Jimma University

College of Natural Sciences

Lecture Notes : Electronics I (Phys 2062)

Chapter Two: The physics of semiconductors

April 2020
Outline of the Chapter
 Formation of energy bands
 Metals, insulators and semiconductors
 Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors
 P type and N type extrinsic semiconductors
 Carrier mobility, drift velocity and drift current density
 The PN junction
 V-I characteristics of a PN junction diode
 Ideal diode equation
 PN junction breakdowns
 Diode circuit analysis
 Diode as a rectifier
 Half wave and Full wave rectifier
 How effectively a rectifier converts AC in to DC
 Types of diodes
Introduction: Semiconductor
 Materials that permit flow of electrons are
called conductors (e.g., gold, silver, copper,
etc.).
 Materials that block flow of electrons are
called insulators (e.g., rubber, glass, Teflon,
mica, etc.).
 Materials whose conductivity falls between
those of conductors and insulators are called
 semiconductors. Semiconductors are “part-
time” conductors whose conductivity can be
controlled.
 Silicon is the most common material used to
build semiconductor devices
 Atoms in a pure silicon wafer contains four
electrons in outer orbit (called valence
electrons).
 Germanium is another semiconductor
material with four valence electrons.
 Introduction: Semiconductors
 In the crystalline lattice structure of Si, the valence electrons of every Si atom are
locked up in covalent bonds with the valence electrons of four neighboring Si
atoms.
 In pure form, Si wafer does not contain any free charge carriers.
 An applied voltage across pure Si wafer does not yield electron flow
through the wafer.
 A pure Si wafer is said to act as an insulator.
 In order to make useful semiconductor devices, materials such as phosphorus (P)
and boron (B) are added to Si to change Si’s conductivity.
 N-Type Silicon
 Pentavalent impurities such as phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth have 5
valence electrons.
 When phosphorus impurity is added to Si, every phosphorus atom’s four valence
electrons are locked up in covalent bond with valence electrons of four
neighboring
Si atoms.
 However, the 5th valence electron of phosphorus atom does not find a binding
electron and thus remains free to float.
 When a voltage is applied across the silicon-phosphorus mixture, free electrons
migrate toward the positive voltage end.
 When phosphorus is added to Si to yield the above effect, we say that Si is doped
with phosphorus. The resulting mixture is called N-type silicon (N: negative charge
carrier silicon).
 The pentavalent impurities are referred to as donor impurities.
Semiconductor
 P-Type Silicon
 Trivalent impurities e.g., boron, aluminum, indium, and gallium have 3 valence
electrons.
 When boron is added to Si, every boron atom’s three valence electrons are locked
up in covalent bond with valence electrons of three neighboring Si atoms.
 However, a vacant spot “hole” is created within the covalent bond between one
boron atom and a neighboring Si atom. The holes are considered to be positive
charge carriers.
 When a voltage is applied across the silicon-boron mixture, a hole moves toward
the negative voltage end while a neighboring electron fills in its place.
 When boron is added to Si to yield the above effect, we say that Si is doped with
boron. The resulting mixture is called P-type silicon (P: positive charge carrier
silicon).
 The trivalent impurities are referred to as acceptor impurities.
Extrinsic semiconductor
 Diode
 A diode is a 2 lead semiconductor that acts as a one way gate to electron flow.
 Diode allows current to pass in only one direction.
 A pn-junction diode is formed by joining together n-type and p-type silicon.
 In practice, as the n-type Si crystal is being grown, the process is abruptly altered
to grow p-type Si crystal. Finally, a glass or plastic coating is placed around the
joined crystal.
 The p-side is called anode and the n-side is called cathode.
 When the anode and cathode of a pn-junction diode are connected to external
voltage such that the potential at anode is higher than the potential at cathode,
the diode is said to be forward biased.
 In a forward-biased diode current is allowed to flow through the device.
 When potential at anode is smaller than the potential at cathode, the diode is said
to be reverse biased. In a reverse-biased diode current is blocked.
 Diode: How it Works
 A diode’s one-way gate
feature does not work all
the time.
 Typically for silicon diodes,
an applied voltage of 0.6V
or greater is needed,
otherwise, the diode will
not conduct.
 This feature is useful in
forming a voltage-sensitive
switch.
 I-V characteristics for
silicon and germanium
diodes is shown below
 Diode: How it doesn’t Works
 When a diode is connected to
a battery as shown, holes in
the inside are forced to the
left while electrons in the p-
side are forced to the right.
 This results in an empty zone
around the pn- junction that is
free of charge carries creating
a depletion region.
 This depletion region acts as
an insulator preventing
current from flowing through
the diode.
 When a diode is arranged in
this way, it is said to be
reverse biased.
 Diode current equations

DIODE CURRENT EQUATION The diode current equation relating the voltage V and current I
is given by
 Diode Applications —Half Wave Rectifier
 Diode converts ac input voltage to a pulsed dc output voltage.
 Whenever the ac input becomes negative at diode’s anode, the
diode blocks current flow.
 Output voltage become zero.
 Diode introduces a 0.6V drop so o/p peak is 0.6V smaller than the i/p
peak.
 The output frequency is same as the input frequency.
 Diode Applications —Full wave rectifier
 A full-wave rectifier does not block negative swings in the input
voltage, rather it transforms them into positive swings at the output
 To gain an understanding of device operation, follow current flow
through pairs of diodes in the bridge circuit.
 It is easily seen that one pair (D3-Rout-D2) allows current flow during
the positive half cycle of 𝑉𝑖𝑛 while the other pair (D4-Rout-D1) allows
current flow during the negative half cycle of 𝑉𝑖𝑛 .
 Output voltage peak is 1.2V below the input voltage peak.
 The output frequency is twice the input frequency.
 Zener Diode
 A specially designed silicon diode which is optimized to operate in the
breakdown region is known as as zener diode
 Characteristics of Zener Diode
(i) Its characteristics are similar to an ordinary diode with the exception that it has a
sharp (or distinct) breakdown voltage called zener voltage 𝑉𝑍 .
(ii) It can be operated in any of the three region i.e. forward, eakage or breakdown.
But usually it is operated in the breakdown region as shown in fig. below
(iii) The voltage is almost constant (vz) over the operating region.
(iv) Usually, the value of vz at particular test current Izr is specified in the data sheet.
(v) During operation it will not burn as long as the external circuit limits the current
flowing
through it below the burn out value i.e 𝐼𝑍 (the maximum rated zener current).

 Application
(i) Meter Protection
(ii) Voltage Regulator
(iii) Wave Shaping Circuit
 Photo Diode
 When a diode is reverse biased a minute current flows in the diode due to
minority carriers. These carriers exist because of thermal energy which
dislodge the valence electrons from their orbits producing free electrons and
holes in the process.
 When light energy falls on a pn junction, it also imparts energy to dislodge
valence electron. In other words the amount of light striking on the junction
can control the reverse current in a diode.
 A diode that is optimised for its sensitivity to light is known as photo diode
 Light Emitting Diode
 When a diode is forward biased the potential barrier is lowered.
 The conduction band free electrons from n- region cross the barrier and
enter the p-region, as these electrons enter the p- region they fall into the
holes lying in the valence band. Hence they fall from a higher energy level to
a lower energy level in the process they radiate energy.
 The LED are different. These are made of gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
and gallium phosphide (GaP). In LED the energy is radiated in the form of
light and hence they glow.