GENERAL ZOOLOGY

PREPARED BY: Christine Macaraig

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE INTEGUMENTARY AND SKELETAL SYSTEM IN FROGS
FROG ANATOMY  Frog skin: vulnerable to cutaneous injury
o Like humans, frogs are vertebrates or animals due to the relatively thin and permeable
with backbones. nature of organ.
o The frog body may be divided into a head, a  Production of antimicrobial and toxic
trunk, and limbs. substances against pathogens and
o The flat head contains the brain, mouth, eyes, predators.
ears, and nose. o Skin Layer Organization and Composition
o A short, almost rigid neck permits only limited  Frog skin consists of epidermal and
head movement. dermal layers, with each layer
o In both humans and frogs, the brain is in the head predominantly consisting of epithelial
and the other major internal organs are in the and fibroblastic cells.
trunk.  Frog epidermis is relatively thin and thus
o In the frog’s trunk all the internal organs— often limited to the stratum corneum
including the heart, the lungs, and all organs of (outmost layer) central stratum
digestion—are held in this single hollow space. spinosum, and stratum germinativum
IMPORTANCE OF INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM (basal layer)
IN FROGS  Frog skin is composed of stratified
o Integumentary squamous epithelial tissue
 Protection, Respiration, Osmoregulation,  The Eberth-Katschenko layer: non-
etc. cellular layer composed of
 Water uptake, ion transport, heat glycosaminoglycans and
transfer, camouflage
glycoconjugates, wherein hyaluronan
CLASSIFICATION
and dermatan sulphate molecules reduce
o Phylum: Chordata
water evaporation thereby aiding in the
o Subphylum: Vertebrata
prevention of desiccation, particularly in
o Class: Amphibia
basking amphibians, since the molecules
o Order: Anura
are highly water retentive.
o Family: Ranidae
o Chemical Barriers (Antimicrobial Peptides or
o Genus: Rana
AMPs)
o Species: Vittigera
SKIN STRUCTURE
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
o Epidermis (Stratified Squamous Epithelial
o Provides protection and respiratory functions.
Tissue) – Outermost later of the skin. Composed
o Comprises two layers: dermis and epidermis.
of multiple layers of flat, scale-like cells arranged
o Moisture is maintained by glands secreting
in a stratified manner, providing protection
watery mucus.
against environmental damage and dehydration.
o Semi-permeable, able to absorb and release
 Stratum Corneum – topmost layer of
water and carbon dioxide.
epidermis, consisting of dead cells filled
OVERVIEW OF THE AMPHIBIAN SKIN
with keratin, serving as a barrier to
o First Barrier of Defense
prevent water loss and protect against
 Amphibian skin contributes to water
pathogens.
uptake, ion transport, respiration, heat
 Stratum Malpighii (Germinativum) –
transfer, camouflage, and predator
innermost layer of the epidermis,
deterrence.
responsible for cell division and renewal,

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containing actively dividing cells that give  The water is cooler than the air and does
rise to new skin cells. not only cool the frog through
o Dermis – The layer of the skin beneath the conduction but also rehydrates it, which
epidermis, composed of connective tissue allows it to use evaporative cooling to
containing blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, stabilize its body temperature- when
and sweat glands, proving structural support and temperatures are high, water evaporates
nourishment to the skin. from the skin of frogs, which produces a
 Spongious Dermis (Stratum spongiosum) cooling effect therefore, as long as they
– The deeper layer of the dermis is have access to water, they are able to
characterized by a loose, sponge-like adapt to high temperatures. This is why
arrangement of collagen and elastin moisture and humidity are vital for a
fibers, contributing to the skin’s elasticity frog’s survival.
and flexibility. o Water Balance
 Compact Dermis (Stratum compactum) –  The skin acts in concert with the kidney
The superficial layer of the dermis and urinary bladder to maintain
composed of densely packed collagen electrolyte homeostasis. Water
and elastin fibers, providing strength and absorption across the skin is driven by
resilience to the skin. the osmotic gradient that develops as a
FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN consequence of solute transport.
o Protection  One unique physiological characteristic
 Frogs produce sticky mucus to prevent of frogs is that their main route for intake
drying. Most frogs shed the outer layer of of water is across the skin. In these
skin by twisting and stretching–they animals, the skin acts in concert with the
often eat the dead skin as it comes off. kidney and urinary bladder to maintain
 Some of the bumps and “warts” that give electrolyte homeostasis.
frog skin its texture are clusters of o Respiration
specialized glands such as mucous  The frog has three respiratory surfaces on
glands that lubricate the skin and its body that it uses to exchange gas with
granular glands which produce poisons the surroundings: the skin, in the lungs
and other protective chemicals. and on the lining of the mouth. The skin
o Sensory Perception is composed of thin membranous tissue
 They can detect temperature, pressure, that is quite permeable to water and
touch, and pain. An aquatic frog has one contains a large network of blood vessels.
additional feature, making him uniquely The thin membranous skin is allowing the
adapted for life underwater - lateral line. respiratory gases to readily diffuse
The lateral line receptors are present not directly down their gradients between
only on the head and around the eyes but the blood vessels and the surroundings.
on the body and neck as well. When the frog is out of the water, mucus
o Thermoregulation glands in the skin keep the frog moist,
 Frogs are ectothermic amphibians who which helps absorb dissolved oxygen
are unable to regulate their temperatures from the air.
internally like birds or mammals. Instead,  Frogs do not have ribs nor a diaphragm,
they need to warm up using other things which in humans help serve in expand of
outside their bodies- this action is called chest and thereby decreasing the
thermoregulation.

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pressure in the lungs allowing outside air  Xanthophores – yellowish

to flow.  Erythrophores – reddish
 In order to draw air into its mouth the  Melanophores – brownish/blackish
frog lowers the floor of its mouth, which DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FROG AND HUMAN
causes the throat to expand. Then the INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
nostrils open allowing air to enter the The frog's integumentary system, including
enlarged mouth. The nostrils then close its largest organ, the frog skin, differs significantly from
and the air in the mouth is forced into the the human skin and its appendages. Frog skin can absorb
lungs by contraction of the floor of the water, serves as a respiratory organ. Another major
mouth. To eliminate the carbon dioxide difference between frog and human integumentary
in the lungs the floor of the mouth moves systems is that frog skin secretes poisons while human
down, drawing the air out of the lungs skin does not.
and into the mouth. Finally, the nostrils
are opened and the floor of the mouth is DIFFERENCE OF SKIN
moved up pushing the air out of the FROG HUMAN
nostrils. ❖ Respiration and ❖ Protection and
o Osmoregulation thermoregulation thermoregulation
 Their skins are permeable to water. On ❖ Two (2) layers: ❖ Three (3) layers:
land amphibians are liable to lose water epidermis and epidermis,
very rapidly by evaporation. In fresh dermis dermis,
water they suffer entry of water by subcutaneous
osmosis, which is counteracted by the layer
excretion of a large volume of dilute ❖ Thin, slippery, ❖ Varies from dry to
urine. and moist. oily
SPECIALIZED STRUCTURES ❖ Main functions: ❖ Responsible for
o Mucous Glands protection, protection,
 Secrete mucus to maintain moisture. respiration, thermoregulation,
 Necessary for homeostasis movement of and, excretion.
 Higher density on the dorsal side nutrients, and
o Grandular Gland (Poision Glands/Serous camouflage
Glands)
 Contains bioactive molecules involved in
host defence and predator defence.
 Secretes antimicrobial peptides or toxic
alkaloids.
 Have the potential to secrete serous
fluids.
 Higher density on the dorsal side.
 Some species are extremely toxic (ex.
Dendrobatid frogs (Phyllobates))
o Chromatophores – are pigment cells that allow
their bodies to change colors; pigment is known
as melanin
 Iridophores – reflective or iridescent in
color