DISTRIBUTED GENERATION RESOURCES

Distributed generation resources (DERs) are small-scale power generation units located near
the point of electricity use. This contrasts with traditional centralized generation, where power
is produced at large power plants and then delivered to consumers over long distances. DERs
can be used to generate electricity from a variety of renewable and non-renewable resources.

Distributed Generation is the integrated or stand-alone use of small, modular energy (electric
and/or thermal) generation resources, located near the consumption of energy. Distributed
systems include wind turbines, microturbines, fuel cells, engines/generators set, thermal solar
and photovoltaic systems, combustion turbines, biomass – based generators, and storage and
control techniques. Distributed technologies can either be independent of the grid or grid
connected.

DG can also be defined as “the electricity generation by facilities sufficiently smaller than
centralized generating power plants, usually10 MW or smaller, so was to allow interconnection
at nearly any point in the electric power system”.

Distributed generations can be classified based on;

❖ The basis of point of DG connection: The definition of the location of the

distributed generation plants varies among different authors. Most authors define the
location of DG at the distribution side of the work, some include the customers side,
and some even include the transmission side of the network.
❖ The basis of capacity: The maximum rating of the DG which can be connected to
distributed generation depends on the capacity of the distribution system that is
interrelated with the voltage level of the distribution system. Hence, the capacity of
DGs can vary widely.
❖ The basis of Purpose of Interconnection: Generation units should by definition at
least supply active power in order to be considered as distributed generation. The
supply of reactive power and/or other ancillary services is possible and may
represent an added value, but is not necessary.
❖ The basis of DG Technology: Often the term distributed generation is used in
combination with a certain generation technology category, e.g., non – renewable
and renewable energy technology.

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 ❖ The basis of Ownership: It is frequently argued that’s DG has to be owned by
independent power producers or by the customers themselves, to qualify as DG.
DISTRIBUTED GENERATION TECHNOLOGIES

The figure below depicts the various criteria which can form the basis for defining DG.

Figure 1: Distributed generation technologies

DG technologies are usually classified into two broad categories: non – renewable (fuel – based)
and renewable (non - fuel – based) energy sources. Non – renewable energy technologies use
fossil - based fuels such as gasoline, diesel, oil, propane, methane, natural gas, or coal source.
Fossil fuel based DGs are not considered sustainable electricity generation sources because their
energy source will not renew or replenish. Examples of non-renewable technologies include
reciprocating engines, internal combustion gas turbines (ICGT), microturbines, and fuel cells.
Distributed renewable energy technologies are in general sustainable (i.e., their primary energy
source will not run out) and cause minimum or no environmental concerns. The DG
technologies that fall under this category comprise wind turbines, solar thermal, solar
photovoltaic, biomass and biogas, ocean and geothermal (tidal and waves) energy systems,
small/mini/micro hydro power, and hydrogen fuel cells. The contribution potential of renewable
energies in all countries is growing rapidly as the technology matures. The renewable energy
sources contribute to the diversity of energy supply portfolio, mitigate the greenhouse gas
emissions, and reduce the risks of continued use of fossil fuels and nuclear power. A
classification of various DG technologies is presented in figure 2 and are discussed in following
subsections.

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Figure 2: Classification of DG Technologies

A. Conventional DG Technologies
1. Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines:

Reciprocating engines also known as piston engines were the first fossil-fuel-driven DG
technologies developed more than 100 years ago and use diesel, natural gas, or waste gas as
their fuel source. The reciprocating engines are highly flexible and suitable for several
applications, among which are electric power generation, combined heat and power generation
(CHP) and mechanical prime movers for many equipment and propulsion. The reciprocating
technologies can operate as a stand-alone to meet the power demands of consumer in remote
locations or grid-connected power system, where it can feed the surplus to the grid having met
the power requirements of the local consumers. The power generation scales of the
reciprocating engines are differed from the 1kVA (small scale) to several tens of MVA (large
scale). The schematic operation diagram of a reciprocating engine, which operates in four cycles
for power generation is shown in Figure 3 and the schematic diagram of a combined heat and
power (CHP) system is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 3: Schematic operating principle of reciprocating engine

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Figure 4: Schematic diagram of a combined heat and power (CHP) system

2. Microturbines:
Microturbines were initially developed for the transportation sector and more recently
have found a place in the power generation sector. Microturbine units can use a wide
range of fuels such as natural gas, hydrogen, propane and diesel to produce electricity.
Microturbines can be used for base load power, stand-by power, peaks having and
cogeneration applications and well-suited for small commercial buildings. The capacity
of microturbines range from 25 kW to 500 kW and have an electrical efficiency of about
15% for unrecuperated type and between 20% and 30% for recuperated types, which
recover exhaust heat to boost the temperature of combustion. The schematic of a typical
microturbine is shown in Figure 5.

Figure: 5 Schematic diagram of a typical microturbine

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 3. Combustion Gas Turbines:
Gas turbine power generators are used in two basic configurations. Air is drawn into
the compressor where it's squeezed, increasing its pressure and temperature. The
compressed air is then mixed with fuel (natural gas is common) and burned in the
combustor. This significantly increases the temperature of the air-fuel mixture. The hot,
high-pressure gas then expands through the gas turbine, extracting energy to rotate the
turbine shaft. This shaft connects to a generator that produces electricity. The exhaust
gas exiting the turbine is still hot, containing usable thermal energy.
Gas turbine power generators are used in two basic configurations.
• Simple Systems: This system consists of the gas turbine driving an electrical
power generator as shown in the figure below.

Figure 6: Schematic diagram of Simple System

• Combined Cycle Systems: These systems are designed for maximum efficiency
in which the hot exhaust gases from the gas turbine are used to raise steam to
power a steam turbine with both turbines being connected to electricity
generators.

Figure 7: Schematic diagram of Combined Cycle Systems

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 4. Fuel cells:

Fuel cell can convert chemical energy to electricity without combustion. A fuel cell is an
electrochemical device that converts the chemical energy of a fuel (often hydrogen) and an
oxidant (usually oxygen) into electricity through a continuous redox reaction. Here's the basic
principle:

Hydrogen gas is fed to the anode (negative electrode). Air or pure oxygen is supplied to the
cathode (positive electrode) and at the anode, a catalyst separates hydrogen molecules into
protons and electrons. Protons can pass through a special electrolyte membrane separating the
electrodes. Electrons cannot pass through the membrane but travel through an external circuit,
creating an electric current. At the cathode, another catalyst reacts oxygen with the electrons
and protons that migrated through the membrane to form water vapor. The working principle
of a fuel cell is shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8: Fuel Cell operating principle

There are five principle types of fuel cells. This five fuel cell types differ from each other in
various ways. The main distinguishing factor is the electrolyte material and operating
temperature, which is generally used to identify each of the five fuel cell types.

i. Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)

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 ii. Phosphoric Acid fuel cell (PAFC)
iii. Molten Carbonate fuel cell (MCFC)
iv. Solid Oxide fuel cell (SOFC)
v. Alkaline fuel cell (AFC)
B. Renewable Based DG Technologies
1. Solar Photovoltaic Cell Energy Source: Photovoltaic (PV) systems involve the direct
conversion of sun light into electricity with no intervening heat engine. PV devices are
solid state; therefore, they are rugged and simple in design and require very little
maintenance. A key advantage of PV systems is that they can be constructed as either
grid connected or stand-alone to produce outputs from microwatt to megawatts. They
have been used as the power sources for calculators, watches, water pumping, remote
buildings, communications, satellites and space vehicles, as well as megawatt-scale
power plants. Because they are light in weight, modular, and do not require gaseous or
liquid fuel supply, PV fit a niche that is unavailable to other DG technologies. The
working principle of solar PV cell is demonstrated in Figure 9.

Figure 9: Solar PV Cell Working principle

2. Solar thermal: Solar thermal energy (STE) is a technology that harnesses the sun's heat
to generate thermal energy for various applications. Unlike solar photovoltaic (PV)
panels that convert sunlight directly into electricity, solar thermal systems focus on
capturing heat. An array of mirrors or reflectors concentrates sunlight onto a central
receiver tube or panel. These mirrors or reflectors are designed to focus a large area of
sunlight onto a smaller area, significantly increasing the heat intensity. A heat transfer
fluid, often a synthetic oil with a high boiling point, circulates within the receiver,
absorbing the concentrated heat from the sun. The hot fluid from the receiver is pumped
to a heat exchanger. This exchanger transfers the thermal energy to another fluid,
typically water, which can be heated to much higher temperatures than the heat transfer

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 fluid. The heated water in the heat exchanger boils, turning into high-pressure steam.
The high-pressure steam is directed through a turbine, causing the turbine blades to spin.
This rotation is then used to connected a generator, which converts the mechanical
energy of the rotating shaft into electricity. After passing through the turbine, the spent
steam is condensed back into water in a condenser cooled by circulating water. The
condensed water is then pumped back to the heat exchanger, completing the cycle.

Figure 10: Solar thermal principle diagram

3. Wind Power Generation: A wind energy conversion system (WECS) is powered by
wind energy and generates mechanical energy that sends energy to the electrical
generator for making electricity. The typical layout of a horizontal axis wind turbine is
shown in Figure 11 and the block diagram of a WECS is shown in Figure 12.

Figure 11: Schematic of horizontal axis wind turbine

Figure 7: Block diagram of WECS

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4. Biomass Generation: Biomass power plants can generate electricity using a steam
cycle where biomass raw materials such as waste are converted into steam in a boiler.
Biomass, organic matter from plants and animals, can be converted into electricity
through several processes. This processes include;
• Direct Combustion: This is the simplest and most common method. Biomass,
such as wood chips, pellets, or agricultural waste, is burned in a boiler similar to
a coal-fired power plant. The heat from combustion generates steam.
• Biomass Gasification: Biomass is heated in a closed container (gasifier) with
limited oxygen. This process decomposes the biomass into a combustible gas
mixture called syngas (synthetic gas).
• Anaerobic Digestion: This process focuses on organic waste materials like
animal manure or food scraps. The waste decomposes in an oxygen-free
environment (anaerobic digester) through the action of bacteria. This
decomposition process produces biogas, a mixture of methane (similar to natural
gas) and carbon dioxide.
The resulting steam is then used to spin a turbine which is connected to a generator.
Alternatively, biomass materials can be converted to biogas. This biogas can be cleaned
and upgraded to natural gas standards when it becomes bio-methane. The biogas can be
used in gas turbines, piston-driven engines or fuel cells to generate electricity. The
advantage is that as a renewable energy source, biomass-based power plants produce
low emission and mitigates global warming. Biomass materials used for power
generation include bagasse, rice husk, straw, cotton stalk, coconut shells, soya husk, de-
oiled cakes, coffee waste, jute wastes, groundnut shells, saw dust etc.

Figure 13: Schematic of a direct-fired biomass power plant

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5. Small Hydro Power (SHP): The gravitational force of water falling from a raised level
to ground level can be efficiently converted to electric energy. This form of electricity
generated from hydropower is called as hydroelectricity. Hydropower is a source of
renewable energy, and it small-scale applications can be used for distributed
generations.

Figure 14: A conventional small hydro power plant

6. Geothermal Energy: Geothermal energy refers to the heat trapped within the Earth's
core. This heat originates from the planet's formation and ongoing radioactive decay of
elements deep underground. This heat can be utilized to generate electricity through
geothermal power plants.
There are three main types of geothermal power plant technologies: dry steam, flash
steam, and binary cycle. The type of conversion is part of the power plant design and
generally depends on the state of the subsurface fluid (steam or water) and its
temperature

a) Dry Steam Power Plant

Dry steam plants use hydrothermal fluids that are already mostly steam, which is a
relatively rare natural occurrence. The steam is drawn directly to a turbine, which
drives a generator that produces electricity. After the steam condenses, it is
frequently reinjected into the reservoir.

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 Figure 15: schematic of a Dry Steam Power Plant
b) Flash steam plants:
Flash steam plants are a common type of geothermal power plant in operation
today. Fluids at temperatures greater than 182°C/360°F, pumped from deep
underground, travel under high pressures to a low-pressure tank at the earth’s
surface. The change in pressure causes some of the fluid to rapidly transform, or
“flash,” into vapor. The vapor then drives a turbine, which drives a generator. If
any liquid remains in the low-pressure tank, it can be “flashed” again in a second
tank to extract even more energy.

Figure 16: schematic of a Flash steam plants

c) Binary-Cycle Power Plant:

Binary-cycle geothermal power plants can use lower temperature geothermal

resources, making them an important technology for deploying geothermal
electricity production in more locations. Binary-cycle geothermal power plants

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 differ from dry steam and flash steam systems in that the geothermal reservoir fluids
never come into contact with the power plant’s turbine units. Low-temperature
(below 182°C/360°F) geothermal fluids pass through a heat exchanger with a
secondary, or "binary," fluid. This binary fluid has a much lower boiling point than
water, and the modest heat from the geothermal fluid causes it to flash to vapor,
which then drives the turbines, spins the generators, and creates electricity.

Figure 17: schematic of a Flash steam plants

7. Tidal: Tidal energy harnesses the power of ocean tides to generate electricity. It works
in such a way that, the gravitational forces of the moon and, to a lesser extent, the sun,
cause the oceans to rise and fall in predictable cycles. This creates high tides and low
tides which is then captured in two ways.
• Tidal Barrages: These are essentially dams built across estuaries or bays where
tides have a significant rise and fall. Turbines are installed within the barrage.
As water flows through the barrage during high tide and out during low tide, the
moving water spins the turbines, generating electricity.
• Tidal Stream Generators: These underwater turbines operate similarly to wind
turbines. They are placed in areas with strong tidal currents, and the moving
water through the turbine blades generates electricity.

Regardless of the method used, the rotating turbines convert the kinetic energy of moving
water into mechanical energy. A gearbox is often used to adjust the rotational speed of the

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turbine shaft to match the requirements of the generator. The generator converts the mechanical
energy from the rotating shaft into electricity and generated electricity is then fed into the power
grid through underwater cables for distribution.

Figure 18: schematic of a Flash steam plants

C. Energy Storage Systems
Energy storage technologies convert and store electricity, increasing the value of power
by allowing better utilization of off-peak generation and the mitigation of power
fluctuations from intermittent renewable energy generation. Energy storage
technologies allow electricity to be stored either directly or by employing a conversion
process. Energy storage (ES) system has become an inevitable element in smart
distribution network due to massive deployment of renewable energy resources (RERs).
ES is capable of solving a number of operational problems in distribution network due
to intermittent characteristic of the renewable energy sources while providing numerous
other benefits such as ancillary services, peak reduction, and reliability improvement.
The widespread adoption of electric vehicles that use battery energy storage could
potentially offer a major new means of storing grid electricity. The figure below gives
an overview of the energy storage technologies.

Figure 19: Classification of energy storage technologies

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 MICROGRID PROTECTION

Introduction

The presence of Distributed Generation (DG) units close to demand can offer several
economic, operational, technical and environmental benefits.

A Microgrid also characterized as the “building block of Smart Grid”, is perhaps the most
promising, novel network structure. The organization of a MG is based on the control
capabilities over the network operation offered by the increasing penetration of Distributed
Energy Resources (DER) including Microturbines (MT), Fuel Cells (FC), Wind Turbines
(WT), photovoltaic arrays (PV), together with storage devices, such as flywheels, energy
capacitors, batteries, controllable (flexible) loads and Electric Vehicles (EVs), at the
distribution level (Medium and Low Voltage). Controlled and uncontrolled loads, DG units
and storage devices operating together in a coordinated manner with controlled power
electronic devices which are integrated with protective devices. They can be operated based
on the principles of the AC power systems (AC-MG) or DC power systems (DCMG).

Microgrid protection refers to the strategies and equipment employed to ensure the safe and
reliable operation of a microgrid. It's crucial because microgrids differ from traditional grids in
a few key ways that necessitate specific protection schemes:

• Islanding: Microgrids can operate in both grid-connected and isolated (islanded)

modes. This requires protection schemes that adapt to both scenarios.
• Bidirectional Power Flow: Power can flow in both directions within a microgrid, from
various distributed generation sources (DG) to loads. Protection systems need to account
for this dynamic flow.
• Limited Fault Current: Unlike large power plants, DG sources in microgrids may have
limited fault current contribution. Traditional protection methods based on overcurrent
detection might not be as effective.

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 Figure 20: Structure of the microgrid

Figure 2: Structure of an AC microgrid Figure 22: Structure of a DC microgrid

Some major goals and objectives of microgrid protection include;

➢ Safety: Protect personnel, equipment, and the surrounding environment from electrical
hazards like faults and overloads.
➢ Reliability: Ensure continuous and stable power supply within the microgrid,
minimizing outages and disruptions.
➢ Islanding Protection: Safely disconnect the microgrid from the main grid in case of an
outage, preventing equipment damage and safety risks.
➢ Power Quality: Maintain consistent voltage, frequency, and waveform within the
microgrid for proper functioning of connected devices.

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 ❖ Challenges of AC and DC microgrid protection
One of the prominent challenges, which hinder wide adaptation of the MG
technology, is AC and DC MGs Protection. These challenges are;
• MG operation modes: In grid-connected mode, utility and DGs contribute to fault
current, while in islanded-mode, fault currents only are fed by DGs. As a result, sets of
settings for MG relays are required to cope with the dynamic behavior of DERs in MG.
• DERs impacts on Protective Devices (PDs): DER locations and fault currents would
determine precise relay settings.
• Standardization and communication: To minimize the number of customers as well
as DGs affected by faults and disturbances, a high-speed communication and an
adaptive multi-criteria algorithm are required. The fast and reliable communication
could monitor a small change in the grid configuration.
• MG topology effects on PDs coordination: MGs have dynamic topologies. Regardless
of the reasons behind MG topology changes, this phenomenon could impact on current
directions and magnitudes, and would lead to mis-coordination of PDs.
• Grounding: The main purpose of grounding is to detect the ground fault. In order to
design the grounding system, two contradictory requirements must be taken into
account: a) Minimize DC stray current, b) Maximize personnel safety by minimizing
the common mode voltage.
• No zero-crossing current: In AC system, mechanical Circuit Breakers (CBs)
disconnect circuit when currents cross zero at every half-period; however, in DC system
CBs there are no zero crossings. And hence, currents have to be forced to zero by
additional means. In addition, low DC impedances make DC fault levels very high.
• Complexity: Integrating various protection schemes for different operating modes and
components in a microgrid can be complex.
• Cost: Implementing robust protection systems can add to the overall cost of a microgrid
project.

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❖ Protection Schemes:
➢ Overcurrent and Short Circuit Protection: Fuses and circuit breakers are used
to isolate faulted sections and prevent damage. However, for microgrids with
limited fault current, other methods like communication-assisted protection
might be needed.
➢ Ground Fault Protection: Detect and isolate faults to ground within the
microgrid. This is particularly important for DC microgrids.
➢ Islanding Protection: Specialized relays and communication systems ensure
the microgrid disconnects from the main grid during outages. This prevents
feeding power back to utility lines and safety hazards for line workers.
➢ Directional Protection: This scheme ensures power flows in the intended
direction within the microgrid, preventing overloading of certain components.
➢ Adaptive protection: After advent of MGs, conventional overcurrent protection
relays encounter selectivity and sensitivity issues due to different levels of fault
during islanded and grid-connected modes. One of the promising solutions is
adaptive protection technique.
➢ Standardization: To achieve the highly cooperative relationship of different
components of the grid, standardizations for implementation of smart grids as
well as a high reliable and cost-effective communication are required.
➢ Self-healing actions: Self-healing is an ability to allow resilience and fast
recovery of the power system in response to the fault conditions have been
envisioned. Self-healing usually refers to reconfiguration, load shedding, or
controlling the dispatchable generators’ output powers.
❖ Conclusion
Overall, microgrid protection is a vital aspect for ensuring the safe, reliable, and efficient
operation of these localized power systems. By implementing appropriate protection
schemes and staying updated on advancements in the field, microgrids can become a
reliable and secure source of clean energy.

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