3.

2 INPUT-OUTPUT DEVICES

3.2.1 INPUT DEVICES

Barcode scanners (readers)

● A barcode is a series of dark and light parallel lines of varying thickness.

● The numbers 0 to 9 are represented by a unique series of lines
● Each digit in the barcode is represented by bars of 1 to 4 blocks thick
● Each digit is made up of two dark lines and two light lines of the same width
● The digits on the left have an odd number of dark elements and always begin with a
light bar.
● The digits on the right have an even number of dark elements and always begin with
a dark bar.
● This allows a barcode to be scanned in any direction.

What happens when a barcode is scanned?

● The barcode is first of all read by a red laser or red LED (Light emitting diode)
● Light is reflected off the barcode.
● The dark areas reflect little or no light, which allows the bars to be read
● the reflected light is read by sensors (photoelectric cells)
● as the laser or LED light is scanned across the barcode, a pattern is generated,
which is converted into digital data – this allows the computer to understand the
barcode

What happens after a barcode is read?

● the barcode number( key field) is looked up in the stock database

● this key field uniquely identifies each stock item
● when the barcode number is found, the stock item record is looked up
● the price and other stock item details are sent back to the checkout (or point of sale
terminal (POS))
● the number of stock items in the record is reduced by one each time the barcode is
read
 ● this new value for the number of stock is written back to the stock item record
● the number of stock items is compared to the re-order level; if it is less than or equal
to this value, more stock items are automatically ordered

Barcodes can be used in libraries where they are used in books and on the borrower’s
library card. Every time a book is taken out, the borrower is linked to the book automatically.
This allows automatic checking of when the book is due to be returned.

QR CODES (Quick response code)

● A QR code consists of a block of small squares (light and dark) known as pixels.
● The three large squares at the corners of the code function as a form of alignment.
● The remaining small corner square is used to ensure the correct size and angle of
the camera shot when the QR code is read.
● Modern smartphones and tablets allow internet access on the move; QR codes can
be scanned anywhere.

● This gives rise to several uses:

» advertising products
» giving automatic access to a website or contact telephone number
» storing boarding passes electronically at airports and train stations

How is it read and processed?

● The device shines a laser onto the QR code

● The corners determine the position
● The device captures light which is reflected back using sensors
● The light reflections are converted into binary
 ● The link to the video is stored on the QR code itself

Advantages of QR over Barcodes

● They can hold much more information.

● Fewer errors will be due to its high capacity, allowing built-in error-checking systems
to be used.
● QR codes are easier to read since they don't need expensive lasers or LEDs.
● It is easy to transmit QR codes as text messages or images
● You can encrypt QR codes, which gives them greater security

Disadvantages of QR over Barcodes

● More than one QR format is available
● They can be used to send malicious codes known as attagging.
● Writing malicious code and embedding it within the QR code is relatively easy.
● When the code is scanned, the creator of the malicious code could potentially gain
access to everything on the client’s phone.
● The client could also be sent to a fake website, or a virus could be downloaded.

New developments known as frame QR codes are now used because of the increased
ability to add advertising logos. This isn't free, as you can add graphics and images.

Digital cameras

Digital cameras have replaced traditional cameras that use film to capture images. This
made these cameras expensive since deleting unwanted photographs was impossible.
Modern digital cameras connect a computer system via a USB port or Bluetooth.

These cameras are controlled by an embedded system which can automatically carry out
the following tasks:
» focus the image automatically
» operate the flash gun automatically
» adjust the size of the image

What happens when a photograph is taken?

● The image is captured when light passes through the lens onto a light-sensitive
cell
● Each sensor is often called a pixel since tiny components comprise the image.
● The image is converted into tiny electric charges, passing through an ADC to form a
digital image array.
● ADC converts the electric charges from each pixel into levels of brightness.
● Besides brightness, the sensors also measure color, producing another binary
pattern.

Factors affecting a photograph

 ● The size of the file used to store the photograph is determined by the number of
pixels
● The quality of the image depends on the recording device, the number of pixels used
the levels of light, and how the image is stored

Mobile phones have very sophisticated optics and photography software and have caught up
with digital cameras regarding the number of pixels. However, the drawbacks are often
inferior lens quality and limited photo storage memory.

Advantages of digital cameras

● It is more accessible to produce better-quality photographs than with a traditional

camera.
● Uploading photographs to a computer is easier and faster
● There is no need to develop film and print photographs anymore – this saves money
and is more environmentally acceptable.
● Memory cards can store many thousands of photographs.

Disadvantages of digital cameras

● You need to be computer literate to use the cameras properly; transferring, storing,
and manipulating images via a laptop requires understanding how computers work.
● Some artistry is lost because clever software now corrects errors in photographs.
● Images often need to be compressed to reduce the amount of memory used.

Keyboards

The keyboard is connected to the computer by USB or wireless connection, tablets and
mobile phones virtual or touchscreen technology.

Advantages:

● The easiest way to input text into a computer

Disadvantages
● They are a relatively slow method of data entry and are also prone to error.
● Frequent use of these devices can lead to injuries, such as repetitive strain injury
(RSI) in the hands and wrists. Ergonomic keyboards have differently arranged keys
to give more support to the wrists and hands when typing a lot.

How does a keyboard work?

» There is a membrane or circuit board at the base of the keys
» The CPU in the computer can determine which key has been pressed
» The CPU refers to an index file to identify which character the key press represents
» Each character on a keyboard has a corresponding ASCII value
Microphones

Microphones are either built into the computer or are external devices connected
through the USB port or using Bluetooth connectivity.

» When sound is created, it causes the air to vibrate.

» When a diaphragm in the microphone picks up the air vibrations, the diaphragm also
begins to vibrate.

» As the diaphragm vibrates, the cone moves in and out, causing the copper coil wrapped
around the cone to move backward and forward.

» This forward and backward motion causes the coil to cut through the magnetic field around
the permanent magnet, inducing an electric current.

» The electric current is amplified or sent to a recording device. The electric current is
analog.

» The electric current output from the microphone can also be sent to a computer where a
sound card converts the current into a digital signal which can then be stored in the
computer.

» This is then converted using an ADC into digital values, which can then be stored in a
computer or manipulated as required using appropriate software.

Used in voice recognition to allow computers to recognize spoken words and use them as
input

Optical mouse

An optical mouse is a pointing device.

A red LED is used at the base of the mouse, and the red light bounces off the surface. The
reflection is picked up by CMOS, which generates electric pulses to represent the reflected
red light and sends them to a digital signal processor (DSP).

The processor can now work out the mouse's coordinates based on the changing image
patterns as it moves about on the surface. The computer can then move the on-screen
cursor to the coordinates sent by the mouse.

Benefits of an optical mouse over a mechanical mouse

» There are no moving parts therefore, it is more reliable.
» Dirt can’t get trapped in any of the mechanical components.
» There is no need to have any unique surfaces.

Benefits of a wired mouse

» no signal loss since there is a constant signal pathway (wire)
» cheaper to operate (no need to buy new batteries or charge batteries)
» fewer environmental issues (no need to dispose of old batteries).

Uses of a mouse
» opening, closing, and minimizing software
» grouping, moving and deleting files
» controlling the size and position of a drawing pasted into a document
» controlling the position of a pointer on the screen to allow selection from a menu

2D scanners

How does it work?

1. First, the cover is raised, the document is placed on a glass panel, and the
cover is closed.
2. A bright light illuminates the document
3. A scan head moves across the document until the whole page has been
scanned
4. An image is produced, which is sent to the lens using a series of mirrors
5. The lens focuses on the document image
6. The focused image falls onto a charge couple device, which converts the light
into an electric current.
7. Computers equipped with optical character recognition (OCR) software allow
the scanned text from the document to be converted into a text file format,
which can then be edited and manipulated by importing it into a word
processor.

Applications of 2D scanners

At airports, 2D scanners read passports. They use OCR technology to produce digital
images representing the passport pages. At many airports, the 2d photograph in the
passport is scanned and stored as a JPEG image.

When the image from the passport and the image taken by the camera are compared, these
critical positions on the face determine whether or not the two images represent the same
face.

3D scanners

3D scanners scan solid objects and produce a three-dimensional image.

The scanned images can be used in computer-aided design (CAD) or, more recently, sent to
a 3D printer to produce a working model of the scanned image.

Applications of 3D scanners
Use tomography technology in XRAYS (Computerised technology), radio frequencies
(Magnetic resonance images), gamma rays (SPECT)

Touch screens

They allow simple touch selection from a menu to launch an app.

They allow the user to perform the same functions as a pointing device.

There are three common types of touchscreen technologies

» capacitive
» infrared
» resistive (most common method at the moment).

1) Capacitive
● Capacitive touch screens comprise a layer of glass, a transparent electrode
layer, and a glass substrate.
● Since human skin is a conductor of electricity, the electrostatic field of the
conductive layer is changed.
● The installed microcontroller can calculate where this change took place and,
hence, determine the point of contact coordinates.

There are presently two main types of capacitive touch screens:

» surface
» projective.

○ In Surface capacitive screens, sensors are placed at the corners of a screen.

○ Small voltages are also applied at the corners of the screen creating an
electric field.
○ A finger touching the screen surface will draw current from each corner
reducing the capacitance.
○ A microcontroller measures the decrease in capacitance and hence
determines the point where the finger touched the screen.
○ This system only works with a bare finger or stylus.

➢ In the Projective capacitive, the transparent conductive layer is now in the

form of an X-Y matrix pattern.
➢ This creates a 3D electrostatic field.
➢ When a finger touches the screen, it disturbs the 3D electrostatic field,
allowing a microcontroller to determine the point of contact coordinates.
➢ This system works with bare fingers, stylus and thin surgical or cotton gloves.
➢ It also allows multi-touch facility

Advantages compared to the other two technologies

» Better image clarity than resistive screens, especially in strong sunlight
» Very durable screens that have high scratch resistance
» Projective capacitive screens allow multi-touch.
 Disadvantages compared to the other two technologies
» Surface capacitive screens only work with bare fingers or a special stylus
» They are sensitive to electromagnetic radiation

2) Infrared touch screens

● Infrared touch screens use a glass screen with an array of sensors and
infrared Transmitters.
● The sensors detect the infrared radiation. If any of the infrared beams are
broken
● (for example, with a finger touching the screen), the infrared radiation
reaching the sensors is reduced.
● The sensor readings are sent to a microcontroller that calculates where the
screen was touched.

Advantages compared to the other two technologies

» Allows multi-touch facilities
» Has good screen durability
» The operability isn’t affected by a scratched or cracked screen.

Disadvantages compared to the other two technologies

» The screen can be sensitive to water or moisture
» It is possible for accidental activation to take place if the infrared beams are
disturbed in some way
» Sometimes sensitive to light interference.

3) Resistive touch screens

● Resistive touch screens comprise two layers of electrically resistive material
with a voltage applied across them.
● The upper layer is made of flexible polyethylene with a resistive coating on
one side
● The bottom layer is made of glass also with a resistive coating on one side.
● These two layers are separated by air or an inert gas.
● When the top polyethylene surface is touched, the two layers make contact.
● Since both layers are coated in a resistive material a circuit is now completed
which results in a flow of electricity.
● The point of contact is detected where there was a change in voltage.
● A microcontroller converts the voltage to digital data, which it then sends to
the microprocessor.

Advantages compared to the other two technologies

» Good resistance to dust and water
» Can be used with bare fingers, stylus and gloved hand.

Disadvantages compared to the other two technologies

» Low touch sensitivity (sometimes have to press down harder)
» Doesn’t support multi-touch facility
» Poor visibility in strong sunlight
 » Vulnerable to scratches on the screen (made of polymer).

Uses of touch screens:

● ATMS
● Mobile phones
● Interactive whiteboards
● Restaurant menus etc

Advantages of touch screens in general:

● Faster entry of options than the keyboard

● User friendly
● Can quickly expand the size

Disadavantes of touch screens in general:

● The screen can quickly get dirty

● Limited input options
● Strain on muscles

3.2.2 OUTPUT DEVICES

Actuator

● An actuator is a mechanical or electromechanical device such as a relay,

solenoid, or motor.
● When a computer controls devices such as a conveyor belt or a valve, an
actuator is usually necessary to start/stop the belt or open/close the valve.
● If a plunger is placed inside the coil, it will move when a current is applied to
the coil. This would allow the solenoid to operate a valve or a switch.

Light projectors

Projectors are used to project computer output onto larger screens or even onto interactive
whiteboards. They are often used in presentations and in multimedia applications.

1) Digital light projector (DLP)

● The resolution of the digital image is determined by the number of micro

mirrors and how they are arranged on the DMD chip.
● When the micromirrors tilt towards the light source, they are ON. When the
micromirrors tilt away from the light source, they are OFF.
● This creates a light or dark pixel on the projection screen.
● The micro mirrors can switch on or off several thousand times a second,
creating various grey shades (for example, if the mirror switches on more
 often than it switches off, it will produce a lighter shade of grey). This is known
as a greyscale image.
● A bright white light source passes through a color filter to the DMD chip.
● The white light is split into the primary colors: RGB
● Each micromirror's ON and OFF states are linked with colors from the filter to
produce the colored image.

2) Liquid crystal display (LCD) projector

● These are an older technology than DLP.
● A high-intensity light beam passes through an LCD and then onto a screen.
● A powerful beam of white light is generated from a bulb or LED inside the projector
body.
● This beam of light is then sent to a group of chromatic-coated mirrors (dichromic
mirrors)
● These reflect the light at different wavelengths
● When the white light hits these mirrors, the reflected light has wavelengths
corresponding to red, green, and blue light components
● These three different colored light components pass through three LCD screens
● Three different versions of the same image are now produced: one is the whole
image in different shades of red, one is the entire image in different shades of green,
and one is the entire image in different shades of blue
● These images are then re-combined using a unique prism to produce a full-colour
image
● Finally, the image passes through the projector lens onto a screen.

Uses of projectors:

● Advertising presentations
● Home movie systems
● Training presentations

Advantages of projectors in general:

● Wide audience viewing
 ● Simplified sharing

Disadvantages:
● Setup complexity
● High cost
● Low image quality

Inkjet printers

They are used for printing one-off photos or where only a few pages of good quality, colour
printing is needed

How does it work?

● A print head, which consists of nozzles that spray droplets of ink from ink cartridges
onto the paper to form characters
● A stepper motor and belt, which moves the print head assembly across the page
from side to side
● A paper feed, which automatically feeds the printer with pages as they are required.

● The ink droplets are currently produced using two different technologies:

● Thermal bubble: Tiny resistors create localised heat, which makes the ink vaporise.
This causes the ink to form a tiny bubble; as the bubble expands, some of the ink is
ejected from the print head onto the paper. When the bubble collapses, a small
vacuum is created, which allows fresh ink to be drawn into the print head. This
continues until the printing cycle is completed.

● Piezoelectric—a crystal is located at the back of the ink reservoir for each nozzle.
The crystal is given a tiny electric charge, which makes it vibrate. This vibration
forces ink to be ejected onto the paper; at the same time, more ink is drawn in for
further printing. When a user wishes to print a document using an inkjet printer, the
following sequence of events takes place. Whatever technology is used, the basic
steps in the printing process are the same.
Laser printers

● Laser printers use dry powder ink rather than liquid ink and make use of the
properties of static electricity to produce text and images.

● Unlike inkjet printers, laser printers print the whole page in one go. Colour laser
printers use 4 toner cartridges – blue, cyan, magenta and black.

● Although the actual technology is different to monochrome printers, the printing

method is similar, but colored dots are used to build up the text and images.

● These devices produce high-quality printouts and are very fast when making multiple
document copies.
● Laser printers have two advantages: large toner cartridges and large paper trays.
3D printers

3D printers produce solid objects that work. They are primarily based on inkjet and laser
printer technology. The solid object is built up layer by layer using materials like powdered
metal, paper, or ceramic.

The features of 3D printing:

» They use additive manufacturing (the object is built up layer by layer) instead of subtractive
manufacturing (removal of material to make the object).

» Direct 3D printing uses inkjet technology; a print head can move left to right like in a
normal printer. However, the print head can also move up and down to build up an object's
layers.

» Binder 3D uses two passes for each of the layers; the first pass sprays dry powder, and
then on the second pass, a binder (a type of glue) is sprayed to form a solid layer.

» Newer technologies use lasers and UV light to harden liquid polymers, which increases the
diversity of products that can be made.
Uses of 3D printing

» the covering of prosthetic limbs can be made to fit the limb exactly
» making items to allow precision reconstructive surgery
» in aerospace, manufacturers are looking at making wings and other parts
» fashion and art – 3D printing allows new creative ideas to be developed
» making parts for items no longer in production like suspension parts for a vintage car.

LED screens

● An LED screen is made up of tiny light emitting diodes (LEDs)

● Each LED is either red, green or blue in colour.
● By varying the electric current sent to each LED, its brightness can be controlled,
producing a vast range of colours.
● This type of screen tends to be used for large outdoor displays due to the brilliance of
the colours produced.

LCD screens

● LCD screens are made up of tiny liquid crystals.

● These tiny crystals make up an array of pixels that are affected by changes in applied
electric fields
● Because LCD’s don’t produce any light, LCD screens are back-lit using (LED)
technology which gives a very good contrast and brightness range.
● Before the use of LEDs, LCD screens used cold cathode fluorescent lamp (CCFL) as
● the back-lit method.
● Essentially, CCFL uses two fluorescent tubes behind the LCD screen which supply
● the light source.
● When LEDs are used, a matrix of tiny blue-white LEDs is used behind the LCD
screen.
Advantages of LED over CCFL

● LEDs reach their maximum brightness almost immediately

● LEDs give a whiter light that sharpens the image and makes the colors appear more
vivid, while CCFL had a slightly yellowish tint
● LEDs produce a brighter light that improves the color definition
● Monitors using LED technology are much thinner than monitors using CCFL
technology
● LEDs last indefinitely, meaning it is reliable
● LEDs consume very little power, which means they produce less heat and use less
energy.

Organic light-emitting diodes (OLED)

● These use organic materials (made up of carbon compounds) to create very flexible
semiconductors.
● Organic films are sandwiched between two charged electrodes
● When an electric field is applied to the electrodes, they give off light.
● This means that no form of backlighting is required. This allows for very thin screens.
● This also means that LCD technology is no longer necessary since OLED is
self-contained.
● OLED technology can bend screens to any shape
● When mobile phone manufacturers adopt this, it makes it possible to develop phones
that can wrap around your wrist or ‘smart’ clothing with GPS embedded in it

Advantages of using OLED compared to LEDs and LCDs:

● An OLED's plastic, organic layers are thinner, lighter, and more flexible than the
crystal structures used in LEDs or LCDs.
● OLED screens have lighter light-emitting layers, made from plastic rather than glass,
as in LED and LCD screens.
● OLEDs give a brighter light than LEDs.
● OLEDs do not require backlighting like LCD screens – OLEDs generate their light.
● Since OLEDs require no backlighting, they use much less power than LCD screens.
● Since OLEDs are essentially plastics, they can be made into large, thin sheets.
● (used in advertising boards
● OLEDs have a very large field of view, making them ideal for television sets and
advertising screens.

Loudspeakers
Loudspeakers are output devices that produce sound.

● Digital data is first passed through a digital-to-analog converter (DAC), where it is

converted into electric current.
● This is then passed through an amplifier, creating a large current to drive a
loudspeaker.
● This electric current is then fed to a loudspeaker and converted into sound.
 ● If the sound is stored in a computer file, it must pass through a DAC to convert binary
data into analog form, which can then drive the loudspeaker.
● When an electric current flows through a coil of wire wrapped around an iron core,
the core becomes a temporary electromagnet.
● A permanent magnet is also positioned very close to this electromagnet.
● As the electric current through the coil of wire varies, the induced magnetic field in
the iron core also varies.
● This causes the iron core to be attracted to the permanent magnet, and as the
current varies, it vibrates.
● Since the iron core is attached to a cone, the cone vibrates, producing sound waves.

3.2.3 Sensors

Sensors are input devices that read or measure the physical properties of their surroundings.

How do sensors work?

Examples of monitoring
» Monitoring a patient in a hospital for vital signs such as heart rate, temperature, etc.
» Monitoring of intruders in a burglar alarm system
» Checking the temperature levels in a car engine
» Monitoring pollution levels in a river.

Examples of control
» Turning street lights on at night and turning them off again during daylight
» Controlling the temperature in a central heating/air conditioning system
» Chemical process control