics
Adiabatic Temp Changes
- Occurs when a gas is compressed or expanded with no external exchange of heat
- Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate: 3∘C / 1,000 ft (Fixed Value)
- Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate: 1.8∘C / 1,000 ft (Fixed Value)
- Environment Lapse Rate: 2∘C / 1,000 ft (NOT Fixed Value)
 When saturated air is forced to rise & cools, condensation will take place releasing latent heat. This release of latent heat
will warm the air, & the lapse rate will be lower than that of dry air

Dew Point
- Temp the air needs to be cooled to in order to achieve saturation (RH 100%).
- Temp at which the air can no longer “hold” all of the water vapor which is mixed with it, some of the water vapor must
condense into liquid water
- Always LOWER than or EQUAL to the Air Temp.
 Dew / Fog / Clouds begin to form
Relative Humidity
- 100 – 5 x (Temp – Dew Point)
- Cold Air can hold as low as 0 g / kg Water Vapor
- Warm Air can hold as high as 25 g / kg Water Vapor
Saturation Mixing Ratio (SMR)
- Max amount of water vapor a unit mass of dry air can hold at a specified temp
- Amount of water vapor the air can hold increases exponentially as the temp increases
Formation of Clouds & Precipitation
- Water & Dust
- Sufficient Water Vapor, and then with some dust (Micrometric Solid Particles). Without “dirty air” there would likely be no
clouds at all or only high alt ice clouds. Dust is needed for condensation nuclei
- With proper quantities of water vapor & dust in an air parcel, the next step is for the air parcel mass to be cooled to a temp at
which cloud droplets or ice crystals can form (Dew Point)
Cloud Base
- (Surface Temp – Surface Dew Point) x 400
Supercooled Water Droplet
- Water droplet still in liquid state at a temp below 0
- As temp↓, the water droplet evaporate thus reducing their size 越凍越細粒
 Large Droplets: Between 0C & -20C
 Small Droplets: Upper Levels (-20 to -40C) / Lower Levels (0 to -40C)
Water Cycle

Isothermal Layer
- Vertical column of air having a constant temp with height
 ELR = 0, thus less than SALR  Absolutely Stable
- Often occur in the low levels of the troposphere during a differential advection situation
- Air within an isothermal layer is stable. To cause air to rise it must be forced lifted since it will not rise on its own
Subsidence
- Related to HPS / Anti-Cyclone
- At high alt we have air converging, then descent of air within the anticyclone (Subsidence) & divergence at the surface.
- Typical weather in an area under the influence of a HP is clear skies due to the sinking motion of air (Subsidence)
Condensation Trails / Contrails
- White cloud-like streams that are sometimes visible behind jet aircraft, normally when cruising at high alt.
- When hot humid air from jet exhaust mixes with environmental air of low vapor pressure & low temp. Cold air is less able to
hold water vapor. Water Vapor released during fuel combustion rapidly condenses, turning into droplets of water. At such
high alt, the temp is far below freezing, the droplets will quickly form ice particles, making up a white contrail.

050 – 04 Clouds & Fog

4 Inversions
- Ground Inversion: When air is cooled by contact with a COLDER SURFACE until it becomes cooler than the overlying
atmosphere. On clear nights, when the ground cools off rapidly by radiation. If the temp of surface air drops below its Dew
Point, fog may result.
- Turbulence Inversion: Within the turbulent layer, Vertical Mixing carries heat downward & cools the upper part of the layer.
The unmixed air above is not cooled & eventually is warmer than the air below
- Subsidence Inversion: When a widespread layer of air descends. Layer is compressed & heated by the resulting increase in
atmospheric pressure. If the air mass sinks low enough, the air at higher altitudes becomes warmer than at lower altitudes
- Frontal Inversion: When a cold air mass UNDERCUTS a warm air mass & lifts it aloft
Classifications
- Fog (FG): Visibility is less than 1,000 m, except when qualified by “MI”, “BC”, “PR”, or “VC”
- Mist (BR): Visibility is at least 1,000 m but not more than 5,000 m
- Haze: Visibility is reduced by extremely small solid particles (such as sand, dust, smoke). Visibility is reduced below 1,000 m
Types of Fog
- Radiation Fog
 Caused by radiation of the earth’s heat at night, & the conductive cooling below dew point of the air in contact with the
ground, in conditions of calm or very light wind & clear skies.
 Occur at night & early morning & usually does not last long after sunrise (about 30 mins).
 Predominantly Autumn & Winter
 Avg 500 ft but may vary from few ft to 1,000 ft
 (Little Clouds/Clear Sky + High RH + Calm/Very Light Wind + Only occurs over Land)
- Advection Fog
 Advection of warm, moist air over a cold surface – air mass is cooled from
below giving rise to an inversion
 (Wind Speed 5 to up to 15 kts/20 kts over sea + Cold Surface + Humid Air +
Temperature Difference)
- Steam Fog
 Cold air from a land mass moves over a (comparatively)
warmer sea (water surface) = Advection of very cold air
over a warm sea
 Up to 500 ft thick & may drift inland. Can be persistent.
- Frontal Fog
 Occurs at a warm front / occlusion
 Precipitation lowering the cloud base to the ground. Formed due to
evaporation & following condensation of warm falling precipitation
down in a cold moist layer ahead of a warm front
 Formed by day & night
 Up to 200 nm wide, typically present for only 2 – 3 hours
- Hill / Orographic Fog
 Formed when humid stable air is forced to ascend along the side of a mountain / hill
Stable (Stratiform)
- ST Stratus / SC Stratocumulus / AS Altostratus / NS Nimbostratus / CI Cirrus / CS Cirrostratus
Unstable (Cumuliform)
- CU Cumulus / TCU / CB Cumulonimbus / AC Altocumulus / CC Cirrocumulus
Cloud Formation
- Formed by air being lifted & cooled adiabatically until the water vapor condenses out as water droplets
- Air parcel must be saturated, unable to hold all the water it contains in vapor form, so it starts to condense into a liquid /
solid form.
- The height at which this occurs is called the Condensation Level (Also the height of the Cloud Base), where the rising air,
cooling adiabatically, has cooled to the dew point temp. Any further ascent & cooling will result in condensation & the
formation of cloud
- Increasing Water Content in the air / Cooling the air so that it reaches its Dew Point
Cloud Height Bands
- Low Level Clouds: Bases 0 – 6,500 ft
 Stratus / Stratocumulus / Cumulus / Cumulonimbos / Nimbostratus
- Medium Level Clouds: Bases 6,500 ft – 23,000 ft
 Altostratus / Altocumulus / Nimbostratus
- High Level Clouds: Bases 16,500 ft – 45,000 ft
 Cirrostratus / Cirrocumulos / Cirrus
HALO
- When the light from the sun or the moon is refracted & reflected by ice crystals in the atmosphere, usually in a thin layer of
high Cirrostratus Clouds
ALTOCUMULUS (AC)
- Shape of rounded clumps, Patches of Clouds, White/Gray in Color, Shadowed parts or Undersites
3 Clouds Dissipation
- Temp↑: Air has a higher capacity to evaporate liquid water
- Cloud mixing with drier Air
- Air Sinking within the Cloud (Subsidence)

050 – 05 Precipitation
Fall from Clouds of Great Vertical Extent containing both Ice Crystals & Water Droplets
- Most Likely: Hail
- Least Likely: Drizzle
Subsidence = High Pressure = Anticyclone
- Clear Skies due to the sinking motion of air (Subsidence)
- Lighter Winds than around a Depression & Reduced chance of Precipitation
- Cloud: NONE except on the edge of the Anti Cyclone
- Precipitation: NONE
- Visibility: Generally MODERATE with Haze
- Temperature: Dependent on type
- Winds: LIGHT
Freezing Precipitation
- Freezing Rain / Freezing Drizzle
- Precipitation first falls from a cloud as now. If it falls through warmer air before reaching the ground, it can melt & turn to rain
droplets. If it then falls through cold air again before hitting the ground, the droplets can become supercooled (Still liquid
state, even though temp below 0)
- Freezing Rain / Freezing Drizzle is a rare type of liquid precipitation that strikes a surface & freezes almost instantly
 Freezing Rain: Larger supercooled water droplets
 Freezing Drizzle: Small supercooled water droplets
Freezing Rain
- AHEAD of the WARM FRONT
- Freezing level in the Cold Air < Freezing Level in the Warm Air above it  As the rain falls from the Warmer Air into the Cold
Air below it freezes  Forming Freezing Rain
2 Precipitation Theories
- Bergeron Theory
 Mainly based on the difference of maximum vapor pressure over water & over ice of the same temp
 Only takes places in clouds with Supercooled Water Droplets & Ice Crystals
 In high cold clouds – mid latitudes over continents
 Coexistence of Water Vapor, Liquid Water Droplets, & Ice Crystals
 Ice Crystals grow faster than Water Droplets (Can be rain when reaching the ground due to melting)
 Ice Crystals hit saturation sooner than Water Droplets
 More water molecules surrounding the water droplets than there are surrounding the ice crystals
- Coalescence Process
 Relatively warm clouds with tops warmer than -15 degree.
 Collision of falling & rising droplets is what allows them to grow large enough to fall to the ground as precipitation
 Mid Lat: Produces only DRIZZLE / VERY LIGHT RAIN
Snow Showers  Cumulus / Cumulonimbus
Showers  Cumulus / Cumulonimbus / Towering Cumulus / Convection
Rain Showers  Towering Cumulus (TCU) / Cumulonimbus (CB)
Heavy Precipitation  Cumulonimbus (CB) / Nimbostratus (NS)
Drizzle  Stratus (ST) – Stable Clouds
Hail  Cumulonimbus (CB)
Hail Showers  Cumulonimbus (CB)
Snow Grains  Stratus / Supercooled Fog
Freezing Rain  Nimbostratus (NS)
Diameter Visibility
Drizzle DZ 0.2 – 0.5 mm 500 – 3,000 m Imperceptible 難以察覺 Impact ST
Rain RA 0.5 – 5.5 mm 3,000 m – 5.5 km ( 1,000 m in Heavy Perceptible Impact
Rain)
Snow SN < 1 mm (Grains /
Needles)
2 – 5 mm (Pellets),
4 mm (Flakes)
Hail GR 5 – 50 mm Weight: Up to 1 kg CB (Hail,
Hail
Showers
)
Ice Pellets < 5 mm Transparent pellets, spherical or
irregular
Virga
- Trails of precipitation that fall from the underside of a cloud but evaporate or sublime before it can reach the ground. This
happens when falling rain / ice passes through an area of dry / warm air
Fronts
- Warm Front
 Cold air ahead, & the new warm air is flowing towards it. Due to reduced air density, rides above the cold air. Forces the
new air upwards, & causes multiple levels of cloud to form.
  At lower levels, these clouds are heavy enough to contain rain
 Not aggressive, quite a shallow gradient of 1:150  Ban of rain lasts for a very long distance ahead of the front (with no
rain after the front)
Intensity
- Slight < 0.5 mm / hour
- Moderate 0.5 – 4 mm / hour
- Heavy > 4 mm / hour

Supercooled Water Droplet

- Water droplet still in liquid state at a temp below 0 degree.
- Can be encountered in CLOUDS / FOG / PRECIPITATION
- Temp↓, Water droplets evaporate thus↓Size
 Large: 0 to -20 degree
 Small: -20 to -40 degree (Upper Levels), 0 to -40 degree (Lower Levels)
Nimbostratus
- Continuous Rain, Ice Pellets, Snow
- MODERATE Turbulence
- MODERATE to SEVERE Icing

050 – 06 Air Masses & Fronts

- As the Cold Front moves faster than the Warm, it will narrow
- The Depression at the tip of the Warm Sector will move parallel to the Isobars in the Warm Sector at a speed equal to the
Geostrophic Wind Speed measured between the 2 central isobars in the Warm Sector
ITCZ
- Summer: Push UP  Newfoundland to North Scotland
- Winter: Push DOWN  Florida to Folkstone
Polar Front Depressions
- Move EASTWARDS along the semi-stationary front “Polar Front” which is located between 35N & 65N
- South in Winter, North in Summer
- Summer less intense as a smaller temperature difference between Polar / Tropical Air Masses
Polar Front: Boundary between Polar & Tropical Air Mass
Arctic Front: Boundary between Arctic & Polar Air Mass
Air Masses
- An extensive body of air within which the Temperature & Humidity in Horizontal planes are practically uniform
- Process that INCREASE atmospheric stability: Lower Layers are cooled / Upper layers warmed
 Warm Air Mass (Stable)
 Clear Skies / Clouds (Stratiform) – Greater horizontal extension, Little vertical development (ST, SC, AS, NS, CI, CS)
 Moderate to Poor Visibility
 Light Turbulence
 Possibly Fog
- Process that DECREASE atmospheric stability: Lower Layers are warmed / Upper layers cooled
 Cold Air Mass (Unstable)
 Clouds (Cumuliform) – Extensive Vertical Extensions (CU, TCU, CB, AC, CC)
 Moderate to Heavy Showers
 Potential for Moderate to Heavy Precipitations
 Good Visibility except in Showers
 Gusty Winds
Air Masses Sources
- Polar Ice Caps  Arctic Maritime Air
- NW of North Atlantic  Polar Maritime Air
- Siberia  Polar Continental Air
- Azores  Tropical Maritime Air
- N Africa / SE Europe  Tropical Continental Air
- Source of any moving airmass is an area of HP  HP Air is Stable Air
Front
- Transition Zones between 2 different Air Masses
- Transition Zone is inclined
- Warmer Air rises
- Clouds & Precipitation may develop
- Pressure: Approaching WF (↓), At WF (Stop↓), Behind WF (Gradually & Slowly↑)
- Clouds:
 Warm Sector (BKN – OVC)
  Winter: ST / SC
 Summer: CU
Warm Front vs. Cold Front

Warm Front
- 1:100 / 1:150
- Warm Air Mass pushes into a Cooler Air Mass
- Warm fronts often bring stormy weather as the warm air mass at the surface rises above the cool air mass, making clouds &
storms.
- Slow moving
- Often see high clouds like Cirrus / Cirrostratus, middle clouds like Altostratus ahead of a warm front
- Warm Front passes
 Clouds become lower, & rain is likely
Cold Front
- 1:80
- Cold Air Mass pushes into a Warmer Air Mass, can produce dramatic changes in the weather
- Fast moving
- Heavier (more dense) cool air pushes under the lighter (less dense) warm air, causing it to rise up into the troposphere
- Lifted warm air ahead of the front produces cumulus or CB & TS
- Cold Front passes
 Winds become gusty, sudden drop in temp & heavy rain, sometimes with hail, thunder, & lightning
- After Cold Front passes
 Temp cooler, rain stopped, cumulus clouds are replaced by Stratus / Stratocumulus Clouds or clear skies
Stationary Fronts
- Relatively inactive, the frontal boundary has little or no movement because there is no horizontal movement perpendicular to
the front.
 Winds on both sides of the Stationary Front blow parallel with the front
- Weather conditions are likely to be comparatively quiet, though longer lasting
Occluded Front
- If a cold front catches up & overtakes a warm front, the frontal
boundary created between the 2 air masses is called Occluded
Front. When the cold front catches up with the warm front, the
warm sector is lifted
- Warm Occlusion
 Air ahead
of the warm front is colder than the air behind the cold front
- Cold Occlusion
 Cold air behind the cold front undercuts the less cold air ahead
of the warm front

050 – 07 Pressure System

Isobar
- Closer: Faster change in Pressure
Trough
- Extension of a LPS
- Air will converge & most of it is forced to ascend. This forms unstable
clouds above the Centre of the Trough
Tropical Revolving Storms (TRS)
- TRS are Thermal Depressions that develop over warm tropical oceans (Wind Speed in excess of 33 kts)
- When they sustain wind speeds greater than 63 kts, they are designated Tropical Cyclones.
 Found within 5 & 25 Latitude (Below 5 Coriolis Force too small, Above 25 Sea too cold)
 Ocean Temp must be > than 26 degrees  Higher the temp Greater the pressure drop within the core
 Sufficiently unstable atmosphere at low level
 NH: Usually travel Westerly (East to West) / Northerly (in Mature Stage)
- TRS generate their power & energy from the release of large amounts of latent heat from moisture they have gained over the
warm seas
- THE EYE is found in the centre of the storm.
 Diameter: 30 – 50 km / 10 – 20 nm (EYE), 500 km / 270 nm (Full Developed TRS)
 Lowest surface pressure & calmest conditions are found
 Well seen by Weather Satellites
 Wall of CBs adjacent to the eye has tops at approx. 40,000 – 50,000 ft
 EYE WALL is where the most active CB are found with the strongest winds & most severe turbulence. It is the most
dangerous part of a TRS
- Will NOT form over land (Too Dry) & carbover the South Atlantic / South East Pacific (Sea surface temp are too cold)
- Hurricanes
 NH: Atlantic & Eastern Pacific (JUL to NOV)
 Avg 17 – 18 / yr  Hurricanes: 6
- Cyclones
 SH: Western Pacific , Australia (DEC to APR)
 Approx 9 / yr
- Cyclones
 Indian Ocean (MAR to DEC, mainly APR – MAY, OCT – NOV)
 Approx 12 / yr
- Typhoon
 NH: Western Pacific & South Chinese Sea (JUN to NOV)
 Avg 20 / yr
Blocking Anti-Cyclone
- Areas of HP can sometimes be very slow moving, almost stationary. Such a region of slow moving air can prevent other, faster
moving pressure systems from moving into a region.
- Start as a ridge of HP extending from a HP source region such as the sub-tropical Azores High which breaks off & establishes
itself as a separate anticyclone.
- Typically found in the regions between 40N & 70N & may persist for several days giving warm dry weather in summer &
stable, cold conditions in winter, mostly clear but with potential for light mist & drizzle.
- Can exist as both Warm & Cold Anticyclones, but the strongest one are theoretically Warm Anti-Cyclones, as they maintain
their higher pressure up to the tropopause, & are therefore longer lasting.
Atmospheric Stability
- ↑as Lower Layers are cooled & Upper Layers are warmed  Stable Layer
- Turbulence Clouds (Stable)
 Vertical movement of air is limited. Tend to develop horizontally, giving layers of ST / SC
  Stratus formed by turbulence will occur in the friction layer when mixing occurs by turbulence & the condensation level is
situated below the top of the turbulent/friction layer
- Convective Clouds (Unstable)
 Forming CU type clouds
Secondary Depression / Low
- Small depression which is enclosed within the circulation of a larger depression These wave-like depressions can grow off the
tail ends of primary cold fronts
- Smaller secondary depression moves around the main depression Anti-Clockwise (Cyclonic) in the NH & Clockwise in the SH.
It moves with the main low system, known as the Primary, in a cyclonic sense
- Secondary Lows are often associated with Gales
NH Pressure System
- Summer & Winter
 Azores High: Subtropical High, 30N in Winter / 35N in Summer
 Icelandic Low: Deepest in Winter & situated over Iceland & Greenland
- Winter ONLY
 Siberian High: Winter HP zone which affects Asia & Europe
 USA High: Winter HP zone which affects USA & Canada
 Mediterranean: Frontal Depressions in Winter
- Summer ONLY
 Siberian Low: Weak summer low pressure
 USA Low: Summer low pressure
 Mediterranean: Anticyclonic & hot in summer
 050 – 08 Climatology
Global Circulation Pattern
- Reason we have different weather patterns is all because of the global atmospheric circulation caused by the rotation of the
Earth & the amount of heat different parts of the globe receive
- Sun is our main course of heat, & because of the tilt of the Earth, its curvature, our atmosphere, clouds & polar ice & snow,
different parts of the world heat up differently. The change in angle leads to stronger insolation on the NH from Apr to Sept,
on the SH from Oct to Mar. Different pressure areas which trigger a large circulation between the equator & the poles are
formed. Because of the Earth’s rotation, a direct flow between anticyclone (Equator) & depression (Poles) is prevented
Tropical Rain Climate / Equatorial Climate (0 – 10 N/S)
- Avg Temp of Coldest month > 18∘C
- Avg Temp ~ 28∘C
- Avg monthly rainfall > 60 mm, no dry season
- RH ~ 80% Equatorial Regions
Tropical Transitional Climate / Savannah Climate (10 – 20 N/S)
- Dry trade wind conditions prevail in the Winter
- Equatorial Rainy conditions prevail in the Summer
- Avg temp is above 18 degrees
Temperate Transitional Climate = Warm Temperate Climate / Mediterranean Climate (35 – 40 N/S)
- Winter
 Frontal & Thermal Depressions prevail: Cloudy, Windy & Cool weather with frequent precipitations
- Summer
 As the Thermal Equator moves slightly towards the pole, the anticyclonic dry
subtropical climate prevails: Warm & Dry air, Clear Skies, Land & Sea Breezes on
the coasts
 Upper winds are westerly winds & the annual rainfall is below 700 mm
Snow Climate / Polar Climate / Tundra Climate (> 70 N/S)
- Avg temp, warmest month < 10∘C
- Dry anticyclonic winter
- Permafrost Soil
- Little precipitation in summer
Thunderstorm
- TS Occur in well developed CB clouds, though not all CB produce TS
- CU Clouds of small vertical development can grow rapidly when the atmosphere is unstable & may develop into CB clouds,
with their tops reaching up to 55,000 ft / 17 km
Sand / Dust Storm
- Result of convection currents created by intense heating of the ground or these can
be introduced for mechanical reasons (Strong winds carry up the particles)
- Wind > 25 kts are often needed to raise Dust & Sand
- Diameter of the particles usually does not exceed 1 mm
Harmattan
- Blow mostly during the winter from the HP desert areas of North Africa as a northeasterly wind towards the ITCZ
- Cool dusty wind that may reduce visibility to below 1,000m
- Dust layer may extend to 7,000 – 10,000 ft or more, & visibility improves towards the coast
- Blows from November through to April, wind will be light, especially in the south
Sirocco
- Initially it’s Warm, Southerly Wind in the Mediterranean region. Near the north coast of
Africa the wind is Hot & Dry & often carries much dust, visibility becomes very poor &
the fine blowing dust might result in damage to instruments & equipment
- After crossing the Mediterranean, the Sirocco reaches the European coast as a Moist
Wind & is often associated with Low Stratus Clouds
- Occur in advance of surface & upper-level depressions moving eastward across the
Southern Mediterranean Sea / Northern Africa.
Mistral
- Strong, Cold, Dry & Squally northerly Wind that blows offshore with great frequency
along the Mediterranean coast from norther Spain to northern Italy, & that is
particularly frequent in the lower Rhone Valley in SE France blowing way out into the
Golfe Du Lion
- May blow continuously for several days at a time
- Airstream that feeds the Mistral is commonly derived from Polar air of Maritime origin. It is
strongest & most frequent in Winter & Spring
Pampero
- Burst of Cold Polar air from the W / SW / S on the pampas in the South of Brazil, Argentina,
Uruguay, Paraguay & Bolivia
- Usually accompanied by very humid & close conditions, severe rain, hail & TS & is followed
by a cold, dry, gusty, southerly / SW Wind.
Bora
- Cold & typically very Dry & often Gusty Katabatic Wind from the NE
- Can occur anytime during the year. Strongest & most frequent in Winter
- Wind Speed ~ 70 kts, Gusting 100 kts
ITCZ
- Broad zone of separation between the air masses either side of the heat
equator
- NE trade wind blow to SE (NH), SE trade wind blow to NE (SH)
- Due to intense solar heating near the equator, the Warm & Moist air is forced
up into the atmosphere. As the air rises, it cools, causing persistent bands of showers & storms around the Earth’s
midsection. The tendency for convective storms in the tropics is to be short in duration, but they can produce intense Rainfall
- NH Summer: Moves NORTH
- NH Winter: Moves SOUTH
- Equator
 Wet Seasons: March & September
 Dry Seasons: December & July
- Away from Equator
  Wet Seasons: May – July (NH) / November – February (SH)
Cold Air Drop (Cold Pool)
- Low Pressure System that only exists in the upper troposphere – it’s a cooler than normal pocket of air in the higher level of
the atmosphere
- When a “Cold Pool Aloft” exists, the rising warm air wants to continue rising through the cold pool. This induce more cloud
development & rain/TS potential. This is why cold pools aloft are often associated with deep instability & the severe weather
associated with vigorous convection is possible
- Direction & Speed of movements of Cold Pools are difficult to forecast
Foehn Effect
- Warm & Dry, Gusty Winds that periodically descends the leeward slopes
- Change from Wet & Cold conditions one side of a mountain, to Warmer
& Drier conditions on the other side
- Chinook
 Air is forced upward over elevated terrain, it expands & cools
adiabatically until it saturates. After saturation, it will continue to cool
at the SALR. Since colder air can hold less water vapor, moisture condenses to form clouds & precipitates as rain/snow
above the mountain’s upwind slopes. By the time it reaches the peaks & stops climbing, the air is quite dry.
 As the air makes it leeward descent, it is compressed & warms rapidly all the way downslope – because there is little
water left to evaporate. The air is warmer & drier when it reaches leeward slope than when it begins it windward ascent.
 Windward Side: Expect Low Cloud & Precipitation
 Leeward Side: Clear Turbulent Conditions
Polar Front Jet Streams
- NH: 40 – 65 N
- SH: 50 – 55 N
Roaring Forties
- Westerly Winds exist in the region between Subtropical High & Temperate Lows
- NH: Mainly over oceans, with frequent winter gales. During summer months these westerlies are less constant & less strong
- SH: Largely uninterrupted by land masses & are consequently strong  Roaring Forties

050 – 09 Flight Hazards

Precipitation
- DZ Drizzle
- RA Rain
- SN Snow
- SG Snow Grains
- PL Ice Pellets
- GR Hail
- GS Small Hail &/ Snow Pellets
Obscurations 障礙物 (Hydrometeors 水凝物)
- Any phenomena in the atmosphere, other than precipitation, that reduces the horizontal visibility
- FG Fog
- BR Mist
Obscurations (Lithometeors 煙塵凝結體)
- SA Sand
- DU Dust (Widespread)
- HZ Haze
- FU Smoke
- VA Volcanic Ash
Low Drifting
- Used to report DU, SA, SN raised by the wind to less than 2 m / 7 ft above Ground Level
Freezing Rain
- Cause significant accumulations of clear ice
- Raindrops spread & freeze on contact with a cold airframe. When the supercooled drop hits the airframe, it freezes relatively
slowly due to the latent heat released in the freezing process.
- Clear Ice is the most serious of the various forms of ice because it has the fastest rate of accumulation & is more difficult to
remove than Rime Ice.
- In order to intersect the 0 degree isotherm twice, there must be Warm Air above Cold Air
Mixed Ice
- Rain within or falling from clouds can consist of many different sized drops which may result in the formation of a mixture of
Clear & Rime Ice.
- Mixed Ice has the properties of both Clear & Rime Icing. Large & Small Supercooled Droplets coexist.
- Found in the colder portion of the Cumuliform Cloud & Wet Snow Flakes
- Most icing encounters are likely to be mixed ice, especially when flying in cloud. Only rarely will just pure Rime / Clear
Rime Ice
- Normally encountered in Stratiform Clouds
- Continuous icing can be expected in the temp range from 0 to -30, result from instantaneous freezing of small supercooled
water droplets striking the aircraft’s surface
- Opaque / Milky granular appearance caused by air being trapped in water droplets as they freeze. Because it freezes
instantly, it builds up on the leading edge of airfoils & it does not flow back over the wing
Clear Ice
- Large water droplets that are found in Cumulus Clouds / Freezing Rain beneath a Warn Front inversion. Droplets flow over the
aircraft structure & slowly freeze
- Fastest rate of accumulation & is more difficult to remove than Rime Ice

Microburst
- Localized column of sinking air (downdraft) within a TS. These also move outwards by reaction from the ground. The
windshear (headwind to tailwind) may be between 50 – 90 kts
- Microbursts are short-lived, usually lasting less than 5 mins, & they are relatively compact, usually affecting an area of 1 – 4
km in diameter.
- Most likely to occur in summer air mass TS in low lat where the surface conditions are dry – causing extreme turbulence &
severe windshear conditions
- Macroburst: Similar but affect a larger area – with a diameter of more than 4 km
St. Elmo’s Fire
- Occurs when the atmosphere becomes charged & an electrical potential strong enough to cause a discharge is created
between an object & the air around it
- Can happen to an aircraft flying through heavily charged skies
- An electrical discharge from the aircraft caused by static build-up on the airframe
Squall Line
- Narrow band of active TS that normally contains very severe weather. Although it often forms 50 – 200 miles ahead of a fast-
moving cold front, the existence of a front is not necessary for a squall line to form
Wind Shear
- Sudden change in Wind Direction &/ Speed over a very short distance
 Horizontal Wind Shear: Change in the wind over a horizontal distance, measured in kts / 1,000 ft
 Vertical Wind Shear: Change in speed &/ direction with change of height, measured in kts / 100 ft
- Light 0 – 4 kt / 100 ft
- Moderate 5 – 8 kt / 100 ft
- Strong 9 – 12 kt / 100 ft
- Severe > 12 kt / 100 ft
Hoar Frost
- When a sub-zero surface comes into contact with moist air (the ambient temp is lowered to saturation level)
- White crystal deposit which appears similar to frost on the ground
- Water Vapor in contact with the airframe is converted to Ice Crystals without becoming liquid (sublimating)
Lightning
- As a TCU develops, a large electrical charge separation builds up within the cloud. Lighting results when this electrical charge
becomes strong enough to jump from the cloud to the ground, to another cloud, or to an opposite electrical charge within
the same cloud
- In the early stages, air acts as in insulator between the positive & negative charges in the cloud & between the cloud & the
ground. When the opposite charges build up enough, this insulating capacity of the air breaks down & there is a rapid
discharge of electricity that we know as lightning
- Intra Cloud Lightning
 Most common type of lightning. It happens inside the cloud, jumping between different charge regions in the cloud
- Cloud to Air Lightning
 Discharge jumping from a cloud into clear air. This happens when negative charged air particles become attracted to
positive charges within a cloud
- Cloud to Cloud Lightning
 Happens when a negatively charged cloud finds a positively charged cloud & opposite attract. The discharge travels from
Cloud to Cloud
- Cloud to Ground Lightning
 Occurs between the Cloud & the Ground
Thunderstorm
- Initial Stage / Cumulus Stage

 Lifting action initiates the vertical movement of air (Continuous Updraft)

 Strong Updrafts (as great as 3,000 ft / min), precipitation usually does not fall
 Water Droplets / Ice Crystals rise & fall within the cloud, growing larger with each cycle
 Cloud reaches the mature stage in about 15 mins
- Mature Stage
 Water Droplets in the cloud grow too large to be supported by the updrafts, precipitation begins to fall. This creates a
downward motion in the surrounding air & signals the beginning of this stage.
 Down-rushing air spreads outward at the surface, producing a sharp drop in temp, a rise in Pressure, strong gusty surface
winds & turbulent conditions
 Within the TS cloud, the strongest turbulence occurs in the shear between the Updrafts & Downdrafts (below the cloud)
 Can last up to 30 mins
- Dissipating Stage
 More & more air aloft is disturbed by the falling drops. Eventually the downdrafts begin to spread out within the cell –
taking the place of the weakening updrafts.
 Upper-level winds often blow the top of the cloud downwind, creating the familiar anvil shape
Tornado
- Violently rotating column of air that extends from a TS to the ground. Usually occurs as a result of vertical windshear with
warm moist air at low altitude & cool dry air at high altitude, which comes from a different direction
- Associated with CB & large CU Clouds
- Can last from several seconds up to roughly 30 mins (Most last less than 10 mins)
- Speed of Movement: 20 – 40 kts
- Rotational Speed: > 200 kts
- Diameter: ~ 100 m (Max. 300 m)
Gust Front / Outflow Boundary
- Line of dangerously gusty winds
- When a CB / TS begins to rain, cooler air descends to the surface. That cool air & rain create sth called a Downdraft. When
that cool air descends & hits the ground, it spreads out in all directions
- Air can be moving fast, so this spreading out can create a Gust Front

Turbulence
- Moderate
 Change in a/c attitude &/ altitude may occur but the a/c remains in positive control at all times
 Small variations in airspeed
 Change in Accelerometer readings of 0.5 g to 1.0 g at the a/c CG.
 Difficulty in walking
 Occupants feel strain against seat belts
 Loose objects move about
- Severe
 Abrupt changes in a/c attitude &/ altitude
 Maybe out of control for short period
 Large variations in airspeed
 Changes in Accelerometer readings greater than 1.0 g at the a/c CG
 Occupants are forced violently against seat belts
 Loose objects tossed about
Blowing Snow
- Any loose snow lifted from the ground surface & suspended by strong winds to a
height of 2 m / 6 ft or more above the surface, & blown about in such quantities
that horizontal visibility is reduced to less than 11 km
- Reduce the visibility to a minimum of 1 m

061 – 01 Basics of Navigation

Calculate Ground Distance
- Convert True Alt into Pressure Alt
- Determine Change in Height
- Calculate Time to Climb
- Calculate Ground Distance
Climb / Descend Gradient
- ( Change in Height / Horizontal Distance ) * 100%
- Alt & Horizontal Distance must be in the same unit of measurement
 1 nm = 6,080 ft
Distance between 2 Longtitudes
- Difference in Long x Cos (lat)
1 in 60 Rule
- Track Error = ( Distance Off Track x 60 ) / Planned Track Distance Flown
Isogonic Line
- Line over the surface of the earth upon which Magnetic Variation is constant
- Measured in degrees East (Positive) / West (Negative) of True North
Agonic Line
- An isogonic line upon which the variation is ZERO
Convergency
- Angle of inclination between 2 selected meridians measured at a given latitude
- Convergency = Change in Longitude x Sin (Latitude)
Departure
- Distance between 2 lines of longitude at a specific latitude
- Departure = Ch Long in minutes x Cos (Latitude)
Average TAS
- Descent: Obtain from the CAS at the alt that corresponds to 1/2 of the alt difference
- Climb: Obtain from CAS at the alt that corresponds to 2/3 of the alt difference
LMT Time Difference
- = Change Longitude / 15
Standard Time
- Convention where clocks within a geographical region are synchronized to a single time standard
- Each country defines its own Standard Time notified in the Air Almanac of its correction related to UTC
Changes in Variation over Time
- Movement of the molten magma in the Earth’s core
Mean Sun
- Fictitious Sun travelling along the celestial equator at uniform speed
Polar Circle
- Geographic term for a conditional circular line (arc) referring either to the Arctic Circle / Antarctic Circle
- Areas inside each polar circle & its associated pole (NP / SP), known geographically as the frigid zones, would theoretically
experience at least 1 24 hr period when the center of the sun is continuously above the horizon & at least 1 24 hr period
when the center of the sun is continuously below the horizon annually
- Parallel at lowest the latitude at which an observer can see the Sun for 24 hours above the horizon
Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
- 3 Scientific Laws describing the motion of planets around the Sun
 The Orbit of a Planet is an ellipse with the Sun at 1 of the 2 foci
 A line segment joining a planet & the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time
  The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit
Flight Log
- True Track, Drift, True Heading, Magnetic Variation, Magnetic Heading, Compass Deviation, Compass Heading

Directive Force
- Horizontal component of Earth’s Magnetic Field which aligns the compass needle
- ↑Magnetic Latitude (more towards the North Pole)  Horizontal Component of the Earth’s Magnetic Field↓, Vertical
Component↑
- As the Horizontal component is one driving our compass & guiding us towards the Poles, its reduction will lead to reduction
to the Directive Force
Aphelion & Perihelion
- Aphelion
 Is the point in the orbit of an object where it is farthest from the Sun
 Away / July / Lowest Speed
- Perihelion
 Point in orbit where an object is nearest to the Sun
 Proximate / January / Fastest
Apparent Solar Day
- Measured against the real or Apparent Sun (the one that “appears” to you) & it is defined as the time between two
successive transits of the Sun over the same meridian
- Not a constant length
Mean Solar Day
- Averaged length of an apparent solar day over the year. It is of constant length & related to light & darkness.
- Used as the civil day, being divided into hours, minutes & seconds of “Mean time”
Sideral Day
- Measured against a distant star & is of nearly constant length
International Date Line
- Sits on the 180E/W line of longitude in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, & is the imaginary line that separates 2 consecutive
calendar days

080 - 01 Subsonic Aerodynamics

Load Factor
- > 1: When weight is less than lift
Ground Effect
- Ground prevents full development of the trailing vortices,
making them much weaker than in normal flight. This
leads to a decrease in downwash, therefore a higher effect
AOA which also means a smaller induced AOA.
- Temperature↑, Convective Currents from a warm rwy will add to the upward forces caused by the ground effect, ↑the
tendency of the a/c to float beyond the touchdown
Angle of Incidence
- Angle between the wing root chord line & the longitudinal axis of the a/c. This angle is fixed.
Angle of Attack (AOA)
- Critical AOA
 Flow cannot follow the shape of the profile, the flow separates from the surface & vortices are created.
 Smaller Suction, Smaller Lift & Higher Drag
 CAOA will remain the same regardless of gross weight
 A given wing will always stall at the same AOA
The Boundary Layer
- Layer of fluid (atmosphere) in the immediate surface of a bounding surface (the airfoil) where the effects of viscosity are
significant.
- Transition Point: Air transits from Laminar Flow to a Turbulent Flow
 Laminar
 Flow moves parallel to the surface over which it flows, the air flows very smoothly.
 Velocity increases with distance from the airfoil
 Creates less friction drag than the turbulent flow, but is less stable
 Turbulent
 Does not flow smoothly, it contains swirls, creates more drag than the Laminar Air Flow
 More kinetic energy (higher mean speed) & breaks down less easily & is therefore more stable
Camber
- Positive Camber: A wing is thicker on the top end of the wing, than on the bottom if
looked at from the chord
 Wing will generate lift with airspeed, as the air on top of the airfoil will get
accelerated more than on the bottom, creating a low pressure on the top & high
pressure at the bottom
- Negative Camber: Lift coefficient for a certain speed is lower than for a positive cambered wing
- Symmetrical Airfoil: Intersect the vertical axis of the graph at the origin.
Swept Back Wing
- Pitch tendency can only be caused by either a forward movement of a CP or a aft movement of CG.
- Swept Back Wing stalls at the tips first. A stalled tip means a reduction in lift at the back of the wing (as the tips are fearthest
towards the rear) & therefore a pitch up tendency
Speed
- Vs1g = The min. speed at which the aeroplane can develop a lift force
(normal to the flight path) equal to its weight
Wing Loading
- Directly proportional to weight. An increase in weight, increase stall speed since the wings need to fly at a higher AOA to
generate enough lift for a given airspeed
- Factors affecting stall speed:
 Aircraft Weight: Weight↑, Stall Speed↑
 Air Density: Altitude↑, Stall Speed↑
  Max. Life Coefficient:↑max lift coefficients (Flaps/Slats), Stall Speed↓
 Load Factor: Load Factor↑, Stall Speed↑
Aerodynamic Center
- A point along the Chord Line at which the pitching moment, remains the same no matter what the AOA.
- Pitching moment coefficient is constant at the zero lift value.
- Subsonic Flight: Usually 25% of the Chord Line from the Leading Edge (Rarely 23% / 27%)
- Supersonic Flight: Approx. 50% from the Leading Edge
Effect on Tips Tanks
- Fitting
 Parasite Drag↑(Add surface area in contact with the free flowing air)
 Induced Drag↓(Shape of the tip tanks help prevent the flow around the tip of the wing reducing the vortices)
Slats
- When deployed, the slat forms a slot which allows passage of air from the high pressure region below the wing to the low
pressure region above it.
- Additional Kinetic Energy is added to the airflow through the slot by the slat forming a convergent duct
- Boundary Layer is re-energized. Boundary layer separation will be delayed to a much higher AOA
Deploying Flaps
- Fowler Flaps: Move outwards & then downwards (↑Wing Area & Camber, ↑CL & CD)
Spin Recovery
- Ailerons Neutral  Rudder in opposite direction  increase AOA
Maths / Calculations
- New Stall Speed


 Higher mass  AOA↑  ↑Drag↓Range
- New Coefficient of Lift
 New n = Original n x (New CL / Original CL)
- New Drag Force

- Lift Coefficient

Mass / Weight
- Mass is constant regardless of gravity
- Weight is not constant regardless of gravity. Weight is the force exerted on a body by gravity
Symmetrical Aerofoil
- Zero AOA  Zero Lift Coefficient
Positively Cambered Aerofoil
- Lift Coefficient ZERO  Pitching Moment NEGATIVE
Negatively Cambered Aerofoil
- Lift Coefficient ZERO  Pitching Moment POSITIVE
- ZERO LIFT at a POSITIVE AOA
Negative Tail Stall
- Tailplane is designed to operate with smooth airflow along its surface. When the airflow separates from the tailplane, this is
referred to as a Tailplane Stall.
- Tailplane is designed to produce a downward force (negative lift). When the tailplane stalls, this downforce will no longer
exist, resulting in a sudden uncommanded nose down pitching moment.
Law of Continuity
- Mass can be neither created nor destroyed
- A x P x V = Constant / Cross Sectional Area x Density x Velocity

080 – 02 High Speed Aerodynamics

Mach Number
- Subsonic Up to 0.75
- Transonic 0.75 – 1.2 / 1.3
- Supersonic > 1.2 / 1.3
Drag Divergence Mach Number
- Mach Number at which the aerodynamic drag begins
to↑rapidly
 Usually close to, & always greater than the Critical Mach #
- Speed↑above MCRIT shockwaves begin to form & drag↑more
rapidly than it would have done without the shockwave.
Shockwave
- After Shockwave: Velocity↓, Static Pressure↑, Density↑, Temp↑
Wave Drag
- Extra drag encountered when, at high speed, shock waves form on an a/c
- As speed↑above MCRIT shock waves begin to form & drag↑more rapidly than it
would have done without the shock waves.
- Additional drag & is due to energy drag & boundary layer separation
 Energy Drag: Heat is created at a shock wave. Energy has to be used to
provide this temp rise across the
shock wave & this energy loss is drag on the a/c
 Separation Drag: High pressure found at the shock wave creates a strong
adverse pressure gradient on the a/c surface. This turbulence represents
energy lost to the flow & contributes to the drag
Wing Design on MCRIT
- ↑Camber by deflecting a control surface down will↓MCRIT
- Relative thickness↑, MCRIT↓
- CL↑, MCRIT↓
Local Speed of Sound
- Speed at which pressure waves propagate is proportional to the
Sq root of the absolute temp of the air.
 Higher the temp  Higher the Speed of Propagation
Shock Stall
- Occurs when the lift coefficient reaches its maximum value
MCRIT
- Lower limit of a speed band, known as the transonic range
- Highest speed possible without supersonic flow over the wing
 A Swept Wing having the same wing area & holding
 A thin airfoil cross-section (low thickness to chord ratio)
 Area Ruling
 Provided the cross-sectional area of the plane is similar to that of the ideal shape, the wave drag of the plane will be
similar to that of the ideal shape, irrespective of its actual shape
High Speed Buffet
- Rapid movement of the control surfaces caused by turbulent airflow passing over them
- Can only occur when the Mach # is above the Mcrit & is likely to be accompanied by a tendency for the plane to pitch down
Tuck Under
- Speed increase beyond the MCRIT, shock wave formation at the root of the swept back wing will:
 Reduce lift forward of the CG (CP moves rearward)
 Reduce downwash at the tail plane
 (Generate a nose-down pitching moment)
- Small increase in Mach # will give a nose-down pitch which will further increase the Mach #. This in turn leads to a further
increase in the nose-down pitching moment.
- Mach Tuck = High Speed Tuck = Tuck Under = This unfavorable high-speed characteristic
Mach Trim System
- Counteract Mach Tuck
- Maintain the required stick force gradient at high Mach #
 Deflect the stabilizer
 Decrease the incidence of the variable incidence trimming tail plane
 Move the CG rearwards by transferring fuel from the wings to rear trim tank

081 – 04 Stability
Stability
- Ability of an a/c to correct for conditions that act on it
- Static: Initial tendency of an a/c to return to its original position when it’s disturbed
- Dynamic: How an airplane responds over time to a disturbance
- Stability↑, Manoeuvrability↓
- Dynamically Stable  Statically Stable
- Statically Unstable  Never attain Dynamic Stability
Lateral Stability
- Dihedral
- Sweepback
- High-Wing Mounting
- Increased effective dihedral
- Large, High Vertical Fin
- Low CG
Dutch Roll
- Lateral Stability > Directional Stability
- Yaw Damper: Automatically displaces the rudder proportional to the rate of yaw to damp out the oscillations
 If Yaw Damper fails  Recommended to use ailerons by the pilot to damp out Dutch Roll / Reduce Speed
CG Position
- More Forward CG  More longitudinally stable
- Beyond the Forward Limit  Cause an unacceptably high value of longitudinal stability,↓manoeuvrability by a significant
amount
- Beyond the Aft Limit  Too unstable, having excessive manoeuvrability
Stick Force per G
- Force required to change the load factor of the a/c for a given amount
- It has an Upper & Lower Limit
- N /g = Stick Force N / Load Factor G
- Straight & Level flight  0 Stick Force & Load Factor 1G
- CG moves forward  Stick Force Gradient↑, Maneuvering Stability↑, Higher Limit of Stick Force Gradient may be reached
- Stick Position Stability: Either + / -. Pull for nose up, Push for nose down. Only CG getting way out of limits changed the fact
- Stick Force Stability: How much harder you need to pull/push on the stick with increasing G load
Dorsal Fin & Ventral Fin
- Used to overcome the instability in the fuselage, increase Directional Stability
- Dorsal Fin: Mounted on top of the fuselage near the rear
- Ventral Fin: Mounted below
Aerodynamic Center (AC)
- Point to which moments of the resultant forces are the same for the same dynamic pressure.
- Moment coefficient does not change with changing AOA, assuming no flow separation.
- The point where all changes in the magnitude of the lift force effectively takes place
Speed
- Phugoid: Varies significantly
- Short Period: Oscillation it remains approx. constant

081 – 05 Control
Position of CG
- Forward CG: Longitudinal stability↑, Run out of elevator movement & be unable to maintain the required attitude
- Aft CG: Longitudinal stability↓, more difficult / impossible to control in pitch
CG Limitation
- Forward Limit: Determined by the amount of pitch control available from the elevators
- Aft Limit: Insufficient stick force stability &/ excessive in-flight manoeuvrability.
Angle of Incidence
- Positive: Nose Down Input, Higher than normal control forces
- Negative: Nose Up Input
Trim Tab
- Some planes CP too close to the hinge line of the control surface, too easy
to deflect the control surface. Little control column load & lack of feel to
control, leading to excessive deflection of the control surface & result in
serious overstressing of the airframe
 Anti-Balance Tab: Deflecting the tab in the same direction as that of the primary control surface &↑Aerodynamic Loading
- Relieve the pilot of the need to apply so much force to operate the controls
 Servo Tab: Small tab hinged on the trailing edge of the primary control surface & linked directly to the control column
(Linked directly to the control column)
 Spring Tab: Move in the opposite direction to the main control surface at an ever-increasing angle, which is directly
proportional to the increasing airspeed (High IAS Spring Tab behaves like a Servo-Tab)
 Balance Tab: Moves when the control surface is moved
Surface Balancing Method
- ↓force required to operate the control
 Hinge Balance
 Horn Balance
 Internal Balance
 Balance Tab
 Spring Tab
 Servo-Tab
Pitch Angle: Angle between the a/c Longitudinal axis & the Horizon
Flight Path Angle: Angle between the Flight Path & the Horizon
Angle of Attack: Angle between the Chord Line & the RAF

081 – 06 Limitations
Limitation Table
- Large Transport -1.0 +2.5 (Flap +2.0)
- Normal -1.52 +3.8
- Utility -1.76 +4.4
- Aerobatic -3.0 +6.0
- Formula to calculate Vs Factor:
 Vs = VS1 x √n
New VA Maneuvering Speed
VNEW = VOLD x √New Weight / Old Weight
Stall Speed & Load Factor
- Load Factor: Ratio of the weight of an a/c to the load imposed by Lift
 Load Factor = Lift / Weight
 Increase in Speed  New Speed / Old Speed = Factor  Factor ^ 2 = New Load Factor
- Access whether the a/c will stall in the first situation
 Vs1 = Vs0 x √(n old)
 If < V old, NOT STALLED
- Load Factor resulting from the same gust on an a/c travelling at Vnew:
 [ (New N -1 x New Vs) / Old Vs ] + 1
- Assess the limiting load factor at which the a/c would stall
 N1g = V2new
Exceeding Load Factor
- Ultimate Load Factor / Limit Load Factor = 1.5 x Safety Factor
- Aircraft structures are designed to withstand the ultimate load factor
for 3 secs, very likely that a structural failure will occur if exceeded
V Speed
- VA = Maneuvering Speed, full deflection of any flight control surface should not be attempted because of the risk of damage
of the a/c structure
- VB = Design speed for max gust intensity
- VC = Design cruise speed, selected by designer & used to assess the strength requirements in cruise
- VMO = Max. speed that must not be deliberately exceeded in any regime, unless a higher speed has been authorized for a
particular flight
- VRA = Recommended turbulence penetration airspeed (Rough Air Speed)
- VLE = Max speed at which an airplane may be safely flown with the Landing Gear extended
CS25 Design Requirement
- Airframe structure must be strong enough to withstand gusts both + - that would cause a change of AOA so↑load factor at 3
specified design speeds.
 VB: Max Gust Intensity Speed: + - 66 ft / sec
 VC: Design Cruise Speed: + - 50 ft / sec
 VD: Design Dive Speed: + - 25 ft / sec
Wing Load / Gust Load
- Wing Loading = Weight / Wing Area
- Wing area Increases  Gust Load Factor Increases
- Wing area Decreases  Gust Load Factor Decreases
- EAS Increases  Gust Load Factor Increases
- EAS Decreases  Gust Load Factor Decreases.
- Maneuvering Limit Load Factor: Load factor which is
created by maneuvering the a/c (turning it, pushing it
up / down)
- Gust Load Factor: Acceleration caused by the extra lift
generated by the wing when it encounters a sudden change of AOA caused by an upgust (Must be higher than Maneuvering
 LF as if an a/c was to fly at the MLLF & a gust produced an increased IAS, pilot would not have margin to take corrective
action)
 Speed: Speed↓, AOA↑, Gust Factor↓
 Mass: Mass↑, AOA↑, Gust Factor↓
 Altitude: Alt↑, smaller↑in AOA due to↑TAS, Gust Factor↓
 Wing Area: Wing Area↓, AOA↑, Gust Factor↓
 CL/AOA Curve: Steep CL/AOA, more extra lift for given↑in AOA, Gust Factor↑
Aileron Reversal
- Can occur at high speed when the wing twists as a result of the loads caused by operating the ailerons
Flutter
- An oscillation of the control surface which can occur due to the bending & twisting of the structure under load
- ↑with Airspeed
- Caused By:
 Aerodynamic Forces
 Inertia Forces
 Elastic Properties of a Surface
- Risk of experiencing flutter↑with IAS
- Prevent Flutter
 Stiffness should be↑
 CG of the control surface should be moved forward of the control hinge
 Airspeed should be reduced

081 – 07 Propellers
Asymmetric Blade Effect
- More significant in high RPM & low forward speed.
Ability of Propeller to convert Engine Power into Forward Thrust
- Propeller Blade Shape
- # of Propeller Blades
- Propeller Solidity
Windmilling Propeller
- When both engine fails propeller will slow down. The CSU will attempt to maintain
the selected RPM by driving the propeller blades to a fine position that will continue
until reaching the fine pitch stop.
- Generate sufficient torque to rotate the unpowered propeller in the normal
direction of rotation.
- Drag↑, IAS↓, L/D Ratio↓& Rate of Descent↑
Blade Angle
- Small Blade Twist  Large Blade Angle  Coarse Pitch
- Large Blade Twist  Small Blade Angle  Fine Pitch
Blade Twist
- Varying of the blade angle from the root to the tip of a propeller blade
- Blade Tip travels faster  Blade Angle must be↓to give a constant geometric pitch along the length of the blade
Geometric Pitch
- Distance the propeller would travel forward in 1 complete revolution if it were moving through the air at the blade angle
Fixed Pitch Propeller
- Blade Angle is constant, but Helix Angle & AOA will vary according to its forward speed
- Constant RPM:↑TAS ↓AOA
- Constant TAS:↑RPM ↑AOA
Solidity of the Propeller
- ↑Power Absorption
- Ratio of the Total frontal area of the blades to the area of the propeller disc
Propeller Icing
- ↓efficiency of the propeller &↓thrust
- Weight of the ice↑a/c weight & therefore the lift required
- Greatest quantity of ice normally collects on the spinner & inner radius of the propeller
- Estimated propeller efficiency loss is on the order of 15-20%
Critical Engine
- Largest asymmetric thrust moment occurs when an outboard engine fails. The engine failure which most adversely affects the
performance is deemed the critical power unit & is used to determine the limiting control speeds that will ensure adequate
directional control in such an event.
Blade Angle = AOA + Helix Angle
-

081 – 08 Flight Mechanics

Autopilot (AP)
- Vertical Speed Mode: Perform constant rate climbs & descents
 Vertical Speed is prioritized over Airspeed
 FD will attempt to maintain the specified vertical speed until you choose a different setting in autopilot, the a/c reaches an
assigned alt set into the assigned alt selector, or the AP is disconnected
 Power is limited at a certain alt it may not be able to achieve targeted vertical speed. AP will continually pitch the a/c up in
attempt to maintain the vertical speed selected. This could happen all the way to the point of stalling.
Calculations
- Lift  L = W cosθ
- Drag  D = W sinθ
- Thrust (Descent)  T = D – W sinθ
- Thrust (Climb)  T = D + W sinθ

- Horizontal Turn  Lift > Weight  L = W / cosθ

- Descent  Thrust < Drag  D = T + W sinθ
- Steady Speed
 Thrust = D + W sinθ
- Descent
 Thrust = D - W sinθ
- Climb Angle
 Sinθ= ( T – D ) / W
Total Thrust from 4 engines plane with 1 engine inoperative
- T = 3 * Thrust per Engine
- T / ( W * g) – D / L
Rate One Turn
- Turn with turn rate 3 degree / sec  360 degree in 2 min
Radius of Turn
- Convert TAS to m/s  TAS * 0.5144
- Radius = (TAS)^2 / ( g * tanθ)
Time to Complete the Circle
- Convert TAS to m/s  TAS * 0.5144
- Radius = (TAS)^2 / ( g * tanθ)
- Circumference = 2 *π*r
- Circumference / (TAS) = Time
Load Factor in a Turn
- Tanθ= (TAS x 0.5144)^2 / (g x radius)
- Load Factor = 1 / cosθ
Minimum Altitude
- Eg. L/D = 30  Aircraft will fly 30 units over the ground per every unit down (assuming no wind)
- Ground Distance = 60 km = 60,000 m
- 1 / 30 = x / 60,000
- X = 2,000 m
- 2,000 m + 300 m Elevation = 2,300 m Minimum Altitude
Slipping: Too much bank & too little rudder, Ball pointing toward the low wing
Skidding: Too much rudder & not enough bank, Ball pointing toward the high wing

Glide Distance (Varies with wind)

- Tailwind,↑Glide Distance
- Headwind,↓Glide Distance
Glide Duration (Varies with mass)
- Low mass,↑Glide Duration
- High mass,↓Glide Duration
Speed
- VMCG: Min. control speed on the ground, is the calibrated airspeed during the takeoff run, when the critical engine is suddenly
made inoperative, it is possible to maintain control of the airplane using the rudder control alone (without use of nose wheel
steering) to enable the takeoff to be safely continued using normal piloting skill
 Rudder Control may not exceed 150 pounds
 VMCG must be established with:
 Max available take-off power or thrust on the engines
 Airplane trimmed for take-off
 Most unfavorable CG position
 Max sea level take-off weight
- VMCL: Min. control speed during approach & landing, lateral control must be sufficient to roll the aeroplane, from an initial
condition of steady flight, through an angle of 20 degrees in the direction necessary to initiate a turn away from the
inoperative engines, in not more than 5 secs
- VMCA: Calibrated airspeed when the critical engine is suddenly inoperative, possible to maintain control of the plane with that
engine still inoperative & maintain straight flight with an angle of bank of not more than 5 degrees
 Decreasing bank angle below 5 degree to 0 degree, rudder deflection has to be increased, VMCA will also increased
 5 degree max is stipulated because larger bank angles would significantly reduce the vertical component of lift; the AOA
would have to be increased with the added penalty of higher induced drag
 HPL Powerpoint
Accident Statistics
- Accidents by Rate: Air 6 hours / Bicycle 5 mins / Car or foot 30 mins
- Prior to 1960: 60 : 1,000,000 Departures
- Between 1992 to 2012: From 1:850,000 to 1:2,300,000 Departures
 Contributory Factors
 Advanced Jet Engines / Glass Cockpit / FBW Technology / Improved Navigation Equipment / GPWS / TCAS
- “Human Factors” aviation accident causes ~60 – 80% (Avg 70%)
 73% Pilot Error / 16% Spatial Disorientation / 5% Health Problem
5 Most Common Causes of Pilot Induced Accident
 Loss of Directional Control
 Poor Judgement
 Airspeed not maintained
 Poor pre-flight planning & Decision Making
 Not maintaining Ground Clearance
Fatal Accidents & Onboard Fatalities by Phase of Flight
 48% Final Approach & Landing / 13% Takeoff & Initial Climb
- Error: Actions / Inactions that lead to deviations from organizational or flight crew intentions or expectations
- Reduce the risks & manage potential threats that arise
Threat & Error Management (TEM)
- CRM: The use of all available resources to achieve safe & efficient flight
- TEM: Subset of CRM specifically focused on contingency planning
- Threat Categories
 Environmental
 Weather / Terrain / Airport / Cultural / Other
 Organizational
 Maintenance / Aircraft / Dispatch / Groundcrew / Operational / Cabin / Documentation
- Error Categories
 Aircraft Handling Errors
 Manual Handling / Wrong Selection / Wrong Frequency / Wrong Runway / Wrong Speed
 Procedural Errors
 Documentation / Policy & SOP / Checklist / Callouts / Briefings
 Communication Errors
 Internet (Crew to Crew) / External (Crew to Non-Crew)
 Routine Violations
 Exceptional Violations
- Undesired Aircraft State: Anytime the a/c is at the wrong place at wrong time or in wrong configuration
 Aircraft Handling
 Ground Navigation
 Incorrect Aircraft Configurations
Responses to Errors: Anticipate & Avoid  Detect & Trap  Mitigate
TEM Counter Measures
- Hard: TCAS / RAAS / Weather Radar / Displays / GPWS
- Soft: Approach Charts / Airport Charts / FCOM / SOP
SHELL Model
- Software: Procedures / Manuals / Checklist / Symbology / Computer Programs / Map & Chart
- Hardware: Design of Flight Deck / Aircraft Structure / Presentation of Instruments / Positioning & Operating Sense of Controls
- Environment: Conditions both inside & outside the cockpit
- Liveware: Other humans who need to be interacted with
- Liveware: The Pilot, Valuable, Flexible, Interactive Component at the Center of the Model
Safety Culture
- A set of beliefs, norms, attitudes, roles & social & technical practices concerned with minimizing exposure of employees,
managers, customers & members of the general public to conditions considered dangerous or hazardous
- Open Culture  All levels of an organization play an active part in the improvement of the safety culture
- Closed Culture  Reluctant to release info on threats, errors or UAS to other agencies
- National Culture  Both govt & ethnic factors influence attitudes towards safety culture
SWISS CHEESE Model
- By Prof. James Reason
- Organizational Influences + Unsafe Supervision + Preconditions + Unsafe Acts
- 5 Strong Safety Culture
 Informed Culture: Collects & analyzes relevant data, & actively disseminates safety info
 Reporting Culture: People have confidence to report safety concerns without fear of blame. Info they submit will be acted
upon
 Learning Culture: Able to learn from its mistakes & make changes. Ensure that people understand the SMS processes at a
personal level
 Just Culture: Errors & unsafe acts will NOT be punished if the error was unintentional. Those who act recklessly or take
deliberate & unjustifiable risks will still be subject to disciplinary action
 Flexible Culture: Capable of adapting effectively to changing demands
Lecture 2 – Basics of Flight Physiology
The Atmosphere
- Nitrogen 78% / Oxygen 21% / Argon, Neon, Xenon, Helium, Hydrogen
- Volume % for remain constant up to 70,000 ft
- Tropopause 11 km / 36,090 ft
- Temp constant 11 – 20 km / 65,600 ft
- Atmospheric Pressure: Mg / Area
 1 / 4 MSL – 36,000 ft
 1 / 2 MSL – 18,000 ft
 3 / 4 MSL – 8,000 ft
Oxygen
- Combines with food nutrients (Glucose) to give the necessary energy (Fuel), to keep all the cells of the body functioning
- O2 + Glucose = Energy
-

- At MSL Atmospheric Air: 760 mmHg  Nitrogen 592 mmHg + Oxygen 160 mmHg (Partial Pressure)
- At Alveolar Air (Lung): 760 mmHg  Nitrogen 570 + Oxygen 103 + Water Vapor 47 + Carbon Dioxide 40 (Partial Pressure)

- 55 mmHg Oxygen is considered the MINIMUM for normal operations

- At 33,700 ft Cabin Alt, 100% Oxygen is required to maintain the 103 mmHg Partial Pressure
- Between 33,700 – 40,000 ft Cabin Alt, normal operations can continue with Alveolar Partial Pressure falling to 55 mmHg
- Partial Pressure of Oxygen inside the lungs↓with alt
 Up to 10,000 ft: Air only
 10,000 – 33,700 ft: Oxygen / Air Mixture
 33,700 – 40,000 ft: 100% Oxygen
 Above 40,000 ft: 100% Oxygen under Pressure
The Physical Gas Law
- Boyle’s Law
 Temp constant, Volume is inversely proportional to its Pressure  P↑V↓/ P↓V↑
 Wet Gas Conditions: Gases within the body are saturated with water vapor. Under constant temp & at the same alt &
barometric pressure, the Volume of Wet Gas is greater than the Volume of Dry Gas
 This expansion exerts a force against the enclosing membrane (Stomach, Sinuses, Inner Ear)
 Expanded volume of the gas may cause gastrointestinal pain in high alt because the stomach or the intestines become
distended
- Dalton’s Law
 Total Pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the Sum of the Pressures
of each gas in that mixture


- Charles’ Law
 At constant pressure, Volume of a gas is directly proportional to the Temp in a
closed sys
- Combined Gas Law
 Boyle + Charles + Gay-Lussac
 PV/T=k
- Henry’s Law
 Nitrogen will come out of solution when exposed to reduced Atmospheric Pressure
 In diving, this is known as Bends
 Certain waiting periods between Diving & Flying
- Fick’s Gas Law
 If a gas of HP exerts a force toward a region of LP, & that if an existing membrane separating these regions of unequal
pressure, the gas of higher pressure will PASS / DIFFUSE through the membrane into the region of lower pressure
 This is how Oxygen & Carbon Dioxide enters exits our body via Alveolar
Respiratory & Circulatory Systems
- External Respiration: Exchange of gases from the Lungs to Blood
- Internal Respiration: Exchange of gases from Blood to Cell Tissues throughout the
Body
The Respiratory System
- Inhalation: Diaphragm contracts causing the Pressure in the lung to↓& Volume↑. The pressure differential causes air to rush
in & fill the lungs
- Exhalation: Diaphragm relaxes↓Volume &↑Pressure, forcing the air out
Epiglottis (會厭軟骨)
- Prevent food & drink from entering the airway
- Allows swallowed food into the Esophagus & therefore into the digestive sys
Lung Capacities
- Tidal Volume: Normal Breath (500 ml)
- Inspiratory Reserve: Extra volume that can be inhaled above
tidal volume (3,100 ml)
- Expiratory Reserve: Volume that can be exhaled by forceful
expiration after tidal volume (1,200 ml)
- Residual Volume: Air remaining in lungs even after forceful
expiration (1,200 ml)
Breathing
- Air travels from Mouth & Nose, warmed & hydrated, down the throat through the larynx & trachea, into the lungs through
Main-Stem Bronchi
- They are divided into smaller Bronchi, then into even smaller tubes called Bronchioles (細支氣管).
- Exchange of Oxygen & Carbon Dioxide occurs by Diffusion
- Avg Breathing Rate: 16 Cycles / min (Adult)
Gas Exchange in the Lungs
- Each Alveolus is surrounded by Capillaries (毛細血管) that joins
Veins & Arteries
- From Pulmonary Artery  Oxygen diffuses into the Red Blood Cells
- To Pulmonary Vein  Carbon Dioxide diffuses into the Alveolus
Blood is made up of
- Plasma 血漿 (Liquid, mostly water)
- Red Blood Cells (Carry Oxygen)
- White Blood Cells (Fight infections)
- Platelets 血小板 (Helps stop bleeding)
Red Blood Cell
- No nuclei, more capacity for Haemoglobin
- Oxygen attaches itself to the Red Blood Cells via the Haemoglobin Molecules
- At the Cells, Oxygen is released & Carbon Dioxide then attached for the journey back to the Lungs
Oxygen Saturation
- Measure of how much Haemoglobin is bound to Oxygen compared to how much remains unbound
- Sea Level: 97.5%
- 10,000 ft: 87%
- 20,000 ft: 65%
Rate of Respiration
- Adjusted by measuring the level of Carbon Dioxide in the Blood (Carbonic Acid Levels)
- High CO2 level implies more Oxygen has been burned & there is a need for more replacement Oxygen
- Breathing rate is automatically increased to bring more Oxygen into the Lungs for the Bloodstream to absorb
Circulatory System
- Often referred to as “Cardiovascular System”, they are interchangeable
- Means of delivering blood & its cargo to every part of the body & returning the
spent blood
- Pulmonary: Dealing with adding Oxygen in the Lungs
- Systemic: Moving that Oxygen around the body
- Powered by the Heart, which works together with a sys of tubes & valves to
ensure one way flow of Blood
The Heart – 4 Chambers
- Right Atrium: Collects returning de-oxygenated blood & acts ac a reservoir & LP
pump for the Right Ventricle
- Right Ventricle: HP pump for de-oxygenated blood to the lungs
- Left Atrium: Collects oxygenated blood from lungs & acts as a reservoir & LP pump for the Left Ventricle
- Left Ventricle: HP pump for oxygenated blood to the rest of the body
The Heart – 4 Valves
- Right Side
 Tricuspid Valve: Allows flow between the Right Atrium & Right Ventricle
 Pulmonary Valve: Allows deoxygenated blood to be pumped back to the lungs via Pulmonary Artery
- Left Side
 Mitral Valve: Allows oxygenated blood from the Lungs to flow from Left Atrium into Left Ventricle
 Aortic Valve: Allows oxygenated blood to flow to the rest of the body from Left Ventricle via the Aorta
The Heart
- Ventricles are the Primary Pumping System
- Pumping action is the result of a strong contraction of the muscles with surround
the heart, particularly the outer wall of the Left Ventricle
- Electrical Pulses are sent through the Septum to the Endocardium, Epicardium &
Myocardium Muscles to keep the Heart beating in a regular manner
Blood Supply
- Heart requires its own blood supply to provide it with Oxygen & to carry the
oxygen-depleted blood away
- Coronary Arteries
 1 Left & 1 Right Major Coronary Arteries branch off from the Aorta 主動脈
The Tubing
- Arteries (動脈): Thick elastic walls. Carry blood away from the Heart.
 Reducing in size to become Arterioles with distance. High flow & Relative Pressure
- Veins (靜脈): Thinner less elastic walls. Carry blood towards the Heart. Increasing in size from Venules at the extremities.
Many 1-way valves to maintain flow at low pressure
- Capillaries (毛細血管): Connect Arteries to Veins & are the smallest of Blood Vessels. As tiny as 5 micrometers in diameter.
Capillary wall is only 1 cell thick & is made of Endothelial Cells that allow oxygen, nutrients, & waste to diffuse to & from
tissue cells.
Blood Pressure & Pulse
- 2 Main Pumps, Ventricles, in the Heart increase pressure in the blood vessels as the blood leaves it & this is what causes our
Pulse
- Heart Rate / Pulse Rate depends on the Size of the Heart & Strength & Frequency of Contractions
- Normal: 70 Beats / min
- Pulse Rate will change depending # of factors: Exercise / Altitude / Temperature
 General Adaption Syndrome (Fight / Flight) / Shock / Emotion (Fear, Anxiety, Anger)
- Baroreceptors: Sensors located in the Carotid & Aortic Blood Vessels
 Sense blood pressure & regulate it by signals from the Brain Stem, increasing the heart rate, constricting the Arteries &
Veins to the non-essential parts such as the skin & hence preserving the blood for the essentials
Blood Pressure
- Pressure of blood exerted by the Heart against the walls of the Main Arteries
- Systolic: Highest pressure, when the Heart contracts to send blood around the body
- Diastolic: When relaxing pressure, the permanent pressure within the Arterial Sys between Heart Beats
- Typical 120 / 80 mmHg
Cardiac Output
- Volume of Blood flow from the Heart through Ventricles, & is usually measured in Litres per min
- Cardiac Output = Stroke Volume x Pulse Rate
- ~ 5 Litres / min
Blood Donation
- Reduced blood results in less oxygen in your body
- Slight risk of fainting after donation. Do not fly for at least 24 hours afterwards
Hypertension & Hypotension
- Hypertension when
 Age Under 39 145 / 90
 Age 40 – 49 155 / 95
 Age Over 50 160 / 100
 Hypertension will cause damage to the Arteries, increasing the risk of Heart Attack / Stroke / Kidney Damage
- Hypotension (Low Blood Pressure)
 Not normally a cause for concern unless it causes symptoms such as frequent fainting or Blurred Vision
Blood Pressure Chart
- Low Blood Pressure 90 / 60
- Normal Blood Pressure 120 / 80
- Pre Hypertension 140 / 90
- High Blood Pressure 160 / 100
- High Blood Pressure 180+ / 120+
Causes of Hypertension
- Stress / Smoking / Dietary Factors / Age / Obesity / Lack of Exercise / Narrow &/ hardening of the Arteries
Symptoms of Hypertension
- Heart Palpitations / Shortness of Breath / Chest Pains / Headaches / Nose Bleeds
Causes of Hypotension
- Rising from a lying or sitting position to standing up / Sudden change in posture may lead to a momentary fall in blood
pressure causing fainting / Medications used to treat high blood pressure / Diabetes or a disorder of the adrenal glands /
Clinical shock brough about by severe burns, major injuries, severe infections or allergies
Coronary Artery Disease
- Get blocked or restricted they are unable to supply sufficient blood to the Heart
- Build up of fatty deposits on Arteries / Smoking / Diabetes / High Blood Pressure / Family history
- Coronary Disease is responsible for 70% of Pilot Deaths
- Angina: Chest / Left Neck / Left Arm pain can result
- Physical Exercise should double your resting heart rate (Up to 3 times a week for 20 mins)
Hypoxia
- Condition where the cells in the body have insufficient oxygen to function properly
- Hypoxic Hypoxia: Lack of Oxygen in the Air
- Anemic Hypoxia: Inability to carry Oxygen (Anemia / Carbon Monoxide poisoning
Anaemia
- Low Red Blood Cell
- Causes: Breakdown of the production process for Haemoglobin in the Bone
Marrow / Iron Deficiency / Excessive Bleeding / Smoking / Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
- Symptoms: Euphoria / False sense of security & well being / Clumsy / Impaired Judgement / Headache / Blue Lips & Finger
nails (Cyanosis) / Loss of Consciousness
Stages of Hypoxia
- Indifferent 0 – 10,000 ft
 Almost NO impairment, only adverse effect on Dark Adaption
- Compensatory 10 – 15,000 ft
 Reduce ability to cope
 Fatigue / Headache (after 20 – 30 mins), ↓Judgement Ability
 Short Term Memory is lost early ~12,000 ft making tasks difficult to complete unless trained into LT Memory
- Disturbance 15 – 20,000 ft
 Body can no longer cope
 Loss of Critical Judgement
 Processes are slowed
 Muscular coordination deteriorates
 Tingling in limbs & lips
 Cyanosis in lips
- Critical 20,000 ft +
 Acute Hypoxia
  Rapid loss of consciousness
Time of Useful Consciousness
- Effective Performance Time (EPT) for a healthy individual seated at rest during which they can act with mental & physical
efficiency & alertness
- Varies between individuals on Endurance / Experience / Physical Exertion
- Length of time an individual is able to perform flying duties efficiently
- TUC: Period of time from exposure to hypoxia to the time when an individual is no longer capable of taking proper corrective
action

- All alt above 40,000 ft, EPT / TUC is approx.. 5 – 6 secs

Hypoxia Tolerance
- High or Low Temp / Illness / Stress & Fatigue / Physical Activity / Smoking (5-8%) / Physical Fitness / Rate of Decompression
Hyperventilation
- Lung Ventilation in excess of the body’s needs, & indicates an overriding of the normal automatic breathing control in brain
- Too much Carbon Dioxide to be blown out of the Lungs on breathing out
- Breathing Rate & Depth↑even though the CO2 in the blood is already at a reduced level
- Carbonic Acid↓in the blood (Blood becomes more Alkaline) which is a marked Physiological change in the body
Symptoms of Hyperventilation
- Unconsciousness / Dizziness / Visual Disturbances / Numbness or Tingling / Anxiety / Spams of Limbs & Loss of Muscular
Coordination / Fainting / Increased Heart Rate / Hot & Cold Sensations
- Blue Lips & Finger Nails ONLY occur with Hypoxia
- Unlike Hypoxia, after a collapse from Hyperventilation breathing returns to normal & consciousness will be regained
Causes of Hyperventilation
- Worry, Anxiety, Fear / Pain, Loud Noise, Vibration, Excessive Heat, Airsickness / High G / Overstress / Pressure Breathing /
Emotional Arousal
Treatment of Hyperventilation
- Increase level of Carbon Dioxide (Breathe into a paper bag) / Need to make a conscious effort to slow down the breathing
Rapid Decompression & Decompression Sickness
- Normally 6,000 – 8,000 ft Maximum
- Pressure Differential across the aircraft skin is designed not to exceed a Structural Limit, typically around 8 – 9 psi
- Rate of Change of Cabin Pressure is restricted: 500 ft / min (Ascent), 300 ft / min (Descent)
Rapid Decompression
- Hypoxia / Cold / DCS
- Must rapidly descend to 10,000 ft or MSA
- Don Oxygen Masks & check flow ASAP
DCS
- Caused when large pressure difference develops between the body & the outside atmosphere
- Reduction of Partial Pressure in the air outside the body causes some dissolved gases in the blood to be released as gas
(Henry’s Law)
- Resulting in Nitrogen bubbles forming in the blood
 These bubbles are then free to move in the body & become lodged in Joints / Brian / Spinal Cord / Under the Skin
- Nitrogen is not required for the respiratory sys
- DCS is unlikely below 14,000 ft
 Above 18,000 ft Problems may occur
 Above 25,000 ft the likelihood of DCS becomes quite strong
Symptoms of DCS
- Joint Pain (89% cases – Bends)
- Itchiness (Creeps)
- Bubbles in the Lungs (Chokes)
- Staggers (Headache / Vision Problems 5 – 10%)
- Numbness
- Paralysis of parts of the body
- Problems with co-ordination & movement
- Unconsciousness
Flying & Diving
- During Diving using compressed air the concentrations of nitrogen in the blood are increased & DCS can be experienced at
altitudes as low as 6,000 ft during flights shortly afterwards
- 0 – 30 ft 12 hours
- 30 – 120 ft 24 hours
- > 120 ft 48 hours
Acceleration
- Rate of change in velocity, either as regards to speed or direction or both
- Linear: Change of Speed in a Straight Line
- Radial: Change of Direction along a radius with its axis of rotation external from the pilot
- Angular: Change of both Speed & Direction where the axis of rotation passes through the
pilot
- Long Duration ( > 1 sec ) G Tolerance
 + 3.5 G in a Relaxed Person
 + 7 / 8 G using Anti-G straining Technique
 - 3 G for Short Periods
- Short Duration ( < 1 sec ) G Tolerance
 25 G Vertical
 45 G Fore & Aft
Positive G
- Blood will be forced downward (Away from the Brain)
- Normally body can cope with up to 2.5 G
- 3–4G Grey Out (Loss of Color Vision)
- 3–5G Tunnelling (Loss of Peripheral Vision)
- 4–5G Inhalation Difficulty (Due to lowering of the Diaphragm)
- 4–6G Black Out (Total Loss of Vision due to Oxygen not reaching eyes)
- Unconsciousness may occur within 4 – 6 sec after sudden G onset
- 8G Loss of Sensory Functions
- Very High G Haemorrhaging of Legs & Feet
Factors may affect G Tolerance
- Hypoxia / Hyperventilation / Heat / Low Blood Sugar / Smoking & Alcohol / Sleep Deprivation / Obesity
Negative G
- Blood & the Body Organs being displaced towards the Head
- Blood has difficulty flowing back to the heart preventing newly oxygenated blood from getting to the brain
- Red Out (Loss of Vision) occurs due to blood collecting in & around the eyes & eyelids
Carbon Monoxide
- Colorless, Odourless, Tasteless gas that is Poisonous to humans
- Produced by the incomplete combustion of Carbon fuel in the engine & is present in Exhaust Gases
- Haemoglobin in Red Blood Cells is attracted to Carbon Monoxide 210 – 250 times more than it is to Oxygen & will transport it
in preference to Oxygen
Humidity
- Flying at 30,000 ft, RH < 1%
- Exhaled moisture from pax & crew + Moisture from galleys & toilets  RH 6 to 10% (Below 20% normally accepted as
comfortable) / Flight Deck as low as 3%
- Maximum Additional Water Lost from an individual during an 8 hour flight in 0 Humidity is around 100 ml
Extreme Temperatures
- Oral Temp is considered to be normal between 36.1 to 37.2
- Physical & Mental Performance starts to become significantly impaired at an internal body temp of about 38
- The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) will try to cope with the change of body temp & maintain equilibrium, by sweating or
shivering for example.

Lecture 3 – Man & the Environment, the Sensory System

The Nervous System
- Responsible for sending, receiving & processing nerve impulses
- All the body’s muscles & organs rely on Nervous Impulses to function
- About 86 million Neurons in the Human Brain
Unlike other cells in the body, Neurons are not easily replaced if they die or are damaged by infection or injury
Basic Structure of Neurons
- Dendrites + Cell Body + Axon
- Signals initiated at the Dendritic end of the Neuron are transmitted
along the Dendrites to the Cell Body
- If response is appropriate, the signal is sent onto the Axon, where it
initiates the release of chemicals into the Synapse. These chemicals
are what trigger the response in the Spinal Cord
- Nervous Sys uses both Electrical & Chemical means to send & receive messages
3 Main Types of Neurons
- Sensory Neurons: Allow us to feel sensations. “Begins” with the Dendrites, where
the signal is received from the environment & carried in towards the Central
Nervous Sys
- Motor Neurons: Control movement, the new signal is generated in the Motor
Cortex of the Brain & carried out towards the periphery
- Relay Neurons: Allow Motor Neurons & Sensory Neurons to communicate directly
with each other
Nervous System 2 Main Parts
- Central Nervous System (CNS): Made of the Brain & Spinal Cord
- Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Further broken down into 2 main parts: Autonomic & Somatic Nervous System
Central Nervous System
- Brain
 Powerhouse of the body, 2% of body’s weight
 “Command Centre” of our thoughts, the interpreter of our external environment, & the origin of control over body
movement
- Spinal Nerves
 Connected to & branch out from the Spinal Cord
 Coordinate the activities associated with all body parts below the neck
3 Main Discrete Area - Brain
- Cerebrum (Forebrain lobes – Frontal, Parietal, Temporal & Occipital)
 Higher functioning roles such as thinking, learning, memory, language, emotion, movement & perception
- Cerebellum (Hindbrain)
 Monitoring & regulating motor behaviors, it is also important for regulating posture & balance, as well as attention
- Brain Stem (Midbrain, Pons & Medulla Oblongata)
 Connects Cerebrum & Cerebellum to the Spinal Cord, acting as a relay station for these areas. Regulates automatic
functions such as sleep cycles, breathing, body temp, digestion, coughing & sneezing
Peripheral Nervous Sys (PNS)
- Includes all the neural tissue outside the CNS
- Body contains vast network of cells which carry info in the form of nerve impulses to & from all of its part
- Those impulses we receive are called Stimuli
- Detecting our 5 Basic Senses: Sound / Vision / Smell / Taste / Feel
- Stimuli must be of sufficient strength for the sensory receptors to detect them. This min strength is known as Sensory
Threshold
- Reflex action is the result of the coordination of the Spinal Cord & PNS & it does not involve the Brain
- Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
 Handles all voluntary, conscious sensory & motor transactions between the Peripheral & CNS
- Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
 Automatically regulate glands & organs without any conscious input (eg. Heartbeat, Breathing, Blood Pressure, Sweating,
Body Temp)
- Sympathetic (Fight / Flight) Response (Arousing Response)
 Accelerate Heart Rate / Widen Bronchial Passage / Decrease motility of the large intestine / Constrict blood vessels / Raise
blood pressure
- Parasympathetic (Rest & Digest) Response (Calming Reponse)
 Salivation / Lacrimation (Tears) / Urination / Digestion / Defecation
Vision
- 70% of all info processed is visual
- Light enters the eye through CORNEA, passes through the IRIS & the LENS & falls
on the RETINA
- It stimulates light-sensitive cells on the RETINA (RODS & CONES) that pass
electrical impulses through the OPTIC NERVE to the VISUAL CORTEX (OCCIPITAL
LOBE) in the brain
Areas of the Retina
- The Fovea
  The Focal Center of Light on the visual axis behind the lens
 Responsible for high-resolution, color vision only possible in good light
- Optic Nerve
 Point on the Retina where the nerve between the eye & the visual cortex enters the eyeball
 No receptor cells so creates a blind spot on the surface of the Retina
Retina has 2 types of Light Sensitive Receptors
- Cones
 Has its own neuron
 Detect Color
 Require bright light to stimulate
 Take longer to regenerate
 Concentrated for Central Vision
- Rods
 Several sharing single neurons
 Detect motion
 Black & White detection only
 Reach to weaker light, day & night vision
 Evenly distributed
Pupil
- Controls the amount of light entering the eye by adjusting the cillary muscles of the Iris (Adaptation)
- Lens shape can be changed by the Cillary Muscle for focusing (Accomodation)
- Lens working together with the Cornea will focus light as an inverted image onto the Retina

Visual Cortex
- Optic Nerve connects the eye to the Visual Cortex in the Occipital Lobe via the Optic Chiasma where the signals are
transposed to the opposite Brain Hemisphere. Then the lateral geniculate nucleus, where the signal is radiated to the Retinal
map in the Visual Cortex
Vision – Foveal & Peripheral Vision
Fovea
- Indentation located at the Center of the Macula Lutea area of the Retina
- About 5 degrees offset from the Optical Axis of the Eye
- Highest concentration of the 3 Spectrum sensitive types of cone
- Only at the Fovea can the quality or standard of Central Vision be measured
The Visual Field
- Moving away from the Fovea the distribution of receptors quickly changes from only Cones, to mix of Rods & Cones then
primary Rods
- Central Vision contains cones focused within about 2 degree of Fovea
- Peripheral Vision contains mostly Rods detecting motion in lower light

Visual Acuity
- Ability of the eye to see clearly & sharply
- Measured at the Fovea & represents a comparison between the distance a normal eye can
focus & that of the eye being tested
- Can vary: Fatigue / Hypoxia / Alcohol / Anemia / Smoking in the cockpit / Carbon
Monoxide Poisoning
Day & Night Vision
- Day
 Photopic Vision provided by the Cones
means the area directly in front, within a
few degrees of the Fovea, provides the
best acuity
- Night
 Scotopic Vision provided by the Rods means the wider areas offset
from the Center provide better vision & detection of movement
Visual Search Techniques
- Scan at least 60 degree L & R, 10 degrees above & below the intended flight path
- Pausing in each for at least 1 sec to allow the eye to focus & catch relative motion in the Peripheral Vision
- Move the body as well as the head to see around Physical Obstructions in the cockpit. Develop the scanning pattern that is
most comfortable & then keep to it
Empty Field Myopia
- Occurs at dark night flight or cloudness blue sky, eyes have nothing within the available visual field upon which to focus
- Eyes relax & focus automatically only 2/3 Metres ahead
- Approaching objects/hazards will not be detected until they are very close
- Maintain an active lookout, first focusing on sth a greater distance away
Dark Adaption
- Darkness  Brightly: Cones adjust quickly, with light adaptation complete in about 10 secs
- Bright  Darkness: Adaptation takes much longer. Half Adaption (10 mins), Full Adaption (30 mins)
- Red light does not impact on night adaption
- Factors affecting Dark Adaption
 Age / Mild Hypoxia / Cabin Alt above 5,000 ft (18% at 10,000 ft) / Smoking (20 cigarettes/day degrades 20%) / Alcohol /
Minor Illnesses / Deficiency of Vitamin A
Flash Blindness
- Temporary / Permanent Visual Impairment
- Bright light overwhelms the Retina & bleaches the Cone Cells, rendering them insensitive
 Turn Up the Intensity of Cockpit Lights
 Look inside Cockpit
 Use Blinds / Curtains when installed
 Wear Sunglasses
Sunglasses
- DO: Thin metal frames / Impact resistant / Coated with Polycarbonate for strength / Luminance transmittance of 10 – 15%
- DON’T: Over diffused lenses can cause perceptional problems / Light sensitive or Photochromic lenses are forbidden because
of time delay in changing / Polarizing lenses can distort patterns from laminated cockpit windshields
Vision – Defective Vision
Color Perception
- Detected in the Central region of the Retina by the Cone
- Achromatopsia: Cant detect colors at all (0.00003% of Population)
- Deuteranomaly: Inability to distinguish between individual colors (5% of Population)
- More common in Males (8%) > Females (0.5%)
Depth Perception
- Judging distance, both Horizontal & Vertical
- Binocular Cues are only of importance when viewing objects up to 200 ft distant
 Color: Pale objects appear more distant
 Contrast: Reduced contrast appear further away
 Size: Larger objects appear closer
 Movement: Object moving faster assumed to be closer
- When objects are further away motion is far more important
Accommodation
- When the lens is Short & Squat (Thick), it gives you good reading vision
- When the lens is Flat & Taut, it gives you good distance vision
Short Sightedness (Myopia)
- Eye is longer than normal
- Correction can use of a Concave Lens
Long Sightedness (Hypermetropia)
- Eye is shorter than normal, image being formed behind the Retina
- Overcome by use of a Convex Lens
Cataract
- An Opacity / Clouding which develops in the Lens of the eye
- Phenomenon of Ageing
- Cannot be rectified by wearing glasses but can be replaced surgically
Glaucoma
- Causes a rise in pressure in the Aqueous Humour in the Anterior Chamber of the eye, which may directly affect the Optic
Nerve
- Can be treated with medication

Astigmatism (散光)
- When light refraction is unequal in the different
meridians of the eyeball, leading to Visual Distortion
- Caused by the Cornea which has an irregular shape
Contact Lenses
- Mild Hypoxia & Dehydration increase the potential for
Corneal Damage
- Cabin Decompression may result in bubble formation under the contact lens
- May be dislodged by careless rubbing of the eyes
Hearing
Outer Ear
- External Ear (Pinna): Gathering sound signals
- Ear Canal: Transmit pressure waves into the ear
Middle Ear
- Eardrum: Vibrates in response to the pressure waves
- Auditory Ossicles: Change pressure waves into mechanical energy
- Eustachian Tube: Connects the middle ear to nasal passages to balance pressure
Inner Ear
- Cochlea: Converts the mechanical energy from the ossicles into electrical signals which are sent to the brain via the Cochlear
Nerve as hearing
- Semicircular Canals: Part of the vestibular apparatus, sending signals to the Cerebellum about position via the Vestibular
Nerve
2 Functions
- Hearing
- Balance – Utilizing the Vestibular Apparatus
Performance & Limitations of the Ear
- Typical Audible Frequency: 20 – 20,000 Hz
- Greatest Sensitivity ~ 3,000 Hz
- Noise Intensity: Decibels (dB)
2 Types Hearing Loss
- Conductive Hearing Loss: Affecting the outer &/ middle ear is due to the sound being blocked (Treatable with Medication /
Surgery)
 Ruptured tympanic membrane (Ear Drum)
 Obstructed outer canal (Ear Wax)
 Damaged middle ear caused by infection
- Sensorineural Hearing Loss (SNHL): Due to disorder of the Cochlea in the inner ear or the nerve pathway connecting the
Cochlea to the Brain (Usually Irreversible & Permanent)
 Ageing (Presbycusis)
 Wear & Tear of the Auditory Sys including the Cochlea & its associated nerve pathways to the Brain
 Deterioration with Age, from 30+
 High Pitch sensitivity deteriorates first
 Noise-Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL)
 Loss of sensitivity of the Hair Cells in the Cochlea, due to Acoustic Trauma / Infection
 Related to Intensity & Exposure Time
 Temporary Hearing Loss
 90 dB for 8 hrs
 103 dB for 1.5 hrs
 116 dB for approx. 1 min
 Concern when occasional levels exceed 110 dB
Ear Protection Devices
- Ear Plugs Reduced by 20 dB
- Ear Muffs Reduced by 40 dB
- Noise Cancelling Headset Reduced by 45 dB
Equilibrium
- Vestibular Apparatus: Semi-Circular Canals & Otoliths
- Semi-Circular Canals
 Positioned approx. at right angles to one another, used to sense angular acceleration
 Each canal is filled with a fluid (Endolymph)
 Near the bottom of each canal is an Ampulla containing a Cupula, Hair Cells & Sensory Receptors
 When the head is rotated, the Endolymph flows into the Ampulla & causes the distortion of the Cupula, & movement of
Hair Cells
 This prompts stimulation of the Sensory Cells & the Nerve transmits the information to the Vestibular Nuclei in the
Brainstem as well as to the Cerebellum
- Otoliths (Ear Stones)
 Utricle: Detect horizontal movement
 Saccule: Detect vertical movement
 Each Otolith organ contains a Sensory Organ with Hair Cells (Macula)
 A fibrous Otolithic Membrane that has crystals of calcium carbonate, (Otoconia) embedded within it
 Under linear acceleration, the Otolithic Membrane shifts relative to the Macula, causing displacement of hair cells. This is
picked up by the Vestibular Nerve & sent to the Brain
Motion Sickness (Vertigo)
Cause of Air Sickness
- Normal Human response to unfamiliar motion & affects different individuals in different ways
- Can cause undesirable physical responses as they harmonize with the resonance of the Skull & Eyeballs
 Vestibular Apparatus, of the inner ear being over stimulated
 Anxiety, Hyperventilation & other Psychological effects (eg. Fear of flying)
 Unfamiliarity with a/c movement in flight
 Turbulent &/ high “g” manoeuvres
 Mis-matching of the balance signals received by the eyes, vestibular apparatus & nerve endings in the muscles & joints
Symptoms of Motion Sickness
- Unease in the Stomach / Hyperventilation / Nausea / Vomiting / Impaired Performance / Cold Sweating / Clammy Skin
Prevention of Motion Sickness
- Keep stimulation of the semi-circular canals to a min. (Limit head movements while maintain adequate lookout)
- Fix the gaze on a stable distant horizon
- Fly the plane smoothly
- Avoid maneuvers involving higher G force
- Avoid areas of turbulence
- Improve ventilation of cockpit with adequate supply fresh air
- Avoid alcohol for at least 24 hours prior to flying
- Take prescribed drugs or those bought over the counter
Integration of Sensory Inputs
Spatial Orientation
- Ability to determine your position in space
- Information from the body’s sense organs is passed to the Brain
Illusions
- Difference between Perception & Reality, a false impression formed when sensory information is misinterpreted by the brain
- Visual (False Seeing Illusion)
- Vestibular (False Feeling Illusion)
- Shape Constancy
 Upsloping Rwy / Terrain: Illusion that the a/c is higher than it really is & for the rwy to look shorter. Lead to a Lower-than-
Normal approach
 Downsloping Rwy / Terrain: Illusion that the a/c is lower than it really is & causing the pilot to fly a steeper approach
angle to restore the accustomed rwy image
- Size Constancy
 Narrow Rwy: Illusion that the a/c is higher than it really is  Lower than normal approach  Landing Short
 Wider Rwy: Illusion that the a/c is lower than it really is  Flaring high & landing beyond the intended touchdown point
Aerial Perspective Illusion (Rayleigh Effect)
- Clear Bright landscapes appear closer
- Dim Faded Landscapes appear more distant
- Poor Visibility  Rwy is futher away  Steeper Approach
- Bright Light  Rwy is closer  Pilot may fly Lower
- Dim Light  Rwy is further away  Staying higher & Steep Approach
Black Hole Effect
- With no surrounding lights or with low contrast rwy surrounded by bright lights only
- Perception is of flying higher than actual, resulting in an urge to fly down, & fly a lower flatter approach, with the risk of
undershooting the rwy
Whiteout Approach
- Horizon is indistinguishable
- Keep a close eye on the altitude & attitude instruments to prevent spatial disorientation & inadvertent ground contact
- Aware of the hazards as the disorientation induced usually occurs unexpectedly in visual conditions
Autokinesis
- Visual perception in which a stationary, small point of light in an otherwise dark or featureless environment appears to move
- Not to stare at a single light source
Vection Illusion
- Misinterpretation of ambient visual cues can result in the perception of self-
motion.
- Eg. Sitting in a stationary car as another car moves slowly by
Relative Motion
- An aircraft on a collision course will normally appear stationary in the windscreen
- As it gets closer the a/c will suddenly grow in size, at which time its too late

Lecture 4 – Health & Hygiene

Circadian Rhythms
- Common Rhythms: Periodicities of about 24 hrs
- Body Temp / Blood Pressure / Heart Rate / Adrenal Gland Output / Brain Neurotransmission Levels
-

- Blood Pressure Threshold while Awake: 140 / 90

- Blood Pressure Threshold while Asleep: 120 / 80
Body Clock Activities Taking Place in 24 Hours

Zeitgebers
- Physical, Mental & Behavioral changes of the creatures that follow a roughly 24 hr cycle respond to external time cues
- Circadian Rhythms will “free run” to a natural periodicity of about 25 hrs
- 16 hrs Awake + 8 hrs Sleep  17 hrs Awake + 8 hrs Sleep
De-Synchronized Circadian Rhythm

-
5 Stages of Sleep
- Each cycle lasting about 90 – 110 mins, from Stage 1 to REM sleep, then the sequence starts over again
-
- REM sleep refreshes the brain, strengths & organizes the memory & helps emotional wellbeing
- After a period of learning new tasks or procedures, REM sleep increases
- First REM lasts for 10 – 20 mins only. It increases from the 3rd REM onwards

-
- Less than 5 hours sleep per night will usually reduce performance
Sleep Savings Account
- Sleep/Wake Cycle can be likened to a credit & debit sys
- 2 pts AWARDED for every hour spent asleep
- 1 pt DEDUCTED for every hour spent awake
- Max. credit available is 16 pts
- Sleep debit accumulates with no upper limit
Circadian Dysrhythmia / Jet Lag
- Impact depends on how many zones & how long the
stay
- Avg shift is about 90 mins for each day in a new time zone
 Shift of 9 hours in local time will require about 6 days for the body to adjust to the local time
- Adjustment process of the body is easier if you travel west but it takes longer to resynchronize eastbound
Problem Areas for Pilots
Fitness to Fly
- Physical + Psychological + Emotional
- Statutory Requirement to inform the Director General of Civil Aviation of any illness that renders a person unfit to fly for over
20 consecutive days
Cold
- A condition affecting mainly the upper respiratory tract as a result of viral infection. It may lead to congestion of the mucous
membranes within the sinuses, the nose, the throat & the ears
- Considerable pain during descent. The increasing pressure within the middle ear can lead to rupture of the Eardrum
Influenza
- Highly infectious viral illness which can be seriously debilitating, usually accompanied by high temp, headache, lassitude &
debility
Pressure Vertigo
- Feeling of dizziness or tumbling sensation, or as a feeling of rotation, when no rotation is actually occurring. Can be caused by
# of situations mainly resulting from pressure changes
Entrapped Gasses & Barotrauma
Barotrauma (壓力性損傷)
- With increasing alt, gases trapped in parts of your body will want to expand (Boyles Law). These will escape to the
atmosphere, or become trapped causing pain known as Barotrauma
- Otic Barotrauma: Blocked Eustachian Tube
- Sinus Barotrauma: Blocked Sinus
- Gastro-Intestinal Barotrauma: Air trapped in stomach & intestines. Caused by swallowing air when eating & digestive
processes when eating high gas producing food. Gas trapped in small intestine is a problem due no easy exit
- Aerodontalgia: Air trapped in cavity under a filling causing toothache during ascent, as gas presses on the nerve
Otic Barotrauma & Sinus Barotrauma
- Blocked sinuses can cause pain in decent, or occasionally climb as well. Watering eyes obscuring vision & even fainting.
- May necessary to return to the alt where the pain first started
- Equalization can be helped by chewing, yawning, moving the lower jaw from side to side & swallowing. This causes the
muscles around the nasal end of the Eustachian Tube to contract enabling the mouth of the tube to open
Food Hygiene
- High Carbohydrate/Fibre & Low Fat Diet:↓Risk of Coronary Heart Disease / Stroke / Diabetes / Certain forms of Cancer
 Vegetables / Grains / Nuts / Potatoes & Fruits
 Should make up > 50% calories consumed. Rest should come from Lean Meats & Poultry, Fish & Low Fat Dairy Products
Never Miss Breakfast
- Most important meal of the day
- ~ 25% of the Daily Calorie Intake
- Not eating regular meals  Low Blood Sugar, below about 50 mg / 100 ml of Blood (Hypoglycaemia)
 Can relieve in the short term by eating a snack
- Small meals every 4 / 5 hrs are better than less frequent large meals
Vitamins & Minerals
- Calcium: Building bones & teeth
- Phosphorus (磷): For most chemical reactions
- Iron: Formation of Haemoglobin
Trace Element
- Supplementary pills should not be taken unless under the direct supervision of an AMS
Dehydration
- Function of Water: Maintain body temp / Bring nutritional elements to the cells via blood / Remove waste vis perspiration &
urination
- A 77 kg person has around 40 litres of water inside them. Serious incapacitation can occur with the loss of as little as 2 litres
- Caffeine DOES NOT help with Dehydration, it’s a diuretic & can make the situation worse
- Carbonated Water is to be AVOIDED as could lead to trapped gases whilst airborne.
Gastronomical Upsets (腸胃炎)
- Over 50% of Acute Incapacitation of crew during flight is caused by Gastronomical Upset
- Most are caused by Viral / Bacterial Infection from Food / Water
- Gastritis is an inflammation or irritation of the stomach lining & may be Acute / Chronic
 Acute Gastritis (急性腸胃炎): Triggered by sth recently ingested
 Chronic Gastritis (慢性腸胃炎): Can persist for a long period & may not be related to a particular diet
- Symptoms: Nausea (反胃), Vomiting, Sudden Incapacitating Abdominal Pain / Discomfort, Loss of Appetite & Diarrhea, Rapid
Loss of Fluids & lead to Dehydration
- May result from eating unfamiliar food & doesn’t necessarily imply that one has acquired a Bacterial / Viral Infection
- Avoid eating unfamiliar, reheated / partially cooked food, Avoid drinking water which may be contaminated
Incapacitation Due to Food Poisoning
- Usually occur 1 – 6 hours after contaminated food is eaten
- Insidious Onset is the most dangerous form of this Incapacitation, with NO obvious symptoms
Major Sources of Food Contamination
- Unhygienic food preparation & poor storage methods
- Undercooked or rancid meats
- Unwashed salads / washed in contaminated water
- Unpeeled fruit & vegetables
- Seafood
- Locally made ice cream & mayonnaise
Actions to Avoid Food Poisoning
- Avoid eating raw fruit & vegetables unless you can peel them yourself
- Avoid seafood
- Only eat properly cooked food
- Drink water only from capped bottles or cans
- Avoid ice cubes made from local water supplies
- Allow about 90 mins interval between eating & flying
Obesity
- Excess of Fatty Tissue in the body
- Generally accepted that the ideal weight for an adult is about the weight of the individual at Age 21
- With increasing age, body’s metabolic rate reduces & less energy is expended
Body Mass Index

Diabetes
- Type 1: Juvenile Diabetes, normally found in the young. Deficiency of Insulin (胰島素) or a lack of production of Insulin by the
Pancreas (胰腺)
- Type 2: Usually affects adults. Caused by either the Pancreas not producing enough Insulin to maintain a normal blood
glucose level or, more usually, when the body is unable to effectively use the Insulin. It is believed that the major causes of
Insulin resistance is Obesity, Poor Diet & Sedentary Lifestyles
- Both 1 & 2 can be as a result of Family History
- Symptoms: Thirst / Frequent Urination / Blurry Vision / Irritability / Tingling or Numbness in the Hands or Feet / Frequent
Skin, Bladder or Gum Infection / Wounds that do not heal / Extreme unexplained fatigue
Back Pain
- Can range from unspecific back pains to slipped discs, & pilots are more susceptible as they spend a long time sitting
- Correct setting of the seat lumber support to maintain the natural spine shape
 Reduce the chances of lower back pain caused by a failure of the shock absorbing discs between the vertebrae
Tropical Climates
Tropical Diseases are spread by
- Direct Contact
- Airborne Infection
- Infection by Insects: Malaria / Dengue Fever
- Infection by Animals: Bite / Lick / Scratch / Contact with animal waste
- Infection by Water: Typhoid Fever / Cholera / Dysentery
Infectious Diseases
Malaria (瘧疾)
- Common in Tropical Regions, killing more than 500,000 / year
- NO Vaccines are available
- Avoid being bitten by Mosquitoes / Avoid areas of stagnant water / Most active around dawn & dusk / Cover up early
mornings & night (long sleeves)
Yellow Fever: Insect (Vaccination is available)
Dengue Fever: Mosquitoes, causing fever & acute pains in the joints
Salmonella: Food poisoning & tapeworm
Typhoid, Cholera Dysentery: Contaminated water (Hepatitis A)
Rabies: Infected dogs
Tetanus: Soil, saliva, dust, manure, entering through a break in the skin
Hepatitis B / C: From Tattooing & Immunization using poorly sterilized equipment
Intoxication
- Possibly harmful effect of noxious substances on the body
 Tobacco / Alcohol / Drugs / Self Medications
Tobacco
- Produce Carbon Monoxide that links with Haemoglobin in Blood
- 20 Cigarettes / day will raised Carboxy-Haemoglobin Level equivalent to 4,000 – 5,000 ft altitude & is more likely to suffer
Anemic Hypoxia
Caffeine
- Coffee / Tea / Cocoa / Chocolate / Fizzy Drinks / Pills  Aid alertness
- 6 – 8 Cups of normal strength coffee a day will usually result in dependence & as little as 200 mg may reduce performance
- Causes: Ulcers & other digestive disorders / Increased risk of heart attack / Hypertension / Personality disorders / Chronic
muscle tension / Insomnia / Disorientation / Hyper activity
- Recommended Absolute Limit: 250 – 300 mg ( 2 – 3 Cups Coffee ) per day
Alcohol
- A form of Ethyl Alcohol which acts as a Depressant on the Central Nervous System (CNS)
- Absorbed into the Bloodstream  20% from the Stomach, 80% from the Intestines
- Carries to the brain where it initially affects the area which controls thinking, worrying & the alarm system
- Blood Alcohol Level
 30 mg / 100 ml of Blood:↑the likelihood of an individual having some form of accident
 50 mg / 100 ml of Blood: Definite Impairment of Judgement
 150 mg / 100 ml of Blood: Loss of Self Control
 200 mg / 100 ml of Blood: Double Vision & Memory Loss
 400 mg / 100 ml of Blood: Lose Consciousness
- Alcohol is removed from the Blood & broken down by the liver at a rate of approx. 15 mg / 100 ml / hr
- 1.5 Pints of Beer / 3 Small Glasses of Whisky  45 – 50 mg / 100 ml  4 Hrs to be removed from the blood
 Rate cannot be increased by Sleep / Coffee / Food
Units of Alcohol
- One Unit of Alcohol (UK) = 10 Millilitres ( 8 Grams) of Pure Alcohol
- Eg. One Imperial Pint 568 ml of Beer, 4% ABV
 568 ml x 4% / 1,000 ml = 2.3 Units
- Recommended Maximum Daily & Weekly Intake without causing permanent damage to the body
 Men 5 Units / Day 21 Units / Week
 Women 3 Units / Day 14 Units / Week
Intoxication
- Legal Flying Limit: 20 mg / 100 ml of Blood (Driving 80 mg)
- Roughly 1 Unit of Alcohol takes 1 Hr to leave your Body
Drug & Self Medication
- Only take medication which has been specifically prescribed by an Aviation Medical Specialist
Toxic Materials
- Dangerous Goods are divided into 9 classifications
 Explosive
 Gasses
 Flammable Liquids
 Flammable Solids
 Oxidizing Substances
 Toxic Substances
 Radioactive Materials
 Corrosive Materials
 Miscellaneous Dangerous Goods

Lecture 5 – Human Information Processing

Attention & Vigilance
- Attention: Active part of consciousness & it is the activity of concentrating mind on a particular matter
 Usually refers to the control you have over what sensed stimuli you have chosen to process
- Vigilance: Ability to maintain concentrated attention over prolonged periods of time
 Depends on the degree of activation of the CNS: can vary from deep sleep to extreme alertness
Degree of Attention
- LOW Sensory Threshold: Sensitivity will↑allowing too much information to be collected & the sys will quickly become
overloaded with Stimuli
- HIGH Sensory Threshold: Sensitivity is low too little information is processed & critical information may be missed
- If the Stimulation is repetitive, the receptors cells run the risk of Adaption / Habitation, showing a gradually diminishing
response to that particular stimuli
Selective & Divided Attention
- Massive amounts of stimuli available. To avoid overload, discriminate between important info & the unimportant “noise”
Selective Attention
- Attends to a few sensory inputs for further processing while ignoring the others
- Inputs are sampled continually to decide their relevance to the present task, our names or callsigns being particularly worthy
of attention
Divided Attention
- The Central Decision Making channel in the Frontal Lobe of the brain can switch attention from one set of stimuli to another
- A pilot flying a visual approach will be dividing attention between looking out to maintain his approach aspect, & checking
instruments for confirmation
Attention Resources

-
Perception
- Human Body senses a wide variety of stimuli from our sensory organs: Sound / Visual Patterns / Smell / Taste / Feel
- Process of putting the sensory info, from context, memories, prior knowledge, & info from other senses into meaningful
mental models
- Bottom-Up: Data driven processing. Knowing nothing about the event & start with no pre-conceived idea
- Top Down: Conceptually driven processing. Past knowledge & experiences stored in the memory, form expectations, helping
interpret the current event & influence perception
Perception Subjectivity
- To minimize the effect of perceptual subjectivity, it’s important to develop standard operating procedures & standardized
training, to provide a constant knowledge base
 Lead to the development of appropriate moderation & filtering of information, to promote the correct concept of reality
Memory
3 Memory Stores
- Sensory Memory: Register or store that briefly stores & encodes the stimuli into a form that can be accepted by the ST
memory
- Short Term Memory: Receives, holds, & processes info from the sensory register. Processing or encoding of the info is
necessary before it can be transferred & retained in LT memory. STM also retrieves info from LTM when needed
- Long Term Memory: Receives info from STM for indefinite storage. LTM capacity is considered practically unlimited. It holds
all the learning & memories of our life experience
 Our life “database”. The retrieval & processing of LTM by STM enables us to function in the world.
3 Basic Processes
- Encoding: Info is encoded into a form that can be processed by STM. Info that is not attended to, decays or is “overwritten”
by new incoming stimuli
- Maintenance: STM has limited storage capacity. Info received will “decay” after 12 – 30 secs unless it is “rehearsed” or
otherwise consciously attended to & encoded for transfer into LTM
- Retrieval: Info that is stored in LTM is retrieved by STM to support recall & recognition.

-
Methods of Improving STM
- Chunking: Separated blocks
- Association: Wild association is imagined & attached to each item on the list
- Mnemonics: Such as acronyms, using the first letter of each object
LTM
- Declarative (Explicit Memory)
 Semantic Memory: General & Factual Knowledge (eg. Capital of France?)
 Episodic Memory: Narrates Past Experiences / Events (eg. What you did yesterday)
- Procedural (Implicit Memory)
 Procedures how to do sth, such as riding a bike / swimming
- Alzheimer’s Disease may affect all memories progressively: From STM  Explicit Memory  Implicit Memory
Response Selection
Learning Principles & Techniques
- Behavioristic Approach (classical & operant conditioning): Recipient is mainly taught through physiological responses
- Cognitive Approach (learning by insight)
- Modelling Approach (learning by imitating)
3 Distinct Phases to Develop a Motor Programme / Skill
- Cognitive Phase: Learner thinks consciously about each individual action. (WHAT TO DO)
- Associative Phase: Separate components of the overall action become integrated (HOW TO DO IT)
- Automatic Phase: Total manoeuvre can be executed smoothly without conscious control (DO IT)

Lecture 6 – Human Error & Reliability

Human Reliability
- Performance of Simple & Repetitive Task Error Rate: 1 in 100 times / 1 in 1,000 times (With Practice)
- If errors were predictable they could be easily avoided
- Variable Errors
- Constant Errors
Errors & Violations
- Violations: An intentional action that results in noncompliance with known rules, policies, procedures or acceptable norms
- Active Failures: Errors have an immediate impact on the safety of the sys
- Latent Failures: Errors that lay dormant, often for a long time
2 Approach to assess Human Error
- Person Approach: Focus on the unsafe act, errors & procedural violations of people
- System Approach: Assumes humans are fallible & that errors are to be expected. Errors are seen as consequences rather
than causes
Error Generation
External Factors
- Ergonomics: Bad design or layout of instruments
- Economics: Company or organizational pressures
- Social Environment: Cultural misunderstandings

Lecture 7 – Decision Making

Stages in making a Decision
- Diagnosis & Definition of Objective  Collection of Information  Assessment of Risk  Development & Evaluation of
Options  Decision of appropriate course of Action  Implementation  Review & Evaluation of Consequences 
Feedback
Factors Affecting Judgement
- Pilot
 4 Stressors: Physical / Physiological / Psychological / Sociological
- Aircraft
- Environmental Conditions
- Time Available
Effectiveness of a Team
- Ability
- Status
- Role
Decision Making Model
- DODAR Model: Diagnosis  Options  Decide  Assign  Review
- CLEAR Model: Clarify  Look  Evaluate  Act  Review

Lecture 8 – Avoiding & Managing Errors: Cockpit Management

Crew Briefings
- C-TWO Plus: Chart, Terrain, Weather, Operational, Plus threats
Effective Communication
- Source  Message  Channel  Receiver  Feedback (Source)
Conflict Management
- Intra-Personal Conflict: Conflict within oneself, such as knowing what should be done in a situation & not wanting to do it
- Interpersonal Conflict: Conflict between 2 or more people
Conflict Management
- Inquiry: Ideas & opinions taken, with the leader avoiding giving an indication of his/her own ideas/opinion at the outset
- Active Listening: Any expressions of doubt should be encouraged
- Advocacy: Deal in evidence & not prejudice
- Feedback: Ensure the solution fits the scenario, reconfiguring if required
- Metacommunication: Use all channels of communication, including body language, facial expression, gestures, tone & pitch
of voice but avoid emotion
- Negotiation: Reach a solution by discussion with both sides
- Arbitration: Arrive at a solution acceptable to both sides, by using an independent uninvolved individual

Lecture 9 – Human Behavior

Cockpit Gradient
-
 GNAV Powerpoint
Shape of the Earth
- Oblate Spheroid
- Equatorial Circumference > Polar Circumference 0.3% or 1 / 300
- Standard Earth Model: WGS 84
Circles on the Earth
- Great Circles: Circle on the surface of the Earth whose center & radius are those of the earth itself
Special Latitudes
- Arctic Circle 66 1/2∘N
- Antarctic Circle 66 1/2∘S
- Tropic of Cancer 23 1/2∘N  Sun directly overhead on Summer (NH) Solstice
- Tropic of Capricorn 23 1/2∘S  Sun directly overhead on Winter (NH) Solstice
Great Circle Vertices
- Vertex: Highest / Lowest Latitude a Great Circle Track will obtain
 Track at this point is 090T / 270T
Rhumb Lines
- Line of Constant Bearing
- Easy to fly
Great Circle Track Direction
D I
I D

Distance on the Earth

- 1 sm = 5,280 ft
- 1 nm = 6,080 ft
- 1 nm = 1.852 km
- 1 min = 1 nm
- 1 degree lat = 60 nm (Longitude ONLY TRUE at Equator)
Variation
- Angular difference between True North to Magnetic North
- Isogonals: Lines of Equal Variation on chart
- Agonic Line: Zero Variation
Deviation
- Caused by all the Metal & Electrical Equipment in the aircraft
- Angle measured at a point between the direction indicated by a Compass Needle & the direction of Magnetic North
- 3W = -3
Applying Variation & Deviation
- True  Magnetic  Compass
 Variation West +
 Variation East –
 Deviation West +
 Deviation East –
Heading: Direction the a/c is pointing
Track: a/c path over the ground
Drift: Difference between Heading & Track
- A/c drifts from Heading to Track. Drift is caused by the Wind
Port: Left
Starboard: Right
Chapter 12
- Glideslopes

-
- Height on Glideslopes

-
- Rate of Descent on Approach

Chapter 13
- Latitude Scale
 1 Degree = 60 nm
Chapter 14
At the Equator  Convergency = 0

Away from the Equator  Convergency↑as we go closer to the Pole

-
Convergency

-
Great Circle Track

Lambert Chart vs. Mercator Chart

- Mercator: Rhumb Line  Straight Line
Chapter 15

Chapter 19
Scale

Chapter 21
 POF Powerpoint
Newton’s 1st Law
- A body will continue in a state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line, unless acted on by an external force
Newton’s 2nd Law
- A body at rest or in uniform motion will when acted on by an external force accelerate in the direction of the force
Newton’s 3rd Law
- For every action there is an opposite & equal reaction
The Atmosphere

-
Bernoulli’s Principle

Airspeeds
- Indicated Airspeed (IAS): Reading on the ASI
- Calibrated Airspeed (CAS): IAS corrected for Positioning & Instrument Error
- Equivalent Airspeed (EAS): CAS corrected for Compressibility Error
- True Airspeed (TAS): EAS corrected for Density Error
- At Sea Level under ISA: IAS = TAS
- At Lower Density (Above SL in ISA): IAS < TAS
- At Higher Density (Below SL in ISA): IAS > TAS
 Dynamic Pressure is proportional to IAS ^ 2
Taper Ratio
- Tip Chord / Root Chord
Aspect Ratio
- Span / Mean Chord
- Span ^ 2 / Area
Dihedral
- Angle between the plane of the wing & the horizontal when the airplane is unbanked & level
Sweep Back
- Angle between the “25% Chord Line” & the Lateral Axis
Angle of Incidence
- Angle between the Wing Root Chord Line & the Longitudinal Axis
Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC)
- Chord through the “Centroid” of the wing. The Centroid is the middle
of the surface area of the wing.
- *Straight wing of the same span with the same MAC would have similar pitching moments as the
original, in this case, Swept & Tapered Wing*
- Location of CG usually referenced to a % MAC from the leading edge
Center of Pressure (CP)
- Total Reaction Force on the Chord Line
- Increasing AOA, CP moves forward (till just before the stall when it starts
to move rearward)
Stagnation Point
- Where the airflow splits between Upper & Lower surface
- ↑AOA, Stagnation Point moves Rearward & Downward
- ↑AOA  ↑Upwash & Downwash
Coefficient of Lift
- Depends on Wing Shape (Efficiency & Aspect Ratio), AOA
- CL = 1 / V2, CL = 1 / IAS2
Load Factor
- Lift / Weight
CL Cambered Airfoil & Symmetrical Airfoil
- Positive Cambered Airfoil  Produce Lift at 0 degrees AOA
Reynolds Number
- Relationship between the Size of the Wing & the Viscosity of the Air
Aerodynamic Centre
- Change in CP location poses a problem for Stability Calculations.
Therefore a new point has been created.
- It lies at approx. 25% of the Chord & is defined as the location where
the turning moment of the wing is always constant irrespective of
AOA.
Boundary Layer
- Very thin layer of air next to the airplane skin which is held back by friction with the surface & is therefore slower than free
steam air flow
- Speed ranges from 99% of free stream airflow
down to ZERO at the surface.
- Laminar Boundary Layer with its lower overall
energy separates more easily than a more
energetic Turbulent Layer
-
 Laminar Layer
 Smooth & speed↑steadily from the surface to the free stream.
 Thin Layer, Low Energy, Low Drag
 Turbulent Layer
 Unsteady, Turbulent, mixing of high speed air deep into the layer. Speed↑sharply from the surface
 Think Layer, High Energy, High Drag
Separation Point
- Separation will start at trailing edge & move forward with increasing AOA

Total Drag
- Induced Drag

- Parasite Drag
 Form Drag (Profile Drag)
 Skin Friction Drag (Profile Drag)
 Interference Drag
Trim Drag
- Tail is providing negative (tail down) lift, it produces a little bit of induced drag  Trim Drag
- CG moves forward ↑Tail down force ↑Trim Drag
- CG moves aft ↓Tail down force ↓Trim Drag
Coefficient of Induced Drag & Induced Drag Formula
-
- e is the efficiency of the aerofoil
- Cdi = CL2, CL = 1 / V2, Cdi = 1 / V4

The Polar Curve

-
- Vmax Endurance is always a lower speed than Vmax Range
Stall Speed
- Minimum Speed at which the airplane can still fly
- All stall speeds are determined with the CG at the forward limit

-
Leading Edge & Stall
- A larger, rounder leading edge produces a larger stall AOA than a smaller, sharper leading edge

Camber & Stall

- Positive Camber  Increase CL & Decrease Stall AOA

-
Normal Stall Behavior of an Aircraft
- Desirable: Strong nose down pitching moment
- Aft movement of the CP during the Stall
- Stall  Downwash decreases  Tail Down Force decreases  Nose Down
Moment
Swept Wing Stall
- Forward CP shift  Nose Up Moment
- Loss of Aileron effectiveness
- No downwash change on the Horizontal Stabilizer
- Shift the CP Inward & Forward
Deep Stall / Super Stall
- Due to the pitch up moment from a swept wing during a stall, the stall could rapidly progress towards a deep stall where the
AOA becomes so large, as much as 40 degrees or more, that the Horizontal Stabilizer is stalled as well &/ is in the wake of the
wing.
- Swept Wings have a tendency to deep stall. T-tail construction may contribute.
- Aircrafts usually equipped with a Stick Pusher to prevent this situation
Causes for Stall
- TO in wrong config / Rotation at wrong speed / Steep Turns / Go around with TOGA / TS / Windshear, Microburst / Icing /
Wake Turbulence / Inappropriate Climb Mode / Loss of Airspeed Indication or Unreliable Airspeed
AR & Sweep & Stall

-
Wash Out / Wing Twist
- Root has a larger Angle of Incidence than the tip  Wing Root stall before the Wing
Tip
Stall Warning
- 5 kts / 5% before level flight Stall Speed
- Typically both a tactile (shaking of the controls) & an aural (horn/buzzer) warning are required
- Tactile Warning
 Separated air from rott of the main wing buffeting on the elevator. Sometimes a stall strip is required to achieve this
 Stick Shaker
- Aural Warning
 Flapper Switch
 Activated by change in location of the Stagnation Point with increasing AOA
 AOA Vane
 AOA Probe
Stall Recovery
- Lower the nose  Decrease AOA  Add Power  Level wings with rudder
Stall Speed & Weight Change

Stall Speed & G Force

-
Hinge Moment
- Function of Force / Deflection & Arm to the Hinge
- Larger Deflection will produce a bigger force & therefore a bigger hinge moment
Aerodynamic Balance
- Balance Tab
 Deflects opposite direction of the control surface
 Pilots control the Elevator  Elevator moves the Tab
- Servo Tab
 Deflects opposite direction of the control surface
 Pilots control the Tab  Tab moves the Elevator
- Spring Tab
 Works well at high airspeed
 Low Speed  Spring does not extend & the pilot directly controls the Control Surface
 High Speed  Spring is extended & the sys acts as a Servo Tab
Trim Tabs
- Deflected to a required position in relation to the Control Surface which will now deflect in the opposite direction.
- Trim Tab position does not change under other control inputs from the pilots

Climbing
- Thrust = Drag + W sinγ
- Lift = W cosγ
- Sinγ= (T – D) / W
Descending
- Lift = W cosγ
- Drag = W sinγ
Powered Descending
- At s shallow descent angleγ, thrust has to be added to overcome drag
- Drag = W sinγ + T
- (T – D) / W = - sinγ
Turn Radius

-
- V needs to be entered m/s  1 kt = 0.514 m/s
- METERS uses 9.8
- FEET uses 11.26
Rate of Turn
- TAS / Radius
- V x 2  R x 4  ROT x 0.5

-
Rate 1 Turn / Standard Rate Turn
- TAS on tenth + 7
 Eg. 100 kts  10 + 7 = 17 degrees