LESSON 1

The Cell

Dr Alaa Badr
02/01223306656
 THE CELL
Virchow – Modern Cell Theory:
 All living things are composed of cells
 All cells arise from preexisting cells
 Cells are the basic unit of all organisms
Most plant and animal cells have diameters between 10-100 micrometers. Many,
thought, like red blood cells, are very small with a diameter of 8 micrometer.
 Cells are divided into two varieties: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
No membrane bound organelles Contain distinct organelles surrounded by
such as nucleus membranes such as nucleus and
mitochondria
Contains a single circular Chromosomes are linear, human body cells
chromosome contain 46 chromosomes in each nucleus
Ribosomes are small Ribosomes are large
Respiration can either be Respiration is mostly aerobic
aerobic or anaerobic
Cytoskeletal elements are Cytoskeletal elements are present
absent
Most are unicellular Some ,like euglena and paramecium, are
single celled
Many are multicellular with specialized cell
types as blood
Very small: 1-10 um Larger: 10-100 um
Most have tough external cell Most (except plant cell and Protista) are
wall surrounded by cell membrane only
Include: Include:
Archea, Bacteria Animals, plants, fungi, Protista
Important note:
ϖ RBCs and sieve tube membrane cells are considered Eukaryotic cell although they
don’t contain nucleus because it used to have nucleus in one of its life cycle.
ϖ Cell is basically made up of protoplasm that is surrounded by cell wall or cell
membrane or both.
ϖ Protoplasm: it’s the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
 Cell Oragelles
Classification

Non
Membrane
Membrane
Bound
Bound
1. Ribosome (in ALL cells)
2. Chromosome (in ALL
With Single OTHERS
cells)
3. Centrosome (only in
Membrane
ANIMAL cell)
4. Cytoskeleton (only in
EUKARYOTES) With Double
5. Nucleolus (only in Membrane
EUKARYOTES) 1. Nucleus (only in EUKARYOTES)
2. Mitochondria (only in
EUKARYOTES)
3. Plastid (only in PLANT & ALGAE)

 Organelles found in ALL types of cells:

1. Ribosomes
2. Chromosomes
3. Cell membrane

 Double membrane organelles share in common:

1. They Contain their own DNA
2. They Contain Ribosomes
1. Nucleus:
ϖ The nucleus is composed of:
1. Nuclear envelope or membrane: it has tiny pores through whhich the substances
pass such as RNA out of the nucleus and into cytoplasm.
2. Nucleoplasm: it is gelationous fluid inside the nucleus.
3. Nucleuolus:
 Its prominent region inside the nucleus of a cell that is not dividing.
 Components of ribosomes are synthesized here.
 Nucleoli are not membrane bound structure but are tangles of chromatin and
unfinished bits of ribosomes.
 One or two nucleoli are visible in nondividing cell.
 Nucleolus produces 2R  Ribosomes, RNA.
4. Chromosomes made of DNA that is wrapped with special proteins called histones
into a chromatin network. Chromosomes contain genes (bits of DNA that code for
polypeptides).

2. Ribosome:
ϖ This is site of protein synthesis.
ϖ Ribosomes are particles made of ribosomal RNA and protein.
ϖ They are found :
1. Floating freely in the cytoplasm (least number)
2. Attached to the endoplasmic reticulum (largest number)
3. Inside the mitochondria
4. Inside the chloroplast
ϖ Ribosomes are the smallest organelles in the cell, and could only be seen by electron
microscope (E.M). They're formed of 2 subunits; one large while other is small
ϖ Ribosomes are formed chemically from two substances: ribosomal RNA, protein
histone
3. Endoplasmic Reticulum:
 The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a system of membrane channels that transverse the
cytoplasm.
 There are two types:
ϖ Rough ER:
 It's studded with ribosomes. Therefore its site of protein synthesis as well as
transport throughout the cytoplasm.
 Site of abundance: cells lining the stomach (to produce enzymes which is
made up of protein), cells in the endocrine gland( to produce hormones made
up of proteins)
ϖ Smooth ER:
 It has many functions:
1.Synthesize steroid hormones and other lipids
2.Connects Rough ER to the Golgi apparatus
3.Detoxifies the cell
4.Carbohydrate (glycogen) metabolism
 Site of abundance: hepatic cells.
4. Golgi Apparatus: "shipping department of the cell"
 It lines near the nucleus and consists of flattened sacs of membranes stacked next to
each other and surrounded by vesicles. It increases in number in glandular cells.
 It's function:
1. Modify, store and package substance produced in the rough ER
2. Secretes these substances to other parts of the cell and to the cell surface for export
to other cells
3. Production of lysosome, exocytic vesicles and exocytic vacuoles to
5. Lysosome:
 It’ a sac of hydrolytic (digestive) enzymes enclosed by single membrane. It’s the
principle site of intracellular digestion. By the help of lysosome, the cell continually
renews itself by breaking down and recycles cell parts.
 Function:
1. Contains Hydrolytic enzymes that digest
a. Foreign bodies as virus
b. Worn out organelles
c. Large food particles as fat
2. Programmed cell death called Apoptosis
 Apoptosis: it happens when?
a. During development of an embryo  cells or tissue no longer needed as
finger web
 Note:
ϖ Tay-Sachs disease is a rare disorder passed from parents to child. It's caused by the
absence of an enzyme that helps break down fatty substances. This enzyme is
found in lysosomes, organelles that break down large molecules for recycling by
the cell.
6. Vacuole:
 They are single membrane bound structures that store substances for cell.
 Freshwater Protista (amoeba and paramecium) have contractile vacuole that pump
excess water out cell
 Plant cell and human fat cell have central large vacuole
Note: it’s the largest organelle in plant cell
7. Vesicles:
They are tiny vacuoles. They are found in many places in cell as in axon of neuron.
 8. Mitochondria: "power house"
 It’s the site of cellular respiration (breaking of food molecule in order to release ATP)
 A cell has many mitochondria. A very active cell may have about 2500 of them. It
consists of outer double membrane and a folded inner membrane called cristae.
 The cristae work on increasing the inner membrane surface area on which chemical
reaction that produce energy takes place.
 Enzymes that are important for cellular respiration are found in cristae membrane.
 There's a direct relationship between the number of cristae and ATP produced

9. Cell Wall:
 It’s the one structure NOT found in animal cell.
 When a plant cell divides, a thin glue layer is formed between the two cells, which
becomes middle lamella and which keeps the two daughter cells attached.
 There are small channels across cell wall communicating cytoplasm between two
adjacent cells called "plasmodesmata"
Note:
ϖ Cell wall is found in:
1. Bacteria: formed of peptidoglycan.
2. Fungi: formed of chitin.
3. Plant and Algae: formed of cellulose.
 10. Plastids:
 They have double membrane and are found only in plant and algae.
 Types of plastids:
1. Chloroplasts: are green because they contain chlorophyll. They're sites of
photosynthesis. It contains its own nuclear material and can self-replicate.
The main pigments found in the chloroplast:
 Chlorophyll A  bluish green
 Chlorophyll B  yellowish green
 Xanthophyll  lemon yellow (fucoxanthine  brown)
 Carotene  orange yellow

Important Note:
ϖ Chlorophyll is located on the membrane of the thylakoid disc.
2. Leucoplasts are colorless and store starch. They're found in roots or in tubers as
potatoes.
3. Chromoplast store carotenoid pigments and are responsible for red-orange-
yellow coloring of carrots, tomato and many other plants.
11. Cytoskeleton:
 It's Complex network of protein filaments that extend throughout the cytoplasm and
give the cell its shape and enable it to move.
 It includes two types:
1. Microtubules: thick hollow tubes that make up cilia, flagella and spindle fibers
2. Microfilaments: are made up of protein actin and help support shape of cell.
They enable:
a. Animal cells to form cleavage furrow during cell division
b. Amoeba to move by sending out pseudopods
c. Skeletal muscles to contract by sliding along myosin filaments
12. Centrioles and Centrosomes:
 They lie outside the nuclear membrane and organize the spindle fibers required for
cell division. Only animal cells have centrioles and centrosomes.
 Two centrioles, at right angle to each other, make up one centrosome
 Centriole and spindle fibers have same structures
 They consist of 9 triplets of microtubules

13. Cilia and Flagella:

 They have the same internal structure; both are made of microtubules
 The only structural difference is the length; cilia are short while flagella are long.
 Both consist of 9 pairs of microtubules organized around 2 singlet microtubules

14. Cytoplasm and Cytosol:

 The entire region between nucleus and plasma membrane is called cytoplasm.
Cytosol refers to semiliquid portion of the cytoplasm.
 Cyclosis: carrying organelles, which are suspended in cytosol, around the cell as the
cytoplasm cycles.
15. Cell or Plasma Membrane:
 Seen by electron microscope
 It’s a selectively permeable membrane that controls what enter and leaves the cell.
 It consists of phospholipid bilayer with protein dispersed throughout.
 Molecules of cholesterol are embedded within the membrane, making it less fluid
and more stable.
 The external surface of the plasma membrane has carbohydrate chains attached to it
that are important for cell to cell recognition
Note:
ϖ Plasma membrane consists of:
1. Phospholipid bilayer
2. Carbohydrate chains
3. Integral proteins
4. Cholesterol (in animals)
ϖ Functions of protein within living membrane as cell membrane:
1. Acting as receptors
2. Acting as enzymes
3. Acting as recognition markers for immune cell
4. Helps in cellular transport
Bacterial Cell Structure:
 Viral Cell Structure:
ϖ A virus consists of a nucleic acid core and outer protein coating called capsid.

 What is the similarity between nuclear envelope and viral capsid?

 They both enclose the genetic material of the cell

Note:
ϖ Cell tissue organ system multi-system organism (as human)
ϖ Tissue: group of similar cells regarding structure and function
ϖ Organ: group of different tissue acting together (as liver)
ϖ System: group of different organs acting together
ϖ There are four types of animal tissues:
1. Epithelial cells:
 Covers body surface and lines body cavities.
 It is formed of densely packed cells with tight gap junction
 There 2 main types of epithelial cells:
a) Simple epithelia tissue  simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple
columnar.
b) Compound (striated) epithelia tissue
2. Connective tissue:
 Most abundant type.
 It's loosely packed with inter cellular space called matrix.
 It contains cells as glial cells and fibers made of protein.
 Example: bone, fat layer
3. Muscular tissue: have three subtypes: smooth, skeletal, and cardiac
4. Neuron
 Types of microscopes:

 The main difference between Scanning Electron Microscope and Transmission Electron
Microscope is that SEM creates an image by detecting reflected or knocked-
off electrons, while TEM uses transmitted electrons (electrons that are passing through
the sample) to create an image. So, TEM is the one used to study the internal structure
of cell
Note:
 The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria are physically connected to form
dedicated structural domains known as mitochondria-associated ER membranes
(MAMs), which participate in fundamental biological processes, including lipid and
calcium (Ca2+) homeostasis, mitochondrial dynamics and other related cellular
behaviors such as autophagy, ER stress, inflammation and apoptosis

.
Notes:
Homework: