Future Foods 6 (2022) 100157

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Future Foods
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fufo

Microalgae-based products: Food and public health

Ana Paula Ferreira de Oliveira∗, Adriana Pavesi Arisseto Bragotto
Department of Food Science and Nutrition, School of Food Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Rua Monteiro Lobato, 80, CEP 13083-862, Campinas, SP,
Brazil

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: Microalgae biomass can offer several compounds beneficial to human nutrition, including lipids, proteins, min-
Microalgae erals and pigments. In this sense, microalgae-based foods are already evident as opportunities for food research
Food supplements and development. Thus, the consumption of foods containing declared compounds from microalgae (e.g., omega
Food toxicology
3/proteins) can be sold in the form of supplements and other innovative products, including chocolates and bev-
Spirulina
erages. Furthermore, the production of microalgae brings advantages to global food security and reduces the
Chlorella
Contaminants impact considering environmental problems related to the expansion of food production in agricultural land. In
this sense, the quality and safety of derivatives depend on good cultivation, harvesting and processing practices
since unwanted organic and inorganic compounds may be present in microalgae biomass due to environmental
contamination or processing steps. Moreover, this may pose a risk to human health, and it is essential for consumer
protection that microalgae biomass be monitored for levels of residues and contaminants. The optimization of
processes and knowledge of cultivation steps and their reagents are crucial for quality control. These aspects are
discussed throughout this review, focusing on recent reports on potential microalgae-based food contaminants.

1. Introduction In 2018, the FAO – Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations – registered 87.0 tons of microalgae cultivation in 11 coun-
Microalgae cultivation – including eukaryotic organisms and pho- tries, with 86.6 tons only from China. The available data do not in-
tosynthetic cyanobacteria – provides high-value biomass, while the ex- clude information from other producers, such as Australia, the Czech
isting diversity of microalgae species allows the production of different Republic, France, Iceland, India, Israel, Italy, Japan, Malaysia, Myan-
types of products. Among these derivatives, pigments, antioxidants, and mar, and the United States of America (FAO, 2020). In a recent study,
polyunsaturated fatty acids are biosynthesized, with an emphasis on oil the European Union presented 23 countries mapped with 447 algae
and biofuel production (Matos, 2019; Benetti et al., 2018). Hence, mi- and Spirulina producers. The main point regions of microalgae produc-
croalgae are biomass with applications in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, ers were Germany, Spain, and Italy (Araújo et al., 2021). Furthermore,
and food industries (Michalak et al., 2020; Carrasco-Reinado et al., Brazilian microalgae production is booming and includes the participa-
2019; Levine and Fleurence, 2018) as micro-factories in the form of cell tion of energy companies, start-ups, and pilot projects (Valenti et al.,
or cell-factories/biofactories (Eltanahy and Torky, 2021; Conde et al., 2021). Nevertheless, microalgae production needs to be perfected be-
2021). cause it represents a remarkable source of scientific, technological,
These intriguing features of microalgae stem from their ability to and, therefore, social opportunities. Brazil possesses a natural ten-
efficiently use solar energy, atmospheric CO2, and available nutrients. dency to expand microalgae cultivation due to its representative cost
Microalgae comprise a significant primary production on Earth, mainly and suitable climate conditions, along with the enormous availabil-
found in marine or freshwater environments, with some species also ity of fresh and saltwater sources (Andrade et al., 2020; Brasil et al.,
distributed in the soil (Schenk, 2021). The secondary metabolites of mi- 2017).
croalgae might also have benefits that can result in the enhancement of Microalgae derivatives can be commercialized as food supplements
biomass production. In this sense, microalgae cultivation improvement (i.e., powder and oil), ingredients, or additives (Uribe-Wandurraga et al.,
relies on the application of specific changes in growing conditions that 2021). Advances in microalgae biomass derivatization figure the novel
force the overgeneration of secondary metabolites. In genetic engineer- food and ingredients used for beverages, bread, and dough formulations
ing, the stimulated production of secondary metabolites is achieved by (Niccolai et al., 2020; Ververis et al., 2020). Microalgae are a promis-
strain selection techniques (Laamanen et al., 2021; Grossmann et al., ing source of bioaccessible proteins (Canelli et al., 2020). Chlorella
2020). presents a high carbohydrate content; similarly, Nannochloropsis oculata

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: anap.foli@gmail.com (A.P. Ferreira de Oliveira).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fufo.2022.100157
Received 21 December 2021; Received in revised form 30 April 2022; Accepted 12 June 2022
2666-8335/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
A.P. Ferreira de Oliveira and A.P.A. Bragotto Future Foods 6 (2022) 100157

and Phaeodactylum tricornutum function as impressive omega 3 factories The advantage of applying native strains is the guarantee of dominance
(Niccolai et al., 2019). and high adaptability to local environmental and climatic conditions,
However, despite all the valuable derivatives that can be obtained avoiding the invasion of exotic species (Gonzalez et al., 2020).
from the cultivation of microalgae, the literature presents a gap con-
cerning the incidence of undesirable chemical substances in microalgae 3. Microalgae as future
products and supplements (EFSA, 2020; GOED, 2018). These include, for
instance, natural toxins, environmental and processing contaminants, Sustainability is under pressure by the increasing demand for water,
which are related to the intrinsic biomass characteristics, components food, and energy. At the same time, ecosystems and society are threat-
present during microalgae cultivation/growth stages, and processing ened by climate change. Thus, as natural resources are finite, there is
conditions (Markou et al., 2021; Di Caprio, 2020). Herein, we intend a need for planning their efficient use, especially for biodiversity con-
to deliver a full perspective on the current trends of microalgae pro- servation (Verdugo et al., 2021; FAO, 2020; Brasil, 2017). Food pro-
duction in the context of food systems, prospecting what it is going to duction is highly dependent on soil resources, so its degradation repre-
be of microalgae research in terms of human diet and a sustainable fu- sents one of the main issues of concern for the future (Scherer et al.,
ture, new products, and quality control. Thus, the main body of this 2020): in the 20th century, the development of the microalgae sector
review article is composed of five sections: (i) microalgae; (ii) future; was accelerated by employing this biomass in the human diet. However,
(iii) biomass; (iv) food; and (v) chemical hazards. the obstacles encountered in making microalgae cultivation viable on a
large scale and traditional agricultural growth put this alternative aside
2. Microalgae (Klamczynska and Mooney, 2017). Nevertheless, the moment for tradi-
tional agriculture to be shifted toward the current agro-food systems and
Algae are unicellular or multicellular organisms of different sizes for sustainable production options has already come. This is because cli-
and shapes, comprising groups of microalgae (microscopic) and mate change will increase 50% to 90% by 2050 due to the growth of the
macroalgae/seaweeds (macroscopic). Moreover, microalgae can orga- world population (Vieira de Mendonça et al., 2021; Springmann et al.,
nize themselves into macroscopically visible colonies and filaments 2018). Hence, the proper design of a product needs to account for its en-
(Fleurence, 2021; Konur, 2020). The macroalgae species Macrocystis vironmental impact, which considers three main indicators: greenhouse
pyrifera, also known as giant kelp, reaches 60 m in length (Lewin and gas emissions (GHG/CO2 ), water consumption, and the efficient use of
Andersen, 2021), while microalgae are a smaller heterogeneous group, land (Singh and Dhar, 2019; Klamczynska and Mooney, 2017).
with organisms of sizes that range from 1 μm to 1 mm, such as Chlorella, In this sense, microalgae production evolved to a level that surpassed
which lives in freshwater or the soil and has spherical cells with a di- vegetal biomass production in terms of growth rate and low water con-
ameter ranging from 2 μm to 10 μm (Klamczynska and Mooney, 2017). sumption, the absence of farmable lands, carbon emissions (0%), and
Most microalgae species are autotrophic, with some examples of potential for massive production of derivatives (Lafarga et al., 2021a;
mixotrophic and heterotrophic organisms. Moreover, microalgae do not Geada et al., 2021). In aquaculture, the production of fish oil is intended
have the same cell differentiation and specialization mechanism seen in to supply the omega 3 food supplements market. However, the fish oil
terrestrial plants (Patel et al., 2021; Klamczynska and Mooney, 2017). production chain depends on fossil fuels and aquatic ecosystems that
In the early 1830s, color was the first way to classify types of microal- are depleted by high demand (Mason and Sherratt, 2017; Merkle et al.,
gae – green, brown, and red (Lewin and Andersen, 2021). However, 2017). Microalgae oil production is quite sustainable (Laamanen et al.,
recent phycology studies have focused on analyzing the structure and 2021) and has a low environmental impact in comparison to canola and
phylogeny of microalgae cells using molecular techniques to under- linseed oil (Bartek et al., 2021).
stand their relationship to various lineages of algae and other organisms Considering the methods and environmental impacts on microal-
(Sehgal et al., 2019). gae production, a comparative study between two cultivation methods
Algae do not share a common ancestor and are considered a poly- (closed photobioreactors and open raceway ponds) was performed by
phyletic group whose own term algae does not have taxonomic value. Béchet et al. The hydric foot of closed photobioreactors is less than that
Nevertheless, algae present different characteristics concerning their of open ponds due to the restriction of water evaporation. It should be
morphology and physiology. Typically, microalgae can be found as noted that the location, design, and operation of microalgae production
prokaryotes and eukaryotes (Fig. 1) and are classified into secondary influence the impacts generated and should also be considered in the
groups according to pigments (Eltanahy and Torky, 2021; Figueiroa- studies (Béchet et al., 2017). In addition, closed photobioreactor sys-
Torres et al., 2021; Fleurence, 2021). The colors of microalgae are a tems include biotechnological approaches that promote their improve-
consequence of pigments produced in the chloroplast, such as chloro- ment and commercialization: flat screen, tubular, and bubble columns
phylls and phycobiliproteins (Lewin and Andersen, 2021). Prokary- in large-scale applications (Yun et al., 2021; Peter et al., 2021).
otic cell microalgae are represented by the phylum cyanobacteria, and One of the benefits of microalgae mixotrophic cultivation is the
in the case of eukaryotic species, there are mainly green microalgae greater production of biomass. In this sense, Chlorella sp. freshwa-
(Chlorophyta), red microalgae (Rhodophyta), and diatom (Bacillario- ter, Chlorella sp. marine, and Nannochloropsis sp. obtained growth
phyta) groups (FAO, 2021; Konur, 2020; Levasseur et al., 2020). under mixotrophic conditions supplemented with glucose increased
Microalgae are old living beings from this planet and inhabit al- the biomass concentration compared to photoautotrophic growth
most all Earth’s ecosystems, being present even in extreme and adverse (Zanette et al., 2019). Even though, the developed scale-up of microal-
conditions of temperature, radiation, pressure, salinity, pH, and/or oxy- gae is possible with the combination of two-stage production, using mi-
gen. The survival skills of microalgae in extreme environments can pro- croalgae heterotrophic growth in fermenters as the first step, resulting
vide a vast field of scientific research (FAO, 2021; Fleurence, 2021; in biomass exclusively seeding larger-scale systems (photobioreactors
Malavasi et al., 2020). One way to make rational use of microalgae is or open raceway ponds). As a result, one can achieve high-quality and
by bioprospecting new species to study unique lineages of these mi- reproducible heterotrophic inoculum, which reduces the operating time
croorganisms, which allows the means to properly choose microalgae and the used area of photobioreactors in crop expansion (Jin et al., 2019;
for cultivation (Martínez-Francés and Escudero-Oñate, 2018). In Brazil, Barros et al., 2019).
isolation and characterization of native microalgae in the state of Paraná Furthermore, heterotrophic cultures of Chlorella offer an option to
identified a collection of 30 local species. The Chlorophyceae class was produce selenium-enriched biomass with a higher content of organically
found: NPP01 (Coccomyxa sp.) and BPF03 (Chlorella sp.) strains. Both bound selenium. The accumulation of bioavailable amino acids contain-
strains have a fast growth stage at high levels of protein; BPF03 also ing selenium was studied for photo- and heterotrophic microalgae cul-
presented high levels of carotenoids and lipids under stress conditions. tures. Selenium is an essential micronutrient (adults need 40 μg day−1 )

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A.P. Ferreira de Oliveira and A.P.A. Bragotto Future Foods 6 (2022) 100157

Fig. 1. Microorganisms represented by phylum and cell structure: (A) Arthrospira platensis, (B) Chlorella vulgaris, (C) Porphyridium purpureum, and (D) Phaeodactylum
tricornutum. Images: Figueiroa-Torres et al., 2021.

Fig. 2. Microalgae production with a view to water treatment.

traditionally available in nuts, seafood, and others. However, 800 μg is quickly and the possible effluents do not need to display complex fea-
considered toxic, and it is necessary to evaluate the quality control in tures, microalgae biomass is produced at a reduced cost (Peter et al.,
microalgae biomass. Thus, the lab scale must allow large-scale develop- 2021; Patel et al., 2021; Pavithra et al., 2020; Zerrouki et al., 2019;
ment and execution (Mylenko et al., 2020; Vu et al., 2019), not limit- Brasil et al., 2017).
ing biomass application, whether pharmaceutical, food, or as a fertilizer Microalgae production is mainly concentrated in East and Southeast
product. Nevertheless, despite lab assays being promising, the case study Asia. In East Asia, seaweed and microalgae are widely consumed as food.
may neglect the presence of other contaminants that can represent an Generally, in other regions of the world, microalgae are in the diet of
issue when scaling up the desired product (Peter et al., 2021). traditional communities or consumed as a food and supplement for their
Microalgae cultivation is even possible in residual waters collected nutritional value, low environmental impact, and/or for the sake of ani-
from treatment plants, industries, or pluvial waters (Fig. 2). Approxi- mal life. Additionally, as a general trend, consumers look for nonanimal
mately 200 million tonnes of palm oil mill effluent (POME) is produced alternatives to reach future global needs for food (Boukid and Castel-
per year, representing an environmental challenge in its agroproductive lari, 2021; Geada et al., 2021).
chain (Hariz et al., 2019). As an alternative to reduce the environmen- The environmental pressures generated through the food system can
tal risk of POME and the presence of inorganic species, Verdugo et al. be reduced with simultaneous measures that include dietary changes,
used microalgae (Chlamydomonas biconvexa Embrapa|LBA40) within an improved technologies, and the management of food and water waste
effluent (Verdugo et al., 2021). As microalgae have a relevant biolog- (Springmann et al., 2018). For instance, blockchain is a technology that
ical function on the shifting of feedstock present in the effluent, they promotes better control and management of the food chain. Blockchain
work as a pretreatment plant by using the same feedstock as a source and the food industry are driving technological change across the
of nutrition. In the case of biofuel production, because microalgae grow food system and include secure handling and storage of administrative

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A.P. Ferreira de Oliveira and A.P.A. Bragotto Future Foods 6 (2022) 100157

Fig. 3. Microalgae cultivation conditions and production stage workflow, along with pictorial representations of the cultivation methods of (A) open raceway pond,
(B) tubular photobioreactor, and (C) heterotrophic fermenter.

records and authentication to strengthen patent systems, bringing trans- Pumas, 2021; Grossmann et al., 2020; Benedetti et al., 2018). The main
parency throughout the chain, reducing food fraud, and improving food cultivation methods are open raceway ponds (ORP) – ponds with 0.2 m
security (Valoppi et al., 2021; Zarpelão et al., 2021). In the case of diets to 5 m depths equipped with a paddle agitation and mixer; tubular pho-
and behaviors, as consumers get to know the benefits of microalgae cul- tobioreactors (TPBR) – transparent glass or plastic tubes with a diameter
tivation, it increases its potential to become a natural choice for food. In of approximately 0.1 m; and heterotrophic fermenters (HTF) – closed
a recent study conducted in Spain, 3084 consumers considered microal- stirred bioreactors made of stainless steel, consisting of sensors, baffles,
gae cultivation to be ecologically correct and a good source of nutrients, harvest, inoculation, and gas supply valves (Fig. 3) (Grossmann et al.,
with a preference for the incorporation of microalgae in baked food as 2020; Benedetti et al., 2018).
bread (Lafarga et al., 2021b). Furthermore, as modern diets are unbal- Microalgae producers are all over the globe: in Asia, microalgae pro-
anced by the high content of saturated lipids, sodium, and refined sugar, duction is mainly conducted with the ORP method. In Europe, the pro-
in addition to animal-based diets, the food industry and consumers are duction, in general, is 71% based on TPBR, while for Spirulina, it is
encouraged to adopt alternative diets that contain microalgae as a start- performed in ORP systems (83%). The most cultivated species for com-
ing point (Carrasco-Reinado et al., 2019). mercial purposes are Chlorella, Spirulina, Dunaliella, Haematococcus, and
Schizochytrium sp. For example, Dunaliella has a strong biotechnological
4. Biomass appeal for 𝛽-carotene production, with good performance by ORP under
extreme conditions (Grossmann et al., 2020; Benedetti et al., 2018). Mi-
Microalgae production is divided mainly into cultivation and croalgae grow fast when cultivated in optimized conditions; however,
biomass growth, followed by harvesting and processing, with the trans- their large production still faces technical issues, especially in the case
formation of the matrix into a final product. The cultivation condi- of ORP. This is because microalgae require a constant supply of nutri-
tions are autotrophic, heterotrophic, or mixotrophic (Fig. 3). Microalgae ents and certain specific conditions, which are variables that are dif-
production features processes of upstream (cultivation and increase of ficult to keep on track in ORP systems. Besides, the challenges of this
biomass), midstream (harvest microalgae, biomass dry, rupture the cell cultivation model include the possibility of contamination and limited
walls and extraction), and downstream (extraction and purification of light penetration. Additionally, in general, ORP has attached to their
the product from biomass). Nevertheless, microalgae cultivation systems structures pond linings, pond covers, and/or paddlewheels that inter-
can be laid outdoors or indoors (Daneshvar et al., 2021; Jareonsin and fere with the cost of production, despite offering advantages in crop

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A.P. Ferreira de Oliveira and A.P.A. Bragotto Future Foods 6 (2022) 100157

protection and an adequate mixture of the medium. In contrast, TPBR In a biomass harvest study, the exchange of aluminum sulfate for chi-
provides controlled environments (Banerjee and Ramaswamy, 2017; tosan did not impact productivity in the production of microalgae to
Klamczynska and Mooney, 2017). obtain lipids (Chua et al., 2020).
Overall, heterotrophic microalgae production occurs by the applica- Technological and economical barriers to microalgae processing,
tion of an organic carbon source in the absence of light using combined particularly their harvesting, limit large-scale production. The develop-
respiratory and fermentative routes. In mixotrophic production, CO2 ment of mathematical models makes cultivation more robust, including
and organic carbon are simultaneously assimilated, and both respiratory models for local climate predictions (Banerjee and Ramaswamy, 2017).
and photosynthetic metabolism occurs (Yun et al., 2021; Verma et al., The choice of harvesting technique depends on the characteristics of
2020; Zanette et al., 2019; Yun et al., 2021). A superior fucoxanthin the microalgae and the target product. The steps of bulk removal and
productivity level from Nitzschia laevis species was achieved using a biomass concentration affect the economy of the process and the final
two-stage cultivation strategy based on heterotrophic and mixotrophic market since the methods involve high energy costs or the use of chemi-
conditions. The heterotrophic stage promotes an initial biomass that is cal products. When comparing methods, centrifugation remains the first
applied in the subsequent mixotrophic stage with mixed low light stim- choice, and flocculation techniques such as bioflocculants that avoid
ulation (Lu et al., 2018). The first stage, in heterotrophic conditions, the toxicity associated with traditional flocculants are very promising
allows greater control of contamination in the early steps of the produc- (Laamanen et al., 2021; Blockx et al., 2018).
tion process and climate-independent control. Additionally, the same The final product, after the processing and drying of the biomass, is
technique was applied in pilot-scale microalgae processing for lutein generally a green or orange powder. The main products of microalgae
production, with modulation of irradiation, temperature, and foam- are based on the usage of biomass powder in pills or pastilles; the powder
ing data. Low light levels and high nitrate concentrations favored high can serve as a food ingredient and allow for easy transport and long-term
lutein concentrations while increasing light intensity increased cell den- stability. The following methods are usually applied to dry microalgae
sity (McClure et al., 2019). In comparison to photoautotrophic growth, biomass: spray drying, drum drying, freeze-drying, solar drying, and
mixotrophic production benefits are reduced irradiance levels, lower convective drying (Neves et al., 2019). Moreover, Schizochytrium sp.
production costs, and greater productivity in biomass. However, only is cultivated for oil production under specific conditions of time, tem-
a small group of species can utilize organic carbon substrates, so con- perature, pH, and aeration. Schizochytrium sp. biomass is obtained by
tamination by bacteria and fungi can occur, along with the possibility enzymatic hydrolysis, and the oil is separated from the suspension by
of growth inhibition by excess organic substrates (Barros et al., 2019; centrifugation and then clarified by filtration to remove any solid par-
Zanette et al., 2019). ticles. The crude oil is finally refined after neutralization, clarification,
Glucose is the most studied monosaccharide in mixotrophic and deodorization under high temperatures – from 160 °C to 260 °C
metabolism (Zanette et al., 2019). Chlorella strains were evaluated for (EFSA, 2020).
biomass productivity of glucose under different production conditions: Microalgae cell wall body and over composition characteristics are
mixotrophic and heterotrophic conditions were optimally cultured when affected by the stage of growth. Therefore, microalgae cell wall disrup-
15–20 g L−1 of initial glucose was provided. Moreover, mixotrophic tion techniques can be used for developing product recovery. By assess-
conditions were found to be optimal for lipid and pigment produc- ing cell disruption technologies and response surface methodology, it is
tion (Yun et al., 2021). In addition, there are reports using other sugar possible, for instance, to optimize lipid extraction conditions and opera-
substrates, such as lactose, by Dunaliella tertiolecta, Chlorella minutis- tions (Castejón and Señoráns, 2019; Alhattab et al., 2019). Nevertheless,
sima, and Nannochloropsis oculata in a mixotrophic regime to produce the most proper cell disruption process depends on the applied microal-
𝛽-galactosidase (Zanette et al., 2019). The vegetables applied in HTF gae species, the final compound to be removed, the nutrients required
are beetroots, corn, and sugarcane. HTF advantage is the total control of for growth, and the energy used in the disruption (Quesada-Salas et al.,
microalgae growth, which permits acceleration of the growth stage and 2021). Cell disruption consists of a step that promotes the extraction
improvement of the quality of the future derivatives, as for the already of bioproducts (Zhang et al., 2020) by mechanical or nonmechanical
developed crops to the production of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty methods. Mechanical treatments include cavitation, bead milling, high-
acids (Klamczynska and Mooney, 2017). Furthermore, HTF is an option pressure homogenization, and the use of chemical and biological agents.
to obtain proteins and use them for products such as meat analogues Nonmechanical methods rely on cell lysis with enzymes or chemical
(Fu et al., 2021). The processes for protein extraction from microalgae agents (Alhattab et al., 2019). However, nutrient digestibility and bioac-
include cell eruption (e.g., mechanical, enzymatic hydrolysis, etc.) and cessibility during consumption are affected by the properties of mi-
the release of inner matter, solubilization and/or centrifugation, and ob- croalgae. Thus, the cell disruption process implies many impacts on
tention of the soluble and insoluble fractions (Grossmann et al., 2020). quality. The bioaccessibility of carotenoids and omega 3 increases with
Centrifugation is also efficient in the separation of starch, protein, and the usage of cell disruption techniques (Bernaerts et al., 2020). Enzy-
chlorophyll (Zinkoné et al., 2018). matic breakdown of cells by cellulase offers a hydrolysate rich in sugar,
Microalgae are cultivated in a liquid suspension with a concentra- protein, and other nutrients, representing a promising source of car-
tion of approximately 0.5 g L−1 . The growth stage is ended by different bon for mixotrophic production with better efficiency for microalgae
solid-liquid methods, i.e., mechanical removal of the particles with a fil- cultivation (Zhang et al., 2020). Pressurized liquid extraction applying
ter/net or by methods that rely on gravity (sedimentation, flocculation, different solvents and pretreatment in microalgae biomass allows one
and centrifugation) (Fig. 4). During the stage of harvesting, the cultiva- to enrich and fractionate neutral and polar lipids such as triacylglyc-
tion is aggregated until it becomes a paste with a biomass dry concen- erols, diacylglycerols, monoacylglycerols, free fatty acids, and glycol-
tration between 15% and 25% (Muylaert et al., 2017). Flocculation is ipids (Castejón and Señoráns, 2019). Microwaves were the most efficient
very efficient for biomass harvesting, and it is performed by the addition for the recovery of lipids from Nannochloropsis oceanica, achieving a lipid
of chemicals or bioflocculants that hold strong intermolecular interac- content of 49.0% dry weight. For Nannochloropsis gaditana, the ultra-
tions with the negatively charged surfaces of microalgae. The substances sound process was the most successful in terms of lipid recovery (21.7%
used in the flocculation stage might be based on metal cations, such as dry weight – Bernaerts et al., 2020). Lipid extraction using food grade
aluminum, or polyacrylamide derivatives, the same substances used in ethanol, ultrasound-assisted ethanol, and dichloromethane/methanol
effluent treatment. As an alternative to these, bioflocculants (e.g., chi- from Chlorella vulgaris was effective in obtaining high yields of polar
tosan, tanfloc® – tannin, and cationic starch) for microalgae cultivation lipids and extracts rich in omega 3 and omega 6 that can be used for food
were recently proposed (Ruggeri et al., 2021; Blockx et al., 2018). Alter- applications (Couto et al., 2022). High value-added pigments were ex-
native sources such as chitosan obtained from mushrooms have already tracted from Arthrospira platensis using ultrasound assistance from a food
been used in the production of the microalgae species Nannochloropsis. grade solvent. Chlorophyll-a had optimal extraction after 10 min of son-

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A.P. Ferreira de Oliveira and A.P.A. Bragotto Future Foods 6 (2022) 100157

Fig. 4. Production stage workflow: harvesting/processing methods and microalgae-based products.

ication using ethanol as the solvent; chlorophyll-b had the optimal ex- Microalgae biomass even influences rheology aspects in the new
traction conditions for 30 min of sonication, and the highest carotenoid food products: 3D Printed Cookies were tested by adding the microal-
extraction yield was found after 20 min of sonication (Tavakoli et al., gae species Arthrospira platensis and Chlorella vulgaris, obtaining stable
2021). structures and baking resistance (Uribe-Wandurraga et al., 2021). In
bread, texture parameters such as hardness and chewability were not
5. Microalgae and food altered with the addition of microalgae (Isochrysis galbana, Tetraselmis
suecica, Scenedesmus almeriensis, and Nannochloropsis gaditana). How-
Microalgae as food products are like a future that will come soon, ever, the effects observed were mainly in the color change in the crust
but the truth is that microalgae are old allies of human nutrition. Nos- and crumb in greener/yellowish hues (García-Segovia et al., 2017), as
toc and Spirulina varieties have a historical record as food before 1900 microalgae are sources of natural color and can be used as a food addi-
(Borowitzka, 2018). In recent decades, microalgae biomass has been tive (García-Vaquero et al., 2021). In addition, the main natural pig-
applied as food with healthy claims once the main products based on ments produced by microalgae are chlorophylls (green), carotenoids
microalgae are food supplements, additives, and ingredients (Fig. 5). (yellow/orange/red), anthocyanin (red/blue), and betanin (red). How-
For instance, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is present in fortifications ever, it is not possible to establish a standard carotenoid extraction
of juices, milk, and other beverages, especially for infants and children method, for example, where each strain needs specific conditions for
(Araújo and Peteiro, 2021; Singh et al., 2020; Cerón-García et al., 2018). extraction, saponification, and solvent recovery (Cerón-García et al.,
Worldwide, between 2015 and 2019, approximately 13.090 new food 2018).
products were reported to contain algae or derived components. These The food product needs to be designed for the entire production
new products included 79% in foods and 21% in beverages (Boukid and chain, including shelf life. A chocolate bar showed oxidative stability
Castellari, 2021).

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A.P. Ferreira de Oliveira and A.P.A. Bragotto Future Foods 6 (2022) 100157

Fig. 5. Algae and microalgae-based food products.

and low peroxide values after fortification with lyophilized and en- 55% – 70% and 42% – 55% dry matter, respectively. In vitro protein
capsulated microalgae Scenedesmus obliquus (Hlaing et al., 2020). Spir- digestibility was increased with microalgae cell disruption; in Chlorella
ulina incorporated into yogurt (0.25%) improved water retention con- vulgaris, the in vitro digestibility assessed was 79% in whole cells and
ditions and had less interaction with whey during 28 days of stor- 84% in disrupted cells (Matos, 2019). Finally, microalgae proteins
age (Barkallah et al., 2017). The chocolate milk with Spirulina-LEB-18 can be used to produce meat analogues that are proposed to alleviate
improved the sedimentation rate, increased solubility, and decreased the demand for meat consumption (Fu et al., 2021). Therefore, the
hygroscopicity (<10%) (Oliveira et al., 2021). Microalgae are excel- replacement of animal protein supply requires the development and
lent sources of various compounds (Table 1), containing high protein innovation of plant-based ingredients to meet consumer perception,
(Arthrospira platensis) and low fiber content (Chlorella) (Canelli et al., including studies of composition properties and functional matrix
2020; Uribe-Wandurraga et al., 2020). In addition, they are alternative, technologies (Boukid et al., 2021).
sustainable and healthy sources of the essential lipid – Nannochlorop- The microalgae Schizochytrium sp., which is qualified as a novel food,
sis oculata (Conde et al., 2021). The potential use of microalgae species is rich in oil containing DHA and is obtained after enzymatic break-
in the production of commercial carbohydrates (monosaccharides, dis- down. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) panel considers that
accharides, and polyalcohols) includes species Nannochloropsis gadi- there is no concern regarding the toxicity of this novel food, which
tana, Pyrocistis lunula, and Arthrospira platensis (Carrasco-Reinado et al., is safe for use in dietary supplements at the maximum intake level of
2019). 1 g DHA day−1 for adults, excluding pregnant and lactating women
Kejzar et al. (2021) studied the microalgae supplements sold in (EFSA, 2020). Spirulina and Chlorella are commercially found in Brazil
Slovenia, and the iron element obtained the mean content (mg g−1 in the food supplements category. This category includes vitamin and
of solid sample): Hawaiian Spirulina (3.29 ± 0.27); Chlorella spp. mineral supplements; bioactive substances and probiotics; new foods;
(1.00 ± 0.52); Arthrospira spp. (1.36 ± 1.33) and Phanizomenon flos- foods with functional property claims; supplements for athletes; food
aquae – AFA (0.44 ± 0.05) (Kejzar et al., 2021). Nutritional properties supplements for pregnant women and nursing mothers; and specific
were evaluated with the addition of Spirulina (10%) to a date drink in over-the-counter medications. After the publication of RDC 240/2018
Saudi Arabia, and the total saturated and unsaturated fatty acid contents (Collegiate Board Resolution), which dispenses with the categories of
of Spirulina were 44.12% and 55.79%, respectively. The total energy exempt food and packaging and with mandatory sanitary registration,
content resulting from each 100 mL is indicated for body exercise pre- only supplements containing enzymes or probiotics must be registered
training, with good test performance (Aljobair et al., 2021). However, with ANVISA (Brazilian Health Surveillance Agency) (BRASIL, 2018).
the nutritional quality referring to a type of microalgae from different The United States Food and Drug Administration – FDA approved food
producing companies and different batches reveals high variability, in- microalgae species as Generally, Recognized as Safe – GRAS, includ-
dicating the importance of optimizing the cultivation parameters. Fur- ing Arthrospira maxima, Arthrospira platensis, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii,
thermore, the high content of total protein or lipids does not correspond Chlorella protothecoides, Dunaliella bardawil, Haematococcus pluvialis, Pro-
to high general nutritional quality and may have low digestibility and totheca moriformis, Schizochytrium sp., and Ulkenia sp. In addition, The
lower availability of nutrients (Qazi et al., 2021; Muys et al., 2019). Dietary Supplements Information Expert Committee (DSI - EC) reviews
The fatty acid content evaluated between Chlorella and the safety of dietary supplements and dietary supplement ingredients
Auxenochlorella species was similar, remaining between 7% and and has admitted Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis and Arthrospira max-
10% (w−1 ) of dry mass, with an adequate proportion between omega 3 ima) into The United States Pharmacopeia Convention - National For-
and omega 6. Nevertheless, the limited bioaccessibility in commercial mulary (USP - NF) (Fu et al., 2021; García et al., 2017). In the Euro-
samples (< 7%) indicates the need for strategies in the production of pean Union, several categories of regulations for food/feed are applied
microalgae (Canelli et al., 2020; de la Jara et al., 2018). Arthrospira to the usage of microalgae (Markou et al., 2021). The microalgae ap-
platensis and Chlorella vulgaris have protein concentrations between proved for food purposes are evaluated according to the Novel Food

7
A.P. Ferreira de Oliveira and A.P.A. Bragotto Future Foods 6 (2022) 100157

Table 1
Microalgae-based food species and their derivatives.

Microalgae
Based-food Descriptions Microalgae Reference

Additives Carotenoids Nannochloropsis gaditana, Cerón-García et al. (2018)

Chlorella sp.,
Haematococcus pluvialis,
Scenedesmus almeriensis,
Isochrysis galbana,
Tetraselmis suecicaand,
Karlodinium veneficum
Biomass Pigments Chlorella spp., Araújo (2021)
Antioxidants Nannochloropsis spp.,
Omega 3 Haematococcus pluvialis,
Phycobiliproteins Tetraselmis sp.,
Polysaccharides Dunaliella salina,
Phaeodactylum tricornutum,
Porphyridium sp.,
Scenedesmus sp.,
Arthrospira platensis
Emulsion Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) Schizochytrium sp. Singh et al. (2020)
for fortifications of beverages
3D Printed Cookies Proteins Arthrospira platensis, Uribe-Wandurraga et al. (2021)
Microalgae flour Chlorella vulgaris
Wheat bread Proteins Isochrysis galbana, García-Segovia et al. (2017)
formulation Tetraselmis suecica,
Scenedesmus almeriensis,
Nannochloropsis gaditana
Additives Pigments Chlorella sp., García-Vaquero et al. (2021)
Arthrospira platensis
Chocolate Proteins Scenedesmus obliquus Hlaing (2020)
Lipids
Carbohydrates
Yogurt Proteins Arthrospira platensis Barkallah (2017)
Chocolate milk Proteins Arthrospira platensis Oliveira et al. (2021)
Biomass Sugars Nannochloropsis gaditana, Carrasco-Reinado (2019)
Arthrospira platensis,
Pyrocystis lunula
Dietary Proteins Chlorella sp., Kejzar (2021)
Supplements Arthrospira platensis
Beverages Proteins Chlorella sp., Aljobair (2021)
Sugars Arthrospira platensis

Regulation. The classification for novel food is defined as those that in drying/oil refining) (Fig. 6) (Di Caprio, 2020; Markou et al., 2021).
“were not used to a significant degree for human consumption within However, little information about the occurrence of these contaminants
the block before May 15, 1997”. This legislation provides a safety assess- in microalgae products and supplements has been reported in the liter-
ment of food or food ingredients. Therefore, Chlorella sp. (C. pyrenoidosa, ature thus far (EFSA, 2020; GOED, 2018).
C. vulgaris and C. luteoviridis) and Arthrospira sp. were marketed and Microalgae biomass and its potential hazards are directly connected
consumed as food ingredients before 1997; that is, they are not subject to the intrinsic characteristics of microalgae, or the components present
to this legislation. With Regulation (EU) No. 2015/2283, the European during microalgae cultivation, including growth stages, and biomass
Union, through the EFSA, ensures that novel food and food ingredients processing conditions. Thus, knowledge of the potential risks to health
undergo a safety assessment through a unified procedure to protect pub- due to the consumption of microalgae products involves the identifica-
lic health. The EU list of novel food are Haematococcus pluvialis, Odon- tion of microalgae species as well as the determination of toxic com-
tella aurita, Schizochytrium sp., Tetraselmis chui, Ulkenia sp. (EFSA, 2020; pounds, toxins, and allergens (Markou et al., 2021; Hadiyanto et al.,
Niccolai et al., 2019; EU, 2018, 2015). Furthermore, the Qualified Pre- 2021; Matos, 2019). In brief, one of the main challenges in microalgae
sumption of Safety (QPS) was developed to provide a safety preassess- cultivation systems is water quality, especially seawater in large-scale
ment within EFSA for microorganisms. The 2019 updated list of QPS production (Markou et al., 2021). Microalgae can be cultivated natu-
status-recommended biological agents by EFSA risk assessments are Au- rally in different bodies of water, which demonstrates their high adapt-
rantiochytrium limacinum, Euglena gracilis and Tetraselmis chui. Moreover, ability to aggressive environments. When biomass is produced with
the EU authorized the use of 𝛽-carotene derived from Dunaliella salina poor quality water, it can be a serious vector for the introduction of
as a food additive (Hachicha et al., 2022; Koutsoumanis et al., 2020). toxic substances. Therefore, emerging contaminants commonly found
as micropollutants in water sources are highly considered for moni-
6. Chemical hazards toring, including pharmaceuticals, hormones, and pesticides (Martín-
Girela et al., 2020). Furthermore, microalgae can accumulate inorganic
Unwanted organic and inorganic compounds such as inorganic contaminants as they are at the base of the aquatic food chain pyramid
contaminants/nonessential elements, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and are the source of the transfer of pollution to higher levels of the
(PAHs), pesticides, and others may be present in microalgae biomass be- food chain in aquatic environments (Kumar and Sharma, 2021).
cause of environmental contamination and pose a risk to human health Table 2 shows the occurrence of toxic compounds in microalgae-
(Cheyns et al., 2021; Augustsson et al., 2021; Grosshagauer et al., 2020; based products. Cheyns et al. (2021) studied the concentration of Asi
Schrenk and Cartus, 2017). Furthermore, toxic compounds can occur (inorganic arsenic) in Belgian food supplements. The Asi levels were
due to the biomass processing stages (encapsulation, high temperatures < 0.02 – 4.70 mg kg−1 . Asi is a nonessential trace element and occurs as

8
 A.P. Ferreira de Oliveira and A.P.A. Bragotto
Table 2
Occurrence levels of chemical contaminants in microalgae-based food products.

Microalgae Based-Food Chemical contaminants Country/ Reference

Inorganic contaminants (mg kg−1 )

Al Astotal Asinorganic AB DMA Ni Cr Cr(VI) Cd Hg Pb

FS
– 0.053–57 <0.020–4.7 0.02–1.86 <0.020–2.4 – – – – – – Belgium
b
algae/ Cheyns (2021)
cyanobacteria
N = 33
FS
2155.6 and – 1.7 and 1.52 and <0.01 and 0.125 and 0.027 and 2.6 and Poland
Spirulina and 1732.8 2.7 – – 1.38 – <0.01 0.142 0.41 2.6 a
Rzymski (2019)
Chlorella
N = 23
FS
ND and 1.1–3.4 and 0.01–0.17 and 0.02–0.11 and ND and Belgium
b
Spirulina and – – 0.59–1.1 – – ND – – 0.01–0.10 0.02 −0.10 ND Muys (2019)
Chlorella
N = 22
FS
17.58–482 – <0.01–2.20 – – – 0.28–2.74 – – <0.01–0.87 – Spain
b
Chlorella/ Spirulina Sánchez-
N = 10 Parra et al. (2020)
Spirulina/ – – 0.05–6.54 – – 0.19–5.10 – – 0.00–0.55 <0.01–0.44 <0.02–0.63 Slovenian
b
Chlorella/ Kejzar (2021)
AFA7
N = 18
NF
<0.01- 0.03 – <0.01 – – <0.01 – – <0.005 <0.005 <0.001 b
EFSA (2020)
Batches
Crude fat
9

triglycerides
N=6

Microalgae Chemical contaminants Country/

Based-Food Reference

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (μg kg−1 )

Benzo[a]pyrene ΣPAH4
Powder biomass 538–873 and 2323–3423 and Belgium
b
Chlorella and 3–4 56–84 Muys (2019)
Spirulina
N = 22
NF
Batches Crude fat <0.01 <0.4 b
EFSA (2020)
triglycerides
N=6
Process formed contaminants (μg kg−1 )
Glycidyl fatty acid esters expressed as glycidol Sum of 3-MCPD and 3-MCPD fatty acid esters, expressed as
3-MCPD
NF
Batches <50–81 <50–380 b
EFSA (2020)
Crude fat
triglycerides

Future Foods 6 (2022) 100157

N=6
Glycidol fatty acid esters 3-MCPDE and 2-MCPDE
Algae oil <LOQ-106 <LOQ-490 and Netherlands
Four were specified as Schizochytrium sp. <LOQ-108 b
Beekmann (2022)
oil, and one not specified
N = 05
a
Mean values.
b Range valuesFS=food supplement AB=arsenobetaine ND=not detected DMA=dimethylarsinate NF=novel food LOQ=limit of quantification.
A.P. Ferreira de Oliveira and A.P.A. Bragotto Future Foods 6 (2022) 100157

Fig. 6. Potential hazards in microalgae biomass.

many chemical species (i.e., As+3 and As+5 ), with As+3 being the most thropogenic sources come from incomplete combustion of organic mat-
toxic (Cheyns et al., 2021). Asi is considered a human carcinogen (Group ter, such as industrial activities, emissions from motor vehicles, oil spills
1) by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classifica- at sea, drying, and direct smoking of wood, among others (Pathak et al.,
tion. Moreover, arsenic sugars (the organic and less toxic chemical form) 2018). PAHs can be absorbed through the lungs, gastrointestinal tract,
are present in a large fraction of cyanobacteria supplements. Regardless and skin. Some of these compounds are considered potentially carcino-
of the source, arsenic is known for its neural toxicity and chronic effects genic and genotoxic, with benzo[a]pirene classified as Group 1 IARC.
due to its ingestion, such as skin lesions, different types of cancer, and Their hydrophobic nature allows a quick passage through cell mem-
cardiovascular diseases (IARC, 2000). branes and permanence in the body, especially in areas with higher fat
Chlorella and Spirulina powder supplements purchased from online content. This exposure can trigger tumors, whose occurrence depends
stores in Poland have been evaluated for Cd, Hg, and Ni (cadmium, mer- on the genetic susceptibility of each individual and the frequency and
cury, and nickel, respectively) contamination at levels below safe limits. level of exposure to these compounds (Lee et al., 2018).
However, some samples indicated high values for Al, Pb, and Asi (alu- The 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPDE), 2-monochloro-
minum, lead, and inorganic arsenic, respectively). The mean content propane-1,3-diol (2-MCPDE) and glycidol (GE) esters are mostly toxic
of Al in Spirulina and Chlorella supplements was 2155.6 mg kg−1 and compounds formed during the deodorization step in the refining
1732.8 mg kg−1 , respectively (Rzymski et al., 2019). The occurrence of process of edible oils, having chlorinated compounds and acylglycerols
Al in algae products may be associated with the use of flocculants that as precursors. The deodorization step is performed at a temperature
contain aluminum sulfate for the biomass harvesting stage. Inorganic above 200 °C, which is a determining condition for the formation of
contaminants have no beneficial effects on humans, and their excessive these contaminants. The IARC considers 3-MCPD to be “possibly car-
ingestion has serious health effects. Exposure to Al is associated with cinogenic to humans” (Group 2B) and glycidol “probably carcinogenic
anemia, compromised bone formation, and neurotoxicological effects to humans” (Group 2A) (Tivanello et al., 2021; IARC, 2000, 2013).
(Klotz et al., 2017). Microalgae have high affinities and sorption capa- There are few data on the presence of 3-MCPDE, 2-MCPDE, and GE in
bilities for inorganic contaminants and are considered to be hyperaccu- microalgae oils, but concentrations of up to approximately 5 mg kg−1 of
mulators, which means that they can grow in media with these elements 3-MCPDE have been reported in deodorized fish oil (GOED, 2018). Fish
in excess (Markou et al., 2021). oil supplements commercialized in Poland presented the highest levels
In a study carried out in Belgium (Muys et al., 2019) with samples of 3-MCPDE (mean: 1461 μg kg−1 ) as well as 2-MCPDE (mean: 357 μg
of powdered supplements obtained from Chlorella and Spirulina, inor- kg−1 ) in products containing shark liver oil (Sadowska-Rociek et al.,
ganic contaminants/nonessential elements, pesticides, mycotoxins, an- 2020). Considering this hazard issue, it is highly important to in-
tibiotics, and nitrate did not violate regulatory limits, while levels of vestigate the potential contamination of microalgae oil, since it has
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) exceeded the norm for some become a potential candidate for omega 3 production (Conde et al.,
products: benzo[a]pyrene presented levels at 10 μg kg−1 and ΣPAH 2021). Beekmann et al. evaluated the presence of 3-MCPDE, 2-MCPDE
50 μg kg−1 , exceeding the Union European legislation. PAHs come from and GE in edible oils in the form of supplements marketed in the
natural and anthropogenic sources, the latter being the main process Netherlands. Among the samples, five were called algal oil (including
of PAH emission into the environment. The most significant natural four specified as Schizochytrium sp.). The levels for GE, 3-MCPDE and
sources are the result of natural forest fires or volcanic emissions. An- 2-MCPDE found were <LOQ-10.6, <LOQ-490 and <LOQ −108 μg

10
A.P. Ferreira de Oliveira and A.P.A. Bragotto Future Foods 6 (2022) 100157

kg−1 , respectively. In addition, supplements labeled as suitable for diets, including microalgae products, seeking to integrate health, sus-
children had median concentrations of 412.9, 90.3, and 167.2 μg kg−1 tainability, and safety.
for 3-MCPDE, 2-MCPDE, and GE, respectively. It was found that algal Microalgae are potential sources of nutritionally balanced foods rich
oil may contribute to human exposure to 3-MCPDE, 2-MPCD and GE. in proteins and other compounds with a high demand for the human
Based on these results, the authors suggest that mitigation strategies diet. The different species of microalgae can be researched through
for contaminants in processed oils of marine origin should be further species bioprospecting, reinforcing the importance of native organisms
developed and applied (Beekmann et al., 2022). and their biotechnological potentials. Due to the biologically inherent
The presence of potentially toxic chemicals in microalgae prod- qualities employed in microalgae, these can be considered for the food
ucts may pose a risk to human health, and broader and integrated ap- production chain in the future.
proaches, such as risk analysis, should be employed to better address this The standardization of nutritional profiles of microalgae biomass will
issue. Risk analysis in food includes i) risk assessment: estimating the be possible as advances in processing technologies, a rapidly expanding
probability of a given substance producing adverse effects in each popu- field. Different types of food products, in addition to traditional sup-
lation under specific exposure conditions; ii) risk management: decision- plements, can be developed through microalgae biomass and attract in-
making by regulatory agencies, risk versus benefit and priority of regu- creasing interest from consumers and the industry developing new prod-
latory actions (assessing different groups); and iii) risk communication: ucts. However, the standardization of cultivation systems and process-
exchange of information and opinions on risk factors, with the participa- ing of microalgae biomass is a demand for safety and for the establish-
tion of evaluators, managers, consumers, industry, academia, the press ment of safe levels of toxic substances. The optimization of processes
and public interest groups (Mathisen et al., 2020; Benford, 2017). and knowledge of cultivation steps and their reagents are crucial for
The risk assessment presents the following steps: hazard identifica- quality control. For this purpose, bodies responsible for public health,
tion; hazard characterization; exposure assessment; and risk characteri- microalgae researchers, industries, and others must join efforts for the
zation. Nevertheless, risk is defined as a function of the probability of an robust establishment of the segment.
adverse health effect occurring and the strictness of that effect because The human dietary routine requires innovative strategies for healthy
of a food hazard. Furthermore, the probability of an adverse effect oc- sources of proteins, essential minerals, vitamins, and others, while con-
curring in an organism, system or (sub) population is caused by the sumers are increasingly conscious of the importance of knowing the ori-
specific circumstances of exposure to an agent (Ververis et al., 2020; gin of products, asking questions related to production systems and sus-
Benford, 2017). tainability measures. Thus, food supply must include population growth,
The scientific basis for decisions to guarantee, maintain and im- meeting quality and safety requirements as well as guaranteed access.
prove the safety of human exposure to chemicals requires a chemical Therefore, studies to quantify chemical contaminants in food supple-
risk assessment. Therefore, scientific panels of the EFSA and the bod- ments and foods with microalgae biomass should be carried out to mon-
ies that advise the FAO and the World Health Organization (WHO) - itor the levels of these compounds, data that are still limited or not re-
Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) and the ported and extremely relevant considering their growing demand. The
Joint FAO/WHO Meeting on Pesticides Residues (JMPR) - conduct risk establishment and monitoring of quality parameters are important in the
assessments that support the development of regulatory measures for large-scale commercialization of microalgae and therefore food prod-
chemicals in food (Kamiloglu et al., 2021). ucts, and the applied management to transform biomass must be in-
Thus, the challenges in risk assessment are a consequence of the vestigated. Thus, monitoring the levels of residues and contaminants is
field extension and interdisciplinarity. Therefore, multiple struggles are essential for the protection of human health.
needed beyond connections and networking opportunities, the analysis Therefore, strategies to attract farmers can include the popular-
of new ideas, and the advancement of research activities in an evidence- ization of microalgae-based products that will increase consumer de-
based effort to improve risk assessment strategies, which are crucial mand, since these products, when strategically planned, will be ben-
for policymakers’ decision-making and protecting human health. In the eficial in terms of production, the environment, and consumer health
agri-food chain, consumers, legislators, and researchers act as agents of (García et al., 2017). To this end, policies that can guarantee the in-
change. Therefore, sustainability and food safety in agri-food involve corporation of microalgae cultivation in agricultural systems include
private and public actors in the value chain (Zarpelão et al., 2021). Ad- good production practices, advancement of production technologies,
ditionally, the innovation of farmers/producers concerns good agricul- and quality monitoring. Finally, the extensive knowledge of produc-
tural practices, from growing food biomass to harvesting and processing tion in regional realities of cultivation is a must, with strategies con-
steps (Riccaboni et al., 2021). ceived of robust planning along the whole chain (Hachicha et al., 2022;
Microalgae-based products can become widely consumed by the pub- Ferreira et al., 2021; Ullmann and Grimm, 2021).
lic, especially by categories such as vegetarians, vegans and seniors
(Ferreira et al., 2021). The possibility of new products of different fla- Ethical statement - studies in humans and animals
vors and colors is also interesting (Lafarga et al., 2021b). The use of food
supplements from microalgae or products with added microalgae has The research presented does not involve any animal or human study
growth potential; however, there are still some questions by the public
Declaration of Competing Interests
about the safety of these products. Food supplements can be consumed
in high concentrations if there is not adequate disclosure and labeling.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
Thus, food regulatory bodies must be updated to better address the risks
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
of dietary supplements. Consumer health would benefit, for example,
the work reported in this paper.
from greater rigor and definition of maximum allowable concentrations
for a longer list of elements (Augustsson et al., 2021). Acknowledgement

This study was financed in part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoa-

7. Perspectives mento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - Brasil (CAPES) - Finance Code 001.

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