PROPERTY OF: ZED G.

CALAMBA BSBIO3B
Chapter 1: The Integument Integument Phylogeny Across Vertebrate Groups

 The integument, or skin, is a composite organ  Fishes:

composed of the epidermis (derived from o Most fish have non-keratinized skin
ectoderm), the dermis (derived from mesoderm covered in mucus produced by epidermal
and mesenchyme), and the basement membrane cells and unicellular glands.
situated between them. o The mucous cuticle provides protection
 It is one of the largest organs, constituting about from bacteria, promotes laminar water
15% of human body weight. flow, and can contain repellent or toxic
 The integument and its derivatives have a wide chemicals.
variety of functions, including:  Primitive Fishes:
o Protection: The integument acts as a o Ostracoderms and Placoderms had
barrier against pathogens and mechanical extensive dermal armor made of bony
injury. plates, with scales often ornamented with
o Shape and Support: It helps maintain the tubercles consisting of enamel and dentin
organism's shape. layers.
o Physiological Regulation: It aids in o Living Hagfishes and Lampreys lack
osmotic regulation and the movement of dermal bone and scales. Their skin
gases and ions. contains numerous unicellular glands
o Thermoregulation: The integument helps (granular and club cells). Hagfishes also
to regulate body temperature. have thread cells that release mucus.
o Sensory Reception: It houses sensory  Chondrichthyes (Cartilaginous Fishes):
receptors. o Lack dermal bone but possess placoid
o Locomotion: The integument supports scales (dermal denticles) that contribute
structures involved in movement, like to hydrodynamic efficiency.
feathers. o The dermis is rich in elastic and collagen
o Display and Defense: The integument fibers, giving the skin strength and
can display colors for courtship or hold flexibility.
defensive structures like horns.  Bony Fishes:
 The dermis is primarily composed of fibrous o Possess dermal scales that lie close to the
connective tissue, mainly collagen fibers that surface. The epidermis includes stratified
may be organized into layers called plies. epidermal cells and unicellular glands
o In aquatic vertebrates, the arrangement of that contribute to the mucous cuticle.
collagen fibers gives the skin bias, o Several types of scales are recognized,
allowing it to stretch without wrinkling, including:
which is important for smooth movement  Cosmoid scales: Found in
through water. primitive sarcopterygians, they
o The dermis can produce dermal bones consist of a double layer of bone
through intramembranous ossification, with dentin and enamel layers.
which are prominent in ostracoderm  Ganoid scales: Characterized by
fishes. a thick enamel layer, they are
 The epidermis is responsible for producing mucus found in polypteriforms and gars.
to moisten the skin and, in terrestrial vertebrates,  Teleost scales: Lack enamel and
often forms an outer keratinized layer called the dentin, leaving only lamellar
stratum corneum. bone. There are two types: cycloid
o Keratinization, the process of keratin scales (concentric rings) and
accumulation in epidermal cells, helps to ctenoid scales (with projections
reduce water loss and protect against along the posterior margin).
abrasion.  Tetrapods:
o Scales form within the integument of o Keratinization is a prominent feature of
many vertebrates as folds. Dermal scales tetrapod skin, forming a stratum corneum
are predominantly formed from dermal to resist abrasion and desiccation.
contributions, while epidermal scales are o Multicellular glands are more common,
mainly composed of a thickened residing in the dermis and releasing
keratinized layer. secretions through ducts.
 Amphibians:
 PROPERTY OF: ZED G. CALAMBA BSBIO3B
o Amphibian skin is specialized for often associated with scent
cutaneous respiration. Dermal scales are glands.
present only as vestiges in some  Scent glands: Derived from
caecilians. apocrine glands, they function in
o Mucous and poison glands are common, chemical signaling.
residing in the dermis and opening to the  Mammary glands: Produce milk
surface through ducts. to nourish young.
 Reptiles: o Other integumentary specializations in
o Reptile skin exhibits extensive mammals include:
keratinization.  Nails, claws, and hooves
o Epidermal scales, formed by folds in the  Horns and antlers
surface epidermis, are prevalent.  Baleen (in mysticete whales)
o Dermal bone is present in many reptiles,
sometimes forming osteoderms that
support epidermal scales.
o Integumental glands are restricted to
Chapter 2: The Skull
certain areas and are often involved in
reproductive behavior or defense.
 Birds:  The vertebrate skull, or cranium, is a complex
o Feathers, a key feature of birds, are structure formed from three distinct parts:
considered highly modified epidermal splanchnocranium, the chondrocranium, and
scales or products of the epidermal- the dermatocranium.
dermal interaction. o Each part arises from a separate
o The dermis is well-vascularized, phylogenetic source.
especially near feather follicles. o The braincase refers to the fused cranial
o The epidermis includes the stratum components that immediately surround
basale and stratum corneum, with a and encase the brain.
transitional layer between them. o The neurocranium is a term sometimes
o Bird skin has few glands: the uropygial
used as an equivalent for the
gland (secretes oil for feather
chondrocranium, but it can also include
maintenance) and the salt gland
(excretes excess salt). sensory capsules or only ossified parts of
 Mammals: the chondrocranium.
o Hair is a defining characteristic of
mammals, thought to have evolved  Chondrocranium:
initially for insulation or sensory function. o Phylogeny: The chondrocranium
o The epidermis is composed of appears to be in series with the vertebrae,
keratinocytes that differentiate into leading to the idea that it evolved from
distinct layers: stratum basale, stratum vertebral elements. This theory is
spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum debated, though it is accepted that the
lucidum, and stratum corneum. occipital region ossifies similarly to
o Chromatophores reside in the deeper vertebrae.
layers of the epidermis and contribute to
o Embryology: The chondrocranium
skin and hair color.
develops from condensations of head
o The dermis is double-layered, with an
outer papillary layer and a deeper reticular mesenchyme, which forms cartilages that
layer. later fuse and may ossify.
o Mammals possess a variety of o Composition: The chondrocranium
integumentary glands: forms the base and back of the skull and
 Sebaceous glands: Produce the supportive capsules around sensory
sebum to condition and organs.
waterproof fur.
 Eccrine glands: Produce watery  Splanchnocranium:
sweat for thermoregulation. o Phylogeny: The splanchnocranium is
 Apocrine glands: Produce
an ancient structure first associated with
viscous, lipid-containing sweat,
filter-feeding in protochordates. In
 PROPERTY OF: ZED G. CALAMBA BSBIO3B
vertebrates, it supports gills and  Hyostylic: Jaws primarily
contributes to jaws and the hyoid suspended from the
apparatus. hyomandibula (most fishes).
o Embryology: Despite the misleading  Metautostylic: Jaws attach to
name "visceral cranium," the the skull directly; the
splanchnocranium arises from neural hyomandibula becomes the
crest cells, not the digestive tract. stapes (amphibians, reptiles,
o Composition: The splanchnocranium birds).
is composed of a series of pharyngeal  Craniostylic: The upper jaw is
arches. In aquatic vertebrates, these are incorporated into the
referred to as branchial or gill arches. braincase; the lower jaw
(dentary) articulates with the
 Dermatocranium: temporal bone (mammals).
o Dermal bones of the dermatocranium
first appear in ostracoderms, arising from
the bony armor in the integument. Skull Phylogeny Across Vertebrate Groups
o Composition: The dermatocranium
forms the sides and roof of the skull, the Agnathans:
bony lining of the mouth roof, and encases
 Early Vertebrates:
much of the splanchnocranium. It also
o Ostracoderms: Possessed a heavily
typically supports teeth.
armored head shield, providing protection
o Dermal Bone Series: The
but limiting feeding to small particles.
dermatocranium is organized into several
o Anaspids: Had a more streamlined body
series of bones, each with specific
and small bony scales covering the head.
functions:
o Heterostracans: Featured a head
 Facial Series: Surrounds the
composed of several fused bony plates
external naris.
and may have used oral scales to dislodge
 Orbital Series: Encircles the
food.
eye.
 Cyclostomes:
 Temporal Series: Forms the
o Lampreys and Hagfishes: Lack bone and
posterior wall of the braincase.
scales, specializing in parasitic or
 Vault Series: Covers the top of
scavenging lifestyles using a rasping
the skull.
tongue.
 Palatal Series: Lines the roof of
the mouth. Gnathostomes:
 Mandibular Series: Encases
Meckel's cartilage in the lower  Fishes:
jaw. o Placoderms: Had heavy dermal plates
 Jaw Evolution: forming a cranial shield and strong jaws.
o Agnathans: Lack jaws, limiting them to o Acanthodians: Streamlined bodies,
small food particles. small bony plates on the head, and a
o Gnathostomes: Jaws, derived from shark-like mandibular arch.
branchial arches, allow for strong biting o Chondrichthyans: Lack bone and a
and grasping. dermatocranium, with an expanded
o Jaw Attachment Types: chondrocranium forming the braincase.
 Paleostylic: No arch Jaws are primarily suspended from the
attachment to the skull hyoid arch.
(agnathans). o Actinopterygians: Possess a diverse
 Euautostylic: Jaws attach to array of dermal bones, with a trend
the skull via the palatoquadrate towards increased liberation of elements
(placoderms). for food procurement. Utilize suction
feeding with a rapidly expanding buccal
cavity.
 PROPERTY OF: ZED G. CALAMBA BSBIO3B
o Sarcopterygians: o Therapsids: Continued the synapsid
 Dipnoi (Lungfishes): Possess a lineage with a trend towards
simplified skull with a reduced enlargement of the temporal opening.
number of bones.
 Rhipidistians: Strong jaws, o Mammals:
labyrinthodont teeth, and a  Monotremes: Retain some
kinetic skull with a joint between primitive synapsid features and
ethmoid and oticooccipital possess a tympanic ring.
units.  Eutherian Mammals:
 Composite bones
Tetrapods:
formed through
 Early Tetrapods: Skulls were flattened with a fusion of ossification
temporal notch, showing evidence of a lateral centers.
line system.  Three middle ear
 Amphibians: bones (malleus,
o Caecilians: Compact, firmly ossified incus, stapes)
skulls. derived from the
o Salamanders: Primarily cartilaginous splanchnocranium.
skull with reduced ossification.  Dentary-temporal
o Anurans (Frogs): Highly variable skull jaw articulation,
ossification with a reduced number of replacing the
bones. articular-quadrate
 Amniotes: joint of reptiles.
o Skull Fenestrae  Presence of a
secondary palate.
 Anapsid: No temporal fenestrae
(primitive amniotes, turtles).
 Diapsid: Two temporal fenestrae Chapter 3: The Axial Skeleton
(most reptiles, birds).
Synapsid: Single temporal  The vertebral column, a key component of the
fenestra (mammals). axial skeleton, provides structural support,
o Reptiles: facilitates movement, and protects the spinal
 Turtles: Anapsid skull with cord. It evolved from the notochord, a flexible rod
emarginations that function found in early chordates.
o The notochord is retained in some form in
similarly to fenestrae.
most vertebrates, even when a vertebral
 Lizards: Modified diapsid skull
column is present.
with a kinetic jaw system.  The vertebral column consists of a series of
 Snakes: Prokinetic diapsid skull vertebrae, each composed of:
with loss of temporal bars, o Arches: Dorsal arches (neural and
allowing for extensive jaw interneural) enclose and protect the
mobility and swallowing of large neural tube. Ventral arches (hemal and
prey. interhemal) enclose blood vessels.
o Birds: Modified diapsid skull with an o Centra: The centra are the main body of
inflated braincase, toothless jaws the vertebra and develop from expansions
covered by keratinized sheaths, and a at the base of the ventral arches. They
kinetic palate. anchor and support the arches. There are
o Synapsids: two types of centra:
 Intercentrum: Lies beneath the
 Primitive Synapsids:
notochord.
 Pelycosaurs:
 Pleurocentrum: Lies above the
Possessed a single notochord.
temporal opening
bordered by the Regionalization of the Vertebral Column
zygomatic arch.
 PROPERTY OF: ZED G. CALAMBA BSBIO3B
 Fishes: The vertebral column typically has two o Dorsal Ribs: Develop along the horizontal
regions: septum.
o Trunk Region: Located anteriorly. o Ventral Ribs: Develop along the body wall
o Caudal Region: Located posteriorly. and are homologous to hemal arches in
 Tetrapods: The vertebral column is further the tail.
differentiated, with up to five regions:  Tetrapod Ribs:
o Cervical Region (Neck): Allows for head o Typically only one set of ribs (likely dorsal)
movement. persists.
o Thoracic Region (Chest): Bears ribs that o Bicipital Ribs: Have two heads:
form the rib cage.  Capitulum: Articulates with the
o Lumbar Region: Lies between the parapophysis (intercentrum).
thoracic and sacral regions; usually lacks  Tuberculum: Articulates with the
ribs. diapophysis (neural arch).
o Sacral Region (Hip): Connects the pelvic  Amniote Rib Classification:
girdle to the vertebral column. o True Ribs: Connect directly to the
o Caudal Region (Tail): May be reduced or sternum.
absent in some tetrapods. o False Ribs: Connect to each other but not
the sternum.
Centrum Structure and Terminology o Floating Ribs: Do not connect ventrally.

 Aspidospondyly: Vertebral elements remain Sternum

separate.
o Rhachitomous Vertebra: A specialized  The sternum, a midventral structure, provides
type of aspidospondylous vertebra found support and serves as an attachment site for chest
in early tetrapods. Each vertebra consists muscles and ribs. It is present in some amphibians
of multiple separate parts, including and most amniotes but absent in fishes.
paired intercentra and pleurocentra, and a o The sternum is not derived from ribs or the
separate neural arch. pectoral girdle but arose independently
 Holospondyly: Vertebral elements are fused into a several times.
single unit.
o Lepospondylous Vertebra: A specialized Gastralia
type of holospondylous vertebra with a
husk-shaped centrum.  Gastralia (abdominal ribs) are dermal bones
located in the ventral body wall between the
Centrum Shape and Function sternum and pelvis.
o They provide support and muscle
 Acoelous: Flat ends; well-suited for distributing attachment sites and are found in some
compressive forces. lizards, crocodiles, and Sphenodon.
 Amphicoelous: Concave ends; allow for limited
movement in all directions. Vertebral Column Phylogeny
 Procoelous: Concave anteriorly, convex
posteriorly; forms a ball-and-socket joint for  Agnathans:
extensive movement. o Ostracoderms: Notochord is prominent;
 Opisthocoelous: Convex anteriorly, concave evidence suggests small, unossified
posteriorly; forms a ball-and-socket joint. vertebral elements were present.
 Heterocoelous: Saddle-shaped ends; allow for o Hagfishes: Possess a notochord but lack
extensive lateral and vertical flexion but prevent vertebrae.
twisting. o Lampreys: Have a prominent notochord
with small, cartilaginous neural arches
Ribs and spines.
 Gnathostomes:
 Ribs are bony or cartilaginous struts that provide o Primitive Fishes (e.g., placoderms,
support, muscle attachment sites, and protection acanthodians, early chondrichthyans):
for internal organs. In tetrapods, they also play a Prominent notochord; vertebrae mostly
role in respiration. limited to neural and hemal arches.
 Fish Ribs:
 PROPERTY OF: ZED G. CALAMBA BSBIO3B
o Advanced Sharks: Vertebral elements thoracic, lumbar, sacral,
enlarge, taking over the primary role in and caudal.
axial support. The notochord persists but  Seven cervical vertebrae,
is constricted. including specialized
o Bony Fishes (e.g., bowfin, teleosts): atlas and axis for head
Vertebral column is generally ossified, movement.
with centra replacing the notochord as
the main support structure. Evolutionary Trends in the Vertebral Column
o Sarcopterygians (e.g., coelacanths,
lungfishes): Notochord remains a  Shift from Notochord to Vertebral Column: The
significant supportive element. Vertebrae notochord provides the primary support in early
may be rudimentary and cartilaginous, or vertebrates. As vertebrates diversify, the vertebral
aspidospondylous (as in rhipidistians). column becomes increasingly important for
 Tetrapods: support and locomotion.
o Early Tetrapods (e.g., Acanthostega,  Regional Specialization: The vertebral column
Ichthyostega): Aspidospondylous becomes regionally specialized to meet the
vertebrae, inheriting this structure from demands of different lifestyles and modes of
their rhipidistian ancestors. locomotion.
o Lepospondyls: Holospondylous  Adaptation to Terrestrial Life: The transition to
vertebrae, with all elements fused into a land resulted in significant changes, including:
single unit. o Increased Strength and Support:
o Labyrinthodonts: Vertebrae become more robust and
 Temnospondyls: Intercentrum ossified to support the body against
becomes the dominant centrum. gravity.
 Anthracosaurs: Pleurocentrum o Development of Zygapophyses: These
becomes the dominant centrum. interlocking processes between vertebrae
o Amniotes: resist twisting forces.
 Inherit the pleurocentrum as the o Differentiation of Sacral Region:
dominant centrum from Facilitates the transfer of propulsive
anthracosaurs. forces from the hindlimbs to the vertebral
 Intercentrum is reduced or lost, column.
often contributing to
 Relationship Between Form and Function: The
intervertebral cartilages.
shape and structure of vertebrae are directly
 Turtles: Unique adaptation where
related to the mechanical forces they experience.
the limbs and girdles are
This is evident in the orientation and height of
enclosed within the rib cage as
neural spines, the shape of centra, and the
part of the shell.
regionalization of the vertebral column.
 Snakes: Additional zygapophyses
(zygosphene and zygantrum)
prevent twisting of the elongated,
limbless vertebral column.
 Birds:
 Cervical vertebrae are
heterocoelous and highly
mobile.
 Posterior thoracic,
lumbar, sacral, and
sometimes caudal
vertebrae fuse into the
synsacrum, which
further fuses with the
pelvic girdle (innominate
bone) to create a rigid
structure for flight.
 Mammals:
 Five distinct vertebral
regions: cervical,
 PROPERTY OF: ZED G. CALAMBA BSBIO3B

CHAPTER 4: APPENDICULAR SKELETON  Claspers: Modified pterygiophores for mating.

Introduction Phylogeny

 Evolution of the appendicular skeleton in creating  Agnathans: Early vertebrates with ventrolateral fin-
specialized locomotor devices (fins, limbs). folds, no paired fins.

 Fossil records help track evolutionary changes.  Ostracoderms: Unpaired medial fins, some with
rudimentary paired fins.
 Relationship between structure and biological role
(e.g., wings for birds, limbs for tetrapods, fins for fish).  Placoderms: Early jawed vertebrates with simple
pelvic girdles and complex pectoral girdles.
Basic Components
 Chondrichthyans: Early sharks with stabilizing
 Appendicular Skeleton: Paired fins or limbs and
pectoral and pelvic fins.
supporting girdles.
 Acanthodians: Fins with large leading-edge spines.
 Anterior Girdle (Pectoral): Supports pectoral
fin/limb, made of dermal and endochondral  Bony Fishes: Actinopterygians (ray-finned) and
elements. Sarcopterygians (lobe-finned).
 Posterior Girdle (Pelvic): Supports pelvic fin/limb, Tetrapods
consists of endochondral elements.
 Early Tetrapods: Derived from sarcopterygian fishes
Fins (e.g., Tiktaalik).
 Elasmobranchs (e.g., Sharks): Dermal fin rays called  Key Adaptations: Loss of skull-pectoral girdle
ceratotrichia. connection, strengthened girdles and limbs.
 Bony Fishes: Fin rays called lepidotrichia, sometimes  Examples: Ichthyostega, Eogyrinus, Eryops.
stiffened by actinotrichia.
Pectoral and Pelvic Girdles
 Pterygiophores: Support the proximal part of the fin.
 Pectoral Girdle: Dual origin (dermal and
Limbs endochondral bones).
 Chiridium: Muscular appendage with joints and  Pelvic Girdle: Exclusively endochondral, composed
digits. of ilium, ischium, and pubis.
 Regions: Locomotion and Specializations
o Autopodium: Distal end (wrist/ankle,  Cursorial: Running.
digits).
 Fossorial: Digging.
o Zeugopodium: Middle region (ulna/radius in
forelimb, tibia/fibula in hindlimb).  Saltatorial: Hopping.
o Stylopodium: Closest to the body (humerus
 Volant: Flying.
in arm, femur in thigh).

Origin of Paired Fins  Arboreal: Tree-dwelling.

 Archipterygial Fin: Central metapterygial stem with  Brachiation: Swinging through trees.
radials on both sides. Swimming
 Metapterygial Fin: Posterior metapterygial stem with  Fish: Lateral undulations.
radials on the preaxial side.
 Tetrapods: Some retain limb functionality for
Theories of Origin
swimming (e.g., pinnipeds, aquatic birds).
 Gill-Arch Theory: Paired fins originated from gill Terrestrial Locomotion
arches (C. Gegenbaur).
 Early Gaits: Diagonal and lateral sequence gaits.
 Fin-Fold Theory: Paired fins from continuous
ventrolateral folds (F. M. Balfour, K. Thacher).  Cursorial Locomotion: Enhanced stride length and
rate for speed.
Embryonic Development of Tetrapod Limbs
Aerial Locomotion
 Stylopodium appears first, followed by zeugopodium
and autopodium.  Parachuting: Maximizes drag.

 Neomorphs: New skeletal components.  Gliding: Minimizes drag, uses lift.

 PROPERTY OF: ZED G. CALAMBA BSBIO3B

Origin of Bird Flight  Twitch Fibers: Fast-contracting, found in somatic

muscles of all vertebrates.
 Arboreal Theory: Tree-dwelling ancestors.
o Slow Twitch: Slower contraction, resistant to
 Insect-Net Theory: Ground-dwelling ancestors fatigue.
swatting at insects.
o Fast Twitch: Faster contraction, easily
 Cursorial Theory: Ground-dwelling ancestors using fatigued.
wings for climbing inclines (WAIR).
Muscle Structure and Contraction
Fossorial Locomotion
 Sarcolemma: The cell membrane of a muscle fiber.
 Subterranean Animals: Digging tunnels for shelter
and food storage.  Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: A specialized type of
endoplasmic reticulum in muscle cells.

 Myofibrils: Long units within muscle fibers, composed

CHAPTER 5: MUSCULAR SYSTEM of repeating sarcomeres.
 The muscular system enables movement and  Sarcomeres: The basic unit of muscle contraction,
supports posture. containing thick and thin filaments.
 Muscles work with the skeletal system, acting as  Sliding Filament Theory: Explains muscle contraction
movers and levers. as the sliding of thick and thin filaments past each
other.
 Muscles control the actions of internal organs, such
as blood vessels, the digestive tract, and respiratory  Tension-Length Curves: Describe how the tension
channels. produced by a muscle fiber varies with its length.
 Muscles form sphincters to regulate the flow of  Motor Unit: A single motor neuron and the muscle
materials within the body. fibers it innervates.
 Muscle contractions generate heat. Muscle Force Generation

 Some fish have specialized muscles that produce heat  Active Component: Force generated by the sliding of
for specific organs, such as the brain. filaments (requires ATP).

 Muscles can produce electrical and sound  Elastic Component: Force generated by the
byproducts. mechanical properties of the muscle (does not require
ATP).
 Some fish use specialized muscles as electric
organs.  Graded Motion: The ability of muscles to produce
varying levels of force.
Muscle Types
 Rate Modulation: Increasing force by increasing the
 Skeletal Muscle: Striated, multinucleated, voluntary, rate of nerve impulses.
attached to bones and cartilage.
 Motor Unit Recruitment: Increasing force by
 Cardiac Muscle: Striated, mononucleated, branched, activating more motor units.
involuntary, found only in the heart, interconnected by
intercalated disks. Muscle Fiber Orientation

 Smooth Muscle: Non-striated, mononucleated,  Parallel Muscles: Fibers run parallel to the muscle's
spindle-shaped, involuntary, found in the walls of length, good for speed and range of motion.
internal organs, blood vessels, and lungs.
 Pinnate Muscles: Fibers run at an angle to the tendon,
Muscle Color good for strength.
 Red Muscles: Highly vascularized, rich in myoglobin, Muscle Cross-Sectional Area
resistant to fatigue.
 Cross-Sectional Area: The thickness of a muscle,
 White Muscles: Less vascularized, low in myoglobin, directly related to its force-producing capacity.
contract rapidly.
 Morphological Cross-Section: Area of a straight cut
Muscle Fiber Types across the widest part of the muscle.
 Tonic Fibers: Slow-contracting, low force, sustain  Physiological Cross-Section: Area of a cut
contraction for prolonged periods, found in perpendicular to the fiber direction (used for pinnate
herpetofauna for postural support. muscles).

Muscle Attachments and Levers

 PROPERTY OF: ZED G. CALAMBA BSBIO3B

 Tendons: Cordlike structures that connect muscle to  Branchiomeric Musculature: Muscles associated
bone. with the branchial arches, involved in jaw and
pharyngeal movements.
 Aponeuroses: Flat, sheet-like tendons.
 Hypobranchial Musculature: Muscles in the throat
 Fascia: Sheets of connective tissue that wrap and bind area, involved in gill movements, swallowing, and
body parts. tongue movements.

 Bone-Muscle Lever System: The relationship  Extrinsic Eye Muscles: Muscles that move the
between muscle attachment points and the resulting eyeball.
movement.
Adaptations and Specializations
o Proximal Attachment: Closer to the joint,
favors speed.  Saltatorial Locomotion: Jumping in anurans,
powered by strong hindlimb extensor muscles.
o Distal Attachment: Farther from the joint,
favors strength.  Avian Flight Adaptations: Reduced axial muscle
mass, powerful pectoralis muscle for downstroke,
Muscle Actions supracoracoideus muscle for upstroke.
 Synergists: Muscles that work together to produce Muscle Evolution
movement in the same direction.
 Evolution of Hyoid Muscles: Transformation of
 Antagonists: Muscles that work in opposite interhyoideus in fishes to facial muscles in mammals.
directions.
 Evolution of Jaw Muscles: Persistence of adductor
 Fixators: Muscles that stabilize a joint. mandibulae as a jaw closer, transformation of
intermandibularis to muscles involved in jaw opening.
Muscle Homologies

 Muscle Homologies: The study of how muscles in

di erent species are related evolutionarily. CHAPTER 6: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 Attachment Similarity: Comparing attachment Respiration in Vertebrates

points to identify homologous muscles.
 Respiration is the process of delivering oxygen to
 Functional Similarity: Comparing functions to tissues and removing waste products, mainly carbon
identify homologous muscles. dioxide.

 Nervous Innervation: Comparing nerve supply to  External respiration is gas exchange between the
identify homologous muscles. environment and blood at the respiratory surface.

 Embryonic Origin: Comparing developmental  Internal respiration is gas exchange between blood
patterns to identify homologous muscles. and deep body tissues.

Embryonic Origin of Muscles  Ventilation (breathing) actively moves the respiratory

medium (water or air) across the exchange surface.
 Mesenchyme: Gives rise to smooth muscles in blood
vessels and some internal organs.  Perfusion is the pumping of blood through an organ
via capillaries.
 Hypomere: Di erentiates into smooth muscle layers
of the alimentary tract and cardiac muscle.  Hypoxia refers to low oxygen levels in the
environment.
 Paraxial Mesoderm: Forms somites, which give rise to
most skeletal muscles. Factors Affecting Gas Transfer

o Dermatome: Contributes to the dermis of  Surface Area: A larger surface area allows for greater
the skin. gas exchange.
o Myotome: Develops into skeletal muscles.  Distance: Thinner barriers between the environment
and blood speed up diffusion.
o Sclerotome: Forms vertebrae and ribs.

Postcranial Musculature  Resistance to Diffusion: Moist skin in amphibians

aids gas transfer.
 Axial Musculature: Muscles along the body's axis,
associated with the vertebral column and ribs.  Partial Pressure Differences: Gases diffuse from
areas of high to low partial pressure.
 Appendicular Musculature: Muscles associated with
Respiratory Media: Water vs. Air
the limbs.

Cranial Musculature
 PROPERTY OF: ZED G. CALAMBA BSBIO3B

 Water: Denser than air, requiring more energy for  Ciliary Ventilation: Used by small aquatic organisms;
ventilation. Gills are buoyant in water but collapse in cilia create currents for gas exchange.
air.
 Muscular Ventilation: Utilized by larger vertebrates to
 Air: Less dense, easier to ventilate. Lungs are move water or air.
structurally reinforced to function in air.
o Ram Ventilation: Passive flow of water over
 Gas Solubility: Gases dissolve differently in water and gills as a fish swims with its mouth open
air. Air composition is relatively constant, while gas (sharks, tuna).
solubility in water varies with factors like temperature
o Dual Pump (Water): Uses buccal and
and other dissolved substances.
opercular cavities to create unidirectional
Ventilation Types water flow over gills (fish).

 Unidirectional: Water flows in one direction across o Buccal Pump (Air): Air is drawn into the
gills (common in fish). buccal cavity and forced into lungs (lungfish,
amphibians, some reptiles).
 Bidirectional (Tidal): Air enters and exits through the
o Aspiration Pump (Air): Air is drawn into
same channels (common in lungs).
lungs by negative pressure created by
Respiratory Organs expanding the thoracic cavity (reptiles, birds,
mammals).
 Gills: Designed for water breathing, consisting of
dense capillary beds supported by branchial arches. Ventilation in Specific Groups

o Internal Gills: Associated with pharyngeal  Agnathans:

slits and pouches, often covered by skin
o Lampreys: Use tidal flow through
folds or an operculum.
pharyngeal slits due to their parasitic
o External Gills: Filamentous capillary beds feeding.
protruding into the water, ventilated by water
o Hagfishes: Utilize a scrolling velum and
currents or specialized muscles.
muscular contractions of branchial
 Gas Bladders: Elongated sacs filled with gas (air or pouches.
secreted from blood) that function in buoyancy control
(swim bladders) or respiration (lungs).
 Elasmobranchs:

o Spiracle: Reduced first gill slit, used for

 Lungs: Elastic bags designed for air breathing, arising
water intake in bottom-dwelling species.
from the pharynx.
o Dual Pump Mechanism: Alternates
o Connected to the outside via the trachea,
between suction and positive pressure to
which branches into bronchi and
move water across gills.
bronchioles in some species.
o Ram Ventilation: Utilized by fast-swimming
o Dead Space: Volume of used air in
sharks.
respiratory passageways.

o Tidal Volume: Total volume inhaled in a

 Bony Fishes:
single breath. o Operculum: Bony cover over gills, part of the
dual pump system.
 Swim Bladders: A type of gas bladder primarily for
buoyancy control, differing from lungs in position, o Countercurrent Exchange: Water and
venous return, and typically being single. blood flow in opposite directions across gill
lamellae for efficient gas exchange.
o Physostomous: Connected to the digestive
tract, allowing for gulping air.  Amphibians:
o Physoclistous: Closed, without a o Larvae:
connection to the digestive tract.
 Salamander larvae have internal
o Gas Glands: Release gas from the blood into and external gills, using throat
the bladder, utilizing the rete mirabile pumping for water flow.
network of blood vessels.
 Anuran larvae use buccal and
o Oval: Specialized region for gas resorption in pharyngeal force pumps for gill
advanced teleosts. ventilation and feeding.
 Cutaneous Respiration: Breathing through the skin, o Adults: Primarily use cutaneous respiration
important in amphibians and some reptiles. and a buccal pump to ventilate lungs (if
present).
Ventilation Mechanisms
 PROPERTY OF: ZED G. CALAMBA BSBIO3B

 Reptiles:  Water-to-Land Transition: Led to a shift from gills to

lungs and changes in ventilatory pumps.
o Use an aspiration pump for lung ventilation.
 Lung Evolution: Likely driven by hypoxic conditions in
o Snakes: Posterior saccular portion of the water, leading to air-breathing adaptations in fish
lung acts as a bellows. ancestors.
 Aspiration Pump: Evolved in reptiles, birds, and
o Caimans and Crocodiles: Diaphragmatic mammals, separating the respiratory and feeding
muscles pull the liver back during inhalation, apparatus.
expanding the lungs.  Bird Lungs and Air Sacs: Highly efficient system
supporting high metabolic demands of flight.
o Turtles: Limb movements and specialized
muscles inside the shell adjust lung pressure
due to the restrictive shell.

 Mammals:

o Diaphragm: Plays a critical role in the

aspiration pump mechanism.

o Alveoli: Tiny air sacs where gas exchange

occurs.

 Birds:

o Parabronchi: Tubes with air capillaries for

gas exchange.

o Air Sacs: Avascular sacs connected to

lungs, aiding in ventilation.

o Two-cycle Ventilation: Ensures continuous,

unidirectional airflow through lungs.

Patterns of Gas Transfer

 Countercurrent Flow: Water and blood flow in

opposite directions (fish gills).

 Crosscurrent Flow: Blood flows obliquely to air

passages (birds).
 Uniform Pool: Alveolar ventilation maintains
consistent oxygen levels (mammals).

Ventilation-Perfusion Ratios

 Mammals: 1:1 (balanced).

 Reptiles: 5:1 (more air than blood flow).
 Fishes: 35:1 (compensating for lower oxygen in
water).

Acid-Base Regulation

 Carbon dioxide levels affect blood pH.

 Different vertebrates use various organs for acid-base
balance:
o Mammals: Lungs
o Fishes: Primarily gills, also skin
o Amphibians: Primarily skin, kidneys also
play a role

Evolution of Respiratory Organs

 Ciliary Pumps: Present in early aquatic organisms.

 Muscular Pumps: Evolved for larger, more active
species.
 PROPERTY OF: ZED G. CALAMBA BSBIO3B

CHAPTER 7: Circulatory System  Microcirculation: The network of arterioles,

capillaries, and venules that directly supports
 The circulatory system of vertebrates is a cell metabolism.
complex network of vessels and pumps
responsible for transporting blood throughout Single vs. Double Circulation
the body. This system plays a crucial role in
respiration, nutrient delivery, waste removal,  Single Circulation (Most Fishes): Blood passes
hormone transport, temperature regulation, and through the heart once during each complete
immune defense. circuit (heart → gills → systemic tissues → heart).
 The circulatory system comprises two main  Double Circulation (Lungfishes, Amphibians,
components: Reptiles, Birds, Mammals): Blood passes
o Cardiovascular system: This system through the heart twice during each complete
consists of the heart, blood vessels circuit (heart → lungs → heart → systemic tissues →
(arteries, veins, and capillaries), and heart). The evolution of double circulation was a
blood. major event associated with the transition to land
o Lymphatic system: This system and the development of lungs for air breathing.
includes lymphatic vessels, lymph
nodes, and lymph. Phylogeny of the Cardiovascular System

Blood Heart

 Blood, a specialized connective tissue, consists  The heart, a muscular pump, evolved from a
of plasma (the fluid component) and formed simple contractile vessel.
elements (the cellular components).  The basic vertebrate heart consists of four
 Formed Elements: chambers arranged in series:
o Erythrocytes (red blood cells): Contain o Sinus venosus: Receives deoxygenated
hemoglobin, the protein responsible for blood from the body.
oxygen transport. In mammals, o Atrium: Receives blood from the sinus
erythrocytes lack nuclei. venosus.
o Leucocytes (white blood cells): o Ventricle: Pumps blood out of the heart.
Defend the body against infection and o Bulbus cordis (embryonic form): Leads
disease. to the ventral aorta.
o Platelets: Involved in blood clotting  Conus arteriosus: The adult
(thrombus formation) to repair tissue form of the bulbus cordis in
damage. some fishes and amphibians,
containing cardiac muscle and
Blood Vessels valves.
 Bulbus arteriosus: The adult
 Arteries: Carry blood away from the heart. form of the bulbus cordis in
 Veins: Carry blood toward the heart. teleosts, lacking cardiac
 Capillaries: Tiny vessels that connect arteries muscle and valves.
and veins, forming capillary beds where  Heart Evolution:
exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste o Hagfishes: Three-chambered heart
products occurs between the blood and tissues. (sinus venosus, atrium, ventricle) with
 Arteries and veins are composed of three accessory hearts to aid venous blood
layers: return.
o Tunica intima (innermost): Endothelial o Lampreys: Three-chambered heart
cell lining. (sinus venosus, atrium, ventricle) plus a
o Tunica media (middle): Contains bulbus arteriosus.
smooth muscle and elastic fibers (more o Chondrichthyans and Bony Fishes:
prominent in arteries). Four-chambered heart (sinus venosus,
o Tunica adventitia (outermost): Fibrous atrium, ventricle, conus
connective tissue. arteriosus/bulbus arteriosus).
 Hemodynamics: The pressures and flow o Lungfishes: Beginnings of a double
patterns within the circulatory system. Blood circulation with partial interatrial and
pressure gradually decreases as blood flows interventricular septa. Spiral valve in the
from arteries to capillaries and veins. conus arteriosus helps separate
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
 PROPERTY OF: ZED G. CALAMBA BSBIO3B

o Amphibians: Three-chambered heart  Posterior cardinal veins: Drain

(two atria, one ventricle). Spiral valve in the body region.
the conus arteriosus directs blood flow. o Lateral abdominal veins: Drain the
o Reptiles: pelvic region (often reduced or absent in
 Chelonians and Squamates: tetrapods).
Five-chambered heart (two o Hepatic veins: Drain the liver.
atria, three interconnected o Subclavian veins: Drain the anterior
ventricular compartments) and appendages.
two systemic arches. o Iliac veins: Drain the posterior
 Crocodilians: Four-chambered appendages.
heart (two atria, two ventricles), o Caudal vein: Drains the tail.
two systemic arches, and a o Precava (anterior vena cava): Drains
foramen of Panizza that allows the anterior part of the body.
blood shunting between the o Postcava (posterior vena cava): Drains
arches. the posterior part of the body.
o Birds and Mammals: Four-chambered o Pulmonary veins: Drain the lungs.
heart (two atria, two ventricles). Double
circulation with complete separation of Adaptations of the Circulatory System
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
Birds have a right systemic arch, while  Accessory Air-breathing Organs in Fishes:
mammals have a left systemic arch. Some fish species have evolved accessory air-
breathing organs (e.g., modified swim bladders,
Arterial Vessels digestive tract) to supplement gill respiration in
low-oxygen environments. These organs have a
 Aortic arches: Paired vessels that connect the rich blood supply to facilitate oxygen uptake.
ventral aorta to the dorsal aorta. The basic  Cardiac Shunts:
pattern consists of six aortic arches, but o Reptiles: Cardiac shunts, such as the
modifications occur in di erent vertebrate foramen of Panizza in crocodilians, allow
groups. for regulation of blood flow between the
 Aortic Arch Evolution: pulmonary and systemic circuits.
o Fishes: Aortic arches primarily deliver o Functions of Cardiac Shunts:
blood to the gills for gas exchange.  Diving: Shunts can bypass the
o Lungfishes and Tetrapods: Aortic lungs during dives, conserving
arches contribute to the pulmonary arch oxygen and reducing blood flow
(lungs) and systemic arches (body). to non-essential organs.
o Amphibians and Reptiles: Two  Digestion: Shunts may direct
systemic arches (left and right). deoxygenated blood to the
o Birds: Right systemic arch. digestive organs to aid in
o Mammals: Left systemic arch. digestion and acid/base
balance.
Venous Vessels  Fetal Circulation in Mammals: The fetal
circulatory system features specialized
structures, such as the ductus arteriosus and
 Venous systems:
foramen ovale, that shunt blood away from the
o Systemic system: Drains blood from
non-functional lungs. The placenta serves as the
the body tissues.
site of gas and nutrient exchange between the
o Pulmonary system: Drains blood from
fetus and mother.
the lungs.
 Rete Mirabile: A network of closely associated
o Hepatic portal system: Carries blood
arteries and veins that act as heat exchangers.
from the digestive tract to the liver.
o Function: Countercurrent flow in the
o Renal portal system: Carries blood
from the tail or hindlimbs to the kidneys rete mirabile allows for heat
(absent in mammals). conservation (e.g., in the extremities of
marine mammals) or cooling (e.g., in the
 Major Veins:
carotid rete at the base of the brain in
o Vitelline veins: Drain the yolk sac in
some mammals).
embryos.
o Cardinal veins: Drain the body of the
embryo. Lymphatic System
 Anterior cardinal veins: Drain
the head region.  Functions:
 PROPERTY OF: ZED G. CALAMBA BSBIO3B

oFluid balance: Collects excess tissue canines,

fluid (lymph) and returns it to the premolars,
bloodstream. molars) for
o Lipid absorption: Transports lipids specialized
absorbed from the digestive tract. functions.
o Immune defense: Houses lymphatic  Tooth Replacement
tissue, which filters lymph and removes Patterns:
foreign materials.  Polyphyodont
 Components: : Teeth are
o Lymphatic vessels: Thin-walled vessels continuously
with one-way valves that collect lymph replaced.
from the tissues.  Diphyodont:
o Lymph nodes: Encapsulated Two sets of
collections of lymphatic tissue that filter teeth
lymph. Present in mammals and some (deciduous
waterbirds. and
o Lymph hearts: Muscular pumps that permanent).
help propel lymph in some vertebrates  Tongue: Primarily derived from
(e.g., teleosts, amphibians). hypobranchial musculature.
 Functions: Holds taste
buds, assists in food
manipulation and
swallowing, and may
be involved in prey
capture.
CHAPTER 8: Digestive System o Pharynx: A corridor for food and air
passage.
Key Functions of the Digestive System o Alimentary Canal:
 Esophagus: Transports food
 Mechanical Breakdown: Physically reduces from the pharynx to the
food into smaller pieces. stomach.
 Chemical Breakdown: Uses enzymes to break  Stomach:
down food into absorbable molecules.  Functions: Food
 Absorption: Uptake of nutrients and water from storage, mechanical
digested food. and chemical digestion
 Elimination: Removal of undigested waste using gastric juices.
products.  Regions (based on
mucosal histology):
Components of the Digestive System  Cardia:
Transition
between
The digestive system consists of two main components:
esophagus
and stomach
1. Digestive Tract: A tubular passageway extending (mammals
from the mouth to the anus or cloaca. only).
o Buccal Cavity (Mouth): Contains teeth,  Fundus:
tongue, and palate. Oral glands release Largest region,
secretions into the buccal cavity. contains
 Teeth: Unique to vertebrates, fundic glands.
teeth are usually capped with  Pylorus:
enamel or enameloid, a Narrow region
mineralized coat. before the
 Tooth Types: intestine,
 Homodont: contains
Similar teeth pyloric glands.
throughout the  Intestines:
mouth.  Small Intestine:
 Heterodont: Primary site of nutrient
Di erent types absorption.
of teeth
(incisors,
 PROPERTY OF: ZED G. CALAMBA BSBIO3B

 Duodenum:  Fermentation: Microbial breakdown of

Receives cellulose.
chyme from o Foregut Fermentation: Cellulose
the stomach digestion occurs in specialized
and secretions stomachs or pouches, as in ruminants
from the liver and some marsupials.
and pancreas.  Ruminants: Regurgitate and
 Jejunum and remasticate food (rumination)
Ileum: for e icient cellulose
Delineated breakdown.
based on o Hindgut Fermentation: Cellulose
histology in digestion occurs in the intestines and
mammals. ceca, as in rabbits, horses, and many
 Large Intestine: other vertebrates.
Primarily involved in
water absorption and Phylogeny of the Digestive System
waste compaction.
 Cloaca (in most vertebrates): Buccal Cavity
A terminal chamber receiving
both fecal material and
 Agnathans (Jawless Fishes): Possess a rasping
products of the urogenital tract.
tongue with keratinized “teeth” for feeding.
 Rectum: Found in
some fishes and most  Gnathostomes (Jawed Vertebrates): Most
mammals (lacking a fishes lack a muscular tongue, but a mobile
cloaca). tongue develops in tetrapods.
2. Accessory Digestive Glands:
o Oral Glands: Stomach
 Salivary Glands (Mammals):
Produce saliva containing  Cyclostomes: Lack a distinct stomach.
amylase for carbohydrate  Gnathostome Fishes: Generally possess a J-
digestion. shaped stomach.
 Venom Glands (Venomous  Amphibians: Have a discernible stomach with
Snakes): Modified oral glands gastric glands.
that produce venom for prey  Reptiles:
capture and digestion. o Lizards: Often have a muscular
o Liver: The largest internal organ, stomach.
produces bile for fat emulsification. o Crocodiles and Alligators: Possess a
 Gallbladder (Most muscular gizzard for grinding food.
Vertebrates): Stores and  Birds: Have a two-chambered stomach
releases bile. (proventriculus and gizzard).
o Pancreas: Produces pancreatic juices  Mammals:
containing digestive enzymes and o General Mammals: Typically lack a crop
hormones. or gizzard.
o Ruminants: Have a four-chambered
Specializations of the Alimentary Canal stomach (rumen, reticulum, omasum,
abomasum) specialized for foregut
 Spiral Valve: A helical partition within the lumen fermentation.
of the alimentary canal (some fishes), increasing
the length of the digestive tract for prolonged Intestines
digestion.
 Crop: A baglike expansion of the esophagus  Cyclostomes: Possess a straight,
(birds only) for temporary food storage. undi erentiated intestine.
 Cecum: A blind-ended outpocketing from the  Gnathostome Fishes: Show considerable
intestine (various vertebrates) housing variation in intestinal design.
microorganisms for cellulose digestion.  Amphibians: Have a di erentiated small and
 Gizzard: A muscularized region of the stomach large intestine.
(crocodiles, alligators, birds) for grinding food  Reptiles: Possess a distinct large intestine and
with ingested hard objects. may have ceca.
 Birds: Have a coiled small intestine and a short,
Fermentation straight large intestine.
 PROPERTY OF: ZED G. CALAMBA BSBIO3B

 Mammals: Have a long, coiled small intestine  Holonephric Concept: An alternative view that
and a large intestine. emphasizes the unity of the entire nephric ridge
in kidney development.
Cloaca
Nitrogen Excretion
 Most Vertebrates: Have a cloaca, a common
chamber for fecal and urogenital products. Vertebrates have evolved di erent strategies to eliminate
 Some Fishes and Most Mammals: Lack a nitrogenous wastes while conserving water:
cloaca and have separate openings for the
digestive and urogenital systems.  Ammonotelism: Direct excretion of ammonia,
common in aquatic animals.
 Uricotelism: Excretion of nitrogen in the form of
uric acid, found in birds and most reptiles.
CHAPTER 9: Urogenital System  Ureotelism: Excretion of nitrogen in the form of
urea, found in mammals and some other
vertebrates.
Kidney

Water Balance
Key Functions of the Kidney

 Water Elimination: Primarily a concern for

 Excretion: Removal of metabolic waste
freshwater vertebrates.
products, primarily nitrogenous wastes, from the
o Filtration kidneys with well-developed
body.
glomeruli and distal tubules produce
 Osmoregulation: Regulation of water and salt
large volumes of dilute urine.
balance to maintain a stable internal fluid
 Water Conservation: Crucial for marine and
environment.
terrestrial vertebrates.
o Adaptations include:
Kidney Structure and Development  Aglomerular kidneys in some
marine fishes.
 Nephron: The functional unit of the kidney,  Elevated levels of blood solutes
responsible for urine formation. in some marine fishes.
o Renal Corpuscle: Consists of the  Uricotelism in reptiles and
glomerulus and the renal capsule birds.
(Bowman's capsule).  Ureotelism and the loop of
o Tubules: Henle in mammals.
 Proximal Tubule: Reabsorbs  Osmoconformers: Marine vertebrates, like
most of the water and solutes hagfishes, that maintain body fluid osmotic
from the glomerular filtrate. concentration similar to seawater.
 Intermediate Tubule:
Contributes to the loop of Henle Reproductive System
in mammals and some birds.
 Distal Tubule: Further modifies
Key Structures
the filtrate and plays a role in
salt balance.
 Collecting Tubule: Receives urine from multiple  Gonads:
nephrons and a ects urine concentration. o Testes (Male): Produce sperm and the
 Tripartite Concept of Kidney Organization: hormone testosterone.
Describes the formation of the kidney from three o Ovaries (Female): Produce eggs and
regions of the nephric ridge. female sex hormones.
o Pronephros: The most anterior kidney,  Genital Ducts:
usually transient and embryonic. o Archinephric Duct (Male): Develops
o Mesonephros: Develops in the middle from the pronephric duct and transports
of the nephric ridge and may become the sperm.
functional adult kidney in some o Mullerian Duct (Female): Develops
vertebrates. alongside the archinephric duct and
o Metanephros: The most posterior forms the oviduct, uterus, and vagina.
kidney, becomes the adult kidney of  Other Structures:
amniotes. o Cloaca: A common chamber for fecal,
urinary, and reproductive products
 PROPERTY OF: ZED G. CALAMBA BSBIO3B

found in most vertebrates (except some

fishes and most mammals).
o Penis (Male): An intromittent organ for
sperm transfer.
o Hemipenes (Male Lizards and
Snakes): Paired intromittent organs.
o Urinary Bladder: Stores urine before
excretion.

Phylogeny of the Urogenital System

Kidney

 Cyclostomes (Hagfishes and Lampreys):

o Possess the most primitive kidneys.
o Hagfishes have aglomerular anterior
tubules and a few posterior glomerular
tubules.
o Lampreys have an opisthonephros in
adults.
 Fishes:
o Most have an opisthonephros.
o Some teleosts have a persistent
pronephros.
 Amphibians:
o May have a functional pronephros in
larvae.
o Most develop an opisthonephros.
 Amniotes (Reptiles, Birds, Mammals):
o Possess a metanephros as the adult
kidney.
 Mammals:
o Metanephric tubules are elongated,
forming the loop of Henle.
 Birds:
o Some possess nephrons with short
loops, analogous to the loop of Henle in
mammals.

Reproductive System

The sources do not provide a detailed phylogenetic

overview of the reproductive system across all vertebrate
groups.

Evolutionary Considerations

 Preadaptation: Some features that evolved in

aquatic environments, such as ureotelism and
uricotelism, were preadaptive for life on land.
 Origin of Vertebrates: The design of the
vertebrate kidney suggests a freshwater origin,
although this hypothesis is debated.
 PROPERTY OF: ZED G. CALAMBA BSBIO3B

CHAPTER 10: Endocrine System  Adrenal Gland: A composite gland derived from
two di erent tissues.
Key Concepts o Adrenocortical Tissue (Interrenal
Tissue):
 Hormones: Corticosteroids
 Endocrine Glands: Ductless glands that secrete
(mineralocorticoids,
hormones directly into the bloodstream.
glucocorticoids, androgens)
 Hormones: Chemical messengers that travel
 Functions:
through the blood to target tissues, eliciting
 Regulates water and
specific responses.
sodium balance.
 Target Tissues: Tissues that possess receptors  Controls carbohydrate
for specific hormones and are capable of metabolism.
responding to them.  Influences
reproductive function.
Major Endocrine Organs and Their Functions  Coordinates stress
response.
 Thyroid Gland:  Phylogeny:
o Hormones: Thyroxine (T4) and  Separate from
Triiodothyronine (T3) chroma in tissue in
o Functions: cyclostomes and
 Regulates metabolic rate, teleosts.
especially in endotherms.  Begins to associate
 Influences growth and with chroma in tissue
metamorphosis. in elasmobranchs and
 A ects molting and tetrapods.
integumentary function.  Forms a distinct cortex
 Plays a role in reproduction in in mammals.
most vertebrates (inhibitory in o Chroma in Tissue:
amphibians).  Hormones: Catecholamines
o Phylogeny: (epinephrine and
 Present in all vertebrates. norepinephrine)
 Stores hormones extracellularly  Function: Prepares the body for
in follicles in gnathostomes. "fight-or-flight" response to
 Arises from the endostyle in stress.
lampreys during  Phylogeny:
metamorphosis.  Separate from
 Ultimobranchial Body and Parathyroid Gland: adrenocortical tissue
These glands have antagonistic e ects on in cyclostomes and
calcium metabolism. teleosts.
o Ultimobranchial Body:  Begins to associate
 Hormone: Calcitonin with adrenocortical
 Function: Lowers blood tissue in
calcium levels. elasmobranchs and
 Phylogeny: tetrapods.
 Absent in cyclostomes.  Forms a distinct
 Incorporated into the medulla in mammals.
thyroid gland as  Pancreatic Islets (Islets of Langerhans):
parafollicular cells (C o Hormones:
cells) in mammals.  Insulin (from B cells)
o Parathyroid Gland:  Glucagon (from A cells)
 Hormone: Parathyroid  Somatostatin (from D cells)
hormone (PTH)  Pancreatic polypeptide (from
 Function: Raises blood PP cells)
calcium levels. o Functions:
 Phylogeny:  Regulate carbohydrate, fat, and
 Absent in fishes. protein metabolism.
 Located on or near the  Insulin lowers blood glucose;
thyroid gland in glucagon raises it.
tetrapods.  Somatostatin inhibits insulin
and glucagon secretion.
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 Pancreatic polypeptide  ACTH stimulates

influences gastrointestinal glucocorticoid release
activity. from the adrenal
o Phylogeny: cortex.
 Separate from exocrine  MSH a ects skin
pancreas in cyclostomes and pigmentation.
most teleosts.  Phylogeny:
 Begin to associate with exocrine  Present in all
pancreas in chondrichthyans vertebrates.
and coelacanths.  Divided into pars
 Embedded within the exocrine distalis, pars tuberalis,
pancreas in most tetrapods. and pars intermedia in
 Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis): A complex gland tetrapods.
with two embryonic origins.  Pars tuberalis appears
o Neurohypophysis (from in early tetrapods.
infundibulum):  Pars intermedia may be
 Hormones: Vasopressin (ADH) absent in some groups
and oxytocin (released but not (e.g., birds, some
synthesized in the mammals).
neurohypophysis)  Gonads:
 Functions: o Testes (Male):
 Vasopressin regulates  Hormone: Testosterone
blood pressure and  Functions:
water conservation.  Regulates
 Oxytocin stimulates development and
uterine contractions maintenance of male
and milk ejection. secondary sexual
 Phylogeny: characteristics.
 Present in all  Promotes
vertebrates. spermatogenesis.
 Lacks a median o Ovaries (Female):
eminence in hagfishes  Hormones: Estrogens and
and lampreys. progestogens
 Develops a median  Functions:
eminence in most  Regulate development
other vertebrates. and maintenance of
o Adenohypophysis (from Rathke's female secondary
pouch): sexual characteristics.
 Hormones: Growth hormone  Control the ovarian
(GH), prolactin (PRL), cycle and pregnancy.
thyrotropin (TSH), follicle-  Pineal Gland:
stimulating hormone (FSH), o Hormone: Melatonin
luteinizing hormone (LH), o Functions:
corticotropin (ACTH),  Influences skin pigmentation in
melanophore-stimulating lower vertebrates.
hormone (MSH)  Regulates seasonal
 Functions: reproductive patterns in some
 GH influences growth species.
and metabolism.  May play a role in circadian
 PRL has diverse rhythms, especially in reptiles
functions, including and birds.
lactation in mammals  Secondary Endocrine Organs:
and osmoregulation in o Gastrointestinal Tract: Produces
fishes. hormones that regulate digestion.
 TSH stimulates thyroid o Kidneys:
hormone secretion.  Hormones: Renin and
 FSH and LH regulate erythropoietin (EPO)
gonad development  Functions:
and hormone  Renin regulates blood
production. pressure.
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 EPO stimulates red  Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Controls

blood cell production. involuntary functions like heart rate, digestion,
and respiration.
Hormonal Control Mechanisms
Major Components and Phylogenetic Trends
 Feedback Loops: Hormones often regulate their
own secretion through negative feedback  Neurons and Neuroglia:
mechanisms. o Neurons are the fundamental units of
 Hormonal Interactions: Hormones can interact the nervous system, specialized for
synergistically or antagonistically to fine-tune transmitting electrical signals. They
physiological responses. have a cell body (perikaryon),
 Environmental Influences: The endocrine dendrites (receive signals), and an
system is sensitive to environmental cues, such axon (transmits signals).
as temperature and photoperiod, which can o Neuroglia are support cells that do not
influence hormone secretion and physiological transmit impulses but perform vital
responses. functions like:
 Insulating axons
Evolutionary Trends (oligodendroglia in CNS,
Schwann cells in PNS).
 Anatomical Changes:  Engulfing foreign material
o Endocrine glands may be more (microglia).
dispersed in anamniotes and become  Nourishing neurons
more compact in amniotes. (astrocytes).
o Myelinated nerves (axons wrapped in
o The adrenal gland components merge to
myelin) conduct impulses faster than
form a composite organ in amniotes.
unmyelinated nerves.
 Functional Diversification:
o Nodes of Ranvier are gaps in the myelin
o Hormones may acquire new functions in
sheath that facilitate rapid signal
di erent lineages.
transmission.
o For instance, prolactin has a wide range
 Transmission of Information:
of e ects across vertebrates.
o Synapses are junctions between
 Target Tissue Responsiveness:
neurons where chemical messengers
o Evolutionary changes often involve
(neurotransmitters) are released to
modifications in target tissue sensitivity
transmit signals.
to existing hormones rather than
o Information processing occurs at
changes in the hormones themselves.
synapses through convergence,
o The evolution of the gallbladder's
divergence, and inhibition.
response to CCK exemplifies this
 Peripheral Nervous System:
concept.
o Divided into somatic nerves (serving
skeletal muscle, skin) and visceral
CHAPTER 11: Nervous System nerves (serving internal organs).
o Nerves can be sensory (a erent),
Key Concepts carrying information to the CNS, or
motor (e erent), carrying commands
 Central Nervous System (CNS): Comprises the from the CNS.
brain and spinal cord, responsible for o Spinal Nerves:
processing information and coordinating  Emerge from the spinal cord
responses. and are numbered according to
 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Consists of their vertebral region (cervical,
all nervous tissue outside the CNS, transmitting thoracic, lumbar, sacral).
signals between the CNS and the rest of the body.  Have dorsal roots (sensory
 Neurons: Specialized cells for long-distance input) and ventral roots (motor
transmission of electrical impulses. output).
 Neuroglia: Support cells that nourish, insulate,  Dorsal root ganglion contains
and protect neurons. cell bodies of sensory neurons.
 Spinal Reflexes: Simple, rapid responses to  Sympathetic chain ganglia run
stimuli that are mediated by circuits within the alongside the spinal cord and
spinal cord. are connected to spinal nerves
via rami communicans.
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 Embryonic development: increasing heart rate, blood

Ventral roots arise from neurons pressure, etc.. Thoracolumbar
within the spinal cord, while outflow.
dorsal roots arise from neural  Parasympathetic system:
crest cells. Restores the body to a restful
 Dermatomes are areas of the state, slowing heart rate,
skin innervated by a specific promoting digestion, etc..
spinal nerve. Craniosacral outflow.
 Myotomes are blocks of o Anatomical Divisions:
skeletal muscle innervated by a  Cranial autonomic: Autonomic
specific spinal nerve. fibers in cranial nerves.
o Cranial Nerves:  Spinal autonomic: Autonomic
 Emerge from the brain and are fibers in spinal nerves.
numbered with Roman  Enteric autonomic: Intrinsic
numerals. nervous system of the digestive
 Supply somatic and visceral tract.
tissues, can be sensory, motor, o Phylogeny:
or mixed.  Fragmentary in cyclostomes.
 Special cranial nerves are  Well-developed in jawed
associated with localized fishes and tetrapods.
senses (e.g., vision, hearing,  Sympathetic and
smell, taste). parasympathetic divisions
 Phylogeny: Thought to have less distinct in non-
evolved from dorsal and ventral mammalian vertebrates.
nerves of anterior spinal nerves  Central Nervous System (CNS):
that became incorporated into o Receives and processes information
the braincase. from various sources:
 Evolutionary Trends:  Interoceptors: Monitor the
 Loss of lateral line internal environment.
nerves in terrestrial  Proprioceptors: Sense body
vertebrates. position and movement.
 Modification of pre-  Exteroceptors: Detect stimuli
and posttrematic from the external environment.
branches associated o Sends commands to e ectors to
with gills in terrestrial generate responses.
forms. o Embryology:
 Enlargement or  Develops from the neural tube,
emergence of spinal which gives rise to the forebrain,
accessory and midbrain, and hindbrain.
hypoglossal nerves in  Meninges (protective
amniotes. membranes) surround the brain
 Spinal Reflexes: and spinal cord.
o Simplest level of control within the  Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
nervous system, mediated by circuits in cushions and protects the CNS.
the spinal cord. o Phylogeny of Meninges:
o Types: Somatic (control skeletal  Single layer (primitive meninx)
muscles) and visceral (control internal in fishes.
organs).  Double layer (dura mater and
o Somatic reflex arc typically involves secondary meninx) in
three neurons: sensory, association, amphibians, reptiles, and birds.
and motor.  Triple layer (dura mater,
o Visceral reflex arc involves four arachnoid, and pia mater) in
neurons: sensory, association, mammals.
preganglionic motor, and postganglionic o Spinal Cord:
motor.  Gray matter (cell bodies) in
 Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): the core, white matter (nerve
o Controls involuntary functions. fibers) surrounding it.
o Functional Divisions (Mammals):  Dorsal horns: Receive sensory
 Sympathetic system: Prepares input.
the body for "fight-or-flight",
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 Ventral horns: Contain motor  Phylogeny:

neuron cell bodies. Divided into a
 Functions in reflexes and as a dorsal pallium
pathway for information flow and ventral
between the brain and the body. subpallium.
o Brain: These regions
 Hindbrain: undergo
 Medulla oblongata: various
Houses cranial nerve modifications
nuclei, controls vital in di erent
reflexes (respiration, vertebrate
heart rate), and serves lineages,
as a pathway for including
ascending and enlargement,
descending tracts. reduction, and
 Pons: Relays fusion.
information between o Functional Associations:
the cerebral cortex and  Limbic System: Involved in
the cerebellum. emotions, motivation, and
 Cerebellum: memory.
Coordinates  Reticular Formation: Plays a
movement, maintains role in arousal, attention, and
balance, and plays a filtering sensory information.
role in motor learning. o Phylogenetic Trends in the Brain:
 Midbrain:  Forebrain enlargement in
 Tectum (roof): lineages with complex
Receives visual and behaviors, enhanced olfaction,
auditory input. or demanding locomotor
 Tegmentum (floor): control (e.g., hagfishes, some
Initiates motor output. sharks, teleosts, tetrapods).
 Forebrain:  Midbrain enlargement in some
 Diencephalon: teleosts, likely related to visual
 Thalamus: processing and lateral line
Relays input.
sensory  Brain size and structure often
information to reflect the ecological demands
the cerebral and lifestyle of the species.
cortex.  Spinocortical Associations:
 Hypothalamu o Integration of spinal reflexes with
s: Regulates higher brain centers.
homeostasis o Sensory information is filtered and
(temperature, processed at multiple levels before
hunger, thirst, reaching the cerebral cortex.
etc.) and o Motor commands from the cortex are
controls the modulated by the cerebellum,
pituitary subcortical centers, and spinal reflexes.
gland.
 Telencephalon CHAPTER 12: Sensory Organs
(cerebrum):
 Cerebral
Introduction
hemispheres
are
responsible for  Survival depends on reacting to danger and
higher-level seizing opportunities, which requires information
processing, about the external environment, the body's
including internal physiology, and past experiences.
learning,  Sensory receptors are specialized organs that
memory, and respond to selected information by translating
decision- environmental energies into nerve impulses that
making. travel to the central nervous system (CNS).
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 Sensations that humans consciously experience  Relies on information from associated sensory
are called perception. receptors in muscles, tendons, and joints, which
 This summary will separate the type of monitor limb flexion and muscle contraction.
environmental energy or stimulus monitored  Proprioceptive information informs the CNS
from the nervous system's interpretation of that about limb or body position.
stimulus.  Primarily processed subconsciously for posture
adjustment and movement synchronization.
Components of a Sensory Organ  Two main types of associated receptors:
o Muscle spindles: Located within
 Sensory neurons detect and transmit skeletal muscles, contain modified
information about the external or internal intrafusal muscle fibers.
environment.  Function to maintain muscle
 Sensory neurons have: tone and initiate the stretch
o Dendrites: Responsive to stimuli and reflex.
carry impulses toward the cell body.  Inform the nervous system
o Axon: Transmits impulses away from the about the rate of change in
cell body to other neurons. muscle length.
 Sensory receptors act as transducers, o Golgi tendon organs: Located in
converting energy from one form to another (e.g., tendons, act as tension recorders,
light, mechanical, or chemical stimuli into providing information about muscle-
electrical impulses). generated forces.
 Sensory organ: A sensory nerve fiber and its
associated tissues. Mechanisms of Perceiving Stimuli from General
 Sensory organs can be classified as: Sensory Receptors
o Somatic: Located in the skin, body
surfaces, and skeletal muscles.  Theory of specific nerve energies: Each
o Visceral: Located in the viscera. sensory receptor is exclusively associated with a
o Exteroceptors: Receive sensations specific sense.
from the environment.  Pattern theory of sensation: Small complexes
o Interoceptors: Respond to sensations of nerve endings are associated with a particular
from organs. location, allowing for qualitative di erences in
o Proprioceptors: Located in striated interpretation.
muscles, joints, and tendons.
o General sensory organs: Widely Special Sensory Organs
distributed throughout the body,
responsible for touch, temperature, and  Chemoreceptors are sensitive to chemical
proprioception. stimuli and can be categorized by location (e.g.,
o Special sensory organs: Localized and nasal passages, mouth).
specialized. o Pheromones: Chemical messages
released into the environment that
General Sensory Organs influence the behavior or physiology of
other individuals of the same species.
 They can be categorized as: o Nasal Passages (Olfaction):
o Free nerve endings (free sensory  Olfactory epithelium:
receptors): Lack specialized Specialized patch of epithelium
associations, may branch extensively, within the nasal cavity that
primarily involved in pain sensations. collects chemicals from the
o Encapsulated nerve endings airstream.
(encapsulated sensory receptors):  Olfactory bulb: Receives input
Enclosed in a specialized structure (e.g., from olfactory sensory cells.
Meissner's corpuscle for touch,  Olfactory tract: Relays
Pacinian corpuscle for pressure). information to other brain
o Associated nerve endings (associated regions.
sensory receptors): Wrapped around  Phylogeny:
another organ (e.g., nerve endings at the  Evolved from olfactory
base of hair follicles). areas in early
vertebrates.
Proprioception
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 One-way flow across retina, provides

the nasal epithelium nutritional support.
improved olfaction.  Tapetum
 In tetrapods, the nose lucidum:
is associated with Reflective
breathing. material found
 Development of in some
conchae or turbinals nocturnal
increases surface area. vertebrates,
o Vomeronasal Area (Vomerolfaction): enhances
 Vomeronasal organ: vision in dim
Accessory olfactory system light.
found in some tetrapods.  Ciliary body: Controls
 Absent in most turtles, visual
crocodiles, birds, some bats, accommodation.
and aquatic mammals.  Iris: Pigmented
 Detects vomodors, particularly structure that regulates
those important for social and the amount of light
reproductive behavior. entering the eye.
o Mouth (Taste):  Retina (innermost layer):
 Taste buds: Chemoreceptors  Photoreceptor cells:
located in the mouth.  Rods:
 In amphibians, reptiles, and Sensitive to
birds, they are found in the low light levels
mouth and pharynx. but not colors.
 In mammals, they are primarily  Cones:
distributed throughout the Sensitive to
tongue. colors in bright
 Taste pore: Opening through light.
which taste bud cells project.  Other cell layers:
 Basal cells: Stem cells that Horizontal, bipolar,
replace other cell types. amacrine, and ganglion
 Sustentacular cells (dark cells.
cells): Supportive and  Fovea: Point of
secretory. sharpest focus,
 Gustatory cells (light cells): composed entirely of
Primary chemoreceptive cells. cones.
o Phylogeny:
Radiation Receptors  Accommodation:
 Lampreys:
 Radiation receptors gather information from Accomplished by
electromagnetic radiation. deformation of the
 Photoreceptors are sensitive to light, with the eyeball.
 Bony and cartilaginous
eye being the most well-known example.
fishes: Depends on
o Structure of the Eye:
changes in lens
 Sclera: Outer layer, "white of
position.
the eye," provides structural
 Amphibians: Retractor
support.
lentis muscle pulls the
 Cornea: Transparent
lens forward.
front part of the sclera.
 Amniotes (except
 Scleral ossicles:
snakes): Lens changes
Small plates of bone
shape.
found in birds, reptiles,
 Water vs. Air Vision:
and fishes, help
 Fish lenses refract
maintain the shape of
most light due to the
the sclera.
 Uvea (middle layer): similar refractive
 Choroid: Vascular indices of water and
layer adjacent to the the cornea.
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 Terrestrial vertebrates o Not related to hair, named for the

(except snakes): "hairlike" processes at their apical
Focusing depends on surfaces.
changes in lens shape. o Hair bundle: A tuft of stereocilia with a
o Photoreception: kinocilium.
 Scotopic vision: Dim light o Act as transducers, converting
vision, relies on rod cells. mechanical stimuli into electrical
 Photopic vision: Color vision in signals.
bright light, relies on cone cells.  Neuromast organ: A small collection of hair
 Tetrachromatic color vision cells, supporting cells, and sensory nerve fibers.
(four-color): Found in many o Cupula: A gelatinous cap that
fishes, turtles, lizards, and accentuates the mechanical
birds. stimulation of hair cells.
 Trichromatic color vision  Lateral Line System:
(three-color): Found in some o Found in most fishes and aquatic
amphibians and most amphibians.
mammals (including humans). o Consists of lateral line canals containing
 Dichromatic color vision (two- neuromast organs.
color): Found in most o Detects water currents.
mammals other than primates.  Vestibular Apparatus (Membranous
o Depth Perception: Labyrinth):
 Monocular vision: Eyes o Balancing organ.
positioned laterally, visual fields o Contains:
do not overlap.  Semicircular canals: Detect
 Binocular vision: Eyes angular acceleration.
positioned more anteriorly,  Cristae: Expanded
visual fields overlap. neuromast organs
 The brain compares the parallax within the ampullae of
of the two images to create the semicircular
depth perception. canals.
 Pineal Complex:  Sacculus and utriculus:
o Structure: Detect linear acceleration and
 Epithalamus may produce up to changes in orientation.
four structures: paraphysis,  Maculae: Modified
dorsal sac, parietal organ, and neuromast organs with
epiphysis cerebri (epiphysis). otoconia (calcium
 Parietal organ: Sometimes carbonate
called a parapineal organ or concretions).
parietal eye.  Lagena: Involved in hearing,
o Phylogeny: lengthens in terrestrial
 Found in various forms in vertebrates and coils into the
di erent vertebrate groups. cochlea in mammals.
 Photoreceptive in anamniotes  Auditory System:
(lampreys, fishes, and o Organ of Corti: Sensory receptor of
amphibians). sound, located within the lagena or
 Endocrine in amniotes cochlea.
(reptiles, birds, and mammals). o External Ear:
 Infrared Receptors (Thermoreceptors):  Absent in fishes and
o Sensitive to infrared radiation. amphibians.
o Found in some snakes and vampire bats.  Present in reptiles, birds, and
o Labial pits: Found in boa constrictors mammals.
and pythons.  External auditory meatus:
o Facial pits (loreal pits): Found in pit Short tube that opens to the
vipers. surface.
 Pinna: External cartilaginous
Mechanoreceptors flap, present in most mammals.
o Middle Ear:
 Hair cells: Sensory cells responsive to  Tympanum (eardrum): Thin
mechanical forces. membrane that vibrates in
response to sound waves.
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 Middle ear cavity (meatus):  Tympanum is flush with

Air-filled space that houses the the skin surface in
middle ear ossicles. frogs.
 Middle ear ossicles: Tiny  Two routes of sound
bones that transmit vibrations transmission in
from the tympanum to the inner salamanders:
ear. squamosal-columella
 Stapes (columella): and pectoral girdle-
Derivative of the fish operculum.
hyomandibula.  Reptiles:
 Incus and malleus:  Snakes lack a
Present in mammals, tympanum and middle
derivatives of the ear cavity.
quadrate and articular  Inner ear is responsive
bones, respectively. to seismic and airborne
 Eustachian tube: Connects the sounds.
middle ear cavity to the  Birds:
pharynx.  Lengthened lagena
o Inner Ear: compared to reptiles.
 Includes the vestibular  Hair bundles are
apparatus and surrounding embedded in the
perilymphatic spaces. tectorial membrane.
 Cochlea: Coiled structure in  Mammals:
mammals, houses the organ of  Pinna is likely a therian
Corti. invention.
 Scala vestibuli and scala  Three middle ear
tympani: Two perilymphatic bones: stapes, incus,
channels that run along the and malleus.
cochlea.  Cochlea is coiled.
 Scala media (cochlear duct):  Specialized hair cells
Canal between the scala along the organ of Corti
vestibuli and scala tympani, allow for tone
contains the organ of Corti. discrimination.
 Basilar membrane: Separates  Evolution of Hearing:
the scala tympani from the  Tympanic ear evolved
scala media. independently at least
 Tectorial membrane: Firm five times in tetrapods.
plate in which hair bundles of  Transition from
the organ of Corti are pelycosaur to mammal
embedded. within synapsids
 Reissner's membrane: involved changes in the
Located between the scala jaw and ear bones.
vestibuli and scala media.
o Phylogeny: Electroreceptors
 Fishes:
 Inner ear receives  Structure and Phylogeny:
seismic and airborne o Found in most fishes and monotremes,
sounds. but not other tetrapods.
 Swim bladder or o Modified neuromast organs located in
Weberian ossicles help pits within the skin.
transmit sound o Ampullary receptors: Detect weak
vibrations to the inner electrical fields in the environment.
ear. o Tuberous receptors: Detect electric
 Amphibians: discharges from the fish's own electric
 Two auditory organ.
receptors: papilla o Appeared early in fish evolution.
amphibiorum and  Form and Function:
papilla basilaris. o Electric organ: Specialized blocks of
muscle that generate electrical fields.
o Used for:
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 Navigation in murky waters or at

night.
 Prey detection.
 Intraspecific communication.
o Electroreceptors in sharks (ampullae of
Lorenzini) can detect electrical fields
from prey and temperature gradients.

Additional Special Sensory Organs

 Magnetoreception:
o Sea turtles and birds may use the Earth's
magnetic field for navigation.

Overview

 Vertebrate sensory organs exhibit diversity while

adhering to a fundamental organizational plan.
 Evolutionary trends reflect adaptations to
di erent environments and lifestyles.
 Sensory organs gather information from the
environment and transmit it to the CNS for
processing and interpretation.
 General sensory organs are widely distributed
and responsible for basic senses like touch and
temperature.
 Special sensory organs are specialized for
specific stimuli like chemicals, radiation,
mechanical forces, and electrical fields.