Interior point algorithm-based power flow optimisation of a combined

AC and DC multi-terminal grid

Farhan Beg
Power Systems, Research and Development Global Energy Network Institute, San Diego, CA, USA
E-mail: farhan.beg@geni.org

Published in The Journal of Engineering; Received on 2nd October 2014; Accepted on 30th October 2014

Abstract: The high cost of power electronic equipment, lower reliability and poor power handling capacity of the semiconductor devices had
stalled the deployment of systems based on DC (multi-terminal direct current system (MTDC)) networks. The introduction of voltage source
converters (VSCs) for transmission has renewed the interest in the development of large interconnected grids based on both alternate current
(AC) and DC transmission networks. Such a grid platform also realises the added advantage of integrating the renewable energy sources into
the grid. Thus a grid based on DC MTDC network is a possible solution to improve energy security and check the increasing supply demand
gap. An optimal power solution for combined AC and DC grids obtained by the solution of the interior point algorithm is proposed in this
study. Multi-terminal HVDC grids lie at the heart of various suggested transmission capacity increases. A significant difference is observed
when MTDC grids are solved for power flows in place of conventional AC grids. This study deals with the power flow problem of a combined
MTDC and an AC grid. The AC side is modelled with the full power flow equations and the VSCs are modelled using a connecting line, two
generators and an AC node. The VSC and the DC losses are also considered. The optimisation focuses on several different goals. Three dif-
ferent scenarios are presented in an arbitrary grid network with ten AC nodes and five converter stations.

1 Introduction
(MTDC) grids have also been proposed and deployed all over. Zhu
Electric transmission networks of present day power grids are and Booth [2] discuss the general HVDC case. The European case
mostly based on AC technology, which was predominantly the has been examined in [3] and the North American perspective in
only mode of electricity transmission from generation sites to [4]. MTDC systems could also directly affect the lower voltage
load centres about a 100 years ago. However, over the past few grid levels in a positive way [5]. VSCs have many significant advan-
years this predominance is being questioned [1]. The establishment tages as compared with the line commutated converter (LCC)
of the present electric power system dates back to over a 100 years arrangements and hence are used quite ubiquitously all over for the
when the sole purpose of the power system was to evacuate power proposed projects. Only VSCs are considered in this paper for the
from generating stations employing the use of coal to residential study case and a detailed discussion for this choice of VSC over
consumers that needed the electricity mostly for lighting purposes. LCC has been included in Section 2 and in [3].
Power generation was localised and was built around communities. Integration of wind energy is another core issue that is being dis-
With the advancement of technology and industry, the needs of the cussed for such deployments and poses a huge challenge to realise
people grew and leading to the generation sites to grow to supply it in the model. The amount and size of renewable energy sources
the needed power. However, with the increasing size of the electric- results in a limiting factor for such a connection. HVDC point-to-point
al grid, optimisation and complete control cannot be satisfied by links can provide a possible solution to this problem for connecting the
merely increasing the number of generation sites. Today the elec- offshore wind parks directly to the load centres [6]. An MTDC grid
trical power system delivers power to agriculture industry, commer- structure happens to realise the connection between the different
cial and residential consumers, trying miserably to cope up with the wind parks and between the wind park and the HVAC grid [7–9].
ever growing demand. Systematically the hazards accompanied These structures can have different topologies; beginning from a
with relying on an overburdened grid grow in size, scope and con- link with many terminals, leading to radial connections and ending
volution with every moment elapsed. The present limited one way up in fully meshed grids. The connection between the HVAC grid
interaction makes it difficult for the grid to respond to the ever chan- and the HVAC lines results in new power flows. Even though there
ging and rising energy demands of the 21st century. The existing is a rich documentation regarding the general VSC technology and
transmission systems in Europe and North America as well as its usage in the grids, there happens to be a dearth of publications
India have touched their limits and further increase in the bulk dealing with the load flow of a combination of a direct current (DC)
power transmission is expected. This can be observed from the and an alternate current (AC) grid. Pizano-Martinez et al. [10] show
expected increase in the amount of renewable energy to be inte- an approach to model a VSC terminal even though it neglects the ter-
grated into the grid galvanised from research in power electronic minal losses. Gengyin et al. [11] present a possible power flow calcu-
equipment that enables renewable energy producers to generate lation with an HVDC link in an AC grid. Even rare are the
greater amounts of power. Moreover, a significant amount of in- multi-terminal DC grid power flows. Zhang [12] presented a model
crease is expected in the consumption of electrical energy at load for a multi-terminal VSC-based DC network present in the same sub-
centres very far from production centres. station. Beerten et al. [13] present an algorithm to calculate the losses
A number of proposals for such an enhancement of the already in VSC terminals for a combined DC and AC power flow model.
present grid can be imagined from the need of higher transmission Terminal losses and losses in lines have been taken into account in
capabilities and a significant improvement in high voltage direct this solution but the power settings of the terminals have been kept
current (HVDC) technology. One possible arena is to dwell into constant. Therefore optimisation of power flows is not possible with
the increase in number of multiple HVDC point-to-point links in this model.
order to directly boost the transmission capacity. This possible solu- A steady-state model has been formulated in this paper in order to
tion calls for more interconnections. Multi-terminal DC system calculate the optimal power flow in a combined AC and DC grid.

J Eng, 2015, Vol. 2015, Iss. 1, pp. 41–47 This is an open access article published by the IET under the Creative Commons
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This paper also considers the losses in the VSC terminals and in the which can affect the controllability and flexibility of the bulk
AC and DC lines. Full power flow equations are used to model the power system.
AC grid power flow. The non-linear mathematical optimisation The converter stations from the backbone of the working of an
problem is formulated and solved using the interior point algorithm; efficient HVDC transmission system. Currently, two kinds of con-
however, the choice of such an algorithm in itself is not a problem verter technologies, consisting of the line commutated current
this paper hopes to solve. source converters (CSC’s) and self-commutated VSC’s are mostly
used in the HVDC transmission systems.
HVDC systems based on the principle of conventional CSC’s
2 Technical background require a substantially large generation source with a very high
2.1 State of technology level of short-circuit ratio in order to operate satisfactorily. In
other words, there is a need for the transference of reactive power
Owing to some key advancements in the electricity transmission from the AC system at the point of contacts to the converter so to
technology, certain key concepts have evolved for the construction accomplish the conversion process which amounts to nearly
of the overlay grids that can provide the energy transfer corridors: about 50% of the total active power through the converter.
Moreover, based on the CSC technology principle, power flow dir-
1. Three-phase AC technology 50 Hz (AC grids) with voltages ection can be reversed only by reversing the DC voltage polarity.
> 400 kV (750, 1000 kV). This characteristic needs a highly complicated switching technique
2. Three-phase AC technology with reduced frequency (AC in case the CSC system is used for building an MTDC.
grids16 2/3 HZ) with voltages >400 kV. On the contrary, VSCs utilising the insulated gate bipolar transis-
3. HVDC with network controlled converters (LCC-HVDC, tor (IGBT) valves as well as pulse width modulation (PWM) tech-
HVDC classic). niques can lead to the production of a near sinusoidal AC voltage
4. HVDC with self-commutated converters (VSC-HVDC). which is fully controllable with respect to magnitude and phase
of the AC wave. Unlike the CSC systems, VSCs have no reactive
Constant research into the development of three-phase AC tech- power demand and can as well exchange the reactive power with
nology as a result of an increasing requirement on transmitted the AC grid.
power and distance has led to the introduction of increased VSCs can rapidly control the active power exchange by control-
voltage levels [8]. ling the phase angle of the produced voltage as well as control the
Overhead lines, cables as well as gas insulated lines are now reactive power at each terminal by controlling the magnitude of
available as AC transport medium. Owing to sophisticated technol- VSC voltage independent of the DC power transmission. Owing
ogy as well as lower investment costs, overhead lines provide a to this property, VSCs can be installed anywhere in the AC grid ir-
standard solution for high transmission voltages. Line conductor respective of the short-circuit current capacity. Moreover, to change
monitoring, high temperature conductors as well as considerable the direction of the power flow in its DC-link, VSC does not need to
improvement of towers in respect with space and field strength dis- reverse the voltage polarity. This power reversal is observed by
tribution are some of the developments in overhead line technology. changing the direction of the current. Many attempts have already
Reduced frequency three-phase systems as an alternative been made to conceptualise the formation of the meshed grids
between AC and DC grids was introduced for discussion. A using classic HVDC or CSC technology. However, because of
reduced frequency of 16 2/3 Hz was conceptualised which is also the high amount of complexity involved, the projects were
used in certain countries as traction power supply. Larger distances thereby limited to a maximum of three nodes. On the other hand,
can be bridged because of reduction in the line impedances. the VSC-HVDC provides the most suitable conditions for a multi-
Additionally specific research needs to be done on such systems terminal system, which is the basis for the deployment of a super-
so as to introduce this technology with regard to high voltages. grid because of the fact that the number of nodes and the kind of
There is a strong criticism about these technologies as equipments grid topology utilised does not have any limit with regard to
like transformers for reduced frequency AC systems having larger VSC-HVDC [11–15].
dimensions. A considerable converter expense also needs to be
planned which is larger than with DC grids.
2.2 VSC-HVDC functional principle
The main aim of the introduction of HVDC systems technology
is to provide a highly efficient and a flexible transmission system. The working of a VSC converter is based on the synchronous func-
With the increase in the number and power flow between energy tioning of a 6-pulse bridge circuit of IGBT’s (power transistors)
corridors as well as an increasing need of the integration of renew- controlled by a clocked control signal generating pulses in the
able energy sources into the grid such as wind and solar energies, range of kilohertz frequencies. Provision has to be provided for
the need for the presence of a transmission system that could the serial switching of the multiple semiconductors in order to
provide the required flexibility was satisfied by the HVDC transmis- account for the limited reverse voltage capacity of the power elec-
sion system. The HVDC system provides the platform to intercon- tronic elements. Intelligent control techniques can introduce a very
nect two AC power systems that are not synchronised as well as high flexibility in the output voltage control in order to obtain the
transfer of electric power between two distant nodal points desired active and reactive powers [9].
through overhead transmission or submarine cables. HVDC AC voltage is formed by the use of PWM modulation in case of
systems are more cost effective than AC systems via overhead PWM VSC converters and DC voltage is smoothened by the use of
lines as the costs of transformer stations are not considerable. DC capacitors. There is a higher precision of synchronism if a
However, the critical length is reached between 800 and 1200 km. higher clock frequency is used. PWM technology has been in use
Even though, up to this length, the AC overhead lines are more for nearly a decade now and two and three level VSC converters
economical today, HVDC has definite advantages with longer are now available.
cable connections. For the supergrid deployment, the HVDC trans- Constant research into upgrading the ratings and the frequency of
mission system provides superior working conditions, a better VSC converters has led to the use of a modular construction based
power flow control and a definite platform for future additions on on the use of multi-level technology. Submodules consisting of half
the supply side which can be from other conventional generation bridges having two valves and a module capacitor are at the heart of
plants or renewable energy parks. The supergrid would require a submodule architectures. Partial voltages of the submodules
substantial control on the transferred power. The HVDC systems combine to the complete voltage of the branches and thereby
in parallel with the AC systems provide such a characteristic branches act as controllable voltage sources.

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 The active and reactive powers over the AC lines are calculated by
using the standard full flow equations. Owing to its spread, the AC
grid consists of more components such as the buses and the lines
while as the DC grid consists of less number of components
mostly the resistance of lines.

3.1 HVAC grid

According to Fig. 2, the real power P and reactive power Q from
node k to node m is given by

P km = U 2k G km − U k U m G km cos uk − um



 (1)
− U k U m Bk sin uk − um

Qkm = −U 2k Bkm + Bsh



Fig. 1 Typical configuration of VSC-HVDC station km + U k U m Bkm cos uk − um

 (2)
− U k U m G km sin uk − um

Using modular circuits, VSC technology coupled with a compli-

cated control process can decrease the operating frequency of the Consequently from (1) and (2) we have
converters and thereby directly affecting the losses at the converter
station which can amount to about 1%.
 


Pk = U k U m G km cos uk − um + Bkm sin uk − um (3)
AC voltages are generated by a cumulative process consisting of step m[n
functions with hundreds of voltage steps. This directly affects the har- 
monic components in the voltage sinusoids which are directly reduced,



Qk = Uk Um −Bkm cos uk − um + G km sin uk − um (4)
and thus improving the overall total harmonic distortion of the voltage m[n
wave. In HVDC technology based on VSC converters, reversal of
power depends on the reversal of current unlike the LCC-HVDC in where N is the set of buses adjacent to k including k.
which reversal of power depends on the reversal of voltage. Polarity
of DC voltage thereby always remains the same, and hence makes 3.2 Converters
the use of cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE)-DC cables possible.
A model of the VSC converter station is shown in Fig. 2. The model
consists of an additional AC node (AC, c) linked with a short AC
2.3 VSC-HVDC station modelling line to the consequent AC node k which locates the position of
The need to understand the underlying structure of the VSC station the converter. A transformer is represented by a line placed
model arises because of the presence of several VSC stations in the between the terminal and the node. The load flow is of prior interest
VSC-based MTDC systems. The figure shows the elements consti- in this study and the voltage transformation between (AC, c) and the
tuting a VSC station. Although as the model consists of AC buses, node k is not of significance. New grid variables Uc, θc have been
series reactance, AC filters, coupling transformers and converter used to control the active and reactive power flow through term-
blocks on the AC side, it consists of the DC bus, the DC filter inals. The calculation methodology is the same as AC power line
and the DC line on the DC side. A single line represents the DC flows
side of the model. 


The point of common connection (PCC) acts as a medium from P AC, c = U c U k Gck cos uc − uk + Bck sin uc − k (5)
where the VSC station is connected to the AC grid. The PCC is con- 


nected to the AC side of the VSC through a converter transformer, QAC, c = U c U k G ck sin uc − k − Bck cos uc − uk (6)
shunt filter and a phase reactor while as on the other side the DC
bus, at which a shunt DC capacitor is connected to the ground, is Two voltage sources have been used to model the conversion from
connected to the DC line on one side and the VSC on the other side. AC to DC. Generator connections to the AC node (AC, c) are repre-
sented as an AC source while as to (DC, c) as DC source. The active
3 HVAC and HVDC power balance on both the sides guarantees the AC and DC side
power balance which is differentiated by the losses in the converter
The HVAC grid, the converter stations and the HVDC grid form the
basic parts of a combined model of an HVAC and an HVDC grid. P AC, c + P loss + P DC, c = 0 (7)

Converter losses are calculated by

P loss = a + bI c + cI 2c (8)

(P 2c + Q2c )
I c = √ (9)
3U c

where a = 11.0331 × 10−3; b = 3.464 × 10−3; and c = 5.5335 × 10−3

in per unit (pu).

3.3 HVDC grid

Since steady state has been considered, the DC grid (Fig. 3) is con-
Fig. 2 Modelling of VSC-HVDC stations structed by using only resistive lines. Thus, Ohm’s law and Joules

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law can be used to calculate the power flow node I and n represents the total number of AC nodes. Equation (15)
represents a more general case in which the generation costs asso-
ciated with the normal working are minimised with a second-order


2U k U k − U m
P DC, km = (10) model. However, (16) represents the minimisation of the overall
Rkm
production. Many other variations of the objective function are
 U DC, c − U m also possible.
P DC, km = 2U DC, c (11)
m[N
Rcm
4.3 Equality constraints
P DC, c = 2U DC, c I DC, c (12)
Equations (15) and (16) can be minimised while respecting many
N being the set of DC buses adjacent to bus c. constraints with respect to the nodes and the buses. The power
balance has to be maintained at every node, that is, the inflow
4 Optimisation and outflow of power at every node have to be balanced. This
has to be respected for AC as well as DC nodes
For the development of a mathematical model and consequent
solution, the model described in the previous sections is used. P Gen, i − P Load, i − P Line, i = 0 (17)
The problem can be defined as a non-linear one with both equality
and not equality constraints. The next section is dedicated to the
QGen, i − QLoad, i − QLine, i = 0 (18)
solution of the problem.

4.1 State vector and control variables Values for PLine,i and QLine,i are calculated using the previously
defined (5) and (6).
State vector x consists of all the state variables. A voltage Ui repre- Since the power flow from the AC grid to the DC and vice versa
sents the AC grid nodes. Moreover, the converter side AC bus also takes place through a converter, the power flow through the conver-
has a voltage Uc,j. n represents the number of AC nodes and p repre- ters represents another equality constraint. Converter losses are thus
sents the number of converters. For each bus θi and each converter calculated from (8) and (9)
θc,j, the state vector gets increased by one more variable. The next
state variable involves the active and reactive power generations. A
P AC, i = P DC, j − P loss (19)
generator bus adds two variables (Pi and Qi) to x and each static var
compensator (SVC) also adds one Qs to the state vector x.
On the other hand, for the DC grid only the voltage variables The voltage angle at the slack bus which is chosen from the AC
UDC,j at the DC nodes nodes is set to zero that is the reference value

ui = uref (20)
⎡ ⎤
Ui
⎢ U c, j ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ui ⎥
4.4 Inequality constraints
⎢ ⎥
⎢ uc, j ⎥
x=⎢
⎢ Pi ⎥
⎥ (13)
⎢ ⎥ In addition to the equality constraints, in order to fulfil the physical
⎢ Qi ⎥
⎢ ⎥ constraints of the system, certain inequality constraints also need to
⎣ Qs ⎦ be introduced for the optimisation problem. The line power limit
U DC, j represents the most important inequality constraint.
The thermal stresses of each DC and AC lines are controlled by
In any case, the length of the state vector is dependent on the AC introducing a limit on the active power flow through a line. The
grid size and the corresponding number of terminals terminals themselves are also protected from overload by using
the same technique on any additional AC line
I x = 2i + 3p + 2g + h (14)
 
 max(P km , P mk)  ≤ P max, km (21)
 
where p is the total number of converters, g represents the total
number of generators in the grid and h represents the number of
SVC devices. Also n represents the number of AC nodes. Production of power generators in the system is limited as well
The control variables represent a subset of the state vector x. An which is always kept less than a generators individual limit. The
AC node voltage is controllable if the node is connected to an SVC active power is kept within the range of zero to the maximum pro-
device or a generator. Moreover, all DC voltage levels at all conver- duction of the generating station while as the reactive power ranges
ters are also controllable. from a positive value to a negative value. Owing to the capability
curves of the generators, the power limits are coupled to each other
4.2 Objective function


Objective function being very important to the definition and con- 0 ≤ P i ≤ P max, i Qi (22)
sequent solution of an optimisation problem needs to be clearly
defined. Several variations are possible, for example



Qmin, i P i ≤ Qi ≤ Qmax, i P i (23)
n
min
/.P i + b.P 2i For the safety of the equipment, the variance of the voltage levels at

x f (x) = (15)
i=1 every AC and DC node is kept within a minimum and a maximum
level
n
min

x f (x) = /.P i (16)
i=1 U min, i ≤ U i ≤ U max, i (24)

As already introduced, Pi represents the active power generation at a U DC, min, j ≤ U DC, j ≤ U DC, max, j (25)

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 Table 1 AC grid power flows (pu)

Node Base Wind Limit

K m Pkm Qkm Pkm Qkm Pkm Qkm

1 2 0.42 0.42 0.46 0.18 0.42 0.16

1 3 0.28 0.28 0.29 0.12 0.27 0.13
2 3 0.26 0.26 0.24 −0.07 0.26 0
2 5 −0.22 −0.22 −0.24 0.09 −0.23 0.07
5 1 −0.03 −0.03 −0.03 0 −0.02 0
6 5 0.01 0.01 0.01 0 0.01 0
7 6 −0.14 −0.14 −0.13 0.02 −0.08 0
8 7 0.25 0.25 0.21 0.04 0.12 0.03
8 5 0 0 0 0 −0.01 0
7 10 0.05 0.05 0.07 −0.04 0.13 −0.04
4 6 0.01 0.01 0.01 −0.01 0 0
1 4 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0 0
8 10 0.47 0.47 0.45 0.04 0.39a 0.02
2 11 −0.64 −0.64 −0.56 −0.27 −0.64 −0.28
Fig. 3 DC grid model
4 12 0.17 0.17 −0.12 0.01 0.53 0
5 13 0.46 0.46 0.53 0.01 0.4 0
7 14 −0.67 −0.67 −0.74 −0.1 −0.93 −0.05
5 Study case 9 15 0.75 1 0 0.75 0.75 0
For the solution of the optimisation problem, a random combined
AC-DC grid is used. The topology of the grid is shown in Fig. 4.
Detailed analysis has been provided for this case. 5.1 Test grid
A completely new grid for the study purposes was designed as
shown in Fig. 4. It consists of ten AC nodes, numbered from 1 to
10. About 13 transmission lines are used to connect the AC
nodes. The DC side of the grid consists of five converter stations
numbered 11–15. Another five AC lines were added to the line
model increasing the total number of AC lines to 18.The DC grid
in itself consists of six transmission lines which results in a
meshed DC grid topology. Load and production centres are
spread throughout the network. The network extensively consists
of eight loads and six generators. Two SVCs are also present,
one placed at node 10 and the other at node 3. The active power
input at these nodes is 0. The state vector for this network has 49
entries according to (14).
To emulate the renewable integration, two special features are
also introduced in this network. Node 9 involves an isolated gener-
ation system, wind park connected through the HVDC grid to the
rest of the system. Another feature is the parallel HVAC and
HVDC lines from nodes 2 to 5 and 11 to 13, respectively.
Standard values have been taken for the AC and DC line para-
meters. The AC line lengths are of the order of 200–600 km,
whereas for the DC lines the length is of the order of 360–800 km.
AC grid nominal voltage is 380 and 320 kV for the DC grid.
The grid is subjected to three different scenarios or situations
power flow calculation having broad limits for all variables is
referred to as the ‘base’ case. The DC and AC line limits are set
at 0.75 pu and the voltage levels can vary from 0.95 to 1.05 pu.
Connections to terminals are set at 1 pu. The reactive power

Table 2 DC grid power flows (pu)

Node Base Wind Limit

k M Pkm Pkm Pkm

11 12 −0.31 −0.23 −0.37

12 15 −0.4 −0.56 −0.34a
11 13 −0.33 −0.33 −0.27
13 14 0.12 0.18 0.13
14 15 −0.31 −0.37 −0.37
Fig. 4 Combined AC and DC grids with ten AC buses and five converter 12 14 0.26 0.21 0.48
stations

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Fig. 5 Voltage levels of AC nodes Fig. 7 Active power generation

output of generators is set at 1 pu and the active power output is set The objective function was designed to minimise the losses.
at 2 pu. A maximum of 0.5 pu reactive power can be obtained from Consequently, the voltage levels at the nodes in both the grids
the converters. Node 9 consists of a wind park generation having a reached a maximum possible value but inside the given limits.
fixed power output at 0.75 pu. Fig. 7 shows the active power generations. None of the generators
In situation 2, the wind power generation is increased to 1 pu in the network reach their capacity limit, except generator 9 which
keeping other quantities similar and is referred to as ‘wind’ was the wind park connected to the network. Similar results have
scenario. been obtained for reactive power generation as in Fig. 8.
In the third scenario, ‘limit’ puts a limit of 0.39 pu to the AC line In scenario 2, voltage nodes at all the nodes except node 15 are
from nodes 8 to 10 and a limit of value 0.35 pu to the DC line from lower than the previous case. Thus, there is a higher power flow
15 to 12 and decreasing the reactive power output of the SVC com- from node 15 to the rest of the network which is reasonable consid-
ponent at node 3 to 0.3 pu. Moreover, other conditions are similar to ering the high supply.
the base case. Large differences are seen in the third scenario. The AC voltage
has a value of 1 pu reduced from 1.05 pu because of the presence of
the SVC device. A direct consequence of this is the increase in the
5.2 Power flow results reactive power production at terminal 11. Moreover, a shift in active
power generation occurs as a result of the limiting of the AC line
The objective function as in (16) is solved and the optimal power from node 8 to node 10. The power flow is shifted from nodes 8
flow solution is obtained. This practice results in the minimisation to 7 from node 10. Active power generation at node 4 increases.
of the overall network losses. For this example, the MATLAB’s The flow over the DC line from converters 12 to 14 also increases.
built in solve function ‘fmincon’ as well as the interior point algo- Compared with the base case, the limit on the DC line from nodes
rithm was used to obtain the optimal power flow. Table 1 lists the 12 to 15 leads to a decrease at node 14 and increase of the DC
active power flow solution and Table 2 consists of the reactive voltage at node 12 compared with the scenario 1. At this point,
power flow. there is an increase in the flow into converter 14.
Fig. 5 shows the resulting voltage level for the AC nodes for each
scenario/the possible voltage range is represented by the dashed
lines and the division between the normal nodes (1–10) and the 6 Conclusion
additional nodes (11–15) is shown by the vertical black line.
An optimal power flow problem described in the form of an object-
Fig. 6 represents the voltage levels of the meshed DC grid.
ive function and various equality and inequality constraints is

Fig. 6 Voltage levels of DC nodes Fig. 8 Reactive power generation

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