Chapter 1

What is Engineering Geology ??

Engineering geology is the application of geological data,
techniques and principles to the study of rock and soil surficial
materials
What does Engineering Geology study??
Rock, soil, water, the interaction among these three
constituents
The Crust It is mostly made up of light silicates
The upper and lower mantle made up of metallic silicates •
and sulfides
Mantle is elastic which means it behave in plastic manner. •
The liquid and is made up primarily of liquid Fe and Ni
Iron’s normal temperature of melting is 15350C, but in the
earth inner core it could stand 40000C with no melting
.
electrical in current in outer core create magnetic field. •
 Chapter 2

Size :
Boulder
Pebbles
dirt
What is a Mineral?
 Naturally occurring
 Non-organic
 Characteristic chemical composition
 Distinctive physical properties
 Crystalline structure
properties OF minerals.
 Color
 Luster (‫)بريق‬
 Streak : is the color of the powdered mineral
 Hardness
 Shape
 Cleavage and Fracture

TYPE OF Luster
Glassy
Dull
Shiny (Quartz – Apatite)
Greasy
HARDNESS
10 DIMOND
7 QUARTZ
1 TALC

Chapter 3

Rocks are any solid mass of mineral or mineral-like matter

occurring naturally as part of our planet

A characteristic of rock is that each component mineral

retains their properties in the mixture.
- Example: Granite
Some rocks are composed of nonmineral matter. ●
- Example: Coal (organic material)
Volcanic rocks do not have a crystalline structure. ●
- Examples: Obsidian and Pumice
 It is powered by the interior heat of the Earth
 As well as earth’s momentum and…
 The energy from the sun
 Chapter 4

Igneous rocks can be identified by their texture.

Slower the magma cools (intrusive) , larger the crystals, which
creates a rougher texture. (Granite)
Faster the magma cools (extrusive), the smaller the crystals,
the finer and smoother the texture.( Basalt)

● Extrusive Rocks Form 2 ways

Volcanoes erupt and shoot out lava and ash.
Large cracks in Earth’s crust (fissures), can open-up. Lava goes
out onto ground or into water.
Six families of silicate minerals:
 The olivines
 The micas
 The silica minerals
Types of Rock Textures:

Coarse-Grained Texture: .1
Caused by slow cooling ●
Example: Granite
Fine-Grained Texture: ○
Caused by the QUICK cooling ●
Example: Rhyolite
Glassy Texture:
Caused when lava spews into Earth’s surface and the ions do
not have enough time to arrange themselves in crystals.
Example: Obsidian
Porphyritic Texture:
Caused when minerals crystallize Example: Andesite
Type of Rock Compositions
1. Granitic Composition:
Examples: Granite
Basaltic Composition:
Rich in the element's magnesium and iron.
Examples: Basalt
3. Andesitic Composition:

Rocks with composition between granitic and basaltic.

Examples: Diorite and Andesite
4. Ultrabasic Composition:
Examples: Peridotite
 Chapter 5

causes of mechanical weathering.

• Temperature (changes in temperature)
• Frost action (water expands when it freezes)
• Organic activity (The roots of plants sometimes
loosens rock material)
• Gravity

causes of chemical weathering:

• Water
• Oxidation
• Carbonation (is the mixing of water with carbon
• Sulfuric acid (Rain that contains sulfuric acid)
The rate of weathering depends on several factors, including:
● The composition of the rock
● The amount of time that the rock is exposed on the
Earth’s surface
● The amount of exposed surface on a rock
Sedimentary Structures:
Layers
Cross-bedding
Ripple marks (‫)عالمات تموج‬
Mud cracks
Types of sedimentary environments
Marine
Continental
Shoreline
● Fossils are generally found in sediment or sedimentary
rock (rarely in metamorphic and never in igneous rock)

Chapter 6
Metamorphism occurs between about 10 and 50
km of depth
There are 3 factors that cause an increase in are:
The huge weight of overlying layers of sediments.
Stresses caused by plates colliding
Stresses caused by plates sliding
There are two main ways that metamorphic rocks
can form .
Contact metamorphism :
Contact Metamorphism occurs when magma
comes in contact with an already existing body of
rock.
Regional metamorphism as gneiss and schist.
Contact metamorphism produces rocks without
any cleavage rocks such as marble, quartzite
Agents of Metamorphism:
Chemically active fluids
Sources of fluids
Metamorphic Textures:
Foliation: Any planar arrangement of mineral
grains or structural features within a rock (Slate
Phyllite)
Rotation
Recrystallization
Changing the shape
Non-foliated Rocks ( quarts - marble
Porphyroblastic textures
Common Metamorphic Rocks:
Foliated rocks:
Slate
Phyllite
Schist
Gneiss
Non-foliated rocks:
Marble
Quartzite
Weathering and Erosion of pre- Transportation by Deposition
existing rocks and minerals (Water ,ice, or wind) (Sediment is laid down)

Cementation
Recrystallization Compaction
by silica or calcite

Lithification

Transportation:
Rounding: round
Sorting: well sorted

Inner core 1300

 CHAPTER 7
Fold: is produced when a more or less planar surface is deformed to give
a waved surface.
Fault: represents a surface of discontinuity along which the strata on
either side have been displaced relative to each other.
Three successive stages of deformation.
● Elastic Deformation -- wherein the strain is reversible.
● Ductile Deformation -- wherein the strain is irreversible.
● Fracture - irreversible strain wherein the material breaks.

Brittle(‫ ) هش‬materials: have a small region of ductile behavior before

they fracture. High strain )‫(التواء‬
Ductile materials: have a large region of ductile behavior before they
fracture.
Factors affecting ductility
● Temperature (High temp more ductility)
● Confining Pressure (High pressure, more ductility)
● Strain rate (Less strain rate, more ductility)
● Composition
● Presence of Water (Presence, ductility)
folds
Types of Folds :
● Anticline is a fold that arches up as both sides of the rock are
pushed inward.
● Syncline is a fold that sinks down as both sides of the rock are
pushed inward.
 ● Monocline is a fold where the rock layers form an S-shape as the
sides of the rock are compressed. All the layers of rock are still
horizontal, going in one direction instead of bending vertically

Classification of Folds :

● Symmetrical folds: are folds with the same angle.

● Asymmetrical folds: different angles.
● Isoclinal folds: are similar to symmetrical folds, but these folds
both have the same angle and are parallel to each other
● Overturned folds: Occur when the folding is so intense that the
fold appears to have turned over on itself.
● Recumbent folds: which are even more extreme than overturned
folds. These are folds that are nearly horizontal. This fold as lying
down sideways.
 Chevron folds: are characterized by repeated well behaved folded
beds with straight limbs and sharp hinges
Faults
● Faults are fractures in crustal strata along which rocks have been
displaced.

Fault Terminology:
Hanging Wall: The surface of block that is on top of the plane of the
fault.
Footwall: The surface or block that lies below the plane of the fault.
Strike: The direction in which the fault runs.
Dip: The dip direction is perpendicular to the strike direction.
Classification of Faults:
1. Dip-slip faults: Movement along the dip
 a) Normal Fault: Hanging wall moves downward
b) Reverse/Thrust Fault: Hanging wall moves upward
2. Strike-slip faults: Movement along the strike of fault
3. Oblique-slip faults: Have Components of movement both in strike
and dip directions

Transform-Faults
● Are a special class of strike-slip faults. These are plate boundaries
along which two plates slide past one another in a horizontal
manner.
● The most common type of transform faults occur where oceanic
ridges are offset.

Mountains originate by three processes, two of which are directly

related to deformation:
● Fault Block Mountains
● Fold & Thrust Mountains
● Volcanic Mountains
● Fault Block Mountains: Originate by faulting. Both normal and
reverse faults can cause the uplift of blocks of crustal rocks.
● Fold & Thrust Mountains: Large Compressional stresses
generated by tectonic forces cause continental blocks to be
folded, faulted and pushed upward. For example, Himalayan
Mountains, Appalachian Mountains of North America and the Alps
of Europe.
● Volcanic Mountains: formed by outpouring of magma onto the
surface of the Earth. For example, Cascade Mountains, Hawaiian
Islands, Mount Fuji.
 Chapter 8
Rock Mechanics
● The study of rock behavior in the solid state under varying
environment and internal conditions
● Main focus is how rocks respond to applied stresses, especially
those that naturally occur due to:
○ Gravity
○ Mantle Convection
○ Plate Tectonics
○ Diapiric Movements: magma, salt diapirs

Properties of Rocks:
● Temperature and Pressure
● Pore Solutions
● Time-dependent Behavior
Index Properties of Rocks:
● Porosity- Identifies the relative proportions of solids & voids;
● Density-
● Sonic Velocity-
● Permeability- the relative interconnection of pores;
● Durability(‫ )المتانة‬- tendency for eventual breakdown of
components or structures with degradation of rock quality
● Strength-
● Specific gravity
● Unit weight
 Types of stresses:
1. Normal Stress (𝝈):
The component of stress (Force/area) normal to the surface of
material. It can be
o Compressive
o Tensile
2. Shear Stress (𝝉):
The component of stress parallel to the surface of material along
which sliding/failure occurs.
Strains
The amount of deformation is called strain.
∆𝐿
Axial strain: deformation along the direction of loading, 𝜖𝑎 =
𝐿
Lateral strain: the lateral extension perpendicular to the direction
∆𝐷
of loading, 𝜖𝑙 =
𝐷
Poisson's ratio = (lateral strain)/(axial strain).
𝜖𝑙
𝜇=
𝜖𝑎
Shear Strain (𝜸)
The ratio of deformation to original dimension.
∆𝑙
𝛾= = tan⁡(𝛼)
𝑙
Properties of Rocks:
Responses to Stresses
1) Folding
2) Faulting
3) Ductile shear zones
4) Joints

Elasticity of Rock
● Some of the deformation of a rock under stress will be
recovered when the load is removed. The recoverable
deformation is called elastic and the non-recoverable part is
called plastic deformation
● The ratio of the stress and the strain is called modulus of
elasticity.
 When there are net forces, they cause accelerations that are
usually one of 2 kinds:
 Slow ponderous motion of a tectonic plate that increases or
decreases velocity over a very long time, or;
 Sudden, short lived, strong accelerations during fault slip
accompanying earthquakes.
Types of Forces:
● Body forces
● Contact forces,
1. Three different type of loading due to contact forces:
Gravitational loading
Thermal loading
Displacement loading

Chapter 9

Landslides
Triggering Mechanisms:
● Intense Rain-Fall
● Water-Level Change
● Ground Water Flow
● Rapid Snowmelt
● Volcanic explosion
● Earthquake Shaking
● Human activity

Landslides Types:
● Fall
● Topple
● Slide: It includes rotational, translational, and debris slide
● Flow: Spread: is the sudden movement of water bearing rock
masses
 Chapter 10

Evidence of Continental Drift:

Matching Fossils
Geological Structures and Rock types
Climate Changes

Types of Plate Boundaries:

1) Divergent boundaries: are the place where two plates move
apart.
2) Convergent boundaries: where two plates move towards each
other.
3) Transform fault boundaries: two plates past each other.

Trench Forms
When the less dense, lighter continental plate overrides the
oceanic plate a subduction zone forms. Because the oceanic plate
is bent and driven down, a deep trench forms at this collision
point.

Formation of mountains
● Two forces are constantly at work on the earth.
○ Weathering and erosion tear structures down while
○ Plate tectonics builds them

Earthquakes
 The thinner the crust is, the smaller the earthquake is.
 Earthquakes happening in convergent (close) boundaries are the
most EXTREME!
 A fault is a break in the Earth’s crust.
 A focus is where the earthquake starts. The epicenter is the
imaginary place directly above the focus.
 Seismic Waves:
The waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock within
the earth or an explosion

Types of Seismic Waves:

1. P-Waves (Primary waves)
2. S-Waves (Secondary waves)
3. Surface Waves
a) Love Waves
b) Rayleigh Waves

Seismic Waves (body waves):

P-Wave
o This is the fastest and first to 'arrive' at a seismic station.
o It can move through solid rock and fluids
o Sometimes animals can hear the P waves of an earthquake.
S-Wave
o Waves move rock particles up and down, or side-to-side;
perpendicular to the direction that the wave is traveling in.
o An S wave is slower than a P wave and can only move through
solid rock

Surface Waves:
Surface waves are different from body waves, because they travel
more slowly, and they are more destructive.
Types pf Surface Waves:
Love Waves:
 It's the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side-to-
side.
 Confined to the surface of the crust, Love waves produce entirely
horizontal motion.
Rayleigh Waves
 Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a
lake or an ocean.
 Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to the Rayleigh
wave,
measure Earthquakes:
The Richter Scale
Mercalli Scale
How can we limit Earthquake damage
Predict
 A tilt-meter can check any movement within the rocks
 Foreshocks before the main quake can be detected by a
seismometer
 Water levels can rise in wells and lakes because of cracks in the
rock
Plan
 Advise people to plan for an earthquake (e.g. tell them to turn off
the gas, find a ‘safe’ place in their homes, pack an emergency kit)
 Enforce regulations to make some buildings earthquake proof
 organize regular ‘earthquake practices’ for offices and schools

chapter 11
How does water move from one place to another?
Evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation.
The Water Table or Phreatic Surface
 The pores within the zone of saturation are filled with water,
generally referred to as phreatic water.
Distribution of Water in Subsurface
 Unsaturated Zone (above the standing water level)
○ Water held by capillary forces, water content near field
capacity except during infiltration
 Soil zone
○ Water moves down (up) during infiltration (evaporation)
 Capillary fringe
○ Saturated at base
○ Field capacity at top
 Saturated Zone (below the standing water level)
○ Fully saturated pores
Aquifers (‫)طبقات المياه الجوفية‬
An aquifer is the term given to a rock or soil mass that not only
contains water but from which water can be abstracted readily in
significant quantities. The ability of an aquifer to transmit water is
governed by its permeability.
An aquifer is described as unconfined when the water table is
open to the atmosphere, that is, the aquifer is not overlain by
material of lower permeability. confined aquifer is one that is
overlain by impermeable rocks
Recharge area
Natural
● Precipitation
● Melting snow
● Infiltration by streams and lakes
Artificial
● Recharge wells
● Water spread over land in pits, furrows, ditches
● Small dams in stream channels to detain and deflect water
Perched Aquifers
● Perched aquifer: occurs when an unconfined water zone sits on
top of a clay lens, separated from the main aquifer below
 Capillary Movement in Soil
● Capillary movement in soil refers to the movement of moisture
through the minute pores between the soil particles that act as
capillaries.
● It takes place as a consequence of surface tension; therefore
moisture can rise from the water table. This movement, however,
can occur in any direction, not just vertically upwards.
Porosity and permeability
● Porosity and permeability are the two most important factors
governing the accumulation, migration and distribution of
groundwater.
● Porosity is the percentage of open space in a rock.
● Permeability is the ability of fluids to flow through rock.
Permeability
● Permeability depends on the connectivity of the pore space.
● Permeable rocks include sandstone and fractured igneous and
metamorphic rocks.
● Impermeable rocks include shales and unfractured igneous and
metamorphic rocks.
Karst topography (‫)التضاريس الكارستية‬
● refers to a surface topography marked by sinkholes,
disappearing streams, and small closed drainage basins.
● It is an indication of underground drainage in caverns in
limestone.
● Limestone (Calcite, CaCO3) is dissolved by acids in soil and
rainwater to form caverns.
 Wells
● The commonest way of recovering groundwater is to sink a well
and lift water from it
Types Of Water Wells
● Dug wills : by hand or shovel
● Driven well: by putting small-diameter pipe deep into the ground
● Drilled Wells

Chapter 12