2024ELSEVIER

Information Fusion 102 (2024) 102019
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Information Fusion
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/inffus
Emotion recognition and artificial intelligence: A systematic review

(2014–2023) and research recommendations
Smith K. Khare a ,∗, Victoria Blanes-Vidal a , Esmaeil S. Nadimi a , U. Rajendra Acharya b
a
Applied AI and Data Science Unit, Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller Institute, Faculty of Engineering, University of Southern Denmark, Denmark
b
School of Mathematics, Physics and Computing, University of Southern Queensland, Springfield, Australia
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT
Keywords: Emotion recognition is the ability to precisely infer human emotions from numerous sources and modalities
Emotion recognition using questionnaires, physical signals, and physiological signals. Recently, emotion recognition has gained
Speech attention because of its diverse application areas, like affective computing, healthcare, human–robot in-
Facial images
teractions, and market research. This paper provides a comprehensive and systematic review of emotion
Electroencephalogram
recognition techniques of the current decade. The paper includes emotion recognition using physical and
Electrocardiogram
Eye tracking
physiological signals. Physical signals involve speech and facial expression, while physiological signals include
Galvanic skin response electroencephalogram, electrocardiogram, galvanic skin response, and eye tracking. The paper provides an
Artificial intelligence introduction to various emotion models, stimuli used for emotion elicitation, and the background of existing
Machine learning automated emotion recognition systems. This paper covers comprehensive searching and scanning of well-
Deep learning known datasets followed by design criteria for review. After a thorough analysis and discussion, we selected
142 journal articles using PRISMA guidelines. The review provides a detailed analysis of existing studies
and available datasets of emotion recognition. Our review analysis also presented potential challenges in the
existing literature and directions for future research.
1. Introduction 1.1. Paradigms of emotion
Emotion is a dynamic cognitive and physiological condition that de- Distinct brain parts induce different emotions [12]. There are three
velops in reaction to inputs, like experiences, thoughts, or interactions types of emotional responses: reactional, hormonal, and automatic
with people. It includes subjective experience, cognitive processes, [13]. According to psychology, emotions are responses to stimuli,
behavioral influences, physiological responses, and communication. associated with qualitative physiological changes [13]. Two basic ap-
Therefore, emotion recognition is crucial in the application areas such proaches used to study the nature of emotions are discrete method and
as marketing, human–robot interaction, healthcare, mental health mon- the multidimensional approach [13].
itoring, and security [1]. The study of emotions for healthcare includes
vast neurological disorders like sleep disorders [2], schizophrenia [3], 1.1.1. Discrete emotions theory
evaluation of sleep quality [4], and Parkinson’s disease [5]. Human According to this theory, emotions are different and discrete cat-
emotions can play a key role in detecting physiological conditions like egories, each with its ensemble of cognitive, psychological, and be-
fatigue [6], drowsiness [7], depression [3], and pain [8]. The experts havioral factors. Emotions can be positive or negative. According to
also suggested that variation in emotions are of great importance in proponents of this hypothesis, there exist a few fundamental emo-
the study of autism spectral disorder [9], attention deficit hyperactivity tions that are generally recognized across cultures. There are six basic
disorder [10], and panic disorder [11]. The study of human emotion is emotions namely: happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, fear, and dis-
also crucial for human–robot interaction and brain-computer evalua- gust [14]. Robert Plutchik provided a comprehensive emotional model
called Plutchik’s wheel of emotions [15]. Plutchik’s wheel consists
tion, where machines are designed to behave like humans for various
of eight emotions namely: fear, joy, sadness, trust, anger, surprise,
applications [1]. Therefore, a detailed study of human emotions and
anticipation, and disgust. Other associated emotions, which combines
automated human emotion recognition is crucial.
these eight primary emotions are derived by positional intensities. The
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: smkh@mmmi.sdu.dk (S.K. Khare).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inffus.2023.102019
Received 25 August 2023; Received in revised form 8 September 2023; Accepted 10 September 2023
Available online 16 September 2023
1566-2535/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
S.K. Khare et al. Information Fusion 102 (2024) 102019
Fig. 3. 3D VAD emotion model.
Fig. 1. Plutchik’s wheel of emotions [15].
2. Emotion sensing modalities
Emotion sensing is a technique used to extract human emotions.

Over the years, various methods have been adopted to study human
emotions. These techniques are broadly classified into three categories,
namely: questionnaires, physical, and physiological, as shown in Fig. 4.
2.1. Questionnaires
The questionnaire and self-reports are intended to begin people

thinking about the various emotional intelligence competencies as they
pertain to them. Various techniques have been developed based on
manual assessment of emotions, including positive and negative affect
schedule (PANAS) [18], self-assessment manikin (SAM) [19], photo-
graphic affect meter (PAM) [20], and experience sampling method
(ESM) [21]. PANAS is a psychological technique for assessing and
measuring a person’s positive and negative emotions. The PANAS ques-
tionnaire is divided into two sections: the positive affect scale and
the negative affect scale [18]. SAM is a nonverbal pictorial evaluation
Fig. 2. 2D VA emotion model. approach that directly evaluates the valence, arousal, and dominance
associated with an individual’s emotive reaction to a wide range of
stimuli [19]. PAM is a novel affect measurement technique in which
intensity of the emotions increases as we move towards the center of users select the photo that best matches their present mood from a large
the wheel and vice-versa. Fig. 1 provides an overview of Plutchik’s selection [20]. ESM is a research technique used in psychology and
wheel of emotions [15]. related fields to collect real-time data on individuals’ experiences, be-
haviors, and psychological states in their natural environments. It aims
to capture momentary or near-real-time assessments of participants’
1.1.2. Multidimensional emotions theory
experiences and contexts [21].
The multidimensional approach for emotions acknowledges that
emotions are complicated and impacted by numerous elements such as 2.2. Physical signals
personal experiences, cultural background, and individual variations.
It gives a framework for comprehending the richness and complexity Physical signals for emotion recognition include facial expressions,
of emotional experiences and allows for a more in-depth examination speech, text, gestures, and body postures [22]. Speech and facial ex-
of emotional states. It is categorized as a 2-dimensional (2D) and 3- pressions are the most commonly employed mechanisms for emotion
dimensional (3D) emotional space model. In the 2D emotional space identification among physical signals [22]. As a result, we chose to limit
model, emotions are divided into valence (V), which can be positive our review study to only physical activities based on speech and facial
(Pos) or negative (Neg) and arousal (A), i.e., high activation or low expressions.
activation. Russell’s 2D emotional space model that maps using valence
and arousal is shown in Fig. 2 [16]. 2.3. Physiological signals
Similarly, the 3D emotional space model maps various continuous
dimensions, such as V (Pos or Neg), arousal (high or low activation), Physiological signals are the most widely used source for emotion
and dominance (D) (feeling in control or feeling controlled). The 3D identification. The advantage of physiological signals is that they are
emotional space model proposed by Mehrabian and Russell is shown activated unintentionally, so cannot be controlled easily by the subject.
in Fig. 3 [17]. Other benefits include efficient and low-cost data collection, fewer
2
behaviors for studying and understanding various psychological pro-

cesses. Stimuli can include situations, scenarios, or social interactions
that elicit emotional, cognitive, or behavioral responses. Well-known
stimuli for eliciting the targeted emotions are virtual reality (VR),
images, video games, music, audio/video clips, audio, and/or videos
[25–27]. Based on the type of stimulus various emotions are elicited
and are ranked manually using a questionnaire using SAM, PANAS,
PAM, ESM, or other similar techniques.
3.3. Input signals
Input signals are pre-processed for effective analysis. Pre-processing

refers to the steps or procedures performed on raw data prior to analysis
or further processing. Pre-processing is critical in data analysis because
it improves data quality, reduces noise or extraneous information, and
prepares the data for effective analysis and modeling. The specific
pre-processing steps are decided by the nature of the data and the
goals of the study. Typically, the steps involved in pre-processing
are data cleaning (removal of artifacts and other noise sources), data
integration, data transformation, data sampling, and data scaling.
3.4. Feature extraction
In data analysis and machine learning (ML), feature extraction

refers to translating raw data into a set of relevant and representa-
tive characteristics that may be used for further modeling. It seeks
to extract from data important information or patterns that encap-
sulate the key traits or properties of the underlying phenomenon.
The goal of feature extraction is to find and choose a subset of at-
tributes that best capture the subtle details in the data while rejecting
redundant or unnecessary data. This procedure reduces the data’s
dimensionality, making it more understandable and suited for analysis
Fig. 4. Branching representation and classification of emotion sensing techniques.
or modeling activities. The most common features include statisti-
cal features, nonlinear features, frequency-domain features, entropy
features, time–frequency-based features, image-vision-based features,
errors caused by light and shadow acquisition, and less invasion of fractal dimensions, nonlinear decomposition, domain-specific features,
user privacy [22–24]. Electroencephalogram (EEG), electrocardiogram and deep learning (DL) features.
(ECG), electromyogram (EMG), galvanic skin response (GSR), respira-
tion (RSP), skin temperature, photoplethysmography, and eye tracking 3.5. Feature selection
(ET) are the most commonly employed physiological signals for emo-
tion recognition [22]. Among physiological signals, the most often The process of choosing a subset of pertinent characteristics from a
utilized modalities for detecting human emotions are EEG, GSR, ECG, set of features that are present in a dataset is known as feature selection.
and ET. As a result, these four physiological modalities were included It attempts to choose the most discriminative and informative features
in our review analysis. that contribute the most to the analysis or prediction while avoiding
duplicate or unnecessary features. The choice of features is crucial since
3. Overview of automated emotion recognition systems it may speed up computation, reduce overfitting, boost interpretability,
and enhance model performance. The most common feature selec-
Automated emotion recognition systems involve several steps for tion techniques include dimensionality reduction (principle component
predicting accurate emotional states. The schematic view of the steps analysis or independent component analysis), statistical or univari-
in an automated emotion recognition system is shown in Fig. 5. The ate analysis (chi-squared test, ANOVA, or correlation), regularization
brief discussion about each step is discussed as follows: techniques (Lasso (L1 regularization) and Ridge (L2 regularization)),
feature selection algorithms or wrapper methods (recursive feature
elimination, sequential feature selection, and tree-based methods, or
3.1. Source
ensemble based methods).
This first step refers to the part of the body, used for measuring
3.6. Classification
the responses to various inputs. Since our review covers two physical
signals (speech and facial expressions) and four physiological signals
It is a crucial step in an automated detection system that is used
(EEG, ECG, GSR, and ET), therefore, acquisition sources are limited to to categorize the values of the variables to its subsequent classes. It
eyes, speech, brain, heart, skin, and face. involves decision-making using ML or DL techniques. ML techniques
involve, among others, support vector machine (SVM), k-nearest neigh-
3.2. Stimuli bor (KNN), decision tree (DT), artificial neural network (ANN), random
forest (RF), logistic regression, linear discriminant analysis are some
Stimuli are any items, events, or conditions that cause an organ- of the most widely used techniques. Convolutional neural network
ism, such as a person or an animal, to respond or react. Stimuli are (CNN), long-short term memory (LSTM) networks, deep neural net-
commonly employed in psychology and research to elicit responses or works (DNN), multilayer perceptron (MLP), recurrent neural network
3
Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of steps involved in an automated emotion recognition system.
(RNN), generative adversarial networks (GAN), gated recurrent units, PRISMA guidelines. Their method covered the application of ML and DL
self-organizing maps, deep reinforcement learning, deep transfer learn- techniques, but failed to cover research challenges and comprehensive
ing, autoencoders (AE), transformers, and deep belief network (DBN) research directions. Kamble and Sengupta [31] presented a review
are some of the state-of-the-art DL models. on emotion recognition using EEG signals without following PRISMA
guidelines. They presented a detailed analysis of feature extraction
3.7. Model evaluation methods and decision-making using ML and DL techniques. Their re-
view method did not explore research challenges and future directions.
An ML or classification model’s quality and efficacy are assessed Zhang et al. [32] presented a review of EEG signals and ML techniques
using performance measures. These metrics give numerical evaluations for emotion recognition without PRISMA guidelines. The authors pre-
of the model’s performance regarding predictions and generalizability sented a comprehensive study on existing methods, open challenges,
to new data. Particular challenge, kind of data, and the required and future directions. Adyapady and Annappa [33] provided a com-
assessment standards influence the choice of performance indicators. prehensive review of facial image-based emotion recognition using
Some famous indicators of success for ML/DL models are accuracy ML and DL techniques. Their emotion detection review method does
(ACC), recall, specificity, precision, confusion matrix, area under the not involve PRISMA guidelines. The authors discussed various tech-
receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC-ROC), and F-1 score. niques, datasets, and a few applications of emotion recognition. Ba and
Hu [34] performed a systematic review following PRISMA guidelines
4. Motivation and highlights of the review study on emotion recognition using wearables in education. Their review
study showed that portable and accurate wearable devices adopting
In the last decade, several review papers have been published for electro-dermal activity and heart rate signals are common for emotion
emotion recognition and decision-making. We have performed a com- detection in education.
prehensive search by scanning the relevant review articles published
recently, and identified significant limitations, before designing our 4.2. Motivation for the current review study
systematic review as shown in Fig. 6.
Human emotions are important markers for different states of con-
4.1. Existing emotion recognition review studies ditions and behavioral analysis. Recently, several review studies have
been conducted, focusing on numerous applications and detection tech-
Hasnul et al. [28] presented a review of ECG-based emotion recog- niques. After doing a comprehensive literature analysis on human
nition and their applications. Their review strategy did not employ emotion recognition review articles, the following gaps have been
PRISMA guidelines and was limited to ECG signals. The authors fur- identified.
ther discuss the application areas confined to healthcare with limited
discussion on challenges and future directions. Bota et al. [29] carried • Many emotion recognition studies have been performed without
out a comprehensive review on emotion recognition using physiolog- PRISMA guidelines [28,29,31–33].
ical signals and ML techniques. Their review study failed to employ • The majority of the review articles previously published for emo-
a systematic review strategy using PRISMA guidelines. Their review tion recognition focused on a single modality i.e., either physio-
study did not discuss application areas, presented limited discussion, logical signal, speech, or facial images [28,31–33].
and limited future directions. Singh and Goel [30] presented a sys- • The emotion recognition studies on physiological signals are con-
tematic review of emotion recognition using speech signals following fined to EEG signals or ML techniques [31,32].
4
Fig. 6. Comparison and uniqueness of our review study with existing review papers published for emotion recognition.
• A little discussion on research challenges and applications

[28–33].
• Limited directions for future research [28–33].
The above-listed gaps motivate us to write a comprehensive and sys-

tematic review of emotion recognition using different modalities. We
have also focused on a detailed discussion of datasets, feature extraction
techniques, and inclusion of artificial intelligence (AI). Our review
study presents a detailed analysis and comprehensive summary of ex-
isting feature extraction and classification techniques. In addition, our
review study includes a detailed analysis of current research gaps, po-
tential application areas, and directions for future research in emotion
recognition.
4.3. Salient features of our systematic review
The uniqueness and salient features of our review study are listed Fig. 7. Highlights and key points included in the review method for emotion
recognition.
as follows and shown in Fig. 7:
1. Comprehensive use of datasets: Our review study explores

a comprehensive search strategy of different databases. The 6. Datasets: We have also presented a comprehensive analysis
authors have scanned renowned databases, including Web of of the available datasets used for emotion recognition using
Science, MEDLINE, PubMed/PubMed Central, IEEE Explore, Sco- different modalities.
pus, Wiley, and others for selecting the most relevant research 7. Analysis: We have presented a detailed analysis and discussion
studies. of existing studies included in the current review.
2. Systematic review: Our developed review study follows strict 8. Challenges and future Directions: We identified current chal-
PRISMA guidelines for selecting relevant research articles. lenges, presented a detailed discussion and future directions for
3. Time window: We have considered a time window of last research. We also explored the application areas of emotion
10 years, for scanning and selecting the articles included in the recognition in various fields.
review.
4. Multi-modal emotion recognition: We have included physio- 5. Review method
logical signals (EEG, ECG, ET, and GSR) and physical activity
(speech and facial expression). In addition, we have used AI com- The current systematic review uses the recommended reporting
prised of ML and DL techniques used for emotion recognition. elements for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) guide-
5. Diverse emotion model: We have included articles on dis- lines [35]. The review protocol includes search strategies, selection
crete and multi-dimensional emotional models to develop our criteria, selection standards, and data extraction. The details of search,
review study. Also, we have confined our search for articles to selection, and extraction strategies are covered in the following subsec-
peer-reviewed journals. tions:
5
Table 1 shortlisting into three steps: identification, screening, and inclusion.

Criteria adopted for inclusion and exclusion for article selection.
Initially, a total of 14 257 articles were identified from six prestigious
(i) emotion recognition
databases and registers, including Web of Science, PubMed, MEDLINE,
(ii) classification of emotions using EEG signals
(iii) emotion recognition and EEG signals Inspec, Scopus, and others. Based on the relevance of the study, we
(iv) detection of emotion using EEG signals selected 3846 articles, and discarded the remaining before screening.
(v) emotion recognition using physiological signals During the screening stage, we retrieved 968 articles, of which 234
(vi) detection of emotions using ECG signals
were screened for further assessment and excluded others. During the
(vii) emotion recognition using ECG signals
(viii) automated emotion recognition using physiological signals final inclusion stage, out of 234 articles, 92 were excluded based on the
(ix) machine learning and deep learning for emotion recognition exclusion criteria, and 142 were selected for review. The distribution
(x) GSR and emotion classification includes 44 articles based on EEG, 20 articles on ECG-based emotion
(xi) galvanic skin response for emotion detection
recognition, 16 articles for GSR-based emotion recognition, 6 articles
Inclusion (xii) automated emotion classification using GSR
(xiii) eye tracking and emotion classification on ET, and 28 articles each for speech- and facial image-based emotion
(xiv) emotion detection using eye tracking recognition. However, some articles are common for EEG-, ECG-, and
(xv) automated emotion detection and eye tracking GSR-based emotion recognition. Fig. 9 shows the distribution of articles
(xvi) speech and emotion classification
based on time and publishers. The time-based analysis reveals that the
(xvi) speech-based emotion recognition
(xvii) automated emotion detection using speech highest number of articles belongs to the year 2022, whereas, Elsevier
(xviii) facial images and emotion classification is the mostly preferred publisher followed by IEEE.
(xix) automated system for emotion classification using facial images
(xx) emotion and facial images
(xxi) automated human emotion recognition 6. Summary of emotion recognition studies using EEG signals
(xxii) deep learning based emotion detection using facial images
(i) extension or repeated articles The authors have selected 44 articles based on EEG-based emotion
(iii) articles published before 2014 recognition. In addition, 5 articles used EEG signals along with ECG and
(iii) conference articles
Exclusion (iv) non-English research articles
GSR modalities taking a total count to 49. Table A.3 presents a detailed
(v) book chapters summary of the EEG-based emotion recognition automated system.
(vi) non-peer reviewed articles
(vii) articles with statistical analysis
6.1. Highlights of EEG-based emotion recognition
The time-based analysis reveals that the highest number of 12 stud-

5.1. Search strategy and selection criteria ies have been reported from the year 2020, followed by 2021 and 2019
with 9 studies each. Elicitation of emotions from audio and video stim-
The search for relevant emotion recognition studies starts with
uli has been most widely preferred during EEG acquisition. EEG-based
modalities like physiological signals, including EEG, ECG, GSR, and
emotion recognition has been conducted mostly on public EEG datasets
ET, speech signals, and facial images. We have also looked for AI,
over private datasets. DEAP, SEED/SSED IV, and DREAMER have been
including ML and DL. We searched famous electronic databases, which
used most with individual occurrences of 22, 16, and 9 times, respec-
include Web of Science, MEDLINE, PubMed/PubMed Central, IEEE
tively. Classification of emotions based on V/A/D is preferred over
Explore, Scopus, and Wiley to locate the desired articles on emotion
discrete emotions and positive (Pos)/Negative (Neg)/Neutral (Neu).
recognition. The authors limited their articles search to English lan-
Classification of four basic emotions in the discrete model is highly pre-
guage and journal articles. The search window for articles is adjusted
to the last 10 years, covering articles published between December ferred over other discrete classification models. Extraction of nonlinear
2013 to July 2023. The focus of the search was limited to physi- and statistical features is preferred for direct feature extraction. For
ological signals, emotion recognition or classification, facial images, frequency domain features, power spectral density (PSD) is the most
and AI. The key terms used to scan the relevant physiological sig- commonly used technique for EEG-based emotion recognition. Decom-
nals covers ‘‘electroencephalogram’’, ‘‘electrocardiogram’’, ‘‘galvanic position techniques like wavelet-based decomposition, empirical mode
skin response’’, ‘‘eye tracking’’, ‘‘electrooculogram’’, ‘‘EEG’’, ‘‘GSR’’, decomposition (EMD), and variational mode decomposition (VMD)
‘‘EOG’’, ‘‘ET’’, ‘‘ECG’’, ‘‘EKG’’, and ‘‘speech’’. The search criteria for have been used the most to extract relevant features. In addition, short-
emotions includes ‘‘emotion classification’’, ‘‘emotion detection’’, ‘‘emo- time Fourier transforms (STFT), Cohen’s class, and S-transform have
tion recognition’’, ‘‘emotion identification’’, and ‘‘emotion charting’’. been utilized to extract time-frequency representation (TFR). The vali-
The search for image-based emotion recognition include ‘‘facial im- dation using k-fold cross-validation (FCV), particularly 10 FCV has been
ages’’, ‘‘images’’, ‘‘facial data’’, and ‘‘faces’’. Finally, ‘‘deep learning’’, preferred over leave one subject out/ leave one out validation (LOSO)
‘‘machine learning’’, ‘‘automated recognition’’, ‘‘classification’’, and ‘‘ar- and holdout validation. ML models are used higher than DL models for
tificial intelligence’’ have been used for searching artificial intelligence. the classification of emotion. The detailed distribution summary of the
The search criteria for scanning and selecting appropriate research decision-making model is shown in Fig. 10. It is evident from Fig. 10
articles for emotion recognition was tedious and time-consuming. that SVM and its variant have been used the most, followed by KNN and
Therefore, we have adopted inclusion and exclusion criteria for select- extreme learning machine (ELM) classifier. In DL taxonomy, CNN has
ing relevant articles for our review study. Table 1 shows the adopted been used ten times followed by LSTM-based decision-making models.
criteria for including and excluding the research articles. Initially, in
stage one, authors reviewed the title, keywords, and abstract of articles.
6.2. Details of the EEG-based emotion datasets
After discussion, the authors decided to finalize the inclusion/exclusion
criteria for the articles. After initial screening, the full text of the
remaining articles was examined and analyzed in stage two. Table B.9 presents the details of the EEG datasets used by the EEG-
based emotion recognition studies. A total of 21 diverse EEG-based
5.2. Results emotion datasets have been used by included studies. It includes 15
publicly available datasets and 6 private datasets. One study each
Fig. 8 shows the PRISMA guidelines used for screening and select- used music, games, and VR as an elicitor, 2 studies used images, and
ing relevant emotion recognition articles. We have categorized article remaining used AV stimulus.
6
Fig. 8. Overview of the PRISMA guidelines followed during the selection of the articles in the systematic review.
Fig. 9. Details of the papers included after PRISMA guidelines (a) Publisher-based distribution and (b) Time-based analysis (Year-wise distribution).
7
Fig. 10. Summary of distribution for emotion recognition studies using EEG signals. Fig. 11. Summary of distribution for emotion recognition studies using ECG signals.
7. Summary of emotion recognition studies using ECG signals privately developed datasets over public ECG datasets. Audio/video
stimuli have been the most preferred choice to elicit emotions, followed
A total of 23 articles have been discussed for ECG-based emotion by music and image-based stimuli. The acquisition system used three
recognition as shown in Table A.4. Out of 23 articles, 20 articles electrode settings. V/A/D emotion classification type has been adopted
are related to only ECG-based emotion recognition and articles are the most, followed by discrete emotion classification.
combined with EEG- and GSR-based studies.
8. Summary of emotion recognition studies using GSR signals
7.1. Highlights of ECG-based emotion recognition
A total of 18 articles have been discussed for GSR-based emotion
The year-wise distribution of ECG-based emotion recognition re- recognition as shown in Table A.5. Out of 18 articles, 16 articles used
veals that four articles belongs to the years 2017, 2020, and 2021, re- only GSR-based emotion recognition, and 2 articles combined with
spectively. The year 2022 has three articles, two articles each for 2019 EEG- and ECG-based studies.
and 2023, and one for 2014, 2015, and 2018, respectively. Audio/video
and video-only based emotion elicitation have been the most common 8.1. Highlights of GSR-based emotion recognition
choice, followed by images and music-based emotions contributing
equally to emotion elicitation. The researchers preferred public ECG Time-based analysis of GSR-based emotion recognition included in
datasets over private ones for emotional state detection. From the the review shows that the highest number of articles (4 articles) were
public datasets, five times DREAMER dataset has been used, three each from 2020. The year 2016 and 2017 includes three research articles
in the case of AMIGOS and ASCERTAIN, WESAD and MAHNOB-HCI each, while the years 2018, 2019, 2021, and 2022 reported two articles
each used twice, and others once. Classification of V/A/D has been each, respectively. There are no articles from 2014, 2015, and 2023.
the highest, followed by discrete emotion (four class) classification. Elicitation of emotions using audio/video and music-based stimuli was
Extraction of features directly from ECG signals is preferred the most. adopted most frequently. The DEAP and ASCERTAIN datasets were
These include nonlinear features (NLF), statistical features (STSF), time- used three times each, while the other one time. Researchers adopted
domain features (TDF), heart rate variability (HRV), frequency-domain private GSR datasets for emotion recognition (11 times) over public
features (FDF), and rhythmic features. In addition, wavelet-based de- datasets (9 times). The classification of emotions in terms of V/A and
composition and EMD methods have been used for extracting repre- discrete emotions contributed equally. Direct extraction of STSF, NLF,
sentative features. The validation of the classification model mostly rhythmic features, and entropy features from GSR signals have been
used ten-FCV, followed by holdout and LOSO CV. The distribution of used for the classification. Also, decomposition techniques like wavelet
decision-making models for ECG emotion classification is shown in decomposition, DWT, and EMD to extract information from GSR have
Fig. 11. As evident from Fig. 11, 15 times ML models have been used been used. The validation strategy also includes holdout and k-fold CV.
for emotion recognition and 8 times the usage of DL models. SVM and The classification strategies adopted for emotion recognition are shown
KNN are most efficient in ECG classification in ML taxonomy, while in Fig. 12. It has been observed from Fig. 12 that ML models have
CNN is more common in DL taxonomy. been used more often than that DL models. Within ML models, SVM
and their variants have been the most common classification strategy
7.2. Details of the ECG-based emotion datasets (7 times), followed by KNN and ensemble techniques (ET) used two
times each. CNN models, a combination of CNN with long-short-term
A total of 18 ECG-based emotion datasets have been used in all the memory (LSTM) have been the favorites in DL models. Audio/video
articles included in our review. The details of the ECG-based emotion stimuli have been the most preferred choice to elicit emotions, followed
datasets are shown in Table B.10. Emotion recognition studies explored by music stimuli (see Fig. 12).
8
Fig. 12. Summary of distribution for emotion recognition studies using GSR signals. Fig. 13. Summary of distribution for emotion recognition studies using ET signals.
8.2. Details of the GSR-based emotion datasets for emotion recognition, five are privately developed, while one is
public. This limits the applicability and usability of ET-based emotion
A total of 14 GSR-based emotion datasets have been used in all the recognition. Elicitation of emotions from videos was used three times,
articles included in our review. The details of the GSR-based emotion images were used twice, and virtual reality was explored once.
datasets are shown in Table B.11. Emotion recognition studies explored
privately developed datasets over public datasets. Audio/video stimuli
have been the most preferred choice to elicit emotions, followed by 10. Summary of emotion recognition studies using speech signals
music and image-based stimuli. The acquisition system used three
electrode settings. Classification of emotions from discrete emotion For speech-based emotion recognition, we have selected 28 journal
models was explored the most, followed by V/A/D and affect states. articles. The summary of these articles used in the review analysis is
shown in Table A.7.
9. Summary of emotion recognition studies using ET signals
The detailed summary of ET-based emotion recognition is shown in 10.1. Highlights of speech-based emotion recognition
Table A.6. A total of 6 articles have been selected and included in our
review analysis. As evident from the summary of Table A.7, one article each has
been included from the years 2014, 2015, and 2017, respectively.
9.1. Highlights of ET-based emotion recognition The highest articles, i.e. 8, have been reported from the year 2019,
followed by 6 articles in 2020, 5 in 2021, and 3 each in the years
Year-wise distribution of the articles shows that the highest num- 2018 and 2022, respectively. The audio/video or audio based have
ber of three articles was published in 2021. In addition, the years been used the most for emotion elicitation. The dataset analysis reveals
2019, 2020, and 2023 reported one article each. Three articles have that EMO-DB, RAVDEES, CASIA, and IEMOCAP datasets have been
used video-based emotion elicitation, two articles reported image-based the most preferred choices for model testing. The highest strength of
emotion elicitation, and one article used virtual reality. Five articles speech-based emotion recognition is that multiple datasets have been
used the private ET emotion dataset, while only one ET dataset is
used for method verification. Public speech emotion datasets have been
publicly available. All the articles have explored discrete emotion
selected over private datasets. Discrete type classification of emotions
classification, four of them using four basic emotion categories. STSF,
has been adopted for all the studies. Power spectral density (PSD),
FDF, and NLP features have been extracted directly from ET signals.
Mel-frequency cepstrum coefficients (MFCC), Mel spectrogram (MSG),
One article used signal transformation using FFT and STFT. Holdout
STFT, and variants of wavelet transform (WT) have been adopted the
validation and LOSO CV was the most prevalent for model validation.
The breakout of decision-making models for classification is shown in most for feature extraction. Model validation using holdout CV was
Fig. 13. It is seen from Fig. 13 that for ET-based emotion classification, preferred the most for speech, followed by k-FCV, and the least with
DL models have been preferred over ML techniques. LOSO CV, respectively. The summary and distribution of the classifi-
cation techniques used for emotion recognition are shown in Fig. 14.
9.2. Details of the ET-based emotion datasets The distribution shown in Fig. 14 reveals that DL models have an edge
over ML models for speech-based emotion recognition. The usage of the
The details of the ET-based emotion dataset are shown in Ta- SVM classifier was reported 7 times and the extreme learning machine
ble B.12. The summary shows that emotion recognition has used inde- (ELM) classifier 2 times in ML-based decision-making. For DL models,
pendent datasets for their analysis. Also, out of the six datasets used CNN was used 10 times, followed by LSTM and BiLSTM 3 times.
9
Fig. 14. Summary of distribution for emotion recognition studies using speech signals. Fig. 15. Summary of distribution for emotion recognition studies using facial images.
10.2. Details of the speech-based emotion datasets 11.2. Details of the facial image-based emotion datasets
The detailed summary of the speech-based emotion dataset is shown The details of facial image datasets used for emotion recognition
in Table B.13. The details revealed that 19 datasets have been utilized is shown in Table B.14. A total of 24 datasets have been used in
in speech-based emotion recognition studies. Among these, 11 datasets the studies included in our review, 21 datasets are publicly available,
are publicly available, while 8 datasets are private. Emotion classi- while only 3 datasets are private. All the datasets used discrete emotion
fication using speech-preferred discrete emotion models with several classification.
emotions varying from 3 to 12.
12. Discussion
11. Summary of emotion recognition studies using facial images Emotion recognition using physiological signals like EEG, ECG, and
GSR has been majorly classified as valence, arousal, and dominance as
The review included 28 articles on the recognition of emotions using evident from Tables A.3, A.4, and A.5. In the case of the ET signals,
facial images. Table A.8 presents a summary of facial image-based speech, and images, discrete emotion classification has been preferred
emotion recognition. as shown in Tables A.6, A.7, and A.8. Audio/video-based elicitation
has been the most common and preferred technique. The following
11.1. Highlights of facial images-based emotion recognition subsection presents the discussion on individual modalities for emotion
recognition.
The summary provided in Table A.8 reveals that the highest number
12.1. Takeaways from EEG-based emotion recognition studies
of articles have been from the years 2019 and 2020, respectively. Facial
image-based emotion recognition has one article each from the years
EEG signals are nonlinear and non-stationary with multi-frequency
2015, 2016, and 2017, respectively. A total of 2, 4, and 5 articles have
components [36–38]. Therefore, to extract meaningful information
been extracted from the years 2023, 2021, and 2022. The datasets CK+
from multi-frequency EEG signals, decomposition techniques have been
and JAFFE have been the most commonly used facial image datasets.
highly preferred [36–39]. As evident from Table A.3, decomposition
In addition, FER2013, RAF-DB, and AffectNet have also been used in
techniques like discrete wavelet transform (DWT), tunable Q wavelet
many studies. The facial image-based emotion recognition studies have transform (TQWT), flexible analytic wavelet transform (FAWT), dual-
validated their model on multiple datasets. The majority of the facial tree complex wavelet transform (DT-CWT), EMD, VMD, and MVMD
image datasets are publicly available. A discrete emotion model is used have been extensively used to extract desired frequency bands and
for classification with several emotions varying from 2 to 10. Features instantaneous information about time and frequency [40–55]. The
based on geometric or texture of facial patterns are preferred. The features extracted from the sub-components of these decomposition
validation of the model using holdout CV followed by k-FCV strategies methods are further used for classification using ML-based techniques.
is most common. The distribution of decision-making models for facial In addition, due to high temporal resolution and presence of multi-
images is shown in Fig. 15. Out of 28 articles, as many as 20 articles frequency components, transforming time-series EEG to TFR using
have preferred DL models for classification, 7 used ML models, while STFT, smoothed pseudo-Wigner Ville distribution (SPWVD), S-trans
the status of one article is unknown. For ML models, the SVM classifier form, Wigner Ville distribution (WVD), and quadratic time-frequency
has been the most preferred, while CNN has an upper edge over other distribution (QTFD) have also been preferred [56–64]. The TFR ob-
DL models. tained from these techniques is combined with DL models like CNN for
10
emotion recognition. The analysis shows that the highest accuracy of 12.4. Takeaways from ET-based emotion recognition studies
100% has been achieved for valence, arousal, and dominance classifica-
tion on the DREAMER dataset [54]. Similarly, an accuracy of 99.56%, The summary of Table A.6 reveals that NLF, STSF, and FDF of
99.67%, and 99.55% for arousal, dominance, and valence has been ET signals can provide a better emotion representation [96–99]. In
achieved on the DEAP dataset using LOSO CV [54]. Nonlinear decom- addition, DL models can also extract representative features, which
position techniques provide an effective representation of EEG signals, has resulted in high accuracy [96,97,99]. The highest accuracy of 92%
due to which it has obtained the highest classification accuracy [54]. In has been achieved with STSF and deep multi-layer perceptron (DMLP)
addition, extraction of TFR from EEG signals using SPWVD and TOR- classifier for valence state on the eSEE-d public dataset. However, more
based on S-T in combination with CNN has resulted in an accuracy analysis is still required to confirm these findings. Also, validation of
of 93.01% and 94.58% for discrete emotion classification on private the model using holdout CV is prone to over-fitting thus, may not yield
EEG datasets [58,61]. Thus, the summary of Table A.3 reveals that the the same performance during LOSO or k-FCV.
decomposition techniques with ML models and the combination of TFR
with DL models have resulted in the highest performance, in terms of 12.5. Takeaways from speech-based emotion recognition studies
accuracy, for emotion recognition.
Speech signals have prosody, non-stationary, language specificity,
and are context dependent. In addition, speech signals are non-station
12.2. Takeaways from ECG-based emotion recognition studies
ary, and some of them have periodicity [100]. Therefore, the rep-
resentation of speech in spectral features using MFCC, MFC, STFT,
ECG signals are quasi-stationary with a high signal-to-noise ratio and WT has been effective for emotion recognition [101–112]. Sta-
(SNR) compared to EEG signals. Therefore, direct feature extraction can tistical features have provided a discriminant representation of speech
help to extract representative and meaningful information from ECG signals, due to which it has obtained the effective classification of emo-
signals. Thus ECG-based studies have preferred direct feature extraction tions [103,109,113,114]. The speech-based emotion recognition has at-
in terms of NLF, STSF, rhythmic, TDF, and FDF [53,65–75]. Since tained higher accuracy when CNN models have been clubbed with spec-
ECG is quasi-stationary and contains mixed frequency components, tral representation including simultaneous time and frequency informa-
wavelet, and EMD-based decomposition have also attained high accu- tion [107,109–112,114–117]. As mentioned earlier, due to prosody and
racy [65,76–78]. SVM and KNN-based ML techniques have successfully context dependency features of speech, attention-based CNN, LSTM,
classified different emotions due to their ability to draw accurate and BiLSTM have also remained effective in speech-based emotion
boundaries between distinct emotion classes. Due to the rhythmic classification [110,118–121]. The highest accuracy of 100% has been
nature and high SNR of ECG signals, DL techniques have extracted achieved on EMO-DB and CASIA public datasets using MFCC features
representative features, which has resulted in high system performance and linear discriminant analysis classifier [105].
[53,73,74,79–83]. The highest accuracy of 100% has been achieved
for discrete emotion classification using rhythmic features clubbed with 12.6. Takeaways from facial image-based emotion recognition studies
SVM classifier on a private dataset [66]. In another study, researchers
obtained 100% accuracy for classifying discrete emotions as well as Facial images for emotion recognition involves facial characteristics.
the classification of valence and arousal [77]. The authors in [77] used Therefore, techniques like face extraction, geometric features, texture
wavelet-based features and a probabilistic neural network (PNN) classi- features, and binary patterns have been the most effective [122–132].
fier. The combination of CNN and LSTM has resulted in an accuracy of Similarly, as emotions are recognized using images, CNN models have
98.73% and 90.5% using DL models on public AMIGOS and DREAMER been the most effective decision-making models due to their ability
datasets [82]. to extract spatio-temporal characteristics. Attention-modules with CNN
have also been proven effective to detect face geometry for emotion
12.3. Takeaways from GSR-based emotion recognition studies recognition [129,133–136]. The highest accuracy of 100% has been
achieved on JAFFE public image dataset using convolutional features
and the CNN model [137]. Similarly, an accuracy of 99.36% has been
Like EEG and ECG signals, GSR signals are also non-stationary
obtained on the CK+ dataset using the CNN model [138]. An accuracy
and nonlinear. Therefore, extracting meaningful and representative
of 99.59% has been achieved on the MMI dataset using optical flow
information from them is preferred. Features are extracted in the
spatial–temporal feature (OFSTF) clubbed with the CNN model [136].
form of NLF, STSF, entropy, TDF, FDF, and/or rhythms [53,67,84–90].
Decomposition techniques based on EMD and wavelets were explored, 12.7. Overall summary of automated emotion recognition system
due to their ability to extract crucial characteristics required for the
classification of emotions [77,85,91–93]. Extraction of features or de- The graphical representation of the automated emotion recognition
composition makes it easy for classifiers to draw decision boundaries for all the modalities used in the current review is shown in Fig. 16. The
for different emotions. Therefore, ML models like SVM and KNN have summary reveals that physiological (EEG, ECG, ET, and GSR) and phys-
yielded very high classification accuracy. Also, transforming a signal ical (speech) signals extensively explored feature extraction. Nonlinear
to another domain and applying DL models has been effective for decomposition is mostly used for extracting meaningful information
emotion recognition [53,82,94,95]. The highest accuracy of 100% has from EEG, ECG, and GSR signals. Physiological signals (EEG, ECG, GSR,
been obtained for features based on Poincare plots (PCP), Lyapunov and ET) contain multi-components, that are nonstationary and nonlin-
exponent (LE), and approximate entropy (APEN) using PNN classifier ear nature. Therefore, decomposition techniques like EMD, VMD, and
on the DEAP dataset [87]. Similarly, the study based on EMD and wavelet transform (DWT, TQWT, FAWT, and others) provide effective
TDF using SVM classifier has also achieved the perfect classification of representation of various emotional states. Also, nonlinear and statisti-
emotions on a private dataset [91]. In addition, statistical features [89], cal features from the multi-components of EEG, ECG, GSR, and ET have
wavelet analysis [77], NLF [90], and DWT [93] have also achieved yielded the most representative characteristics for emotion recognition.
high accuracy for emotion detection. Thus, direct extraction of STSF, Frequency-domain features for speech and direct feature extraction for
entropy, TDF, FDF, and NLF can provide accurate emotion representa- ET are widely used. Deep features have been used the most for facial
tion using GSR signals. Also, wavelets and decomposition techniques images. The use of Mel-frequency cepstrum coefficients for speech and
can extract discriminative characteristics from GSR signals for emotion face extraction for images has provided the discriminative features for
recognition. emotion recognition. Finally, for decision-making, the SVM-based ML
11
Fig. 16. Graphical representation and summary of included modalities emotion recognition.
modality has been the most effective and preferred classifier for EEG, extraction and decomposition techniques. But, to extract meaningful
ECG, GSR, and ET signals. The review studies suggest that, for speech information from such signal, tuning of parameters is required [46,47].
signals and facial images, decision-making using CNN-based DL models However, our review study shows that few studies have been explored
may result in the highest performance. The CNN models have inbuild for an adaptive analysis of these signals. These data-driven models
convolutional layers, which reduces the high dimensionality of images have been tested on private EEG datasets [46,47]. Therefore, adaptive
without losing its information. Therefore, CNN models can effectively analysis can be used for extracting representative information from
extract features from images and learn to recognize patterns, making EEG, ECG, ET, GSR, and/or speech signals. Similarly, for classification,
them well suited for emotion recognition. Also, feature extraction ML and/or DL models require extensive tuning of hyper-parameters
and transformation techniques are widely used for time-series input for optimal performance. Empirical and pre-fixed settings of tuning
signals, including EEG, ECG, GSR, speech, and ET. The overall analysis hyper-parameters may not yield desired performance.
has revealed that information fusion helps to improve the system’s
performance. The study shows that fusion of EEG with ECG/GSR, and 13.3. Lack of generalization
ECG with GSR or by fusing different features provided higher accuracy
than due to single modality [71,82,84,88,92,93]. Therefore, feature-
The acquisition of physiological and physical signals has been done
and sensor-level fusion obtained from multiple sources can be the better
with different systems. The varying system specifications and acquisi-
option for emotion recognition.
tion time, results in the generation of sequences of different lengths.
The overall summary of the modalities covered in our review study
Our review analysis shows that research studies for emotion recognition
for emotion recognition with their strengths and weaknesses/future
using EEG, ECG, GSR, and speech signals have been analyzed with
recommendations are shown in Table 2. It is noteworthy to mention
different segment lengths. The changing duration of signals to be
that the summary is drawn based on our observations from the papers
analyzed may not yield desired performance. The lack of information
included in the systematic review.
and generalization on the selection of signal length makes it difficult for
the stakeholders to trust the decision given by the developed models.
13. Challenges
13.4. Lack of trust in automated decision-making

After a thorough investigation of automated emotion recognition
systems, we have identified potential challenges in existing studies. The
major challenges in automated emotion recognition systems are listed It is difficult to trust the outcome of such an automated system, es-
below: pecially when the findings contrast or conflict with previous knowledge
or expectations. As a result, stakeholders, specialists, and physicians
13.1. Datasets are hesitant to rely on existing models to make decisions. This is
why, despite several significant technological improvements in signal
Most of the datasets used for emotion recognition are available processing, feature engineering, and AI, these models fail to gain the
publicly. However, the majority of them have been utilized to their faith of experts. Furthermore, there are few occasions when real-time
maximum capacity, resulting in the highest classification accuracy. support systems for decision-making are used in research facilities. This
In addition, the available datasets have been acquired with a single is due to the inability of present emotion identification techniques
modality i.e., either for EEG, ECG, ET, GSR, speech, or facial images. to explain the predictions provided by decision support systems. To
Therefore, there still exists a research gap in analyzing emotion recog- create confidence in automated systems, the models must explain the
nition using multiple modalities from the same subject. Also, the lack of judgments made by the automated system to experts.
availability of public emotion datasets for healthcare, brain-computer
interfaces, and other applications limits such analysis. 14. Future recommendations and research directions
13.2. Adaptive analysis and classification Our review study has identified unresolved research challenges in
current emotion recognition systems. Future research should concen-
The physiological and physical signals are nonlinear, multi-frequ trate on innovative ways to increase our understanding of numer-
ency components, and vary spontaneously [39,139,140]. Accurate and ous modalities and applications. The following explains the potential
effective analysis of such signals can be accomplished with feature directions for future research directions.
12
Table 2
Summary of emotion recognition studies included in the review with their strengths, limitations, and future directions.
Modality Strengths Future recommendations
EEG • Well studied • Uncertainty in performance
• Comprehensive analysis of TDF, FDF, STSF, NLF, and TFR features • Exhaustive use of available datasets
• Explored ML and DL models • Tested on cleaned and pre-processed data
• Attained maximum accuracy • Lack of adaptivity
• Validation of multiple datasets • Lack of explainability
• Availability of public datasets • Non-uniformity in EEG segment length selection
• Limited usage of hyperparameter tuning
• Limited usage of fusion techniques
ECG • Well studied • Uncertainty in performance
• Attained maximum accuracy • Exhaustive use of available datasets
• Validation of multiple datasets • Tested on cleaned and pre-processed data
• Availability of public datasets • Lack of adaptivity
• Explored mainly ML models
• Lack of explainability
• Non-uniformity in ECG segment length selection
GSR • Well studied • Uncertainty in performance
• Attained maximum accuracy • Exhaustive use of available datasets
• Validation of multiple datasets • Tested on cleaned and pre-processed data
• Availability of public datasets • Lack of adaptivity
• Explored mainly ML models
• Non-uniformity in GSR segment length selection
ET • Usage of datasets generated from different stimuli • Uncertainty in performance
• Usage of direct feature extraction • Limited public datasets
• Generation of simple models • Lack of adaptivity
Speech • Comprehensive analysis of feature extraction techniques • Non-data driven models
• Models are generated and validated on multiple datasets • Frequency-domain feature centric
• Availability of public datasets • Uncertainty in performance
• Usage of ML and DL techniques • Lack of adaptivity
Facial images • Models are generated and validated on multiple datasets • Non-data driven models
• Availability of public datasets • Uncertainty in performance
• Usage of ML and DL techniques • Lack of adaptivity
14.1. Application of human emotion recognition [152–154]. Changes in the emotional states in ADHD from facial pro-
cessing and social cognition have been studied [155–157]. The study of
Emotion recognition covers many applications, including brain- emotions from facial expressions, video games, speech signals, and EEG
computer interfaces, robotics, and healthcare. However, with the recent has been used to detect ASD [158–161]. Similarly, facial expressions
and social cognition can be detected in seizures and epilepsy [162,163].
technological advancements and rise in electronic gadget usage, emo-
Therefore, a thorough investigation can be explored for the detection
tion recognition can help to accelerate in various fields. Some of them
of various disorders from emotions. However, very few studies are
are listed below:
available due to the lack of availability of public datasets. Fig. 17 shows
an automated emotion-based physiological and neurological disorder
14.1.1. Detection and monitoring of medical conditions detection system.
Human emotion can reveal crucial information for health conditions
and numerous disorders. Research has been conducted on variations 14.1.2. Children health
of emotions in Parkinson’s disease (PD), schizophrenia, Alzheimer’s The study and analysis of emotions in children can also play a
disease (AZD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), Autism crucial role in their health monitoring. Studies revealed that emotional
spectrum disorder (ASD), epilepsy, and depression. Changes in the emo- development and regulation can be crucial in children with dyslexia
[164–166], depression [167,168], anxiety [169,170], and autism [171–
tional states have been witnessed during PD. Variations in emotional
173]. Therefore, the study of facial expressions, speech, and physio-
states during PD were observed using facial expressions, speech, and
logical signals can be used to detect autism, depression, anxiety, and
EEG signals [141–144]. Few researches have also been conducted on
dyslexia. Also, emotion recognition can play a crucial role to teach
variations in emotions during schizophrenia. Studies have observed children with autism and dyslexia.
that facial expressions, auditory, and EEG signals measure emotional
states in schizophrenia [145–147]. Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test, 14.1.3. Environmental health studies
facial expression, eye blinks, and contextual features shows variation Another potential application of human emotions recognition is
in emotions in AZD [148–151]. Facial expressions, text, EEG signals, in environmental health studies. It is known that the physical envi-
and emoji-based studies have shown emotional changes in depression ronment can have an influence on emotions and, ultimately, affect
13
Fig. 17. Overview of the emotion-based automated disorder detection system.
mental health. For instance, environmental stressors (e.g. air and noise 14.1.11. E-learning
pollution) can be linked to a series of negative emotions, e.g., an- We have seen a drastic increase in electronic gadgets and internet
noyance, anger, disappointment, dissatisfaction, helplessness, anxiety, services usage since the COVID era. Online environments and virtual
and agitation [174,175]. However, a deep understanding of the mental classrooms can provide uninterrupted learning, and emotion detection
effects due to various environmental factors has been limited by, among technology assists in identifying students’ emotional and understanding
others, the difficulty in measuring complex emotional states in humans. levels in real-time. This information may be used to create class content
based on children’s diverse learning capacities [178,179].
14.1.4. Human-robot interactions
The rise in AI has boosted the development of human-modeled
machines. The applications of human emotions have attracted re- 14.2. Generation of multimodal public datasets
searchers to investigate human-machine interfaces and sentimental
analysis. Human-machine interfaces can infer and understand human Human emotions can be studied to detect various disorders, but
emotions, making them more successful in human interactions; the such studies have not been explored to their maximum capacity. One
models should be able to interpret human emotions and adapt their reason is that lack of available and diverse datasets. Therefore, the
behavior appropriately, resulting in an acceptable reaction to those development of such datasets and making them available freely to
sentiments. the research community can boost emotion-based physiological disor-
der detection. Also, instead of focusing on a uni-modal dataset, the
14.1.5. Patience assistance development of a multi-modal dataset can enrich and explore higher
Emotion can be pivotal in patient monitoring and assistance. Effec- possibilities for extended emotion recognition studies. Accessibility and
tive analysis of emotion can help to sense and detect loneliness, mood authorization criteria must be simple and fast so that specialists can
variations, and suicidal cues. avoid waiting for a long period. Data collecting methodologies and pro-
cesses should be made accessible so that other research organizations
14.1.6. Driving assistance
can replicate them and gather more data for study.
Emotion recognition can also be used to detect driver’s fatigue. Fa-
cial expressions, eye movements, and/or EEG can be used in real-time
driver fatigue monitoring. 14.3. Development of wearable emotion recognition systems
14.1.7. Education Physical signals, including speech, gesture, facial expression, text,
Accurate and effective analysis of emotions can help to study stu- posture, etc. are susceptible to false positives. Such signals can be
dents’ level of satisfaction in education. voluntarily changed resulting in false emotion classifications [47,180].
Our review analysis shows that EEG signals have been widely pre-
14.1.8. Marketing ferred for emotion recognition, but usage of numerous EEG sensors
A camera with AI systems in shopping malls can be used to read the
for acquisition introduce system complexity. Emotions have also been
real-time emotions of customers, which may be used for marketing.
detected using ECG signals, which use only three channels [65,67,81,
181]. Thus, the usage of ECG signals for emotion recognition is ad-
14.1.9. Recruitment
vantageous in terms of the number of sensors and high signal-to-noise
Automated analysis of an automatic emotion recognition system can
ratio [39]. The human central nervous system is built in such a way
be used for recruitment. Analysis of emotions during interviews can be
used to monitor the stress level of candidates. that alterations in one organ influence another. As a result, the brain-
heart relationship, brain-eyes interaction, and brain–heart–eyes–muscle
14.1.10. Business models communication may be critical and beneficial in analyzing changes in
People show numerous expressions and thoughts about various many organs [39,182]. Photoplethysmography (PPG) signals provide a
products. Retailers can use customers’ thoughts and feeling to improve better representation of brain-heart interaction [183,184]. PPGs have
the in-store experience. Its purpose is to compare data from typical the advantage of not requiring specific setups or many electrodes for
satisfaction evaluations to data from emotion recognition technologies signal collection. The sensors are attached to wristwatches, fingers, or
to determine whether emotion recognition can offer a complete picture other wearable devices that are more accessible, less expensive, and
or perhaps replace satisfaction measurements [176,177]. more practical than other physiological signals.
14
Fig. 18. Taxonomy of information fusion.
14.4. Distributed learning models 14.5.4. Data-level fusion

Data-level fusion includes both sensor-level and feature-level fu-
Huge volumes of data are being produced due to expansion in AI sion [190]. It entails integrating raw data from numerous sensors and
and big data technology. The AI is booming due to the extraction of then extracting important characteristics from the combined data.
valuable information from a large volume of data and has the potential
for the advancement of human society. The current automated emo- 14.5.5. Hybrid fusion
tion recognition models are developed using centralized ML. However, Hybrid level combines two or more level of fusion techniques
data acquired from different regions can have subjective changes, geo- e.g., feature-level and decision-level fusions. Suppose the classification
graphical variations, and instrumental differences, which may provide of physical signals is accomplished using feature-level fusion with a
dynamic variations in the performance of traditional ML models. Also, single decision-making classifier. On the other hand, analysis of physi-
ological signals can be accomplished using decision-level fusion. The fi-
traditional ML uses centralized learning model, which suffers privacy
nal decision is generated by integrating feature-level and decision-level
issues and communication load. To overcome this federated learning
fusions to generate the desired performance [191,192].
(FL) can be used. The main goal of FL is to move model training from
a central server to client devices, allowing many client datasets to work
14.6. Application of explainability
together on model training while protecting data privacy and lowering
communication costs. It uses a ‘‘data stationary, model moving’’ learn- Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) is a strategy for developing
ing mode compared to centralized learning’s ‘‘model stationary, data AI systems that tries to give explicit and intelligible explanations for
moving’’ method [185,186]. the AI model’s decisions. The decision-making in AI models, such as
SVM, may be complicated to comprehend. This lack of transparency
14.5. Information fusion creates issues, particularly in essential applications such as healthcare,
where knowing the logic behind AI choices is critical for trust, ac-
Information fusion, also known as data fusion, is a process that countability, and safety. These issues are addressed by XAI approaches,
combines, integrates, and analyzes data from numerous sources to which make AI models more visible and interpretable. Clients, pro-
provide a more detailed and precise representation of the desired grammers, and stakeholders can understand how the AI system arrived
phenomenon. The primary purpose of information fusion is to extract at a certain outcome by giving human-readable explanations. The
subtle information from diverse often imperfect data sources, resulting explanations provided by XAI approaches are transparent, which is
in enhanced decision-making, increased comprehension, and improved critical for model trust, bias and fairness, debugging, and improve-
performance in a variety of applications. There are various levels and ment. For ML models, techniques include feature visualization (learning
types of information fusion as shown in Fig. 18 and discussed below: patterns in the data), rule-based models (explicit rules for decision-
making), local explanations (local explanations focus on explaining
14.5.1. Sensor-level fusion specific predictions or decisions), and feature importance (LIME (Local
This level includes integrating unprocessed data from each sensor Interpretable Model-agnostic Explanations) and SHAP (SHapley Addi-
without any processing or analytics. It is used to enhance data quality, tive exPlanations)) [193]. For CNN, heat-maps (class activation map
decrease noise, and deal with missing or incorrect data from certain (CAM)) including Grad-CAM, Grad-CAM++, SMOOTHGRAD, U-CAM,
sensors [187]. Eigen-CAM, and Score-CAM have been used for explanations [184]. An
overview of traditional ML models and XAI models is shown in Fig. 19.
14.5.2. Feature-level fusion
14.7. Uncertainty quantification
This level combines data from several sources that have been pre-
processed and important characteristics extracted before being inte- Uncertainty quantification (UQ) is a collection of mathematical
grated [188]. This method seeks to minimize the data’s dimensionality and computational tools for assessing and characterizing uncertainty
and establish a single feature representation for subsequent analysis. in computational models, simulations, and data analysis [194–196].
Understanding the uncertainty associated with the results is critical
14.5.3. Model fusion in many scientific and technical domains because precise predictions
Model fusion or model ensemble technique increases predictive are dependent on it [194]. Uncertainty can arise from various sources
model performance and generalization [189]. Model fusion is based on including model formulation (from simplifications, assumptions, or ap-
the notion of combining predictions from various independent models proximations), input data (noise, missing data, or measurement errors),
in a manner to get a final, more robust prediction. Combining the ca- model parameters (fixed parameters), approximations, and initial and
pabilities of different models can frequently result in improved overall boundary conditions [197]. The sources of uncertainty can be measured
prediction precision while reducing the risk of over-fitting. using UQ, which aims to address the following questions:
15
Fig. 19. Illustrative representation of XAI model (A) Traditional ML model and (B) XAI model with explanations.
Fig. 20. Illustrative uncertainty quantification of deterministic model (A) Traditional model with fixed parameter setting and (B) An UQ of the model with distributed parameter
settings.
• How do uncertainties in input parameters affect the model’s proven the most effective and preferred emotion recognition model.
predictions? The ability of DL models to automatically extract and classify deep
• What are the sources of uncertainty in the model and its input features is gaining popularity and has been increasing in the usage of
parameters? CNN models. Our review analysis shows that feature fusion and data
• How reliable are the model predictions? fusion help to improve the overall system performance. Hence, infor-
• How can we improve the model and reduce uncertainties? mation fusion should be used in future emotion recognition models.
Emotions can be very helpful in certain healthcare applications, such as
UQ entails estimating probability distributions, statistical moments
(mean, variance, etc.), and confidence intervals that indicate the uncer- Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, depression, and schizophrenia
tainty associated with the results. Some well-known techniques used for detection, as well as in e-learning, market analysis, and human–robot
UQ involve Bayesian inference, variance-based methods, Monte Carlo interactions. However, these fields have seen limited research in hu-
methods, probabilistic collocation, ensemble modeling, and bootstrap- man emotion recognition systems, due to the lack of available public
ping [194,198]. The graphical overview of uncertainty quantification datasets. Therefore, our review recommends developing and providing
of a deterministic model is shown in Fig. 20. accessible public datasets for increasing the applications of human
emotions research studies. The review shows that deep learning models
15. Conclusion have gained popularity over traditional ML. Therefore, combination
of hybrid DL techniques using CNN, autoencoders, LSTM, and trans-
Emotion recognition is crucial in multiple fields, including health- former models may be adopted for emotion recognition applications.
care, E-learning, online shopping, etc. Our paper has presented a Also, accurate versatile models can be designed using federated meta
fine-grained analysis of human emotions. This comprehensive analysis learning to train the automated systems on different datasets for a
of emotion recognition systems shows that decomposition techniques particular application. Finally, we highlight the importance of model
provide insight information that extracts representative features from explainability and uncertainty quantification in emotion recognition to
physiological signals. The SVM-based ML decision-making has been strengthen the trust and overall impact of AI models.
16
Table A.3
Summary of emotion recognition studies using EEG signals included in the review.
Ref. Year Sub. Dataset Dataset name Status Length NCH Emotion (Classes) Feature extraction Classification Validation Accuracy (%) Decision
type
[199] 2019 20 AV – Private 10 s 1 Discrete (4) DF with NLF LSSVM 10 FCV 90.63 ML
[40] 2019 20 AV – Private 10 s 1 Discrete (4) TQWT with STSF ELM 10 FCV 87.1 ML
23 AV DREAMER Public – 14 V/A (9) 93.79 (A)
94.5 (V)
15 AV SEED Public – 12 Pos/Neg/Neu (3) 81.39 (A)
79.71 (V)
[41] 2022 DWT and EMD with STSF Ensemble ML 10 FCV ML
20 Music MUSEC Public – 27 V/A (2) 81.96 (A)
82.27 (V)
43 AV INTERFACES Public – 4 V/A (3) 59.67 (A)
59.67 (V)
[200] 2014 16 Image – Private 30 s 64 Discrete (5) NLF QDA 8 FCV 47.5 ML
32 AV DEAP Public 12 s 32 V/A (2) 59.06
[201] 2018 LF and NLF SVM LOSO CV ML
15 AV SEED Public 12 s 62 Pos/Neg (2) 83.33
[42] 2022 32 AV DEAP Public – 32 V/A (2) VMD DNN Holdout 61.25 (A) DL
62.5 (V)
[43] 2017 32 AV DEAP Public 4 s 10 DWT with ENT KNN 10 FCV 86.75 ML
V/A/D (3) 70.25 (A)
74.92 (V)
[56] 2021 32 AV DEAP Public 3 s 32 PCC CNN Holdout DL
V/A (2) 74.92 (A)
78.22 (V)
[202] 2019 32 AV DEAP Public 63 s 32 V/A/D (3) MBFM CapsNet 10 FCV 68.28 (A) DL
66.73 (V)
67.25 (D)
[203] 2019 32 AV DEAP Public 1 s 32 V/A (2) PSD LSTM 10 FCV 74.38 (A) DL
81.1 (V)
15 AV SEED Public 12 s 62 Pos/Neg/Neu (3) 79.95
[204]
2020 23 AV DREAMER Public – 14 V/A/D (9) PSD DGCNN LOSO CV 84.54 (A) DL
86.23 (V)
85.02 (D)
[205] 2020 15 AV SEED Public 1.5 s 8 Pos/Neg (2) Windowing CNN LOSO CV 86.56 DL
11 AV LUMED Public 0.6 s 8 Valence (2) 81.8
[44] 2020 20 AV – Private – 16 V/A (2) EMD with NLF SVM Holdout 74.88 (A) ML
82.63 (V)
[57] 2020 STFT CNN Holdout DL
94.98 (BC)
[45] 2016 32 AV DEAP Public 3 s 32 V/A (4) EMD and SaENT SVM 10 FCV ML
93.20 (MC)
[46] 2021 20 AV – Private 10 s 1 Discrete (4) AVMD with NLF ELM 10 FCV 97.24 ML
[47] 2020 20 AV – Private 10 s 1 Discrete (4) ATQWT with STSF LSSVM 10 FCV 95.7 ML
[58] 2021 20 AV – Private 10 s 16 Discrete (4) SPWVD CNN Holdout 93.01 DL
15 AV SEED Public 62 Pos/Neg/Neu (3) 85.3
[206] 2022 – DE RGNN LOSO CV DL
15 AV SEED IV Public 62 Discrete (4) 73.84
[207] 2015 15 AV SEED Public 1 s 62 Pos/Neg/Neu (3) DE DBN Holdout 86.08 DL
27 AV MAHNOB-HCI Public 10 s 32 Valence PSD and NetP 68
[59] 2019 GELM 10 FCV ML
15 AV SEED Public 10 s 62 Pos/Neg/Neu (3) DE and NetP 88
[48] 2019 FAWT and IPF RF 10 FCV ML
1 s 1 Discrete (2) 80.64
32 AV DEAP Public
1 s 1 Discrete (4) 72.07
[208] 2019 32 AV DEAP Public 1 s 32 Discrete (2) PSD CNN 10 FCV 100 DL
[49] 2020 15 AV SEED Public 5 s 62 Pos/Neg/Neu (3) DT-CWT SRU Holdout 83.13 DL
32 AV DEAP Public 1 s 32 V/A (9) 90.91 (V)
90.87 (A)
[60] 2022 15 AV SEED Public 1 s 62 Pos/Neg/Neu (3) STFT and DE LSTM LOSO CV 90.92 DL
37 AV CMEED Public 1 s 30 V/A (2) 94.21 (V)
88.03 (A)
32 AV DEAP Public 1 s 32 V/A (9) 97.69 (V)
97.53 (A)
[209] 2021 Windowing DFR 10 FCV DL
23 AV DREAMER Public 1 s 14 V/A/D (9) 89.03 (A)
90.41 (V)
89.89 (D)
32 AV DEAP Public 6.25 s 1 V/A (9) 93.72 (V)
93.38 (A)
[210] 2023 Windowing ACRNN 10 FCV DL
23 AV DREAMER Public 9.76 s 1 V/A/D (9) 97.98 (A)
97.93 (V)
89.23(D)
[61] 2020 20 AV – Private 10 s 1 Discrete (4) TOR-based on S-TF AlexNet (CNN) Holdout 94.58 DL
[62] 2018 32 AV DEAP Public 4 s 23 V/A/D (9) QTFDs SVM 10 FCV 87 (V) ML
88.4 (A)
15 AV SEED Public – 62 Pos/Neg (2) 89
[211] 2019 NLF SVM LOSO CV ML
32 AV DEAP Public – 32 V/A/D (9) 72
[212] 2020 10 AV – Private 14 Discrete (3) PSD and WE ENT RVM 10 FCV 91.18 ML
23 AV DREAMER Public – 14 V/A (2) 88.20 (V)
90.43 (A)
15 AV SEED Public – 62 Pos/Neg (2) 88.45 (V)
[63] 2021 32 AV DEAP Public – 32 V/A (2) THFM CNN 10 FCV 76.61 (V) DL
77.72 (A)
40 AV AMIGOS Public – 14 V/A (2) 87.39 (V)
90.54 (A)
[50] 2021 28 CG GAMEEMO Public 3.74 s 1 Discrete (4) TQWT and FFP SVM 10 FCV 99.82 ML
(continued on next page)
17
Table A.3 (continued).

type
23 AV DREAMER Public 4 V/A/D (3) 99.03 (A)
95.17 (D)
94.53 (V)
[51] 2022 2 s MVMD and ResNet18 SVM 10 FCV ML
40 AV AMIGOS Public 4 V/A/D (3) 96.68 (A)
97.45 (D)
95.58 (V)
[52] 2017 32 AV DEAP Public 5 s 8 V/A (2) EMD and STSF SVM LOSO CV 69.10 (V) ML
71.99 (A)
[213] 2022 15 AV SEED IV Public 4 s 62 Discrete (4) NL, PSD, and DEC GFIL LOSO CV 79.17 ML
[214] 2020 32 AV DEAP Public 10 s 14 V/A/D (3) PSD, ENT, WT, and FD SVM 5 FCV 78.96 (A) ML
77.60 (D)
77.62 (V)
[215] 2018 32 AV DEAP Public – 18 V/A (2) MEMD and STSF KNN LOSO CV 51.01 (A) ML
67 (V)
[64] 2020 15 AV SEED Public 1 s 62 Pos/Neg/Neu (3) STFT, DE and rhythms CNN 5 FCV 91.68 DL
[216] 2016 32 DEAP Public 4 s 19 Discrete (4) FFT and rhythms SVM 10 FCV 59.13 ML
Pos/Neg/Neu (3) 72.36
[53] 2019 23 AV MPED Private 1 s 62 Discrete (2) PSD, NLF, and NL DEC LSTM Holdout 78.79 DL
Discrete (7) 42.1
[67] 2018 58 AV ASCERTAIN Public 8 V/A (2) STSF NB LOSO CV 60 (A) ML
61 (V)
[84] 2020 21 AV – Private – 4 Discrete (4) STSF KNN 10 FCV 75 ML
23 AV DREAMER Public 10 s 4 V/A/D (3) 98.82 (A)
98.99 (D)
98.56 (V)
[217] 2021 32 AV DEAP Public 10 s 19 Discrete (4) Rhythms Deep CNN 10 FCV 98.45 (A) DL
98.69 (D)
98.91 (V)
23 AV DASPS Public 10 s 14 V/A (2) 57.14
23 AV DREAMER Public – 4 V/A/D (3) 100 (A)
100 (D)
100 (V)
[54] 2021 32 AV DEAP Public – 19 Discrete (4) TQWT with PP and STSF SVM LOSO CV 99.56 (A) ML
99.67 (D)
99.55 (V)
28 CG GAMEEMO Public – 1 Discrete (4) 100
[218] 2022 25 VR VREED Public 4 s 64 Pos/Neg (2) DE SVM Holdout 76.22 ML
[55] 2022 165 Image ICBrainDB Public 3 s 128 Discrete (4) TQWT with HOG, and LBP KNN 10 FCV 90.77 ML
40 AV AMIGOS Public 3 V/A(4) 98.8 (Fused)
74.65 (EEG)
[82] 2020 1 s Filtering CNN-LSTM Holdout DL
23 AV DREAMER Public 3 V/A/D (4) 90.5 (Fused)
48.54 (EEG)
82.63 (V)
ML
74.88 (A)
EEG
[71] 2021 20 AV – Private – 14 V/A (4) STSF and rhythms SVM 10 FCV
85.38 (V)
77.52 (A)
Fused
18
Table A.4
Summary of emotion recognition studies using ECG signals included in the review.
type
[65] 2021 40 AV AMIGOS Public 20 s 3 V/A (2) WST, TDF, and FDF Ensemble 10 FCV 88.8 (A) ML
88.9 (V)
Video 100
[66] 2017 69 Image – Private 20 s 3 Discrete (2) Rhythmic features SVM 10 FCV 100 ML
AV 100
[67] 2018 58 AV ASCERTAIN Public 3 V/A (2) NLF and rhythmic features Naïve Bayes LOSO CV 60 (V) ML
59 (A)
Video 73.8
[68] 2017 69 Image – Private 20 s 3 Discrete (5) Rhythmic features SVM 10 FCV 62.4 ML
AV 72.8
[69] 2014 60 AV – Private 3.6 s 3 Discrete (6) NLF FKNN Holdout 92.87 ML
EMD with HHT 40.14
[76] 2014 30 AV – Private – 3 Discrete (6) EMD KNN Holdout 29.92 ML
EMD with DFT 52.11
[70] 2020 – Music Augsburg university database Public – Discrete (4) Rhythmic features FHMM Holdout 95 ML
23 Image – Private 20 s 3 V/A (2) 76.19 (V)
80.95 (A)
[79] 2022 Filtering CNN 10 FCV DL
23 AV DREAMER Public 20 s 3 V/A (2) 97.56 (V)
96.34 (A)
[53] 2019 23 AV MPED Private 1 s 3 Discrete (2) FFT and NLF LSTM Holdout 55.24 DL
Discrete (7) 25.1
23 AV DREAMER Public 1 s 3 V/A (5) – 87.7 (V)
87.4 (A)
[80] 2023 15 AV WESAD Public 1 s 3 Affect state (4) – CNN with CBAM Holdout 97.5 DL
58 AV ASCERTAIN Public 1 s 3 V/A(7) – 78.7 (V)
76.3 (A)
[219] 2017 24 AV MAHNOB-HCI Public – 3 V/A(2) HRV SVM – 60.83 (V) ML
65.73 (A)
[81] 2021 15 AV – Private 3 Discrete (4) Filtering and CWT CNN-LSTM LOSO CV 71.67 DL
[86] 2021 58 ASCERTAIN Public 4 s 3 V/A (4) Heart rate variability SVM 10 FCV 78.32 (V) ML
76.83 (A)
76.65 (V)
70.15 (A)
[71] 2021 20 AV – Private – 3 V/A (2) STSF and rhythmic features SVM 10 FCV EEG-ECG ML
85.38 (V)
77.52 (A)
[72] 2015 27 Audio – Private 88 s 3 V/A (2) NLF and LF QDA LOSO CV 84.72 (V) ML
84.26 (A)
[220] 2020 86 AV BioVid Emo DB Public 68 s 3 Discrete (5) Filtering SVM Holdout 80.89 ML
[73] 2022 23 AV DREAMER Public – 3 V/A/D (–) TDF, FDF, and NLF CNN 10 FCV 95.16 (V) DL
85.56 (A)
77.54 (D)
40 AV AMIGOS Public 1 s 3 V/A (4) 98.8 (Fused) DL
98.73 (ECG)
[82] 2020 Filtering and segmentation CNN-LSTM Holdout
23 AV DREAMER Public 1 s 3 V/A/D (4) 90.8 (Fused)
90.5 (ECG)
[74] 2023 24 AV MAHNOB-HCI Public 15 s 3 V/A (2) MRF and HRV BiLSTM 10 FCV 83.61 (A) DL
78.28 (V)
[77] 2017 11 Music – Private – 16 Discrete (5) WDEC and DCT PNN Holdout 100 (Discrete) ML
100 (V) 100
(A)
[75] 2020 61 Music – Private 60 s 3 Discrete (4) TDF, FDF, and NLF LS-SVM LOSO CV 10 FCV 68.1 (LOSO) ML
80.51 (10
FCV)
40 AV AMIGOS Public 20 s 3 V/A (4) 88.9 (A)
87.5 (V)
23 AV DREAMER Public 60 s 3 V/A (4) 85.9 (A)
85 (V)
[83] 2022 Windowing SL CNN 10 FCV DL
25 AV SWELL Public 60 s 3 Discrete (4) 93.3 (Stress)
96.7 (A)
97.3 (V)
15 AV WESAD Public 5 s 3 Discrete (4) 96.9
[78] 2019 25 AV – Private 20 s 2 Discrete (4) Rhythmic and EMD Extra tree 10 FCV 70.09 ML
CRediT authorship contribution statement Data availability
Smith K. Khare: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – orig- No data was used for the research described in the article
inal draft, Validation, Editing. Victoria Blanes-Vidal: Validation, Re-
Appendix A. Summary of the emotion recognition studies
viewing and editing. Esmaeil S. Nadimi: Validation, Reviewing and
editing. U. Rajendra Acharya: Conceptualization, Validation, Review- See Tables A.3–A.8.
ing and editing.
Appendix B. Summary of the emotion datasets
Declaration of competing interest
See Tables B.9–B.14.
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan- Appendix C. Abbreviations
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper. See Table C.15.
19
Table A.5
Summary of emotion recognition studies using GSR signals included in the review.
Ref. Year Sub. Dataset Dataset name Status Length Emotion (Classes) Feature extraction Classification Validation Accuracy (%) Decision
type
[77] 2017 11 Music – Private – Discrete (5) WDEC and DCT PNN Holdout 99.59 (Discrete) ML
99.52 (V)
99.66 (A)
[84] 2020 21 – Private – Discrete (4) STSF KNN 10 FCV 72.61 (GSR) ML
79.76 (Fused)
[85] 2017 32 AV DEAP Public 3 s V/A/D (2) DWT and EMD based STSF RF 10 FCV 89.29 (V) ML
81.81 (A)
60.05 (V)
55.63 (A)
[86] 2021 58 AV ASCERTAIN Public 4 s V/A (4) TDF and FDF SVM 10 FCV ML
Fused features
76.81 (V)
75.24 (A)
[87] 2020 32 AV DEAP Public 3 s V/A/D (4) PCP, LE, and APEN PNN 5 FCV 100 (V) 100 ML
(A)
[94] 2019 100 AV MDSTC dataset Private 1 s Discrete (6) Spectrogram CNN-LSTM Holdout Recall: 80.07 DL
[91] 2020 37 AV – Private – Discrete (3) EMD and TDF SVM 10 FCV 100 ML
[221] 2018 39 AV – Private – Discrete (3) filtering SVM Holdout 75.65 ML
[88] 2016 30 AV – Private – Discrete (4) STSF RF 10 FCV 75 (Fused ML
features)
62 AV MERTI-Apps Public 1.1 s V/A (2) 81.33 (A)
80.25 (V)
[95] 2022 Windowing and filtering 1D AE Holdout DL
32 AV DEAP Public 1.1 s V/A (3) 79.18 (A)
74.84 (V)
34 Audio – Private – Discrete (4) 99.4
[89] 2021 STSF ANN 10 FCV ML
15 AV WESAD Public – Discrete (4) 99.4
V/A (3) 95.10 (Dis)
97.90 (V)
95.80 (A)
[92] 2016 11 Music – Private 10 s DWT PNN Holdout ML
Discrete (5) Fused 100
(Dis) 100
(V) 100
(A)
[90] 2017 35 Music – Private 10 s Discrete (4) NLF LSSVM 5 FCV 99.98 ML
[222] 2022 58 AV ASCERTAIN Public V/A (4) – SVM – 99.67 ML
V/A (3) 69.93 (Dis) ML
81.82 (V)
79.02 (A)
[93] 2016 11 Music – Private – DWT with matching pursuit PNN Holdout
Discrete (5) Fused 99.64
(Dis)
99.51 (V)
99.44 (A)
[53] 2019 23 AV MPED Private 1 s Discrete (2) FFT and NLF LSTM Holdout 63.37 DL
Discrete (7) 31.19
[67] 2018 58 AV ASCERTAIN Public – V/A (2) NLF and rhythmic features NB LOSO CV 68 (V) 66 (A) ML
[82] 2020 40 AV AMIGOS Public 1 s V/A (4) Filtering and segmentation CNN-LSTM Holdout 98.8 (Fused) DL
63.67 (GSR)
Table A.6
Summary of emotion recognition studies using ET signals included in the review.
Ref. Year Sub. Dataset Dataset Status Length Emotion Feature Classification Validation Accuracy Decision
name (Classes) extraction (%) type
[96] 2021 16 Image – Private – Discrete (4) FFT and STFT DGCNN Holdout 87.97 DL
with FDF
[97] 2023 48 Video eSEE-d Public – Discrete (4) STSF DMLP 10 FCV 92 (V) 81 DL
(A)
[223] 2021 10 Virtual reality – Private – Discrete (4) – SVM LOSO CV 59.19 ML
[98] 2019 10 Video – Private – Discrete (4) – – – –
[224] 2020 30 Video – Private – Discrete (3) NLF SVM LOSO CV 80 ML
[225] 2021 10 Image – Private – Discrete (8) NLF and FDF DGNN Holdout 88.1 DL
20
Table A.7
Summary of emotion recognition studies using SPEECH signals included in the review.
Ref. Year Sub. Dataset Dataset name Status Length Emotion (Classes) Feature extraction Classification Validation Accuracy Decision
(%) type
[101] 2020 24 AV RAVDESS Public 10 ms Discrete (8) MFCC and MS CNN Holdout 78.2 DL
[102] 2020 7 Audio LDC Public Discrete (4) MFCC and LPCC SVM Holdout 90.08 ML
[103] 2020 24 AV RAVDESS Public 10 ms Discrete (8) DWT, MFCC, and STSF Decision Tree Holdout 85 ML
10 AV IEMOCAP Private – Discrete (4) 86.1
[113] 2020 24 Acted RAVDESS Public 10 ms Discrete (8) STSF 1D CNN 5 FCV 71.61 DL
10 Audio EMO-DB Public – Discrete (7) 64.3
[226] 2014 10 Audio EMO-DB Public – Discrete (7) Spectral analysis KNN Holdout 50 ML
[104] 2019 330 AV AFEW Public 40 ms Discrete (7) FFT and MSG CNN Holdout 60.59 DL
10 Audio EMO-DB Public 2 s Discrete (7) 100
[105] 2022 MFCC and BLS LDA Holdout ML
4 Audio CASIA Private 2 s Discrete (6) 100
ML
[106] 2015 4 Audio CASIA Private – Discrete (6) Fourier parameters and MFCC SVM Holdout 79
16 Audio EESDB Public – Discrete (4) 50.67
[107] 2019 10 AV IEMOCAP Private – Discrete (4) SG and MFCC CNN 5 FCV 73.6 DL
10 Audio EMO-DB Public 25 ms Discrete (7) 92.45
[108] 2019 24 AV RAVDESS Public 25 ms Discrete (8) MFCC and SCF Bagged tree 10 FCV 75.69 ML
10 Audio IITKGP-SEHSC Private 25 ms Discrete (8) 84.11
42 AV eNTERFACE Public – Discrete (6) 89.6
[118] 2019 4 Audio CASIA Private – Discrete (6) – LSTM Holdout 92.8 DL
AV GEMEP Private – Discrete (12) 57
[227] 2019 4 Audio CASIA Private – Discrete (6) FFT DNN-SVM Holdout 72.92 DL
24 AV RAVDESS Public 0.5 s Discrete (8) 77.02
[119] 2020 10 AV IEMOCAP Private 0.5 s Discrete (4) clustering BiLSTM Holdout 72.25 DL
10 Audio EMO-DB Public 0.5 s Discrete (7) 85.57
[120] 2021 24 AV RAVDESS Public – Discrete (8) PSF and EE SVM 7 FCV 82.59 ML
14 AV SAVEE Public – Discrete (7) 77.74
4 Audio CASIA Private – Discrete (6) 90.28
[109] 2018 14 AV SAVEE Public – Discrete (7) MFCC and STSF BEL Holdout 76.4 DL
51 Audio FAU Private – Discrete (7) 71.05
10 AV IEMOCAP Private 10 ms Discrete (4) Holdout 82.25
[115] 2022 SIT CNN (ResNet152) DL
10 Audio EMO-DB Public 10 ms Discrete (7) 5 FCV 96.14
[116] 2019 10 Audio EMO-DB Public – Discrete (7) STFT CNN Holdout 77.33 DL
[228] 2021 2 Audio TESS Public 2–3 s Discrete (6) EMD with ENT LDA 10 folf CV 93.3 ML
[110] 2021 10 AV IEMOCAP Private 20 ms Discrete (4) MFCC, ZCR, spectral spread, and centroid LSTM Holdout 72.5 DL
[121] 2019 PSCF ELM Holdout ML
14 AV Amritaemo Arabic database Private 20 ms Discrete (6) 86.98
[229] 2017 10 AV IEMOCAP Private 25 ms Discrete (4) Log FT CNN LOSO CV 64.78 DL
18 Audio Turkish SER dataset Private 5 s Discrete (3) 96.41
[230] 2022 TQWT and SLP SVM 10 FCV ML
45 Audio English SER dataset Private 5 s Discrete (3) 94.97
10 AV IEMOCAP Private – Discrete (4) 81.75
[114] 2019 STFT and SG CNN 5 FCV DL
24 AV RAVDESS Public – Discrete (8) 79.5
24 AV RAVDESS Public – Discrete (8) MLP 83.8
10 AV IEMOCAP Private – Discrete (4) CNN-SVM 81.3
[111] 2020 MEL spectrogram – DL
10 Audio EMO-DB Public – Discrete (7) SVM 95.1
14 AV SAVEE Public – Discrete (7) SVM 82.1
31 AV BAUM Public 10 ms Discrete (12) 44.61
[117] 2018 LMSG CNN LOSO CV DL
42 AV eNTERFACE Public 10 ms Discrete (6) 79.25
8 AV RML Public 10 ms Discrete (6) 75.34
[231] 2018 4 Audio CASIA Private Discrete (6) PSF ELM LOSO CV 89.6 ML
24 AV RAVDESS Public – Discrete (8) 85
[112] 2021 10 Audio EMO-DB Public – Discrete (7) Spectrum and spectrogram CNN 10 FCV 95 DL
14 AV SAVEE Public – Discrete (7) 82
24 AV RAVDESS Public – Discrete (8) 87.43
[232] 2021 TQWT with TSP SVM 10 FCV ML
14 AV SAVEE Public – Discrete (7) 84.79
6 Audio EMOVO Public – Discrete (7) 79.08
21
Table A.8
Summary of emotion recognition studies using IMAGE signals included in the review.
Ref. Year Sub. Dataset name Status No. of Emotion Feature extraction Classification Validation Accuracy (%) Decision
images (Classes) type
70 KDEF Public 4900 Discrete (7) SVM 85
[122] 2022 FLC Holdout ML
201 CK+ Public 3368 Discrete (7) RF 97.86
201 CK+ Public 3368 Discrete (7) 91.42
[233] 2022 GM-WLBP, GLCM and GLRM CNN-LSTM Holdout DL
10 JAFFE Public 213 Discrete (7) 92.85
2022 337 CMU Multi-PIE Public 750K+ Discrete (5) 90
[123] Face extraction using MTCNN MTCNN Holdout DL
– AffectNet Public 1M Discrete (8) 90
10 JAFFE Public 213 Discrete (7) Normalization, scaling, and 95.65
[138] 2022 CNN Holdout DL
118 CK+ Public 3150 Discrete (7) augmentation 99.36
– FER2013 Public 35,887 Discrete (7) 74.64
[124] 2023 RetinaFace CNN Holdout DL
≈450 000 AffectNet Public 1M Discrete (8) 62.78
19 MMI Public 4756 Discrete (6) 99.02
– RAF-DB 15 539 Discrete (7) 72.84
[234] 2020 ≈35,887 FER2013 Public 35,953 Discrete (7) Reinforcement learning CNN Holdout 72.35 DL
– ExpW 91 793 Discrete (7) 50.61
Geometric and texture
[125] 2019 10 JAFFE Public 213 Discrete (7) DAGSVM – 63.33 ML
features
52 MUG Public 304 Discrete (6) 82.28
[235] 2021 – CK+ Public 918 Discrete (7) – MobileNet CNN Holdout 98.5 DL
97 CK+ Public 8150 Discrete (7) Gaussian normalization CNN with RB Holdout 93.24
[236] 2019 DL
450 000 AffectNet Public 220K+ Discrete (8) 74.8
[126] 2019 MTCNN Generater CAE Holdout DL
– RAF-DB 15 539 Discrete (7) 81.83
123 CK+ Public 593 Discrete (7) 98
– FER2013 Public 35,887 Discrete (7) Attention 70.02
[133] 2021 SIFT, HOG, and LBP Holdout DL
10 JAFFE Public 213 Discrete (7) CNN 92.8
– FERG Public 55,767 Discrete (7) 99.3
[127] 2020 SAVEE Public 480 Discrete (7) Facial graphs ANN Holdout 90 ML
95 SFEW Public 700 Discrete (7) 27.24
[237] 2020 100 BU-3DFE Public 21 000 Discrete (7) GGPI GAN Holdout 81.95 DL
270 CMU Multi-PIE Public 7655 Discrete (6) 92.09
123 CK+ Public 593 Discrete (7) Appearance and 96.46
[128] 2019 CNN 10 FCV DL
10 JAFFE Public 213 Discrete (7) geometric features 91.27
– FER2013 Public 35,887 Discrete (7) Normalization, equalization,
[238] 2019 CNN Holdout 88.56 (fused) DL
– LFW Public 13 000 Discrete (7) and image edge
Cropping and facial feature
[129] 2020 – FER2013 Public 35,887 Discrete (7) CNN with attention Holdout 75.82 DL
extraction
35 NCUFE Private 26,950 Discrete (7) 94.33
80 Oulu-CASIA Public 2880 Discrete (6) 94.63
27 CK+ Public 450 Discrete (7) 85
[239] 2020 337 CMU Multi-PIE Public 750K+ Discrete (5) Expressional vector CNN Holdout 78 DL
1573 NIST Public 3248 – 96
[134] 2019 – AffectNet Public 300K Discrete (8) Position level features BiRNN Holdout – DL
[240] 2021 10 JAFFE Public 213 Discrete (7) MSWGT SVM – 97.1 ML
18 FEEDTUM Public – Discrete (7) 95.8
[241] 2016 20 – Private 700 Discrete (7) BOWT SVM 10 FCV 96.77 ML
[135] 2020 – Downloaded Private 23,164 Discrete (8) – ResNet-MldrNet 5 FCV 67.75 DL
[242] 2023 – FER2013 Public 35,887 Discrete (7) Gray scale CNN Holdout 54 DL
67 RaFD Public 1608 Discrete (8) 99.17
CNN with
[136] 2019 123 CK+ Public 593 Discrete (7) OFSTF Holdout 98.38 DL
inception
88 MMI Public 5042 Discrete (9) 99.59
[130] 2020 67 Turkey student DB Private – Discrete (7) Facial features – – –
70 KDEF Public 4900 Discrete (7) 98.78 (Holdout)
Convolutional-based 96.51 (10 FCV)
[137] 2021 CNN (DenseNet121) Holdout 10 FCV DL
features
10 JAFFE Public 213 Discrete (7) 100 (Holdout)
99.52 (10 fold CV)
– CK+ Public 329 Discrete (6) 94.09
[131] 2015 Salient facial patches SVM 10 FCV ML
[243] 2017 2,64,683 SocialMedia Public 2 mil. Discrete (10) Generic and special features SVM Holdout – ML
– UNBC-McMaster Public 88 427 Discrete (2) 90.3
[132] 2022 Aligned face crop LSTM LOSO CV DL
22
Table B.9
Details of the EEG datasets used for emotion recognition.
Ref. Subjects Dataset Dataset Status of Recorder NCH Samp. Type of Evoked emotions Self-
name dataset Freq. classification assessment
[199] 20 AV – Private EEG 24 256 Discrete Happy, fear, sad, and relax SAM
traveler emotions
[244] 23 AV DREAMER Public Emotive 14 128 V/A/D Amusement, surprise, SAM
EPOC excitement, happiness,
calmness, anger, disgust,
fear, and sadness
[207, 15 AV SEED Public ESI 62 200 Pos/Neu/Neg Positive, neutral, and PQES,
245] NeuroScan negative FAM, UL
System
[246] 20 Music MUSEC Public g.USBamp 62 1200 V/A Favored Melody, favored –
Song, non-favored Melody,
non-favored Song
[247] 32 AV DEAP Public Biosemi 32 128 V/A/D/liking LALV, HALV, LAHV, and SAM
ActiveTwo HAHV
[248] 43 AV INTER- Public OpenBCI 8 250 V/A Happiness, Excitement, and SAM
FACES Fear
[200] 16 Images – Private g.USBamp 64 512 V/A/D Happy, curious, angry, sad, SAM
and quiet
[249] 11 AV LUMED Public Neuro- 8 500 V (Neg and Positive, neutral, and –
electrics Pos) negative
Enobio 8
[44] 20 AV – Private Emotiv 16 – V/A Happy, relaxed, angry, sad SAM
Epoc and disgust
[250] 15 AV SEED IV Public ESI 62 200 Discrete Happiness, sadness, fear, PANAS
NeuroScan emotions and neutral
System
[251] 27 AV MAHNOB- Public Biosemi 32 1024 Valence Amusement, joy, neutral, SAM
HCI Active II s sadness, fear, and disgust
[252, 37 AV CMEED Public NuAmps 40 32 128 V/A Positive, neutral, and SAM
253] negative
[212] 10 AV – Private Emotiv 14 Discrete Happiness, neutral, and SAM
EPOC emotions sadness
[254] 40 AV AMIGOS Public Emotiv 14 128 V/A/D Neutral, Disgust, SAM
EPOC Happiness, Surprise, Anger,
Fear and Sadness
[255] 28 Games GAMEEMO Public EMOTIV 14 128 Discrete Funny, Boring, Horror, SAM
EPOC emotions Calm
[256] 23 AV MPED Private ESI 62 1000 Discrete Joy, funny, anger, fear, PANAS,
NeuroScan emotions sadness, disgust, and SAM, and
System neutral DES
[257] 58 AV ASCER- Public Neuro Sky 8 32 V/A Arousal, Valence, SAM
TAIN EEG Engagement Liking,
Familiarity
[258] 23 AV DASPS Public Emotiv 14 128 V/A LALV, HALV, LAHV, and SAM and
EPOC HAHV HAM-A
[259] 25 VR VREED Public Wireless 64 1000 Neg and Pos Neg and Pos –
EEG device
[260] 165 Image ICBrainDB Public Brain 128 1000 Discrete Happy, angry, sad, and –
Products emotions neutral
actiChamp
[71] 20 AV – Private Emotive 14 128 V/A LALV, HALV, LAHV, and SAM
EPOC HAHV
23
Table B.10
Details of the ECG datasets used for emotion recognition.
Ref. Subjects Dataset Dataset Status of Recorder NCH Samp. Type of Evoked emotions Self-
[254] 40 AV AMIGOS Public SHIMMER 3 256 V/A/D Neutral, Disgust, SAM
Happiness, Surprise,
Anger, Fear and Sadness
[66] 69 Image – Private Radio 3 960 Discrete Happy, neutral, and –
Video frequency emotions anger
AV type device
[257] 58 AV ASCER- Public – 3 – V/A Arousal, Valence, SAM
TAIN Engagement Liking,
Familiarity
[69] 60 AV – Private Power Lab 3 1000 Discrete Happiness, sadness, fear, SAM
data disgust, surprise and
Acquisition neutral
[261] – Music Augsburg Public – – 256 Discrete Joy, anger, sadness, and –
university pleasure
database
[79] 23 Image – Private MP150 3 1000 V/A Calm, relaxed, content, SAM
system glad, delighted, bored,
annoyed, depressed,
others, gloomy, afraid,
angry, excited
[244] 23 AV DREAMER Public SHIMMER 3 256 V/A/D Amusement, surprise, SAM
excitement, happiness,
calmness, anger, disgust,
fear, and sadness
[256] 23 AV MPED Private BIOPAC 3 250 Discrete Joy, funny, anger, fear, PANAS,
System emotions sadness, disgust, and SAM, and
neutral DES
[262] 15 AV WESAD Public RespiBAN 3 700 Affect state Neutral, stress, PANAS,
Professional amusement STAI, and
SAM
[251] 24 AV MAHNOB- Public Biosemi 3 256 Valence Amusement, joy, SAM
HCI active II neutral, sadness, fear,
and disgust
[81] 15 AV – Private ECG 3 154 Discrete Relax, scary, disgust, SAM
monitor emotions and joy
(PC-80B)
[71] 20 AV – Private – 3 128 V/A Happy, relaxed, angry, SAM
sad, and disgusted
[72] 27 Audio – Private BIOPAC inc. 3 500 V/A Low-medium valence SAM
and medium-high
valence
[263] 86 AV BioVid Public Nexus-32 3 512 Discrete Amusement, sadness, SAM
Emo DB emotions anger, disgust and fear
[77] 11 Music – Private PowerLab 16 400 Discrete Peacefulness, happiness, –
emotions sadness, rest, and scary
[75] 61 Music – Private NeXus-10 3 2048 Discrete Joy, tension, sadness, GEMS-9
emotions and peacefulness
[264] 25 AV SWELL Public TMSI MOBI 3 2048 Affect state Valence, arousal, and SAM
device stress
[78] 25 AV – Private SpikerShield 2 1000 Discrete Joy; sadness; pleasure; SAM
Heart emotions anger; fear; and neutral
24
Table B.11
Details of the GSR datasets used for emotion recognition.
Ref. Subjects Dataset Dataset Status of Recorder Samp. Type of Evoked emotions Self-
[77] 11 Music – Private PowerLab 400 Discrete Peacefulness, happiness, –
clips emotions sadness, rest, and scary
[84] 21 – Private Shimmer 256 Discrete Happy, angry, sad, and SAM
emotions relaxed
[247] 32 AV DEAP Public Biosemi 128 V/AD/liking LALV, HALV, LAHV, and SAM
ActiveTwo HAHV
[94] 100 AV MDSTC Private Customized 200 Discrete Surprise, angry, disgust, SAM
physiological emotions happy, fear, and sad
sensor device
[91] 37 AV – Private Bluno Nano, 500 Discrete Amusement, sadness, and SAM
DFRobot emotions neutral
[257] 58 AV ASCER- Public – 256 V/A Arousal, Valence, Engagement SAM
TAIN Liking, Familiarity
[221] 39 AV – Private – – Discrete Positive, negative, and neutral PANAS
[88] 30 AV – Private BIOPAC MP150 1000 Discrete Neutral, sadness, fear and SAM
pleasure
[265] 62 AV MERTI- Public BIOPAC MP150 1000 V/A Happy, angry, sad, and scared SAM
Apps
[89] 34 Audio – Private MySignals 260 Discrete Relax, stressed, partially –
hardware stressed, and happy
[262] 15 AV WESAD Public RespiBAN 700 Affect state Neutral, stress, amusement PANAS,
Professional STAI, and
SAM
[90] 35 Music – Private PowerLab 400 Discrete Happiness, sadness, –
emotions peacefulness, and scary
[256] 23 AV MPED Private BIOPAC System 250 Discrete Joy, funny, anger, fear, PANAS,
emotions sadness, disgust, and neutral SAM, and
DES
[254] 40 AV AMIGOS Public Shimmer 256 V/A/D Neutral, Disgust, Happiness, SAM
Surprise, Anger, Fear, and
Sadness
Table B.12
Details of the ET datasets used for emotion recognition.
[96] 16 Image – Private Tobii pro 600 Discrete Calm, happy, nervous, and sad –
eye-tracker emotions
[97] 48 Video eSEE-d Public Pupil Labs 240 Discrete Anger, disgust, sadness and SAM
emotions tenderness
[223] 10 Virtual – Private Pupil Labs Discrete – –
reality emotions
[98] 10 Video – Private Tobii TX300 300 Discrete Joy, love, inspiration, and –
eye-tracker emotions serenity
[224] 30 Video – Private EyeTribe 60 Discrete Pleasant, neutral, and SAM
emotions unpleasant
[225] 10 Image – Private Eye-Tracking 600 Discrete Angry, disgust, fear, sad, SAM
emotions expect, happy, surprised, trust
25
Table B.13
Details of the SPEECH datasets used for emotion recognition.
[266] 24 Audio RAVDESS Public Rode NTK 48 K Discrete Calm, happy, sad, angry, SAM
video emotions fearful, surprise, and disgust
expressions
[267] 7 Audio LDC Public WAVES+ 22.05 Discrete Disgust, panic, anxiety, hot –
K emotions anger, cold anger, despair,
sadness, elation, happy,
interest, boredome, shame,
pride, and contempt
[268] 10 Audio IEMOCAP Private VICON motion 48 K Discrete Anger, happiness, sadness, SAM
video capture system emotions neutrality
[269] 10 Audio EMO-DB Public Tascam DA-P1 16 K Discrete Disgust, sadness, happiness, –
emotions boredom, fear, neutral, and
anger
[270] 330 Audio AFEW Public – – Discrete Happiness, surprise, anger, –
video emotions disgust, fear, sadness and
neutral
[271] 4 Audio CASIA Private RODE K2 16 K Discrete Angry, happy, fear, sadness, –
emotions surprise and neutral
[272] 16 Audio EESDB Public Cooleditpro – Discrete Angry, disgust, fear, happy, –
emotions neutral, sad, and surprise
[273] 10 Audio IITKGP- Private SHURE dynamic 16 K Discrete Happy, Sad, Angry, –
SEHSC cardioid emotions Sarcastic, Fear, Neutral,
microphone Disgust, and Surprise
C660N
[274] 42 Audio eNTERFACE Public D1/DV PAL 48 K Discrete Anger, Disgust, fear, –
video emotions happiness, sadness, and
surprise
[275] Audio GEMEP Private SENNHEISER 41 K Discrete Amusement, pride, joy, SAM
video emotions relief, interest, pleasure, hot
anger, panic fear, despair,
irritation, anxiety, sadness
[276– 14 Audio SAVEE Public Surrey 44.1 K Discrete Anger, Disgust, Fear, –
278] video audio-visual emotions Happiness, Sadness,Surprise,
expressed emotion and Neutral
database
[279] 51 Audio FAU Private SHURE UHF-serie 16 K Discrete Angry, Emphatic, Positive, SAM
emotions Neutral, and Rest
[280] 2 Audio TESS Public – – Discrete Anger, disgust, fear, –
emotions happiness, pleasant surprise,
sadness, and neutral
[121] 14 Audio Amritaemo Private Adobe Audition 16 K Discrete Anger, happy, sad, disgust, SAM
video Arabic software emotions surprise, and neutral
database
[230] 18 Audio Turkish SER Private – – Discrete Positive, negative, and –
dataset emotions neutral
[230] 45 Audio English SER Private – – Discrete Interesting, boring, and –
dataset emotions neutral
[281] 31 Audio BAUM Public – 48 K Discrete Happiness, sadness, fear, –
video emotions anger, disgust, confusion,
boredom, and interest
[282] 8 Audio RML Public – 44.1 K Discrete Anger, disgust, fear, joy, –
video emotions sadness, and surprise
[283] 6 Audio EMOVO Public Marantz PMD670 48 K Discrete Neutral, Anger, Disgust, SAM
emotions Fear, Happiness, Sadness,
Surprise
26
Table B.14
Details of the IMAGE datasets used for emotion recognition.
Ref. Subjects Dataset Dataset Status of Type of Evoked emotions Self-
name dataset classification assessment
[284] 70 KDEF Public 4900 Discrete emotions Angry, Fearful, Disgusted, Sad, Happy, –
Surprised, and Neutral
[285] 210 CK+ Public 8150 Discrete emotions Angry, Contempt, Disgust, Fear, Happy, FACS
Sadness, and Surprise
[286] 10 JAFFE Public 213 Discrete emotions Happiness, sadness, surprise, anger, disgust, –
fear, and neutral
[287, 337 CMU Public 750K+ Discrete emotions Neutral, smile, surprise, squint, disgust, and –
288] Multi-PIE scream
[289] – AffectNet Public 1M Discrete emotions Neutral, happy, sad, surprise, fear, disgust, SAM
anger and contempt
[290] – FER2013 Public 31K+ Discrete emotions Angry, Disgust, Fear, Happy, Sad, Surprise, –
Neutral
[291] 88 MMI Public 5042 Discrete emotions Anger, fear, and sadness, happiness, surprise FACS
and disgust
[292, – RAF-DB Public 29 672 Discrete emotions Disgust, happy, sad, anger, fear, and surprise SAM
293]
[294] – ExpW Public 91 793 Discrete emotions Angry, disgust, fear, happy, sad, surprise, and –
neutral
[295] 52 MUG Public 304 Discrete emotions Disgust, happy, sad, anger, fear, and surprise FACS
[296] – FERG Public 55K+ Discrete emotions Angry, Disgust, Fear, Happy, Sad, Surprise, FACS
Neutral
[276– – SAVEE Public 480 Discrete emotions Anger, Disgust, Fear, Happiness, Sadness, –
278] Surprise, Neutral
[297] 95 SFEW Public 700 Discrete emotions Anger, Disgust , Fear, Happiness , Sadness, SAM
Surprise, and Neutral
[298] 100 BU-3DFE Public 21K Discrete emotions Anger, Disgust , Fear, Happiness , Sadness, SAM
Surprise, and Neutral
[299] 5749 LFW Public 13 233 Discrete emotions Angry, Disgust, Fear, Happy, Sad, Surprise, SAM
Neutral
[129] 35 NCUFE Private 26,950 Discrete emotions Anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, –
surprise, and neural
[300] 80 Oulu-CASIA Public 2880 Discrete emotions Anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and –
surprise
[301] 1573 NIST Public 3248 – – –
[302] 18 FEEDTUM Public – Discrete emotions Neutral, anger, disgust, fear, happiness, –
sadness and surprise
[135, – Downloaded Private 23,164 Discrete emotions Happy, sadness, surprise, anger, disgust, fear, –
303] and neutral
[304] 67 RaFD Public 1608 Discrete emotions Anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, SAM
surprise, contempt, and neutral
[130] 67 Turkey Private – Discrete emotions Disgust, sadness, happiness, fear, contempt, FACS
student DB anger, and surprise
[243] 2,64,683 SocialMedia Public 21 mil. Discrete emotions Amusement, awe, contentment, excitement, SAM
anger, disgust, fear, and sadness
[305] – UNBC- Public 48,398 Discrete emotions Pain and no-pain FACS
McMaster
27
Table C.15
Abbreviations used in the review method. Table C.15 (continued).
A G
Adaptive VMD (AVMD) Generalized low-rank model (GLRM)
Adaptive TQWT (ATQWT) Generative adversarial network (GAN)
Approximate entropy (APEN) Geneva Emotional Music Scale (GEMS)
Artificial intelligence (AI) Geometry Guided Pose-Invariant (GGPI)
Artificial neural network (ANN) Geometric Mean based Weighted Local Binary Pattern (GM-WLBP)
Arousal (A) Graph ELM (GELM)
Attention-based convolutional recurrent neural network (ARCNN) Gray Level Co-occurrence Matrix (GLCM)
Audio/Video (AV) Graph-regularized least square regression with feature importance learning
Autoencoder (AE) (GFIL)
B H
Binary class (BC) Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAM-A)
BiOrthogonal wavelet transform (BOWT) Heart rate variability (HRV)
Brain emotional learning (BEL) High arousal (HA)
Broad learning system (BLS) High valence (HV)
C Hilbert Huang transform (HHT)
Histogram of oriented gradients (HOG)
Capsule Net (CapsNet)
Continuous wavelet transform (CWT) I
Convolutional autoencoder (CAE) Information potential feature (IPF)
Convolutional neural network (CNN)
K
Convolutional Block Attention Module (CBAM)
Cross validation (CV) K nearest neighbor (KNN)
D L
Decomposition (DEC) Leave one subject out (LOSO)

Deep forest (DFR) Least square SVM (LSSVM)
Deep belief networks (DBN) Linear features (LF )
Deep learning (DL) Linear discriminant analysis (LDA)
deep multilayer perceptron (DMLP) Linear Predictive correlation coefficient (LPCC)
Deep neural network (DNN) Local binary pattern (LBP)
Differential Emotions Scale (DES) Log Mel-spectrograms (LMSG)
Differential entropy (DE) Long short term memory (LSTM)
Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) Low arousal (LA)
Discrete cosine transform (DCT) Low valence (LV)
Discrete Fourier transform (DFT) Lyapunov exponents (LE)
Discrete wavelet transform (DWT) M
Dominance (D)
Machine learning (ML)
Dual filtering (DF)
Mel-frequency cepstrum coefficients (MFCC)
Dual-tree complex wavelet transform (DT-CWT)
Mel spectrogram (MSG)
Dynamic graph neural network (DGNN)
Modulation spectral (MS)
Dynamical Graph CNN (DGCNN)
Morphological features (MRF)
E Multiband feature matrix (MBFM)
Empirical mode decomposition (EMD) Multiclass (MC)
Energy effective (EE) Multilevel stationary wavelet gradient transform (MSWGT)
Entropy (ENT) Multi Task Convolutional Neural Network (MTCNN)
Extreme learning machine (ELM) Multivariate EMD (MEMD)
Multivariate VMD (MVMD)
F
N
Facial Action Coding System (FACS)
Facial landmark coordinates (FLC) Naïve Bayes (NB)
Familiarity (FAM) Negative (Neg)
Fast Fourier transform (FFT) Network pattern (NetP)
Fine KNN (FKNN) Neutral (Neu)
Flexible analytic wavelet transform (FAWT) Nonlinear features (NLF)
Fold cross validation (FCV) O
Fourier transform (FT)
One (1)-dimensional (1D)
Fractal dimension (FD)
Optical flow Spatial-Temporal feature (OFSTF)
Fractal Firat pattern (FFP)
Frequency-domain features (FDF) (continued on next page)
Fuzzy Hidden Markov Model (FHMM)
(continued on next page)
28
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Information Fusion 102 (2024) 102019

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Emotion recognition and artificial intelligence: A systematic review

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

1. Introduction 1.1. Paradigms of emotion

Fig. 3. 3D VAD emotion model.

Fig. 1. Plutchik’s wheel of emotions [15].

2. Emotion sensing modalities

Emotion sensing is a technique used to extract human emotions.

The questionnaire and self-reports are intended to begin people

behaviors for studying and understanding various psychological pro-

3.3. Input signals

Input signals are pre-processed for effective analysis. Pre-processing

3.4. Feature extraction

In data analysis and machine learning (ML), feature extraction

Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of steps involved in an automated emotion recognition system.

• A little discussion on research challenges and applications

The above-listed gaps motivate us to write a comprehensive and sys-

4.3. Salient features of our systematic review

1. Comprehensive use of datasets: Our review study explores

Table 1 shortlisting into three steps: identification, screening, and inclusion.

The time-based analysis reveals that the highest number of 12 stud-

13.4. Lack of trust in automated decision-making

Fig. 17. Overview of the emotion-based automated disorder detection system.

Fig. 18. Taxonomy of information fusion.

14.4. Distributed learning models 14.5.4. Data-level fusion

(continued on next page)

Table A.3 (continued).

CRediT authorship contribution statement Data availability

Decomposition (DEC) Leave one subject out (LOSO)

(continued on next page)

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