SQL Tutorial 2024

SQL Tutorial
Www.w3schools.com, 2024. — 299 p.
Contents:
SQL Tutorial
Contents:
Introduction to SQL
SQL Syntax
SQL SELECT Statement
SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement
SQL WHERE Clause
SQL ORDER BY Keyword
SQL AND Operator
SQL OR Operator
SQL NOT Operator
SQL INSERT INTO Statement
SQL NULL Values
SQL UPDATE Statement
SQL DELETE Statement
SQL TOP, LIMIT, FETCH FIRST or ROWNUM Clause
SQL Aggregate Functions
SQL MIN() and MAX() Functions
SQL COUNT() Function
SQL SUM() Function
SQL AVG() Function
SQL LIKE Operator
SQL Wildcards
SQL IN Operator
SQL BETWEEN Operator
SQL Aliases
SQL Joins
SQL INNER JOIN
SQL LEFT JOIN Keyword
SQL RIGHT JOIN Keyword
SQL FULL OUTER JOIN Keyword
SQL Self Join
SQL UNION Operator
SQL GROUP BY Statement
SQL HAVING Clause
SQL EXISTS Operator
SQL ANY and ALL Operators
SQL SELECT INTO Statement
SQL INSERT INTO SELECT Statement
SQL CASE Expression
SQL NULL Functions
SQL Stored Procedures for SQL Server
SQL Comments
SQL Operators
SQL DATABASE
SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement
SQL DROP DATABASE Statement
SQL BACKUP DATABASE for SQL Server
SQL CREATE TABLE Statement
SQL DROP TABLE Statement
SQL ALTER TABLE Statement
SQL Constraints
SQL NOT NULL Constraint
SQL UNIQUE Constraint
SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint
SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint
SQL CHECK Constraint
SQL DEFAULT Constraint
SQL CREATE INDEX Statement
SQL AUTO INCREMENT Field
SQL Working With Dates
SQL Views
SQL Injection
SQL Hosting
SQL Data Types for MySQL, SQL Server, and MS Access
SQL Keywords Reference
SQL ADD Keyword
SQL ADD CONSTRAINT Keyword
SQL ALL Keyword
SQL ALTER Keyword
SQL ALTER COLUMN Keyword
SQL ALTER TABLE Keyword
SQL AND Keyword
SQL ANY Keyword
SQL AS Keyword
SQL ASC Keyword
SQL BACKUP DATABASE Keyword
SQL BETWEEN Keyword
SQL CASE Keyword
SQL CHECK Keyword
SQL COLUMN Keyword
SQL CONSTRAINT Keyword
SQL CREATE Keyword
SQL CREATE DATABASE Keyword
SQL CREATE INDEX Keyword
SQL CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW Keyword
SQL CREATE TABLE Keyword
SQL CREATE PROCEDURE Keyword
SQL CREATE UNIQUE INDEX Keyword
SQL CREATE VIEW Keyword
SQL DATABASE Keyword
SQL DEFAULT Keyword
SQL DELETE Keyword
SQL DESC Keyword
SQL SELECT DISTINCT Keyword
SQL DROP Keyword
SQL DROP COLUMN Keyword
SQL DROP CONSTRAINT Keyword
SQL DROP DATABASE Keyword
SQL DROP DEFAULT Keyword
SQL DROP INDEX Keyword
SQL DROP TABLE and TRUNCATE TABLE Keywords
SQL DROP VIEW Keyword
SQL EXEC Keyword
SQL EXISTS Keyword
SQL FOREIGN KEY Keyword
SQL FROM Keyword
SQL GROUP BY Keyword
SQL HAVING Keyword
SQL IN Keyword
SQL INDEX Keyword
SQL INNER JOIN Keyword
SQL INSERT INTO Keyword
SQL INSERT INTO SELECT Keyword
SQL IS NULL Keyword
SQL IS NOT NULL Keyword
SQL JOIN Keyword
SQL LIKE Keyword
SQL SELECT TOP, LIMIT and ROWNUM Keywords
SQL NOT NULL Keyword
SQL OR Keyword
SQL PRIMARY KEY Keyword
SQL CREATE PROCEDURE Keyword
SQL SELECT Keyword
SQL SELECT INTO Keyword
SQL SET Keyword
SQL TABLE Keyword
SQL DROP TABLE and TRUNCATE TABLE Keywords
SQL UNION Keyword
SQL UNION ALL Keyword
SQL UNIQUE Keyword
SQL UPDATE Keyword
SQL VALUES Keyword
SQL VIEW Keyword
SQL WHERE Keyword
MySQL Functions
SQL Server Functions
MS Access Functions
SQL Quick Reference from W3Schools
SQL is a standard language for storing, manipulating and retrieving data in

databases.
Our SQL tutorial will teach you how to use SQL in: MySQL, SQL Server, MS
Access, Oracle, Sybase, Informix, Postgres, and other database systems.
Introduction to SQL
SQL is a standard language for accessing and manipulating databases.

What is SQL?
 SQL stands for Structured Query Language
 SQL lets you access and manipulate databases
 SQL became a standard of the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) in 1986, and of the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) in 1987
What Can SQL do?

 SQL can execute queries against a database
 SQL can retrieve data from a database
 SQL can insert records in a database
 SQL can update records in a database
 SQL can delete records from a database
 SQL can create new databases
 SQL can create new tables in a database
 SQL can create stored procedures in a database
 SQL can create views in a database
 SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views
SQL is a Standard - BUT....

Although SQL is an ANSI/ISO standard, there are different versions of the SQL
language.
However, to be compliant with the ANSI standard, they all support at least the
major commands (such as SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE, INSERT, WHERE) in a similar
manner.
Note: Most of the SQL database programs also have their own proprietary
extensions in addition to the SQL standard!
Using SQL in Your Web Site

To build a web site that shows data from a database, you will need:
 An RDBMS database program (i.e. MS Access, SQL Server, MySQL)

 To use a server-side scripting language, like PHP or ASP
 To use SQL to get the data you want
 To use HTML / CSS to style the page
RDBMS
RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System.
RDBMS is the basis for SQL, and for all modern database systems such as MS
SQL Server, IBM DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft Access.
The data in RDBMS is stored in database objects called tables. A table is a

collection of related data entries and it consists of columns and rows.
Look at the "Customers" table:
Example
SELECT * FROM Customers;
Every table is broken up into smaller entities called fields. The fields in the
Customers table consist of CustomerID, CustomerName, ContactName,
Address, City, PostalCode and Country. A field is a column in a table that is
designed to maintain specific information about every record in the table.
A record, also called a row, is each individual entry that exists in a table. For
example, there are 91 records in the above Customers table. A record is a
horizontal entity in a table.
A column is a vertical entity in a table that contains all information associated

with a specific field in a table.
SQL Syntax
SQL Statements
Most of the actions you need to perform on a database are done with SQL
statements.
SQL statements consists of keywords that are easy to understand.

The following SQL statement returns all records from a table named
"Customers":
Example
Select all records from the Customers table:
In this tutorial we will teach you all about the different SQL statements.
Database Tables
A database most often contains one or more tables. Each table is identified by a
name (e.g. "Customers" or "Orders"), and contain records (rows) with data.
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database (included
in MS Access and MS SQL Server).
Below is a selection from the Customers table used in the examples:
CustomerI CustomerNa ContactNa Address City PostalCo Countr

D me me de y
1 Alfreds Maria Obere Str. Berlin 12209 German

Futterkiste Anders 57 y
2 Ana Trujillo Ana Trujillo Avda. de la Méxic 05021 Mexico

Emparedados Constitució o D.F.
y helados n 2222
3 Antonio Antonio Mataderos Méxic 05023 Mexico

Moreno Moreno 2312 o D.F.
Taquería
4 Around the Thomas 120 Londo WA1 1DP UK
Horn Hardy Hanover Sq. n
5 Berglunds Christina Berguvsväg Luleå S-958 22 Sweden

snabbköp Berglund en 8
The table above contains five records (one for each customer) and seven
columns (CustomerID, CustomerName, ContactName, Address, City,
PostalCode, and Country).
Keep in Mind That...

 SQL keywords are NOT case sensitive: select is the same as SELECT
In this tutorial we will write all SQL keywords in upper-case.
Semicolon after SQL Statements?

Some database systems require a semicolon at the end of each SQL statement.
Semicolon is the standard way to separate each SQL statement in database

systems that allow more than one SQL statement to be executed in the same
call to the server.
In this tutorial, we will use semicolon at the end of each SQL statement.
Some of The Most Important SQL

Commands
 SELECT - extracts data from a database
 UPDATE - updates data in a database
 DELETE - deletes data from a database
 INSERT INTO - inserts new data into a database
 CREATE DATABASE - creates a new database
 ALTER DATABASE - modifies a database
 CREATE TABLE - creates a new table
 ALTER TABLE - modifies a table
 DROP TABLE - deletes a table
 CREATE INDEX - creates an index (search key)
 DROP INDEX - deletes an index
SQL SELECT Statement
The SQL SELECT Statement

The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database.
Example
Return data from the Customers table:
SELECT CustomerName, City FROM Customers;
Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name;
Here, column1, column2, ... are the field names of the table you want to select
data from.
The table_name represents the name of the table you want to select data from.
Demo Database
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Select ALL columns

If you want to return all columns, without specifying every column name, you
can use the SELECT * syntax:
Example
Return all the columns from the Customers table:

Test Yourself With Exercises
Exercise:
Insert the missing statement to get all the columns from the Customers table.
_____________ * FROM Customers;
Submit Answer »
SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement
The SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement

The SELECT DISTINCT statement is used to return only distinct (different) values.
Example
Select all the different countries from the "Customers" table:
SELECT DISTINCT Country FROM Customers;
Inside a table, a column often contains many duplicate values; and sometimes
you only want to list the different (distinct) values.
Syntax
SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name;
Demo Database

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SELECT Example Without DISTINCT

If you omit the DISTINCT keyword, the SQL statement returns the "Country"
value from all the records of the "Customers" table:
Example
SELECT Country FROM Customers;
Count Distinct
By using the DISTINCT keyword in a function called COUNT, we can return the
number of different countries.
Example
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT Country) FROM Customers;
Note: The COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) is not supported in Microsoft

Access databases.
Here is a workaround for MS Access:
Example
SELECT Count(*) AS DistinctCountries
FROM (SELECT DISTINCT Country FROM Customers);
You will learn about the COUNT function later in this tutorial.

Exercise:
Select all the different values from the Country column in the Customers table.
_____________._____________ Country FROM Customers;
Submit Answer »
SQL WHERE Clause

The SQL WHERE Clause
The WHERE clause is used to filter records.
It is used to extract only those records that fulfill a specified condition.
Example
Select all customers from Mexico:
SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE Country='Mexico';
Syntax
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Note: The WHERE clause is not only used in SELECT statements, it is also used
in UPDATE, DELETE, etc.!
Demo Database

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Text Fields vs. Numeric Fields

SQL requires single quotes around text values (most database systems will also
allow double quotes).
However, numeric fields should not be enclosed in quotes:
Example
WHERE CustomerID=1;
Operators in The WHERE Clause

You can use other operators than the = operator to filter the search.
Example
Select all customers with a CustomerID greater than 80:

WHERE CustomerID > 80;
The following operators can be used in the WHERE clause:
Operator Description
= Equal
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or equal
<= Less than or equal
<> Not equal. Note: In some versions of SQL this

operator may be written as !=
BETWEEN Between a certain range
LIKE Search for a pattern
IN To specify multiple possible values for a column

Exercise:
Select all records where the City column has the value "Berlin".

_____________._____________ = _____________;
Submit Answer »
The SQL ORDER BY

The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set in ascending or descending
order.
Example
Sort the products by price:
SELECT * FROM Products

ORDER BY Price;
Syntax
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column1, column2, ... ASC|DESC;
Demo Database
Below is a selection from the Products table used in the examples:
ProductID ProductName SupplierID CategoryID Unit Price
1 Chais 1 1 10 boxes x 20 18
bags
2 Chang 1 1 24 - 12 oz 19
bottles
3 Aniseed Syrup 1 2 12 - 550 ml 10

bottles
4 Chef Anton's Cajun 2 2 48 - 6 oz jars 22

Seasoning
5 Chef Anton's Gumbo 2 2 36 boxes 21.35

Mix
DESC
The ORDER BY keyword sorts the records in ascending order by default. To sort
the records in descending order, use the DESC keyword.
Example
Sort the products from highest to lowest price:

ORDER BY Price DESC;
Order Alphabetically
For string values the ORDER BY keyword will order alphabetically:
Example
Sort the products alphabetically by ProductName:

ORDER BY ProductName;
Alphabetically DESC
To sort the table reverse alphabetically, use the DESC keyword:
Example
Sort the products by ProductName in reverse order:

ORDER BY ProductName DESC;
ORDER BY Several Columns
The following SQL statement selects all customers from the "Customers" table,
sorted by the "Country" and the "CustomerName" column. This means that it
orders by Country, but if some rows have the same Country, it orders them by
CustomerName:
Example
ORDER BY Country, CustomerName;
Using Both ASC and DESC

The following SQL statement selects all customers from the "Customers" table,
sorted ascending by the "Country" and descending by the "CustomerName"
column:
Example
ORDER BY Country ASC, CustomerName DESC;

Exercise:
Select all records from the Customers table, sort the result alphabetically by the
column City.

_____________ _____________;
Submit Answer »
SQL AND Operator
The SQL AND Operator

The WHERE clause can contain one or many AND operators.
The AND operator is used to filter records based on more than one condition, like
if you want to return all customers from Spain that starts with the letter 'G':
Example
Select all customers from Spain that starts with the letter 'G':
SELECT *
FROM Customers
WHERE Country = 'Spain' AND CustomerName LIKE 'G%';
Syntax
FROM table_name
WHERE condition1 AND condition2 AND condition3 ...;
AND vs OR
The AND operator displays a record if all the conditions are TRUE.
The OR operator displays a record if any of the conditions are TRUE.
Demo Database
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All Conditions Must Be True

The following SQL statement selects all fields from Customers where Country is
"Germany" AND City is "Berlin" AND PostalCode is higher than 12000:
Example
WHERE Country = 'Germany'
AND City = 'Berlin'
AND PostalCode > 12000;
Combining AND and OR
You can combine the AND and OR operators.
The following SQL statement selects all customers from Spain that starts with a
"G" or an "R".
Make sure you use parenthesis to get the correct result.
Example
Select all Spanish customers that starts with either "G" or "R":

WHERE Country
= 'Spain' AND (CustomerName LIKE 'G%' OR CustomerName LIKE 'R%');
Without parenthesis, the select statement will return all customers from Spain
that starts with a "G", plus all customers that starts with an "R", regardless of
the country value:
Example
Select all customers that either:
are from Spain and starts with either "G", or
starts with the letter "R":

WHERE Country
= 'Spain' AND CustomerName LIKE 'G%' OR CustomerName LIKE 'R%';

Exercise:
Select all records where the City column has the value 'Berlin' and
the PostalCode column has the value 12209.
_____________ * FROM Customers

_____________ City = 'Berlin'
_____________._____________ = '12209';
Submit Answer »
SQL OR Operator
The SQL OR Operator

The WHERE clause can contain one or more OR operators.
The OR operator is used to filter records based on more than one condition, like
if you want to return all customers from Germany but also those from Spain:
Example
Select all customers from Germany or Spain:
SELECT *
FROM Customers
WHERE Country = 'Germany' OR Country = 'Spain';
Syntax
FROM table_name
WHERE condition1 OR condition2 OR condition3 ...;
OR vs AND
The OR operator displays a record if any of the conditions are TRUE.
The AND operator displays a record if all the conditions are TRUE.
Demo Database

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At Least One Condition Must Be True
The following SQL statement selects all fields from Customers where
either City is "Berlin", CustomerName starts with the letter "G" or Country is
"Norway":
Example
WHERE City = 'Berlin' OR CustomerName LIKE 'G%' OR Country = 'Norway';
Combining AND and OR

You can combine the AND and OR operators.
The following SQL statement selects all customers from Spain that starts with a
"G" or an "R".
Make sure you use parenthesis to get the correct result.
Example
Select all Spanish customers that starts with either "G" or "R":

WHERE Country
= 'Spain' AND (CustomerName LIKE 'G%' OR CustomerName LIKE 'R%');
Without parenthesis, the select statement will return all customers from Spain
that starts with a "G", plus all customers that starts with an "R", regardless of
the country value:
Example
Select all customers that either:
are from Spain and starts with either "G", or
starts with the letter "R":

WHERE Country
= 'Spain' AND CustomerName LIKE 'G%' OR CustomerName LIKE 'R%';
Exercise:
Select all records where the City column has the value 'Berlin' or 'London'.
_____________ * FROM Customers
_____________ City = 'Berlin'
_____________._____________ = '_____________';
Submit Answer »
SQL NOT Operator
The NOT Operator

The NOT operator is used in combination with other operators to give the
opposite result, also called the negative result.
In the select statement below we want to return all customers that are NOT
from Spain:
Example
Select only the customers that are NOT from Spain:
WHERE NOT Country = 'Spain';
In the example above, the NOT operator is used in combination with

the = operator, but it can be used in combination with other comparison and/or
logical operators. See examples below.
Syntax
FROM table_name
WHERE NOT condition;
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NOT LIKE
Example
Select customers that does not start with the letter 'A':

WHERE CustomerName NOT LIKE 'A%';
NOT BETWEEN
Example
Select customers with a customerID not between 10 and 60:

WHERE CustomerID NOT BETWEEN 10 AND 60;
NOT IN
Example
Select customers that are not from Paris or London:

WHERE City NOT IN ('Paris', 'London');
NOT Greater Than
Example
Select customers with a CustomerId not greater than 50:

WHERE NOT CustomerID > 50;
Note: There is a not-greater-than operator: !> that would give you the same
result.
NOT Less Than

Example
Select customers with a CustomerID not less than 50:

WHERE NOT CustomerId < 50;
Note: There is a not-less-than operator: !< that would give you the same
result.

Exercise:
Use the NOT keyword to select all records where City is NOT "Berlin".

_____________ = '_____________';
Submit Answer »
SQL INSERT INTO Statement
The SQL INSERT INTO Statement

The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records in a table.
INSERT INTO Syntax

It is possible to write the INSERT INTO statement in two ways:
1. Specify both the column names and the values to be inserted:
INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3, ...)

VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);
2. If you are adding values for all the columns of the table, you do not need to
specify the column names in the SQL query. However, make sure the order of
the values is in the same order as the columns in the table. Here, the INSERT
INTO syntax would be as follows:
INSERT INTO table_name

VALUES (value1, value2, value3, ...);
Demo Database
CustomerI CustomerNa ContactNa Address City PostalCod Countr

D me me e y
89 White Clover Karl 305 - 14th Seattle 98128 USA
Markets Jablonski Ave. S.
Suite 3B
90 Wilman Kala Matti Keskuskat Helsin 21240 Finland

Karttunen u 45 ki
91 Wolski Zbyszek ul. Walla 01-012 Poland

Filtrowa
68
INSERT INTO Example

The following SQL statement inserts a new record in the "Customers" table:
Example
INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, ContactName, Address, City,
PostalCode, Country)
VALUES ('Cardinal', 'Tom B. Erichsen', 'Skagen
21', 'Stavanger', '4006', 'Norway');
The selection from the "Customers" table will now look like this:

D me me de y

Suite 3B
90 Wilman Kala Matti Keskuskat Helsinki 21240 Finland
Karttunen u 45

Filtrowa
68
92 Cardinal Tom B. Skagen Stavang 4006 Norway

Erichsen 21 er
Did you notice that we did not insert any number into the CustomerID
field?
The CustomerID column is an auto-increment field and will be generated
automatically when a new record is inserted into the table.
Insert Data Only in Specified Columns

It is also possible to only insert data in specific columns.
The following SQL statement will insert a new record, but only insert data in the
"CustomerName", "City", and "Country" columns (CustomerID will be updated
automatically):
Example
INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, City, Country)
VALUES ('Cardinal', 'Stavanger', 'Norway');

D me me de y

Suite 3B
Karttunen u 45

Filtrowa
68
92 Cardinal null null Stavang null Norway

er
Insert Multiple Rows

It is also possible to insert multiple rows in one statement.
To insert multiple rows of data, we use the same INSERT INTO statement, but with
multiple values:
Example
VALUES
('Cardinal', 'Tom B. Erichsen', 'Skagen
21', 'Stavanger', '4006', 'Norway'),
('Greasy Burger', 'Per Olsen', 'Gateveien
15', 'Sandnes', '4306', 'Norway'),
('Tasty Tee', 'Finn Egan', 'Streetroad 19B', 'Liverpool', 'L1
0AA', 'UK');
Make sure you separate each set of values with a comma ,.

D me me de y
Suite 3B

Karttunen u 45

Filtrowa
68
92 Cardinal Tom B. Skagen Stavang 4006 Norway

Erichsen 21 er
93 Greasy Burger Per Olsen Gateveien Sandnes 4306 Norway

15
94 Tasty Tee Finn Egan Streetroad Liverpo L1 0AA UK

19B ol

Exercise:
Insert a new record in the Customers table.
_____________ Customers _____________

CustomerName,
Address,
City,
PostalCode,
Country _____________
_____________._____________
'Hekkan Burger',
'Gateveien 15',
'Sandnes',
'4306',
'Norway' _____________;
Submit Answer »
SQL NULL Values
What is a NULL Value?

A field with a NULL value is a field with no value.
If a field in a table is optional, it is possible to insert a new record or update a

record without adding a value to this field. Then, the field will be saved with a
NULL value.
Note: A NULL value is different from a zero value or a field that contains
spaces. A field with a NULL value is one that has been left blank during record
creation!
How to Test for NULL Values?

It is not possible to test for NULL values with comparison operators, such as =,
<, or <>.
We will have to use the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL operators instead.
IS NULL Syntax
SELECT column_names
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IS NULL;
IS NOT NULL Syntax

SELECT column_names
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IS NOT NULL;
Demo Database

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The IS NULL Operator

The IS NULL operator is used to test for empty values (NULL values).
The following SQL lists all customers with a NULL value in the "Address" field:
Example
SELECT CustomerName, ContactName, Address
FROM Customers
WHERE Address IS NULL;
Tip: Always use IS NULL to look for NULL values.
The IS NOT NULL Operator

The IS NOT NULL operator is used to test for non-empty values (NOT NULL
values).
The following SQL lists all customers with a value in the "Address" field:
Example
FROM Customers
WHERE Address IS NOT NULL;

Exercise:
Select all records from the Customers where the PostalCode column is empty.

WHERE _____________._____________._____________;
Submit Answer »
SQL UPDATE Statement
The SQL UPDATE Statement

The UPDATE statement is used to modify the existing records in a table.
UPDATE Syntax
UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ...
WHERE condition;
Note: Be careful when updating records in a table! Notice the WHERE clause in
the UPDATE statement. The WHERE clause specifies which record(s) that should be
updated. If you omit the WHERE clause, all records in the table will be updated!
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UPDATE Table
The following SQL statement updates the first customer (CustomerID = 1) with
a new contact person and a new city.
Example
UPDATE Customers
SET ContactName = 'Alfred Schmidt', City= 'Frankfurt'
WHERE CustomerID = 1;

D me me de y
1 Alfreds Alfred Obere Str. Frankfu 12209 German

Futterkiste Schmidt 57 rt y
2 Ana Trujillo Ana Trujillo Avda. de la México 05021 Mexico

Emparedados Constitució D.F.
y helados n 2222
3 Antonio Antonio Mataderos México 05023 Mexico

Moreno Moreno 2312 D.F.
Taquería
4 Around the Thomas 120 London WA1 1DP UK

Horn Hardy Hanover
Sq.

UPDATE Multiple Records

It is the WHERE clause that determines how many records will be updated.
The following SQL statement will update the ContactName to "Juan" for all
records where country is "Mexico":
Example
UPDATE Customers
SET ContactName='Juan'

D me me de y
1 Alfreds Alfred Obere Str. Frankfu 12209 German

Futterkiste Schmidt 57 rt y
2 Ana Trujillo Juan Avda. de la México 05021 Mexico

y helados n 2222
3 Antonio Juan Mataderos México 05023 Mexico

Moreno 2312 D.F.
Taquería
4 Around the Thomas 120 London WA1 1DP UK

Horn Hardy Hanover
Sq.

Update Warning!
Be careful when updating records. If you omit the WHERE clause, ALL records will
be updated!
Example
UPDATE Customers
SET ContactName='Juan';

D me me de y
1 Alfreds Juan Obere Str. Frankfu 12209 German

Futterkiste 57 rt y
2 Ana Trujillo Juan Avda. de la México 05021 Mexico

y helados n 2222
3 Antonio Juan Mataderos México 05023 Mexico

Moreno 2312 D.F.
Taquería
4 Around the Juan 120 London WA1 1DP UK

Horn Hanover
Sq.
5 Berglunds Juan Berguvsväg Luleå S-958 22 Sweden

snabbköp en 8
Exercise:
Update the City column of all records in the Customers table.
_____________ Customers
_____________ City = 'Oslo';
Submit Answer »
SQL DELETE Statement
The SQL DELETE Statement

The DELETE statement is used to delete existing records in a table.
DELETE Syntax
DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;
Note: Be careful when deleting records in a table! Notice the WHERE clause in
the DELETE statement. The WHERE clause specifies which record(s) should be
deleted. If you omit the WHERE clause, all records in the table will be deleted!
Demo Database
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SQL DELETE Example

The following SQL statement deletes the customer "Alfreds Futterkiste" from the
"Customers" table:
Example
DELETE FROM Customers WHERE CustomerName='Alfreds Futterkiste';
The "Customers" table will now look like this:

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Delete All Records

It is possible to delete all rows in a table without deleting the table. This means
that the table structure, attributes, and indexes will be intact:
DELETE FROM table_name;
The following SQL statement deletes all rows in the "Customers" table, without
deleting the table:
Example
DELETE FROM Customers;
Delete a Table
To delete the table completely, use the DROP TABLE statement:
Example
Remove the Customers table:
DROP TABLE Customers;

Exercise:
Delete all the records from the Customers table where the Country value is 'Norway'.
_____________ Customers
_____________ Country = 'Norway';
Submit Answer »
SQL TOP, LIMIT, FETCH FIRST or

ROWNUM Clause
The SQL SELECT TOP Clause

The SELECT TOP clause is used to specify the number of records to return.
The SELECT TOP clause is useful on large tables with thousands of records.
Returning a large number of records can impact performance.
Example
Select only the first 3 records of the Customers table:
SELECT TOP 3 * FROM Customers;
Note: Not all database systems support the SELECT TOP clause. MySQL supports
the LIMIT clause to select a limited number of records, while Oracle uses FETCH
FIRST n ROWS ONLY and ROWNUM.
SQL Server / MS Access Syntax:
SELECT TOP number|percent column_name(s)

FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
MySQL Syntax:
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
LIMIT number;
Oracle 12 Syntax:
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name(s)
FETCH FIRST number ROWS ONLY;
Older Oracle Syntax:
FROM table_name
WHERE ROWNUM <= number;
Older Oracle Syntax (with ORDER BY):
SELECT *
FROM (SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name ORDER BY column_name(s)
)
WHERE ROWNUM <= number;
Demo Database
D me me de y


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Taquería


LIMIT
The following SQL statement shows the equivalent example for MySQL:
Example
Select the first 3 records of the Customers table:

LIMIT 3;
FETCH FIRST
The following SQL statement shows the equivalent example for Oracle:
Example
Select the first 3 records of the Customers table:

FETCH FIRST 3 ROWS ONLY;
SQL TOP PERCENT Example

The following SQL statement selects the first 50% of the records from the
"Customers" table (for SQL Server/MS Access):
Example
SELECT TOP 50 PERCENT * FROM Customers;
Example
FETCH FIRST 50 PERCENT ROWS ONLY;
ADD a WHERE CLAUSE

The following SQL statement selects the first three records from the
"Customers" table, where the country is "Germany" (for SQL Server/MS
Access):
Example
SELECT TOP 3 * FROM Customers
WHERE Country='Germany';
Example
WHERE Country='Germany'
LIMIT 3;
Example
ADD the ORDER BY Keyword

Add the ORDER BY keyword when you want to sort the result, and return the first
3 records of the sorted result.
For SQL Server and MS Access:
Example
Sort the result reverse alphabetically by CustomerName, and return the first 3
records:
SELECT TOP 3 * FROM Customers

ORDER BY CustomerName DESC;
Example
ORDER BY CustomerName DESC
LIMIT 3;
Example
ORDER BY CustomerName DESC

An aggregate function is a function that performs a calculation on a set of
values, and returns a single value.
Aggregate functions are often used with the GROUP BY clause of

the SELECT statement. The GROUP BY clause splits the result-set into groups of
values and the aggregate function can be used to return a single value for each
group.
The most commonly used SQL aggregate functions are:
 MIN() - returns the smallest value within the selected column

 MAX() - returns the largest value within the selected column
 COUNT() - returns the number of rows in a set
 SUM() - returns the total sum of a numerical column
 AVG() - returns the average value of a numerical column
Aggregate functions ignore null values (except for COUNT()).
We will go through the aggregate functions above in the next chapters.
SQL MIN() and MAX() Functions
The SQL MIN() and MAX() Functions

The MIN() function returns the smallest value of the selected column.
The MAX() function returns the largest value of the selected column.
MIN Example
Find the lowest price in the Price column:
SELECT MIN(Price)
FROM Products;
MAX Example
Find the highest price in the Price column:
SELECT MAX(Price)
FROM Products;
Syntax
SELECT MIN(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
SELECT MAX(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Demo Database
1 Chais 1 1 10 boxes 18
x 20 bags
2 Chang 1 1 24 - 12 19
oz bottles
3 Aniseed Syrup 1 2 12 - 550 10

ml
bottles
4 Chef Anton's 2 2 48 - 6 oz 22
Cajun jars
Seasoning
5 Chef Anton's 2 2 36 boxes 21.35

Gumbo Mix
Set Column Name (Alias)

When you use MIN() or MAX(), the returned column will not have a descriptive
name. To give the column a descriptive name, use the AS keyword:
Example
SELECT MIN(Price) AS SmallestPrice
FROM Products;
Use MIN() with GROUP BY

Here we use the MIN() function and the GROUP BY clause, to return the smallest
price for each category in the Products table:
Example
SELECT MIN(Price) AS SmallestPrice, CategoryID
FROM Products
GROUP BY CategoryID;
You will learn more about the GROUP BY clause later in this tutorial.

Exercise:
Use the MIN function to select the record with the smallest value of the Price column.
SELECT _____________
FROM Products;
Submit Answer »
SQL COUNT() Function
The SQL COUNT() Function

The COUNT() function returns the number of rows that matches a specified
criterion.
Example
Find the total number of rows in the Products table:
SELECT COUNT(*)
FROM Products;
Syntax
SELECT COUNT(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Demo Database
1 Chais 1 1 10 boxes x 20 18
bags
2 Chang 1 1 24 - 12 oz 19
bottles

bottles

Seasoning

Mix
Specify Column
You can specify a column name instead of the asterix symbol (*).
If you specify a column name instead of (*), NULL values will not be counted.
Example
Find the number of products where the ProductName is not null:
SELECT COUNT(ProductName)
FROM Products;
Add a WHERE Clause

You can add a WHERE clause to specify conditions:
Example
Find the number of products where Price is higher than 20:
SELECT COUNT(ProductID)
FROM Products
WHERE Price > 20;
Ignore Duplicates
You can ignore duplicates by using the DISTINCT keyword in the COUNT() function.
If DISTINCT is specified, rows with the same value for the specified column will be
counted as one.
Example
How many different prices are there in the Products table:
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT Price)
FROM Products;
Use an Alias
Give the counted column a name by using the AS keyword.
Example
Name the column "Number of records":
SELECT COUNT(*) AS [Number of records]

FROM Products;
Use COUNT() with GROUP BY

Here we use the COUNT() function and the GROUP BY clause, to return the number
of records for each category in the Products table:
Example
SELECT COUNT(*) AS [Number of records], CategoryID
FROM Products

Exercise:
Use the correct function to return the number of records that have the Price value set
to 18.
SELECT _____________ (*)

FROM Products
_____________ Price = 18;
Submit Answer »
SQL SUM() Function
The SQL SUM() Function

The SUM() function returns the total sum of a numeric column.
Example
Return the sum of all Quantity fields in the OrderDetails table:
SELECT SUM(Quantity)
FROM OrderDetails;
Syntax
SELECT SUM(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Demo Database
Below is a selection from the OrderDetails table used in the examples:
OrderDetailID OrderID ProductID Quantity
1 10248 11 12
2 10248 42 10
3 10248 72 5
4 10249 14 9
5 10249 51 40
Add a WHERE Clause

Example
Return the sum of the Quantity field for the product with ProductID 11:
SELECT SUM(Quantity)
FROM OrderDetails
WHERE ProductId = 11;
Use an Alias
Give the summarized column a name by using the AS keyword.
Example
Name the column "total":
SELECT SUM(Quantity) AS total

FROM OrderDetails;
Use SUM() with GROUP BY

Here we use the SUM() function and the GROUP BY clause, to return the Quantity for
each OrderID in the OrderDetails table:
Example
SELECT OrderID, SUM(Quantity) AS [Total Quantity]
FROM OrderDetails
GROUP BY OrderID;
SUM() With an Expression

The parameter inside the SUM() function can also be an expression.
If we assume that each product in the OrderDetails column costs 10 dollars, we

can find the total earnings in dollars by multiply each quantity with 10:
Example
Use an expression inside the SUM() function:
SELECT SUM(Quantity * 10)

FROM OrderDetails;
We can also join the OrderDetails table to the Products table to find the actual
amount, instead of assuming it is 10 dollars:
Example
Join OrderDetails with Products, and use SUM() to find the total amount:
SELECT SUM(Price * Quantity)

FROM OrderDetails
LEFT JOIN Products ON OrderDetails.ProductID = Products.ProductID;
You will learn more about Joins later in this tutorial.

Exercise:
Use an SQL function to calculate the sum of all the Price column values in
the Products table.
SELECT _____________
FROM Products;
Submit Answer »
SQL AVG() Function
The SQL AVG() Function

The AVG() function returns the average value of a numeric column.
Example
Find the average price of all products:
SELECT AVG(Price)
FROM Products;
Note: NULL values are ignored.
Syntax
SELECT AVG(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Demo Database
1 Chais 1 1 10 boxes x 20 18
bags
2 Chang 1 1 24 - 12 oz 19
bottles

bottles

Seasoning
Mix
Add a WHERE Clause

Example
Return the average price of products in category 1:
SELECT AVG(Price)
FROM Products
WHERE CategoryID = 1;
Use an Alias
Give the AVG column a name by using the AS keyword.
Example
Name the column "average price":
SELECT AVG(Price) AS [average price]

FROM Products;
Higher Than Average

To list all records with a higher price than average, we can use
the AVG() function in a sub query:
Example
Return all products with a higher price than the average price:
WHERE price > (SELECT AVG(price) FROM Products);
Use AVG() with GROUP BY

Here we use the AVG() function and the GROUP BY clause, to return the average
price for each category in the Products table:
Example
SELECT AVG(Price) AS AveragePrice, CategoryID
FROM Products

Exercise:
Use an SQL function to calculate the average price of all products.
SELECT _____________
FROM Products;
Submit Answer »
SQL LIKE Operator

The SQL LIKE Operator
The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE clause to search for a specified pattern in a
column.
There are two wildcards often used in conjunction with the LIKE operator:
 The percent sign % represents zero, one, or multiple characters

 The underscore sign _ represents one, single character
You will learn more about wildcards in the next chapter.
Example
Select all customers that starts with the letter "a":

WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a%';
Syntax
FROM table_name
WHERE columnN LIKE pattern;
Demo Database

D me me de y

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Taquería


The _ Wildcard
The _ wildcard represents a single character.
It can be any character or number, but each _ represents one, and only one,
character.
Example
Return all customers from a city that starts with 'L' followed by one wildcard
character, then 'nd' and then two wildcard characters:

WHERE city LIKE 'L_nd__';
The % Wildcard
The % wildcard represents any number of characters, even zero characters.
Example
Return all customers from a city that contains the letter 'L':

WHERE city LIKE '%L%';
Starts With
To return records that starts with a specific letter or phrase, add the % at the
end of the letter or phrase.
Example
Return all customers that starts with 'La':

WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'La%';
Tip: You can also combine any number of conditions using AND or OR operators.
Example
Return all customers that starts with 'a' or starts with 'b':

WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a%' OR CustomerName LIKE 'b%';
Ends With
To return records that ends with a specific letter or phrase, add the % at the
beginning of the letter or phrase.
Example
Return all customers that ends with 'a':

WHERE CustomerName LIKE '%a';
Tip: You can also combine "starts with" and "ends with":
Example
Return all customers that starts with "b" and ends with "s":

WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'b%s';
Contains
To return records that contains a specific letter or phrase, add the % both before
and after the letter or phrase.
Example
Return all customers that contains the phrase 'or'

WHERE CustomerName LIKE '%or%';
Combine Wildcards
Any wildcard, like % and _ , can be used in combination with other wildcards.
Example
Return all customers that starts with "a" and are at least 3 characters in length:

WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a__%';
Example
Return all customers that have "r" in the second position:

WHERE CustomerName LIKE '_r%';
Without Wildcard
If no wildcard is specified, the phrase has to have an exact match to return a
result.
Example
Return all customers from Spain:

WHERE Country LIKE 'Spain';

Exercise:
Select all records where the value of the City column starts with the letter "a".

_____________;
Submit Answer »
SQL Wildcards
SQL Wildcard Characters

A wildcard character is used to substitute one or more characters in a string.
Wildcard characters are used with the LIKE operator. The LIKE operator is used
in a WHERE clause to search for a specified pattern in a column.
Example
Return all customers that starts with the letter 'a':

Wildcard Characters
Symbol Description
% Represents zero or more characters
_ Represents a single character
[] Represents any single character within the brackets *
^ Represents any character not in the brackets *
- Represents any single character within the specified range *

{} Represents any escaped character **
* Not supported in PostgreSQL and MySQL databases.
** Supported only in Oracle databases.
Demo Database

D me me de y


y helados n 2222

Taquería


Using the % Wildcard
The % wildcard represents any number of characters, even zero characters.
Example
Return all customers that ends with the pattern 'es':

WHERE CustomerName LIKE '%es';
Example
Return all customers that contains the pattern 'mer':

WHERE CustomerName LIKE '%mer%';
Using the _ Wildcard

The _ wildcard represents a single character.
It can be any character or number, but each _ represents one, and only one,
character.
Example
Return all customers with a City starting with any character, followed by
"ondon":

WHERE City LIKE '_ondon';
Example
Return all customers with a City starting with "L", followed by any 3 characters,
ending with "on":
WHERE City LIKE 'L___on';
Using the [] Wildcard

The [] wildcard returns a result if any of the characters inside gets a match.
Example
Return all customers starting with either "b", "s", or "p":

WHERE CustomerName LIKE '[bsp]%';
Using the - Wildcard

The - wildcard allows you to specify a range of characters inside the [] wildcard.
Example
Return all customers starting with "a", "b", "c", "d", "e" or "f":

WHERE CustomerName LIKE '[a-f]%';
Combine Wildcards
Any wildcard, like % and _ , can be used in combination with other wildcards.
Example
Return all customers that starts with "a" and are at least 3 characters in length:

Example
Return all customers that have "r" in the second position:

WHERE CustomerName LIKE '_r%';
Without Wildcard
If no wildcard is specified, the phrase has to have an exact match to return a
result.
Example
Return all customers from Spain:

WHERE Country LIKE 'Spain';
Microsoft Access Wildcards

The Microsoft Access Database has some other wildcards:
Symbol Description Example
* Represents zero or more bl* finds bl, black, blue, and blob
characters
? Represents a single character h?t finds hot, hat, and hit
[] Represents any single h[oa]t finds hot and hat, but not
character within the brackets hit
! Represents any character not h[!oa]t finds hit, but not hot and
in the brackets hat
- Represents any single c[a-b]t finds cat and cbt

character within the specified
range
# Represents any single numeric 2#5 finds 205, 215, 225, 235,
character 245, 255, 265, 275, 285, and
295

Exercise:
Select all records where the second letter of the City is an "a".

WHERE City LIKE '_____________%';
Submit Answer »
SQL IN Operator
The SQL IN Operator
The IN operator allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause.
The IN operator is a shorthand for multiple OR conditions.
Example
Return all customers from 'Germany', 'France', or 'UK'

WHERE Country IN ('Germany', 'France', 'UK');
Syntax
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (value1, value2, ...);
Demo Database

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Taquería


NOT IN
By using the NOT keyword in front of the IN operator, you return all records that
are NOT any of the values in the list.
Example
Return all customers that are NOT from 'Germany', 'France', or 'UK':

WHERE Country NOT IN ('Germany', 'France', 'UK');
IN (SELECT)
You can also use IN with a subquery in the WHERE clause.
With a subquery you can return all records from the main query that are
present in the result of the subquery.
Example
Return all customers that have an order in the Orders table:
WHERE CustomerID IN (SELECT CustomerID FROM Orders);
NOT IN (SELECT)
The result in the example above returned 74 records, that means that there are
17 customers that haven't placed any orders.
Let us check if that is correct, by using the NOT IN operator.
Example
Return all customers that have NOT placed any orders in the Orders table:

WHERE CustomerID NOT IN (SELECT CustomerID FROM Orders);

Exercise:
Use the IN operator to select all the records where Country is either "Norway" or
"France".

_____________ _____________ 'France'_____________;
Submit Answer »
SQL BETWEEN Operator

The SQL BETWEEN Operator
The BETWEEN operator selects values within a given range. The values can be
numbers, text, or dates.
The BETWEEN operator is inclusive: begin and end values are included.
Example
Selects all products with a price between 10 and 20:

WHERE Price BETWEEN 10 AND 20;
Syntax
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2;
Demo Database
1 Chais 1 1 10 boxes x 20 18
bags
2 Chang 1 1 24 - 12 oz 19
bottles
bottles

Seasoning

Mix
NOT BETWEEN
To display the products outside the range of the previous example, use NOT
BETWEEN:
Example
WHERE Price NOT BETWEEN 10 AND 20;
BETWEEN with IN
The following SQL statement selects all products with a price between 10 and
20. In addition, the CategoryID must be either 1,2, or 3:
Example
WHERE Price BETWEEN 10 AND 20
AND CategoryID IN (1,2,3);
BETWEEN Text Values
The following SQL statement selects all products with a ProductName
alphabetically between Carnarvon Tigers and Mozzarella di Giovanni:
Example
WHERE ProductName BETWEEN 'Carnarvon Tigers' AND 'Mozzarella di Giovanni'
The following SQL statement selects all products with a ProductName between
Carnarvon Tigers and Chef Anton's Cajun Seasoning:
Example
WHERE ProductName BETWEEN "Carnarvon Tigers" AND "Chef Anton's Cajun
Seasoning"
NOT BETWEEN Text Values

The following SQL statement selects all products with a ProductName not
between Carnarvon Tigers and Mozzarella di Giovanni:
Example
WHERE ProductName NOT BETWEEN 'Carnarvon Tigers' AND 'Mozzarella di
Giovanni'
BETWEEN Dates
The following SQL statement selects all orders with an OrderDate between '01-
July-1996' and '31-July-1996':
Example
SELECT * FROM Orders
WHERE OrderDate BETWEEN #07/01/1996# AND #07/31/1996#;
OR:
Example
SELECT * FROM Orders
WHERE OrderDate BETWEEN '1996-07-01' AND '1996-07-31';
Sample Table
Below is a selection from the Orders table used in the examples:
OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID
10248 90 5 7/4/1996 3
10249 81 6 7/5/1996 1
10250 34 4 7/8/1996 2
10251 84 3 7/9/1996 1
10252 76 4 7/10/1996 2
Exercise:
Use the BETWEEN operator to select all the records where the value of the Price column
is between 10 and 20.

WHERE Price _____________;
Submit Answer »
SQL Aliases
SQL Aliases
SQL aliases are used to give a table, or a column in a table, a temporary name.
Aliases are often used to make column names more readable.
An alias only exists for the duration of that query.
An alias is created with the AS keyword.
Example
SELECT CustomerID AS ID
FROM Customers;
AS is Optional
Actually, in most database languages, you can skip the AS keyword and get the
same result:
Example
SELECT CustomerID ID
FROM Customers;
Syntax
When alias is used on column:
SELECT column_name AS alias_name

FROM table_name;
When alias is used on table:
FROM table_name AS alias_name;
Demo Database
Below is a selection from the Customers and Orders tables used in the
examples:
Customers

D me me de y

y helados n 2222

Taquería
Orders
10248 90 5 7/4/1996 3
10249 81 6 7/5/1996 1
10250 34 4 7/8/1996 2
Alias for Columns

The following SQL statement creates two aliases, one for the CustomerID
column and one for the CustomerName column:
Example
SELECT CustomerID AS ID, CustomerName AS Customer
FROM Customers;
Using Aliases With a Space Character
If you want your alias to contain one or more spaces, like "My Great Products",
surround your alias with square brackets or double quotes.
Example
Using [square brackets] for aliases with space characters:
SELECT ProductName AS [My Great Products]

FROM Products;
Example
Using "double quotes" for aliases with space characters:
SELECT ProductName AS "My Great Products"

FROM Products;
Note: Some database systems allows both [] and "", and some only allows one
of them.
Concatenate Columns
The following SQL statement creates an alias named "Address" that combine
four columns (Address, PostalCode, City and Country):
Example
SELECT CustomerName, Address + ', ' + PostalCode + ' ' + City + ', ' +
Country AS Address
FROM Customers;
Note: To get the SQL statement above to work in MySQL use the following:
MySQL Example
SELECT CustomerName, CONCAT(Address,', ',PostalCode,', ',City,',
',Country) AS Address
FROM Customers;
Note: To get the SQL statement above to work in Oracle use the following:
Oracle Example
SELECT CustomerName, (Address || ', ' || PostalCode || ' ' || City || ',
' || Country) AS Address
FROM Customers;
Alias for Tables

The same rules applies when you want to use an alias for a table.
Example
Refer to the Customers table as Persons instead:
SELECT * FROM Customers AS Persons;
It might seem useless to use aliases on tables, but when you are using more
than one table in your queries, it can make the SQL statements shorter.
The following SQL statement selects all the orders from the customer with
CustomerID=4 (Around the Horn). We use the "Customers" and "Orders"
tables, and give them the table aliases of "c" and "o" respectively (Here we use
aliases to make the SQL shorter):
Example
SELECT o.OrderID, o.OrderDate, c.CustomerName
FROM Customers AS c, Orders AS o
WHERE c.CustomerName='Around the Horn' AND c.CustomerID=o.CustomerID;
The following SQL statement is the same as above, but without aliases:
Example
SELECT Orders.OrderID, Orders.OrderDate, Customers.CustomerName
FROM Customers, Orders
WHERE Customers.CustomerName='Around the
Horn' AND Customers.CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID;
Aliases can be useful when:
 There are more than one table involved in a query

 Functions are used in the query
 Column names are big or not very readable
 Two or more columns are combined together

Exercise:
When displaying the Customers table, make an ALIAS of the PostalCode column, the
column should be called Pno instead.
SELECT CustomerName,
Address,
PostalCode _____________
FROM Customers;
Submit Answer »
SQL Joins
SQL JOIN
A JOIN clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables, based on a
related column between them.
Let's look at a selection from the "Orders" table:

OrderID CustomerID OrderDate
10308 2 1996-09-18
10309 37 1996-09-19
10310 77 1996-09-20
Then, look at a selection from the "Customers" table:
CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Country
1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Germany
2 Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Ana Trujillo Mexico
3 Antonio Moreno Taquería Antonio Moreno Mexico
Notice that the "CustomerID" column in the "Orders" table refers to the
"CustomerID" in the "Customers" table. The relationship between the two tables
above is the "CustomerID" column.
Then, we can create the following SQL statement (that contains an INNER JOIN),
that selects records that have matching values in both tables:
Example
SELECT Orders.OrderID, Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderDate
FROM Orders
INNER JOIN Customers ON Orders.CustomerID=Customers.CustomerID;
and it will produce something like this:

OrderID CustomerName OrderDate
10308 Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados 9/18/1996
10365 Antonio Moreno Taquería 11/27/1996
10383 Around the Horn 12/16/1996
10355 Around the Horn 11/15/1996
10278 Berglunds snabbköp 8/12/1996
Different Types of SQL JOINs

Here are the different types of the JOINs in SQL:
 (INNER) JOIN: Returns records that have matching values in both tables
 LEFT (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records from the left table, and the matched
records from the right table
 RIGHT (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records from the right table, and the
matched records from the left table
 FULL (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records when there is a match in either left
or right table
Exercise:
Insert the missing parts in the JOIN clause to join the two tables Orders and Customers,
using the CustomerID field in both tables as the relationship between the two tables.
SELECT *
FROM Orders
LEFT JOIN Customers
_____________=_____________;
Submit Answer »
SQL INNER JOIN
INNER JOIN
The INNER JOIN keyword selects records that have matching values in both
tables.
Let's look at a selection of the Products table:
ProductID ProductName CategoryID Price

1 Chais 1 18
2 Chang 1 19
3 Aniseed Syrup 2 10
And a selection of the Categories table:
CategoryID CategoryName Description
1 Beverages Soft drinks, coffees, teas, beers, and ales
2 Condiments Sweet and savory sauces, relishes, spreads, and seasonings
3 Confections Desserts, candies, and sweet breads
We will join the Products table with the Categories table, by using
the CategoryID field from both tables:
Example
Join Products and Categories with the INNER JOIN keyword:
SELECT ProductID, ProductName, CategoryName

FROM Products
INNER JOIN Categories ON Products.CategoryID = Categories.CategoryID;
Note: The INNER JOIN keyword returns only rows with a match in both tables.
Which means that if you have a product with no CategoryID, or with a
CategoryID that is not present in the Categories table, that record would not be
returned in the result.
Syntax
FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;
Naming the Columns

It is a good practice to include the table name when specifying columns in the
SQL statement.
Example
Specify the table names:
SELECT Products.ProductID, Products.ProductName, Categories.CategoryName

FROM Products
INNER JOIN Categories ON Products.CategoryID = Categories.CategoryID;
The example above works without specifying table names, because none of the
specified column names are present in both tables. If you try to
include CategoryID in the SELECT statement, you will get an error if you do not
specify the table name (because CategoryID is present in both tables).
JOIN or INNER JOIN

JOIN and INNER JOIN will return the same result.
INNER is the default join type for JOIN, so when you write JOIN the parser actually
writes INNER JOIN.
Example
JOIN is the same as INNER JOIN:
SELECT Products.ProductID, Products.ProductName, Categories.CategoryName
FROM Products
JOIN Categories ON Products.CategoryID = Categories.CategoryID;
JOIN Three Tables

The following SQL statement selects all orders with customer and shipper
information:
Example
SELECT Orders.OrderID, Customers.CustomerName, Shippers.ShipperName
FROM ((Orders
INNER JOIN Customers ON Orders.CustomerID = Customers.CustomerID)
INNER JOIN Shippers ON Orders.ShipperID = Shippers.ShipperID);

Exercise:
Choose the correct JOIN clause to select all records from the two tables where there is
a match in both tables.
SELECT *
FROM Orders
_____________
ON Orders.CustomerID=Customers.CustomerID;
Submit Answer »

The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all records from the left table (table1), and the
matching records from the right table (table2). The result is 0 records from the
right side, if there is no match.
LEFT JOIN Syntax

FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
Note: In some databases LEFT JOIN is called LEFT OUTER JOIN.
Demo Database
In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample database.
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table:

D me me de y

y helados n 2222

Taquería
And a selection from the "Orders" table:
10308 2 7 1996-09-18 3
10309 37 3 1996-09-19 1
10310 77 8 1996-09-20 2
SQL LEFT JOIN Example

The following SQL statement will select all customers, and any orders they
might have:
Example
SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID
FROM Customers
LEFT JOIN Orders ON Customers.CustomerID = Orders.CustomerID
ORDER BY Customers.CustomerName;
Note: The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all records from the left table (Customers),
even if there are no matches in the right table (Orders).

The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all records from the right table (table2), and the
matching records from the left table (table1). The result is 0 records from the
left side, if there is no match.
RIGHT JOIN Syntax

FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2
Note: In some databases RIGHT JOIN is called RIGHT OUTER JOIN.
Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "Orders" table:
10308 2 7 1996-09-18 3
10309 37 3 1996-09-19 1
10310 77 8 1996-09-20 2
And a selection from the "Employees" table:
EmployeeID LastName FirstName BirthDate Photo
1 Davolio Nancy 12/8/1968 EmpID1.pic
2 Fuller Andrew 2/19/1952 EmpID2.pic
3 Leverling Janet 8/30/1963 EmpID3.pic
SQL RIGHT JOIN Example

The following SQL statement will return all employees, and any orders they
might have placed:
Example
SELECT Orders.OrderID, Employees.LastName, Employees.FirstName
FROM Orders
RIGHT JOIN Employees ON Orders.EmployeeID = Employees.EmployeeID
ORDER BY Orders.OrderID;
Note: The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all records from the right table
(Employees), even if there are no matches in the left table (Orders).
Exercise:
Choose the correct JOIN clause to select all the records from the Customers table plus
all the matches in the Orders table.
SELECT *
FROM Orders
_____________
ON Orders.CustomerID=Customers.CustomerID;
Submit Answer »

The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword returns all records when there is a match in left
(table1) or right (table2) table records.
Tip: FULL OUTER JOIN and FULL JOIN are the same.
FULL OUTER JOIN Syntax

FROM table1
FULL OUTER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name
WHERE condition;
Note: FULL OUTER JOIN can potentially return very large result-sets!
Demo Database

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And a selection from the "Orders" table:

10308 2 7 1996-09-18 3
10309 37 3 1996-09-19 1
10310 77 8 1996-09-20 2
SQL FULL OUTER JOIN Example

The following SQL statement selects all customers, and all orders:

FROM Customers
FULL OUTER JOIN Orders ON Customers.CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID
A selection from the result set may look like this:
CustomerName OrderID
Null 10309
Null 10310
Alfreds Futterkiste Null
Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados 10308

Antonio Moreno Taquería Null
Note: The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword returns all matching records from both tables
whether the other table matches or not. So, if there are rows in "Customers"
that do not have matches in "Orders", or if there are rows in "Orders" that do
not have matches in "Customers", those rows will be listed as well.
SQL Self Join
SQL Self Join

A self join is a regular join, but the table is joined with itself.
Self Join Syntax

FROM table1 T1, table1 T2
WHERE condition;
T1 and T2 are different table aliases for the same table.
Demo Database

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Taquería
SQL Self Join Example

The following SQL statement matches customers that are from the same city:
Example
SELECT A.CustomerName AS CustomerName1,
B.CustomerName AS CustomerName2, A.City
FROM Customers A, Customers B
WHERE A.CustomerID <> B.CustomerID
AND A.City = B.City
ORDER BY A.City;
SQL UNION Operator
The SQL UNION Operator

The UNION operator is used to combine the result-set of two or
more SELECT statements.
 Every SELECT statement within UNION must have the same number of
columns
 The columns must also have similar data types
 The columns in every SELECT statement must also be in the same order
UNION Syntax
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1
UNION
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table2;
UNION ALL Syntax

The UNION operator selects only distinct values by default. To allow duplicate
values, use UNION ALL:
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1

UNION ALL
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table2;
Note: The column names in the result-set are usually equal to the column
names in the first SELECT statement.
Demo Database

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Taquería
And a selection from the "Suppliers" table:

SupplierI SupplierNam ContactNam Addres City PostalCod Countr
D e e s e y
1 Exotic Liquid Charlotte 49 Londo EC1 4SD UK

Cooper Gilbert n
St.
2 New Orleans Shelley Burke P.O. New 70117 USA

Cajun Delights Box Orlean
78934 s
3 Grandma Regina 707 Ann 48104 USA

Kelly's Murphy Oxford Arbor
Homestead Rd.
SQL UNION Example

The following SQL statement returns the cities (only distinct values) from both
the "Customers" and the "Suppliers" table:
Example
SELECT City FROM Customers
UNION
SELECT City FROM Suppliers
ORDER BY City;
Note: If some customers or suppliers have the same city, each city will only be
listed once, because UNION selects only distinct values. Use UNION ALL to also
select duplicate values!
SQL UNION ALL Example
The following SQL statement returns the cities (duplicate values also) from both
Example
UNION ALL
ORDER BY City;
SQL UNION With WHERE

The following SQL statement returns the German cities (only distinct values)
from both the "Customers" and the "Suppliers" table:
Example
SELECT City, Country FROM Customers
UNION
SELECT City, Country FROM Suppliers
ORDER BY City;
SQL UNION ALL With WHERE

The following SQL statement returns the German cities (duplicate values also)
from both the "Customers" and the "Suppliers" table:
Example
SELECT City, Country FROM Customers
UNION ALL
SELECT City, Country FROM Suppliers
ORDER BY City;
Another UNION Example
The following SQL statement lists all customers and suppliers:
Example
SELECT 'Customer' AS Type, ContactName, City, Country
FROM Customers
UNION
SELECT 'Supplier', ContactName, City, Country
FROM Suppliers;
Notice the "AS Type" above - it is an alias. SQL Aliases are used to give a table
or a column a temporary name. An alias only exists for the duration of the
query. So, here we have created a temporary column named "Type", that list
whether the contact person is a "Customer" or a "Supplier".
SQL GROUP BY Statement
The SQL GROUP BY Statement

The GROUP BY statement groups rows that have the same values into summary
rows, like "find the number of customers in each country".
The GROUP BY statement is often used with aggregate functions

(COUNT(), MAX(), MIN(), SUM(), AVG()) to group the result-set by one or more
columns.
GROUP BY Syntax
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
GROUP BY column_name(s)
ORDER BY column_name(s);
Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "Customers" table in the Northwind sample
database:

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SQL GROUP BY Examples

The following SQL statement lists the number of customers in each country:
Example
SELECT COUNT(CustomerID), Country
FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country;
The following SQL statement lists the number of customers in each country,
sorted high to low:
Example
FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country
ORDER BY COUNT(CustomerID) DESC;
Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "Orders" table in the Northwind sample database:
10248 90 5 1996-07-04 3
10249 81 6 1996-07-05 1
10250 34 4 1996-07-08 2
And a selection from the "Shippers" table:
ShipperID ShipperName
1 Speedy Express
2 United Package
3 Federal Shipping
GROUP BY With JOIN Example

The following SQL statement lists the number of orders sent by each shipper:
Example
SELECT Shippers.ShipperName, COUNT(Orders.OrderID) AS NumberOfOrders FROM
Orders
LEFT JOIN Shippers ON Orders.ShipperID = Shippers.ShipperID
GROUP BY ShipperName;

Exercise:
List the number of customers in each country.
SELECT _____________ (CustomerID),

Country
FROM Customers
_____________;
Submit Answer »
SQL HAVING Clause
The SQL HAVING Clause

The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword cannot be used
with aggregate functions.
HAVING Syntax
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
GROUP BY column_name(s)
HAVING condition
ORDER BY column_name(s);
Demo Database
database:

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SQL HAVING Examples

The following SQL statement lists the number of customers in each country.
Only include countries with more than 5 customers:
Example
FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country
HAVING COUNT(CustomerID) > 5;
The following SQL statement lists the number of customers in each country,
sorted high to low (Only include countries with more than 5 customers):
Example
FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country
HAVING COUNT(CustomerID) > 5
Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "Orders" table in the Northwind sample database:
10248 90 5 1996-07-04 3
10249 81 6 1996-07-05 1
10250 34 4 1996-07-08 2
And a selection from the "Employees" table:
EmployeeID LastName FirstName BirthDate Photo Notes
1 Davolio Nancy 1968-12- EmpID1.pic Education includes a

08 BA....
2 Fuller Andrew 1952-02- EmpID2.pic Andrew received his

19 BTS....
3 Leverling Janet 1963-08- EmpID3.pic Janet has a BS
30 degree....
More HAVING Examples

The following SQL statement lists the employees that have registered more than
10 orders:
Example
SELECT Employees.LastName, COUNT(Orders.OrderID) AS NumberOfOrders
FROM (Orders
INNER JOIN Employees ON Orders.EmployeeID = Employees.EmployeeID)
GROUP BY LastName
HAVING COUNT(Orders.OrderID) > 10;
The following SQL statement lists if the employees "Davolio" or "Fuller" have
registered more than 25 orders:
Example
SELECT Employees.LastName, COUNT(Orders.OrderID) AS NumberOfOrders
FROM Orders
INNER JOIN Employees ON Orders.EmployeeID = Employees.EmployeeID
WHERE LastName = 'Davolio' OR LastName = 'Fuller'
GROUP BY LastName
HAVING COUNT(Orders.OrderID) > 25;
SQL EXISTS Operator
The SQL EXISTS Operator

The EXISTS operator is used to test for the existence of any record in a subquery.
The EXISTS operator returns TRUE if the subquery returns one or more records.
EXISTS Syntax
FROM table_name
WHERE EXISTS
(SELECT column_name FROM table_name WHERE condition);
Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "Products" table in the Northwind sample
database:
1 Chais 1 1 10 boxes x 20 18
bags
2 Chang 1 1 24 - 12 oz 19
bottles

bottles

Seasoning

Mix

SupplierI SupplierNam ContactNam Address City PostalCod Countr
D e e e y
1 Exotic Liquid Charlotte 49 Gilbert Londo EC1 4SD UK

Cooper St. n
2 New Orleans Shelley P.O. Box New 70117 USA

Cajun Burke 78934 Orlean
Delights s
3 Grandma Regina 707 Ann 48104 USA

Kelly's Murphy Oxford Arbor
Homestead Rd.
4 Tokyo Yoshi Nagase 9-8 Tokyo 100 Japan

Traders Sekimai
Musashino
-shi
SQL EXISTS Examples

The following SQL statement returns TRUE and lists the suppliers with a product
price less than 20:
Example
SELECT SupplierName
FROM Suppliers
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT ProductName FROM Products WHERE Products.SupplierID
= Suppliers.supplierID AND Price < 20);
The following SQL statement returns TRUE and lists the suppliers with a product
price equal to 22:
Example
SELECT SupplierName
FROM Suppliers
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT ProductName FROM Products WHERE Products.SupplierID
= Suppliers.supplierID AND Price = 22);
SQL ANY and ALL Operators
The SQL ANY and ALL Operators

The ANY and ALL operators allow you to perform a comparison between a single
column value and a range of other values.
The SQL ANY Operator

The ANY operator:
 returns a boolean value as a result

 returns TRUE if ANY of the subquery values meet the condition
ANY means that the condition will be true if the operation is true for any of the
values in the range.
ANY Syntax
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator ANY
(SELECT column_name
FROM table_name
WHERE condition);
Note: The operator must be a standard comparison operator (=, <>, !=, >,
>=, <, or <=).
The SQL ALL Operator
The ALL operator:
 returns a boolean value as a result

 returns TRUE if ALL of the subquery values meet the condition
 is used with SELECT, WHERE and HAVING statements
ALL means that the condition will be true only if the operation is true for all
values in the range.
ALL Syntax With SELECT

SELECT ALL column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
ALL Syntax With WHERE or HAVING

FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator ALL
(SELECT column_name
FROM table_name
WHERE condition);
Note: The operator must be a standard comparison operator (=, <>, !=, >,
>=, <, or <=).
Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "Products" table in the Northwind sample
database:
1 Chais 1 1 10 boxes x 18
20 bags
2 Chang 1 1 24 - 12 oz 19
bottles

bottles

Seasoning

Mix
6 Grandma's Boysenberry 3 2 12 - 8 oz jars 25

Spread
7 Uncle Bob's Organic 3 7 12 - 1 lb 30

Dried Pears pkgs.
8 Northwoods Cranberry 3 2 12 - 12 oz 40
Sauce jars
9 Mishi Kobe Niku 4 6 18 - 500 g 97

pkgs.
And a selection from the "OrderDetails" table:
1 10248 11 12
2 10248 42 10
3 10248 72 5
4 10249 14 9
5 10249 51 40
6 10250 41 10
7 10250 51 35
8 10250 65 15
9 10251 22 6
10 10251 57 15
SQL ANY Examples

The following SQL statement lists the ProductName if it finds ANY records in the
OrderDetails table has Quantity equal to 10 (this will return TRUE because the
Quantity column has some values of 10):
Example
SELECT ProductName
FROM Products
WHERE ProductID = ANY
(SELECT ProductID
FROM OrderDetails
WHERE Quantity = 10);
OrderDetails table has Quantity larger than 99 (this will return TRUE because
the Quantity column has some values larger than 99):
Example
SELECT ProductName
FROM Products
(SELECT ProductID
FROM OrderDetails
WHERE Quantity > 99);
OrderDetails table has Quantity larger than 1000 (this will return FALSE
because the Quantity column has no values larger than 1000):
Example
SELECT ProductName
FROM Products
(SELECT ProductID
FROM OrderDetails
WHERE Quantity > 1000);
SQL ALL Examples

The following SQL statement lists ALL the product names:
Example
SELECT ALL ProductName
FROM Products
WHERE TRUE;
The following SQL statement lists the ProductName if ALL the records in the
OrderDetails table has Quantity equal to 10. This will of course return FALSE
because the Quantity column has many different values (not only the value of
10):
Example
SELECT ProductName
FROM Products
WHERE ProductID = ALL
(SELECT ProductID
FROM OrderDetails
WHERE Quantity = 10);
SQL SELECT INTO Statement
The SQL SELECT INTO Statement

The SELECT INTO statement copies data from one table into a new table.
SELECT INTO Syntax

Copy all columns into a new table:
SELECT *
INTO newtable [IN externaldb]
FROM oldtable
WHERE condition;
Copy only some columns into a new table:
SELECT column1, column2, column3, ...

INTO newtable [IN externaldb]
FROM oldtable
WHERE condition;
The new table will be created with the column-names and types as defined in
the old table. You can create new column names using the AS clause.
SQL SELECT INTO Examples
The following SQL statement creates a backup copy of Customers:
SELECT * INTO CustomersBackup2017

FROM Customers;
The following SQL statement uses the IN clause to copy the table into a new
table in another database:
SELECT * INTO CustomersBackup2017 IN 'Backup.mdb'

FROM Customers;
The following SQL statement copies only a few columns into a new table:
SELECT CustomerName, ContactName INTO CustomersBackup2017

FROM Customers;
The following SQL statement copies only the German customers into a new
table:
SELECT * INTO CustomersGermany

FROM Customers
WHERE Country = 'Germany';
The following SQL statement copies data from more than one table into a new
table:

INTO CustomersOrderBackup2017
FROM Customers
LEFT JOIN Orders ON Customers.CustomerID = Orders.CustomerID;
Tip: SELECT INTO can also be used to create a new, empty table using the schema
of another. Just add a WHERE clause that causes the query to return no data:
SELECT * INTO newtable

FROM oldtable
WHERE 1 = 0;
SQL INSERT INTO

SELECT Statement
The SQL INSERT INTO SELECT Statement
The INSERT INTO SELECT statement copies data from one table and inserts it into
another table.
The INSERT INTO SELECT statement requires that the data types in source and
target tables match.
Note: The existing records in the target table are unaffected.
INSERT INTO SELECT Syntax

Copy all columns from one table to another table:
INSERT INTO table2

SELECT * FROM table1
WHERE condition;
Copy only some columns from one table into another table:
INSERT INTO table2 (column1, column2, column3, ...)

SELECT column1, column2, column3, ...
FROM table1
WHERE condition;
Demo Database

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Taquería
SupplierID SupplierName ContactName Address City Postal Country

Code
1 Exotic Liquid Charlotte 49 Londona EC1 UK

Cooper Gilbert 4SD
St.
2 New Orleans Shelley Burke P.O. New 70117 USA

Cajun Delights Box Orleans
78934
3 Grandma Kelly's Regina 707 Ann 48104 USA

Homestead Murphy Oxford Arbor
Rd.
SQL INSERT INTO SELECT Examples
Example
Copy "Suppliers" into "Customers" (the columns that are not filled with data,
will contain NULL):

SELECT SupplierName, City, Country FROM Suppliers;
Example
Copy "Suppliers" into "Customers" (fill all columns):

SELECT SupplierName, ContactName, Address, City,
PostalCode, Country FROM Suppliers;
Example
Copy only the German suppliers into "Customers":

SELECT SupplierName, City, Country FROM Suppliers
SQL CASE Expression
The SQL CASE Expression

The CASE expression goes through conditions and returns a value when the first
condition is met (like an if-then-else statement). So, once a condition is true, it
will stop reading and return the result. If no conditions are true, it returns the
value in the ELSE clause.
If there is no ELSE part and no conditions are true, it returns NULL.
CASE Syntax
CASE
WHEN condition1 THEN result1
WHEN condition2 THEN result2
WHEN conditionN THEN resultN
ELSE result
END;
Demo Database
Below is a selection from the "OrderDetails" table in the Northwind sample
database:
1 10248 11 12
2 10248 42 10
3 10248 72 5
4 10249 14 9
5 10249 51 40
SQL CASE Examples

The following SQL goes through conditions and returns a value when the first
condition is met:
Example
SELECT OrderID, Quantity,
CASE
WHEN Quantity > 30 THEN 'The quantity is greater than 30'
WHEN Quantity = 30 THEN 'The quantity is 30'
ELSE 'The quantity is under 30'
END AS QuantityText
FROM OrderDetails;
The following SQL will order the customers by City. However, if City is NULL,
then order by Country:
Example
SELECT CustomerName, City, Country
FROM Customers
ORDER BY
(CASE
WHEN City IS NULL THEN Country
ELSE City
END);
SQL NULL Functions
SQL IFNULL(), ISNULL(), COALESCE(), and

NVL() Functions
Look at the following "Products" table:
P_Id ProductName UnitPrice UnitsInStock UnitsOnOrder
1 Jarlsberg 10.45 16 15
2 Mascarpone 32.56 23
3 Gorgonzola 15.67 9 20
Suppose that the "UnitsOnOrder" column is optional, and may contain NULL
values.
Look at the following SELECT statement:
SELECT ProductName, UnitPrice * (UnitsInStock + UnitsOnOrder)

FROM Products;
In the example above, if any of the "UnitsOnOrder" values are NULL, the result
will be NULL.
Solutions
MySQL
The MySQL IFNULL() function lets you return an alternative value if an

expression is NULL:
SELECT ProductName, UnitPrice * (UnitsInStock + IFNULL(UnitsOnOrder, 0))

FROM Products;
or we can use the COALESCE() function, like this:
SELECT ProductName, UnitPrice * (UnitsInStock

+ COALESCE(UnitsOnOrder, 0))
FROM Products;
SQL Server
The SQL Server ISNULL() function lets you return an alternative value when an
expression is NULL:
SELECT ProductName, UnitPrice * (UnitsInStock + ISNULL(UnitsOnOrder, 0))

FROM Products;

FROM Products;
MS Access
The MS Access IsNull() function returns TRUE (-1) if the expression is a null
value, otherwise FALSE (0):
SELECT ProductName, UnitPrice * (UnitsInStock +

IIF(IsNull(UnitsOnOrder), 0, UnitsOnOrder))
FROM Products;
Oracle
The Oracle NVL() function achieves the same result:
SELECT ProductName, UnitPrice * (UnitsInStock + NVL(UnitsOnOrder, 0))

FROM Products;

FROM Products;
SQL Stored Procedures for SQL

Server
What is a Stored Procedure?

A stored procedure is a prepared SQL code that you can save, so the code can
be reused over and over again.
So if you have an SQL query that you write over and over again, save it as a
stored procedure, and then just call it to execute it.
You can also pass parameters to a stored procedure, so that the stored
procedure can act based on the parameter value(s) that is passed.
Stored Procedure Syntax

CREATE PROCEDURE procedure_name
AS
sql_statement
GO;
Execute a Stored Procedure
EXEC procedure_name;
Demo Database
database:

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Taquería


Stored Procedure Example
The following SQL statement creates a stored procedure named
"SelectAllCustomers" that selects all records from the "Customers" table:
Example
CREATE PROCEDURE SelectAllCustomers
AS
GO;
Execute the stored procedure above as follows:
Example
EXEC SelectAllCustomers;
Stored Procedure With One Parameter

The following SQL statement creates a stored procedure that selects Customers
from a particular City from the "Customers" table:
Example
CREATE PROCEDURE SelectAllCustomers @City nvarchar(30)
AS
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City = @City
GO;
Example
EXEC SelectAllCustomers @City = 'London';
Stored Procedure With Multiple
Parameters
Setting up multiple parameters is very easy. Just list each parameter and the
data type separated by a comma as shown below.
The following SQL statement creates a stored procedure that selects Customers
from a particular City with a particular PostalCode from the "Customers" table:
Example
CREATE PROCEDURE SelectAllCustomers @City nvarchar(30), @PostalCode
nvarchar(10)
AS
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE City = @City AND PostalCode = @PostalCode
GO;
Example
EXEC SelectAllCustomers @City = 'London', @PostalCode = 'WA1 1DP';
SQL Comments
SQL Comments
Comments are used to explain sections of SQL statements, or to prevent
execution of SQL statements.
Note: Comments are not supported in Microsoft Access databases!
Single Line Comments

Single line comments start with --.
Any text between -- and the end of the line will be ignored (will not be
executed).
The following example uses a single-line comment as an explanation:
Example
-- Select all:
The following example uses a single-line comment to ignore the end of a line:
Example
SELECT * FROM Customers -- WHERE City='Berlin';
The following example uses a single-line comment to ignore a statement:
Example
-- SELECT * FROM Customers;
SELECT * FROM Products;
Multi-line Comments
Multi-line comments start with /* and end with */.
Any text between /* and */ will be ignored.
The following example uses a multi-line comment as an explanation:
Example
/*Select all the columns
of all the records
in the Customers table:*/
The following example uses a multi-line comment to ignore many statements:
Example
/*SELECT * FROM Customers;
SELECT * FROM Products;
SELECT * FROM Orders;
SELECT * FROM Categories;*/
SELECT * FROM Suppliers;
To ignore just a part of a statement, also use the /* */ comment.
The following example uses a comment to ignore part of a line:
Example
SELECT CustomerName, /*City,*/ Country FROM Customers;
The following example uses a comment to ignore part of a statement:
Example
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE (CustomerName LIKE 'L%'
OR CustomerName LIKE 'R%' /*OR CustomerName LIKE 'S%'
OR CustomerName LIKE 'T%'*/ OR CustomerName LIKE 'W%')
AND Country='USA'
ORDER BY CustomerName;
SQL Operators
SQL Arithmetic Operators

+ Add
- Subtract
* Multiply
/ Divide
% Modulo
SQL Bitwise Operators

& Bitwise AND
| Bitwise OR
^ Bitwise exclusive OR
SQL Comparison Operators

= Equal to
> Greater than

< Less than
>= Greater than or equal to
<= Less than or equal to
<> Not equal to
SQL Compound Operators

+= Add equals
-= Subtract equals
*= Multiply equals
/= Divide equals
%= Modulo equals
&= Bitwise AND equals
^-= Bitwise exclusive equals
|*= Bitwise OR equals
SQL Logical Operators

ALL TRUE if all of the subquery values meet the

condition
AND TRUE if all the conditions separated by AND is TRUE
ANY TRUE if any of the subquery values meet the

condition
BETWEEN TRUE if the operand is within the range of

comparisons
EXISTS TRUE if the subquery returns one or more records
IN TRUE if the operand is equal to one of a list of

expressions
LIKE TRUE if the operand matches a pattern
NOT Displays a record if the condition(s) is NOT TRUE
OR TRUE if any of the conditions separated by OR is

TRUE
SOME TRUE if any of the subquery values meet the

condition
SQL DATABASE
SQL CREATE
DATABASE Statement
The SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement

The CREATE DATABASE statement is used to create a new SQL database.
Syntax
CREATE DATABASE databasename;
CREATE DATABASE Example

The following SQL statement creates a database called "testDB":
Example
CREATE DATABASE testDB;
Tip: Make sure you have admin privilege before creating any database. Once a
database is created, you can check it in the list of databases with the following
SQL command: SHOW DATABASES;

Exercise:
Write the correct SQL statement to create a new database called testDB.
_____________;
Submit Answer »
SQL DROP DATABASE Statement
The SQL DROP DATABASE Statement

The DROP DATABASE statement is used to drop an existing SQL database.
Syntax
DROP DATABASE databasename;
Note: Be careful before dropping a database. Deleting a database will result in
loss of complete information stored in the database!
DROP DATABASE Example
The following SQL statement drops the existing database "testDB":
Example
DROP DATABASE testDB;
Tip: Make sure you have admin privilege before dropping any database. Once a
database is dropped, you can check it in the list of databases with the following
Exercise:
Write the correct SQL statement to delete a database named testDB.
Submit Answer »
DROP DATABASE testDB
SQL BACKUP DATABASE for SQL

Server
The SQL BACKUP DATABASE Statement

The BACKUP DATABASE statement is used in SQL Server to create a full back up of
an existing SQL database.
Syntax
BACKUP DATABASE databasename
TO DISK = 'filepath';
The SQL BACKUP WITH DIFFERENTIAL
Statement
A differential back up only backs up the parts of the database that have
changed since the last full database backup.
Syntax
BACKUP DATABASE databasename
TO DISK = 'filepath'
WITH DIFFERENTIAL;
BACKUP DATABASE Example

The following SQL statement creates a full back up of the existing database
"testDB" to the D disk:
Example
BACKUP DATABASE testDB
TO DISK = 'D:\backups\testDB.bak';
Tip: Always back up the database to a different drive than the actual database.
Then, if you get a disk crash, you will not lose your backup file along with the
database.
BACKUP WITH DIFFERENTIAL Example

The following SQL statement creates a differential back up of the database
"testDB":
Example
TO DISK = 'D:\backups\testDB.bak'
WITH DIFFERENTIAL;
Tip: A differential back up reduces the back up time (since only the changes are
backed up).
SQL CREATE TABLE Statement
The SQL CREATE TABLE Statement

The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a new table in a database.
Syntax
CREATE TABLE table_name (
column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
....
);
The column parameters specify the names of the columns of the table.
The datatype parameter specifies the type of data the column can hold (e.g.
varchar, integer, date, etc.).
Tip: For an overview of the available data types, go to our complete Data Types
Reference.
SQL CREATE TABLE Example

The following example creates a table called "Persons" that contains five
columns: PersonID, LastName, FirstName, Address, and City:
Example
CREATE TABLE Persons (
PersonID int,
LastName varchar(255),
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
);
The PersonID column is of type int and will hold an integer.

The LastName, FirstName, Address, and City columns are of type varchar and
will hold characters, and the maximum length for these fields is 255 characters.
The empty "Persons" table will now look like this:
PersonID LastName FirstName Address City
Tip: The empty "Persons" table can now be filled with data with the
SQL INSERT INTO statement.
Create Table Using Another Table

A copy of an existing table can also be created using CREATE TABLE.
The new table gets the same column definitions. All columns or specific columns
can be selected.
If you create a new table using an existing table, the new table will be filled
with the existing values from the old table.
Syntax
CREATE TABLE new_table_name AS
SELECT column1, column2,...
FROM existing_table_name
WHERE ....;
The following SQL creates a new table called "TestTables" (which is a copy of
the "Customers" table):
Example
CREATE TABLE TestTable AS
SELECT customername, contactname
FROM customers;
Exercise:
Write the correct SQL statement to create a new table called Persons.
_____________ (
PersonID int,
City varchar(255)
);
Submit Answer »
SQL DROP TABLE Statement
The SQL DROP TABLE Statement

The DROP TABLE statement is used to drop an existing table in a database.
Syntax
DROP TABLE table_name;
Note: Be careful before dropping a table. Deleting a table will result in loss of
complete information stored in the table!
SQL DROP TABLE Example

The following SQL statement drops the existing table "Shippers":
Example
DROP TABLE Shippers;
SQL TRUNCATE TABLE

The TRUNCATE TABLE statement is used to delete the data inside a table, but not
the table itself.
Syntax
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

Exercise:
Write the correct SQL statement to delete a table called Persons.
_____________ Persons;
Submit Answer »

The ALTER TABLE statement is used to add, delete, or modify columns in an
existing table.
The ALTER TABLE statement is also used to add and drop various constraints on an
existing table.
ALTER TABLE - ADD Column

To add a column in a table, use the following syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD column_name datatype;
The following SQL adds an "Email" column to the "Customers" table:
Example
ALTER TABLE Customers
ADD Email varchar(255);
ALTER TABLE - DROP COLUMN

To delete a column in a table, use the following syntax (notice that some
database systems don't allow deleting a column):

DROP COLUMN column_name;
The following SQL deletes the "Email" column from the "Customers" table:
Example
DROP COLUMN Email;
ALTER TABLE - RENAME COLUMN

To rename a column in a table, use the following syntax:

RENAME COLUMN old_name to new_name;
To rename a column in a table in SQL Server, use the following syntax:
SQL Server:
EXEC sp_rename 'table_name.old_name', 'new_name', 'COLUMN';
ALTER TABLE - ALTER/MODIFY

DATATYPE
To change the data type of a column in a table, use the following syntax:
SQL Server / MS Access:

ALTER COLUMN column_name datatype;
My SQL / Oracle (prior version 10G):

MODIFY COLUMN column_name datatype;
Oracle 10G and later:

MODIFY column_name datatype;
SQL ALTER TABLE Example
Look at the "Persons" table:
ID LastName FirstName Address City
1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
Now we want to add a column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table.
We use the following SQL statement:
ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD DateOfBirth date;
Notice that the new column, "DateOfBirth", is of type date and is going to hold a
date. The data type specifies what type of data the column can hold. For a
complete reference of all the data types available in MS Access, MySQL, and
SQL Server, go to our complete Data Types reference.
The "Persons" table will now look like this:
ID LastName FirstName Address City DateOfBirth

Change Data Type Example

Now we want to change the data type of the column named "DateOfBirth" in the
"Persons" table.
ALTER TABLE Persons

ALTER COLUMN DateOfBirth year;
Notice that the "DateOfBirth" column is now of type year and is going to hold a
year in a two- or four-digit format.
DROP COLUMN Example

Next, we want to delete the column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table.
ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP COLUMN DateOfBirth;
The "Persons" table will now look like this:
ID LastName FirstName Address City


Exercise:
Add a column of type DATE called Birthday.
_____________ Persons
_____________;
Submit Answer »
SQL Constraints
SQL constraints are used to specify rules for data in a table.
SQL Create Constraints

Constraints can be specified when the table is created with the CREATE
TABLE statement, or after the table is created with the ALTER TABLE statement.
Syntax
CREATE TABLE table_name (
column1 datatype constraint,
....
);
SQL Constraints
SQL constraints are used to specify rules for the data in a table.
Constraints are used to limit the type of data that can go into a table. This
ensures the accuracy and reliability of the data in the table. If there is any
violation between the constraint and the data action, the action is aborted.
Constraints can be column level or table level. Column level constraints apply to
a column, and table level constraints apply to the whole table.
The following constraints are commonly used in SQL:
 NOT NULL - Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value

 UNIQUE - Ensures that all values in a column are different
 PRIMARY KEY - A combination of a NOT NULL and UNIQUE. Uniquely
identifies each row in a table
 FOREIGN KEY - Prevents actions that would destroy links between tables
 CHECK - Ensures that the values in a column satisfies a specific condition
 DEFAULT - Sets a default value for a column if no value is specified
 CREATE INDEX - Used to create and retrieve data from the database very
quickly

By default, a column can hold NULL values.
The NOT NULL constraint enforces a column to NOT accept NULL values.
This enforces a field to always contain a value, which means that you cannot
insert a new record, or update a record without adding a value to this field.
SQL NOT NULL on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL ensures that the "ID", "LastName", and "FirstName" columns
will NOT accept NULL values when the "Persons" table is created:
Example
ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
Age int
);
SQL NOT NULL on ALTER TABLE

To create a NOT NULL constraint on the "Age" column when the "Persons" table is
already created, use the following SQL:
SQL Server / MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Persons

ALTER COLUMN Age int NOT NULL;
My SQL / Oracle (prior version 10G):
ALTER TABLE Persons

MODIFY COLUMN Age int NOT NULL;
Oracle 10G and later:
ALTER TABLE Persons

MODIFY Age int NOT NULL;

The UNIQUE constraint ensures that all values in a column are different.
Both the UNIQUE and PRIMARY KEY constraints provide a guarantee for uniqueness
for a column or set of columns.
A PRIMARY KEY constraint automatically has a UNIQUE constraint.
However, you can have many UNIQUE constraints per table, but only one PRIMARY
KEY constraint per table.
SQL UNIQUE Constraint on CREATE

TABLE
The following SQL creates a UNIQUE constraint on the "ID" column when the
"Persons" table is created:
SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ID int NOT NULL UNIQUE,
Age int
);
MySQL:

ID int NOT NULL,
Age int,
UNIQUE (ID)
);
To name a UNIQUE constraint, and to define a UNIQUE constraint on multiple

columns, use the following SQL syntax:
MySQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ID int NOT NULL,
Age int,
CONSTRAINT UC_Person UNIQUE (ID,LastName)
);
SQL UNIQUE Constraint on ALTER TABLE

To create a UNIQUE constraint on the "ID" column when the table is already
created, use the following SQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD UNIQUE (ID);

ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD CONSTRAINT UC_Person UNIQUE (ID,LastName);
DROP a UNIQUE Constraint

To drop a UNIQUE constraint, use the following SQL:
MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP INDEX UC_Person;
ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP CONSTRAINT UC_Person;

The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a table.
Primary keys must contain UNIQUE values, and cannot contain NULL values.
A table can have only ONE primary key; and in the table, this primary key can
consist of single or multiple columns (fields).
SQL PRIMARY KEY on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a PRIMARY KEY on the "ID" column when the "Persons"
table is created:
MySQL:

ID int NOT NULL,
Age int,
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);

ID int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
Age int
);
To allow naming of a PRIMARY KEY constraint, and for defining a PRIMARY

KEY constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax:

ID int NOT NULL,
Age int,
CONSTRAINT PK_Person PRIMARY KEY (ID,LastName)
);
Note: In the example above there is only ONE PRIMARY KEY (PK_Person).
However, the VALUE of the primary key is made up of TWO COLUMNS (ID +
LastName).
SQL PRIMARY KEY on ALTER TABLE

To create a PRIMARY KEY constraint on the "ID" column when the table is already
ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD PRIMARY KEY (ID);
To allow naming of a PRIMARY KEY constraint, and for defining a PRIMARY

ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD CONSTRAINT PK_Person PRIMARY KEY (ID,LastName);
Note: If you use ALTER TABLE to add a primary key, the primary key column(s)
must have been declared to not contain NULL values (when the table was first
created).
DROP a PRIMARY KEY Constraint

To drop a PRIMARY KEY constraint, use the following SQL:
MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP PRIMARY KEY;
ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP CONSTRAINT PK_Person;

The FOREIGN KEY constraint is used to prevent actions that would destroy links
between tables.
A FOREIGN KEY is a field (or collection of fields) in one table, that refers to
the PRIMARY KEY in another table.
The table with the foreign key is called the child table, and the table with the
primary key is called the referenced or parent table.
Look at the following two tables:
Persons Table
PersonID LastName FirstName Age
1 Hansen Ola 30
2 Svendson Tove 23
3 Pettersen Kari 20
Orders Table
OrderID OrderNumber PersonID
1 77895 3
2 44678 3
3 22456 2
4 24562 1
Notice that the "PersonID" column in the "Orders" table points to the "PersonID"
column in the "Persons" table.
The "PersonID" column in the "Persons" table is the PRIMARY KEY in the "Persons"
table.
The "PersonID" column in the "Orders" table is a FOREIGN KEY in the "Orders"
table.
The FOREIGN KEY constraint prevents invalid data from being inserted into the
foreign key column, because it has to be one of the values contained in the
parent table.
SQL FOREIGN KEY on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a FOREIGN KEY on the "PersonID" column when the
"Orders" table is created:
MySQL:
CREATE TABLE Orders (

OrderID int NOT NULL,
OrderNumber int NOT NULL,
PersonID int,
PRIMARY KEY (OrderID),
FOREIGN KEY (PersonID) REFERENCES Persons(PersonID)
);

OrderID int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
PersonID int FOREIGN KEY REFERENCES Persons(PersonID)
);
To allow naming of a FOREIGN KEY constraint, and for defining a FOREIGN


PersonID int,
CONSTRAINT FK_PersonOrder FOREIGN KEY (PersonID)
REFERENCES Persons(PersonID)
);
SQL FOREIGN KEY on ALTER TABLE

To create a FOREIGN KEY constraint on the "PersonID" column when the "Orders"
table is already created, use the following SQL:
ALTER TABLE Orders

ADD FOREIGN KEY (PersonID) REFERENCES Persons(PersonID);
To allow naming of a FOREIGN KEY constraint, and for defining a FOREIGN

ALTER TABLE Orders

ADD CONSTRAINT FK_PersonOrder
FOREIGN KEY (PersonID) REFERENCES Persons(PersonID);
DROP a FOREIGN KEY Constraint

To drop a FOREIGN KEY constraint, use the following SQL:
MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Orders

DROP FOREIGN KEY FK_PersonOrder;
ALTER TABLE Orders

DROP CONSTRAINT FK_PersonOrder;

The CHECK constraint is used to limit the value range that can be placed in a
column.
If you define a CHECK constraint on a column it will allow only certain values for
this column.
If you define a CHECK constraint on a table it can limit the values in certain
columns based on values in other columns in the row.
SQL CHECK on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a CHECK constraint on the "Age" column when the
"Persons" table is created. The CHECK constraint ensures that the age of a person
must be 18, or older:
MySQL:

ID int NOT NULL,
Age int,
CHECK (Age>=18)
);

ID int NOT NULL,
Age int CHECK (Age>=18)
);
To allow naming of a CHECK constraint, and for defining a CHECK constraint on
multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax:

ID int NOT NULL,
Age int,
City varchar(255),
CONSTRAINT CHK_Person CHECK (Age>=18 AND City='Sandnes')
);
SQL CHECK on ALTER TABLE

To create a CHECK constraint on the "Age" column when the table is already
ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD CHECK (Age>=18);

ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD CONSTRAINT CHK_PersonAge CHECK (Age>=18 AND City='Sandnes');
DROP a CHECK Constraint

To drop a CHECK constraint, use the following SQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP CONSTRAINT CHK_PersonAge;
MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP CHECK CHK_PersonAge;

The DEFAULT constraint is used to set a default value for a column.
The default value will be added to all new records, if no other value is specified.
SQL DEFAULT on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL sets a DEFAULT value for the "City" column when the "Persons"
table is created:
My SQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

ID int NOT NULL,
Age int,
City varchar(255) DEFAULT 'Sandnes'
);
The DEFAULT constraint can also be used to insert system values, by using
functions like GETDATE():

ID int NOT NULL,
OrderDate date DEFAULT GETDATE()
);
SQL DEFAULT on ALTER TABLE
To create a DEFAULT constraint on the "City" column when the table is already
MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons

ALTER City SET DEFAULT 'Sandnes';
SQL Server:
ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD CONSTRAINT df_City
DEFAULT 'Sandnes' FOR City;
MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Persons

ALTER COLUMN City SET DEFAULT 'Sandnes';
Oracle:
ALTER TABLE Persons

MODIFY City DEFAULT 'Sandnes';
DROP a DEFAULT Constraint

To drop a DEFAULT constraint, use the following SQL:
MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons

ALTER City DROP DEFAULT;
ALTER TABLE Persons

ALTER COLUMN City DROP DEFAULT;
SQL Server:
ALTER TABLE Persons


The CREATE INDEX statement is used to create indexes in tables.
Indexes are used to retrieve data from the database more quickly than
otherwise. The users cannot see the indexes, they are just used to speed up
searches/queries.
Note: Updating a table with indexes takes more time than updating a table
without (because the indexes also need an update). So, only create indexes on
columns that will be frequently searched against.
CREATE INDEX Syntax

Creates an index on a table. Duplicate values are allowed:
CREATE INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column1, column2, ...);
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX Syntax

Creates a unique index on a table. Duplicate values are not allowed:
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column1, column2, ...);
Note: The syntax for creating indexes varies among different databases.
Therefore: Check the syntax for creating indexes in your database.
CREATE INDEX Example

The SQL statement below creates an index named "idx_lastname" on the
"LastName" column in the "Persons" table:
CREATE INDEX idx_lastname

ON Persons (LastName);
If you want to create an index on a combination of columns, you can list the
column names within the parentheses, separated by commas:
CREATE INDEX idx_pname
ON Persons (LastName, FirstName);
DROP INDEX Statement

The DROP INDEX statement is used to delete an index in a table.
MS Access:
DROP INDEX index_name ON table_name;
SQL Server:
DROP INDEX table_name.index_name;
DB2/Oracle:
DROP INDEX index_name;
MySQL:

SQL AUTO INCREMENT Field
AUTO INCREMENT Field

Auto-increment allows a unique number to be generated automatically when a
new record is inserted into a table.
Often this is the primary key field that we would like to be created automatically
every time a new record is inserted.
Syntax for MySQL
The following SQL statement defines the "Personid" column to be an auto-
increment primary key field in the "Persons" table:

Personid int NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
Age int,
PRIMARY KEY (Personid)
);
MySQL uses the AUTO_INCREMENT keyword to perform an auto-increment feature.
By default, the starting value for AUTO_INCREMENT is 1, and it will increment by 1

for each new record.
To let the AUTO_INCREMENT sequence start with another value, use the following
SQL statement:
ALTER TABLE Persons AUTO_INCREMENT=100;
To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we will NOT have to specify a
value for the "Personid" column (a unique value will be added automatically):
INSERT INTO Persons (FirstName,LastName)

VALUES ('Lars','Monsen');
The SQL statement above would insert a new record into the "Persons" table.
The "Personid" column would be assigned a unique value. The "FirstName"
column would be set to "Lars" and the "LastName" column would be set to
"Monsen".
Syntax for SQL Server


Personid int IDENTITY(1,1) PRIMARY KEY,
Age int
);
The MS SQL Server uses the IDENTITY keyword to perform an auto-increment
feature.
In the example above, the starting value for IDENTITY is 1, and it will increment
by 1 for each new record.
Tip: To specify that the "Personid" column should start at value 10 and
increment by 5, change it to IDENTITY(10,5).

"Monsen".
Syntax for Access


Personid AUTOINCREMENT PRIMARY KEY,
Age int
);
The MS Access uses the AUTOINCREMENT keyword to perform an auto-increment

feature.
By default, the starting value for AUTOINCREMENT is 1, and it will increment by 1 for
each new record.
Tip: To specify that the "Personid" column should start at value 10 and
increment by 5, change the autoincrement to AUTOINCREMENT(10,5).
"Monsen".
Syntax for Oracle

In Oracle the code is a little bit more tricky.
You will have to create an auto-increment field with the sequence object (this
object generates a number sequence).
Use the following CREATE SEQUENCE syntax:
CREATE SEQUENCE seq_person

MINVALUE 1
START WITH 1
INCREMENT BY 1
CACHE 10;
The code above creates a sequence object called seq_person, that starts with 1
and will increment by 1. It will also cache up to 10 values for performance. The
cache option specifies how many sequence values will be stored in memory for
faster access.
To insert a new record into the "Persons" table, we will have to use the nextval
function (this function retrieves the next value from seq_person sequence):
INSERT INTO Persons (Personid,FirstName,LastName)

VALUES (seq_person.nextval,'Lars','Monsen');
The "Personid" column would be assigned the next number from the seq_person
sequence. The "FirstName" column would be set to "Lars" and the "LastName"
column would be set to "Monsen".
SQL Working With Dates

SQL Dates
The most difficult part when working with dates is to be sure that the format of
the date you are trying to insert, matches the format of the date column in the
database.
As long as your data contains only the date portion, your queries will work as
expected. However, if a time portion is involved, it gets more complicated.
SQL Date Data Types

MySQL comes with the following data types for storing a date or a date/time
value in the database:
 DATE - format YYYY-MM-DD

 DATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MI:SS
 TIMESTAMP - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MI:SS
 YEAR - format YYYY or YY
SQL Server comes with the following data types for storing a date or a
date/time value in the database:
 DATE - format YYYY-MM-DD

 DATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MI:SS
 SMALLDATETIME - format: YYYY-MM-DD HH:MI:SS
 TIMESTAMP - format: a unique number
Note: The date types are chosen for a column when you create a new table in
your database!
SQL Working with Dates

Look at the following table:
Orders Table
OrderId ProductName OrderDate

1 Geitost 2008-11-11
2 Camembert Pierrot 2008-11-09
3 Mozzarella di Giovanni 2008-11-11
4 Mascarpone Fabioli 2008-10-29
Now we want to select the records with an OrderDate of "2008-11-11" from the
table above.
We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE OrderDate='2008-11-11'
The result-set will look like this:
1 Geitost 2008-11-11
3 Mozzarella di Giovanni 2008-11-11
Note: Two dates can easily be compared if there is no time component

involved!
Now, assume that the "Orders" table looks like this (notice the added time-
component in the "OrderDate" column):

1 Geitost 2008-11-11 13:23:44
2 Camembert Pierrot 2008-11-09 15:45:21
3 Mozzarella di Giovanni 2008-11-11 11:12:01
4 Mascarpone Fabioli 2008-10-29 14:56:59
If we use the same SELECT statement as above:
SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE OrderDate='2008-11-11'
we will get no result! This is because the query is looking only for dates with no
time portion.
Tip: To keep your queries simple and easy to maintain, do not use time-
components in your dates, unless you have to!
SQL Views
SQL CREATE VIEW Statement

In SQL, a view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement.
A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in a view are
fields from one or more real tables in the database.
You can add SQL statements and functions to a view and present the data as if
the data were coming from one single table.
A view is created with the CREATE VIEW statement.

CREATE VIEW Syntax
CREATE VIEW view_name AS
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Note: A view always shows up-to-date data! The database engine recreates the
view, every time a user queries it.
SQL CREATE VIEW Examples

The following SQL creates a view that shows all customers from Brazil:
Example
CREATE VIEW [Brazil Customers] AS
SELECT CustomerName, ContactName
FROM Customers
WHERE Country = 'Brazil';
We can query the view above as follows:
Example
SELECT * FROM [Brazil Customers];
The following SQL creates a view that selects every product in the "Products"
table with a price higher than the average price:
Example
CREATE VIEW [Products Above Average Price] AS
SELECT ProductName, Price
FROM Products
WHERE Price > (SELECT AVG(Price) FROM Products);
Example
SELECT * FROM [Products Above Average Price];
SQL Updating a View
A view can be updated with the CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW statement.
SQL CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW Syntax

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW view_name AS
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
The following SQL adds the "City" column to the "Brazil Customers" view:
Example
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW [Brazil Customers] AS
SELECT CustomerName, ContactName, City
FROM Customers
WHERE Country = 'Brazil';
SQL Dropping a View

A view is deleted with the DROP VIEW statement.
SQL DROP VIEW Syntax

DROP VIEW view_name;
The following SQL drops the "Brazil Customers" view:
Example
DROP VIEW [Brazil Customers];
SQL Injection
SQL Injection
SQL injection is a code injection technique that might destroy your database.
SQL injection is one of the most common web hacking techniques.
SQL injection is the placement of malicious code in SQL statements, via web
page input.
SQL in Web Pages

SQL injection usually occurs when you ask a user for input, like their
username/userid, and instead of a name/id, the user gives you an SQL
statement that you will unknowingly run on your database.
Look at the following example which creates a SELECT statement by adding a

variable (txtUserId) to a select string. The variable is fetched from user input
(getRequestString):
Example
txtUserId = getRequestString("UserId");
txtSQL = "SELECT * FROM Users WHERE UserId = " + txtUserId;
The rest of this chapter describes the potential dangers of using user input in
SQL statements.
SQL Injection Based on 1=1 is Always

True
Look at the example above again. The original purpose of the code was to
create an SQL statement to select a user, with a given user id.
If there is nothing to prevent a user from entering "wrong" input, the user can
enter some "smart" input like this:
105 OR 1=1
UserId:
Then, the SQL statement will look like this:
SELECT * FROM Users WHERE UserId = 105 OR 1=1;
The SQL above is valid and will return ALL rows from the "Users" table,
since OR 1=1 is always TRUE.
Does the example above look dangerous? What if the "Users" table contains
names and passwords?
The SQL statement above is much the same as this:
SELECT UserId, Name, Password FROM Users WHERE UserId = 105 or 1=1;
A hacker might get access to all the user names and passwords in a database,
by simply inserting 105 OR 1=1 into the input field.
SQL Injection Based on ""="" is Always

True
Here is an example of a user login on a web site:
Username:
John Doe
Password:
myPass
Example
uName = getRequestString("username");
uPass = getRequestString("userpassword");
sql = 'SELECT * FROM Users WHERE Name ="' + uName + '" AND Pass ="' +
uPass + '"'
Result
SELECT * FROM Users WHERE Name ="John Doe" AND Pass ="myPass"
A hacker might get access to user names and passwords in a database by

simply inserting " OR ""=" into the user name or password text box:
User Name:
Password:
The code at the server will create a valid SQL statement like this:
Result
SELECT * FROM Users WHERE Name ="" or ""="" AND Pass ="" or ""=""
The SQL above is valid and will return all rows from the "Users" table, since OR
""="" is always TRUE.
SQL Injection Based on Batched SQL

Statements
Most databases support batched SQL statement.
A batch of SQL statements is a group of two or more SQL statements,

separated by semicolons.
The SQL statement below will return all rows from the "Users" table, then delete
the "Suppliers" table.
Example
SELECT * FROM Users; DROP TABLE Suppliers
Look at the following example:
Example
txtSQL = "SELECT * FROM Users WHERE UserId = " + txtUserId;
And the following input:
105; DROP
User id:
The valid SQL statement would look like this:
Result
SELECT * FROM Users WHERE UserId = 105; DROP TABLE Suppliers;
Use SQL Parameters for Protection

To protect a web site from SQL injection, you can use SQL parameters.
SQL parameters are values that are added to an SQL query at execution time,
in a controlled manner.
ASP.NET Razor Example

txtSQL = "SELECT * FROM Users WHERE UserId = @0";
db.Execute(txtSQL,txtUserId);
Note that parameters are represented in the SQL statement by a @ marker.
The SQL engine checks each parameter to ensure that it is correct for its
column and are treated literally, and not as part of the SQL to be executed.
Another Example
txtNam = getRequestString("CustomerName");
txtAdd = getRequestString("Address");
txtCit = getRequestString("City");
txtSQL = "INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName,Address,City)
Values(@0,@1,@2)";
db.Execute(txtSQL,txtNam,txtAdd,txtCit);
Examples
The following examples shows how to build parameterized queries in some
common web languages.
SELECT STATEMENT IN ASP.NET:
sql = "SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE CustomerId = @0";
command = new SqlCommand(sql);
command.Parameters.AddWithValue("@0",txtUserId);
command.ExecuteReader();
INSERT INTO STATEMENT IN ASP.NET:
txtNam = getRequestString("CustomerName");
txtAdd = getRequestString("Address");
txtCit = getRequestString("City");
txtSQL = "INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName,Address,City)
Values(@0,@1,@2)";
command = new SqlCommand(txtSQL);
command.Parameters.AddWithValue("@0",txtNam);
command.Parameters.AddWithValue("@1",txtAdd);
command.Parameters.AddWithValue("@2",txtCit);
command.ExecuteNonQuery();
INSERT INTO STATEMENT IN PHP:
$stmt = $dbh->prepare("INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName,Address,City)

VALUES (:nam, :add, :cit)");
$stmt->bindParam(':nam', $txtNam);
$stmt->bindParam(':add', $txtAdd);
$stmt->bindParam(':cit', $txtCit);
$stmt->execute();
SQL Hosting
SQL Hosting
If you want your web site to be able to store and retrieve data from a database,
your web server should have access to a database-system that uses the SQL
language.
If your web server is hosted by an Internet Service Provider (ISP), you will have
to look for SQL hosting plans.
The most common SQL hosting databases are MS SQL Server, Oracle, MySQL,
and MS Access.
MS SQL Server
Microsoft's SQL Server is a popular database software for database-driven web
sites with high traffic.
SQL Server is a very powerful, robust and full featured SQL database system.
Oracle
Oracle is also a popular database software for database-driven web sites with
high traffic.
Oracle is a very powerful, robust and full featured SQL database system.
MySQL
MySQL is also a popular database software for web sites.
MySQL is a very powerful, robust and full featured SQL database system.
MySQL is an inexpensive alternative to the expensive Microsoft and Oracle

solutions.
MS Access
When a web site requires only a simple database, Microsoft Access can be a
solution.
MS Access is not well suited for very high-traffic, and not as powerful as MySQL,
SQL Server, or Oracle.
SQL Data Types for MySQL, SQL

Server, and MS Access
The data type of a column defines what value the column can hold: integer,
character, money, date and time, binary, and so on.
SQL Data Types

Each column in a database table is required to have a name and a data type.
An SQL developer must decide what type of data that will be stored inside each
column when creating a table. The data type is a guideline for SQL to
understand what type of data is expected inside of each column, and it also
identifies how SQL will interact with the stored data.
Note: Data types might have different names in different database. And even if
the name is the same, the size and other details may be different! Always
check the documentation!
MySQL Data Types (Version 8.0)
In MySQL there are three main data types: string, numeric, and date and time.
String Data Types
Data type Description
CHAR(size) A FIXED length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special
characters). The size parameter specifies the column length in
characters - can be from 0 to 255. Default is 1
VARCHAR(size) A VARIABLE length string (can contain letters, numbers, and

special characters). The size parameter specifies the maximum
string length in characters - can be from 0 to 65535
BINARY(size) Equal to CHAR(), but stores binary byte strings.

The size parameter specifies the column length in bytes. Default
is 1
VARBINARY(size) Equal to VARCHAR(), but stores binary byte strings.

The size parameter specifies the maximum column length in
bytes.
TINYBLOB For BLOBs (Binary Large Objects). Max length: 255 bytes
TINYTEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 255 characters
TEXT(size) Holds a string with a maximum length of 65,535 bytes

BLOB(size) For BLOBs (Binary Large Objects). Holds up to 65,535 bytes of
data
MEDIUMTEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 16,777,215 characters
MEDIUMBLOB For BLOBs (Binary Large Objects). Holds up to 16,777,215

bytes of data
LONGTEXT Holds a string with a maximum length of 4,294,967,295

characters
LONGBLOB For BLOBs (Binary Large Objects). Holds up to 4,294,967,295

bytes of data
ENUM(val1, val2, A string object that can have only one value, chosen from a list
val3, ...) of possible values. You can list up to 65535 values in an ENUM
list. If a value is inserted that is not in the list, a blank value will
be inserted. The values are sorted in the order you enter them
SET(val1, val2, val3, ...) A string object that can have 0 or more values, chosen from a list
of possible values. You can list up to 64 values in a SET list
Numeric Data Types
BIT(size) A bit-value type. The number of bits per value is specified

in size. The size parameter can hold a value from 1 to 64. The
default value for size is 1.
TINYINT(size) A very small integer. Signed range is from -128 to 127. Unsigned
range is from 0 to 255. The size parameter specifies the
maximum display width (which is 255)
BOOL Zero is considered as false, nonzero values are considered as

true.
BOOLEAN Equal to BOOL
SMALLINT(size) A small integer. Signed range is from -32768 to 32767. Unsigned

range is from 0 to 65535. The size parameter specifies the
MEDIUMINT(size) A medium integer. Signed range is from -8388608 to 8388607.

Unsigned range is from 0 to 16777215. The size parameter
specifies the maximum display width (which is 255)
INT(size) A medium integer. Signed range is from -2147483648 to

2147483647. Unsigned range is from 0 to 4294967295.
The size parameter specifies the maximum display width (which
is 255)
INTEGER(size) Equal to INT(size)
BIGINT(size) A large integer. Signed range is from -9223372036854775808 to

9223372036854775807. Unsigned range is from 0 to
18446744073709551615. The size parameter specifies the
FLOAT(size, d) A floating point number. The total number of digits is specified

in size. The number of digits after the decimal point is specified
in the d parameter. This syntax is deprecated in MySQL 8.0.17,
and it will be removed in future MySQL versions
FLOAT(p) A floating point number. MySQL uses the p value to determine
whether to use FLOAT or DOUBLE for the resulting data type.
If p is from 0 to 24, the data type becomes FLOAT(). If p is from
25 to 53, the data type becomes DOUBLE()
DOUBLE(size, d) A normal-size floating point number. The total number of digits

is specified in size. The number of digits after the decimal point
is specified in the d parameter
DOUBLE
PRECISION(size, d)
DECIMAL(size, d) An exact fixed-point number. The total number of digits is

specified in size. The number of digits after the decimal point is
specified in the d parameter. The maximum number for size is
65. The maximum number for d is 30. The default value
for size is 10. The default value for d is 0.
DEC(size, d) Equal to DECIMAL(size,d)
Note: All the numeric data types may have an extra option: UNSIGNED or
ZEROFILL. If you add the UNSIGNED option, MySQL disallows negative values
for the column. If you add the ZEROFILL option, MySQL automatically also adds
the UNSIGNED attribute to the column.
Date and Time Data Types
DATE A date. Format: YYYY-MM-DD. The supported range is

from '1000-01-01' to '9999-12-31'
DATETIME(fsp) A date and time combination. Format: YYYY-MM-DD

hh:mm:ss. The supported range is from '1000-01-01
00:00:00' to '9999-12-31 23:59:59'. Adding
DEFAULT and ON UPDATE in the column definition to
get automatic initialization and updating to the
current date and time
TIMESTAMP(fsp) A timestamp. TIMESTAMP values are stored as the

number of seconds since the Unix epoch ('1970-01-
01 00:00:00' UTC). Format: YYYY-MM-DD hh:mm:ss.
The supported range is from '1970-01-01 00:00:01'
UTC to '2038-01-09 03:14:07' UTC. Automatic
initialization and updating to the current date and
time can be specified using DEFAULT
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP and ON UPDATE
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP in the column definition
TIME(fsp) A time. Format: hh:mm:ss. The supported range is

from '-838:59:59' to '838:59:59'
YEAR A year in four-digit format. Values allowed in four-

digit format: 1901 to 2155, and 0000.
MySQL 8.0 does not support year in two-digit format.
SQL Server Data Types

String Data Types
Data type Description Max size Storage
char(n) Fixed width character 8,000 characters Defined width

string
varchar(n) Variable width 8,000 characters 2 bytes + number
character string of chars
varchar(max) Variable width 1,073,741,824 2 bytes + number

character string characters of chars
text Variable width 2GB of text data 4 bytes + number

character string of chars
nchar Fixed width Unicode 4,000 characters Defined width x 2

string
nvarchar Variable width 4,000 characters

Unicode string
nvarchar(max) Variable width 536,870,912

Unicode string characters
ntext Variable width 2GB of text data

Unicode string
binary(n) Fixed width binary 8,000 bytes

string
varbinary Variable width binary 8,000 bytes

string
varbinary(max) Variable width binary 2GB

string
image Variable width binary 2GB
string
Numeric Data Types
Data type Description Storage
bit Integer that can be 0, 1, or NULL
tinyint Allows whole numbers from 0 to 255 1 byte
smallint Allows whole numbers between -32,768 and 32,767 2 bytes
int Allows whole numbers between -2,147,483,648 and 4 bytes

2,147,483,647
bigint Allows whole numbers between -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 8 bytes

and 9,223,372,036,854,775,807
5-17
decimal(p,s) Fixed precision and scale numbers. bytes
Allows numbers from -10^38 +1 to 10^38 –1.
The p parameter indicates the maximum total number of digits that

can be stored (both to the left and to the right of the decimal point).
p must be a value from 1 to 38. Default is 18.
The s parameter indicates the maximum number of digits stored to

the right of the decimal point. s must be a value from 0 to p.
Default value is 0
numeric(p,s) Fixed precision and scale numbers. 5-17

bytes
Allows numbers from -10^38 +1 to 10^38 –1.
The p parameter indicates the maximum total number of digits that

can be stored (both to the left and to the right of the decimal point).
p must be a value from 1 to 38. Default is 18.
The s parameter indicates the maximum number of digits stored to

the right of the decimal point. s must be a value from 0 to p.
Default value is 0
smallmoney Monetary data from -214,748.3648 to 214,748.3647 4 bytes
money Monetary data from -922,337,203,685,477.5808 to 8 bytes

922,337,203,685,477.5807
float(n) Floating precision number data from -1.79E + 308 to 1.79E + 4 or 8

308. bytes
The n parameter indicates whether the field should hold 4 or 8

bytes. float(24) holds a 4-byte field and float(53) holds an 8-byte
field. Default value of n is 53.
real Floating precision number data from -3.40E + 38 to 3.40E + 38 4 bytes
Date and Time Data Types
datetime From January 1, 1753 to December 31, 9999 with an accuracy of 8 bytes
3.33 milliseconds
datetime2 From January 1, 0001 to December 31, 9999 with an accuracy of 6-8
100 nanoseconds bytes
smalldatetime From January 1, 1900 to June 6, 2079 with an accuracy of 1 4 bytes

minute
date Store a date only. From January 1, 0001 to December 31, 9999 3 bytes
time Store a time only to an accuracy of 100 nanoseconds 3-5
bytes
datetimeoffset The same as datetime2 with the addition of a time zone offset 8-10
bytes
timestamp Stores a unique number that gets updated every time a row gets
created or modified. The timestamp value is based upon an
internal clock and does not correspond to real time. Each table
may have only one timestamp variable
Other Data Types
sql_variant Stores up to 8,000 bytes of data of various data types,

except text, ntext, and timestamp
uniqueidentifier Stores a globally unique identifier (GUID)
xml Stores XML formatted data. Maximum 2GB
cursor Stores a reference to a cursor used for database operations
table Stores a result-set for later processing

MS Access Data Types
Text Use for text or combinations of text and numbers. 255 characters
maximum
Memo Memo is used for larger amounts of text. Stores up to 65,536

characters. Note: You cannot sort a memo field. However, they
are searchable
Byte Allows whole numbers from 0 to 255 1 byte
Integer Allows whole numbers between -32,768 and 32,767 2 bytes
Long Allows whole numbers between -2,147,483,648 and 4 bytes

2,147,483,647
Single Single precision floating-point. Will handle most decimals 4 bytes
Double Double precision floating-point. Will handle most decimals 8 bytes
Currency Use for currency. Holds up to 15 digits of whole dollars, plus 4 8 bytes
decimal places. Tip: You can choose which country's currency
to use
AutoNumber AutoNumber fields automatically give each record its own 4 bytes
number, usually starting at 1
Date/Time Use for dates and times 8 bytes
Yes/No A logical field can be displayed as Yes/No, True/False, or 1 bit

On/Off. In code, use the constants True and False (equivalent to
-1 and 0). Note: Null values are not allowed in Yes/No fields
Ole Object Can store pictures, audio, video, or other BLOBs (Binary Large up to
Objects) 1GB
Hyperlink Contain links to other files, including web pages
Lookup Let you type a list of options, which can then be chosen from a 4 bytes
Wizard drop-down list
SQL Keywords Reference
This SQL keywords reference contains the reserved words in SQL.
SQL Keywords
Keyword Description
ADD Adds a column in an existing table
ADD CONSTRAINT Adds a constraint after a table is already created

ALL Returns true if all of the subquery values meet the
condition
ALTER Adds, deletes, or modifies columns in a table, or

changes the data type of a column in a table
ALTER COLUMN Changes the data type of a column in a table
ALTER TABLE Adds, deletes, or modifies columns in a table
AND Only includes rows where both conditions is true
ANY Returns true if any of the subquery values meet the

condition
AS Renames a column or table with an alias
ASC Sorts the result set in ascending order
BACKUP DATABASE Creates a back up of an existing database
BETWEEN Selects values within a given range
CASE Creates different outputs based on conditions

CHECK A constraint that limits the value that can be placed
in a column
COLUMN Changes the data type of a column or deletes a

column in a table
CONSTRAINT Adds or deletes a constraint
CREATE Creates a database, index, view, table, or procedure
CREATE DATABASE Creates a new SQL database
CREATE INDEX Creates an index on a table (allows duplicate values)
CREATE OR Updates a view

REPLACE VIEW
CREATE TABLE Creates a new table in the database
CREATE PROCEDURE Creates a stored procedure
CREATE UNIQUE Creates a unique index on a table (no duplicate

INDEX values)
CREATE VIEW Creates a view based on the result set of a SELECT

statement
DATABASE Creates or deletes an SQL database
DEFAULT A constraint that provides a default value for a

column
DELETE Deletes rows from a table
DESC Sorts the result set in descending order
DISTINCT Selects only distinct (different) values
DROP Deletes a column, constraint, database, index, table,

or view
DROP COLUMN Deletes a column in a table
DROP CONSTRAINT Deletes a UNIQUE, PRIMARY KEY, FOREIGN KEY, or

CHECK constraint
DROP DATABASE Deletes an existing SQL database
DROP DEFAULT Deletes a DEFAULT constraint
DROP INDEX Deletes an index in a table
DROP TABLE Deletes an existing table in the database

DROP VIEW Deletes a view
EXEC Executes a stored procedure
EXISTS Tests for the existence of any record in a subquery
FOREIGN KEY A constraint that is a key used to link two tables

together
FROM Specifies which table to select or delete data from
FULL OUTER JOIN Returns all rows when there is a match in either left
table or right table
GROUP BY Groups the result set (used with aggregate functions:

COUNT, MAX, MIN, SUM, AVG)
HAVING Used instead of WHERE with aggregate functions
IN Allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE

clause
INDEX Creates or deletes an index in a table
INNER JOIN Returns rows that have matching values in both

tables
INSERT INTO Inserts new rows in a table
INSERT INTO Copies data from one table into another table
SELECT
IS NULL Tests for empty values
IS NOT NULL Tests for non-empty values
JOIN Joins tables
LEFT JOIN Returns all rows from the left table, and the matching
rows from the right table
LIKE Searches for a specified pattern in a column
LIMIT Specifies the number of records to return in the result

set
NOT Only includes rows where a condition is not true
NOT NULL A constraint that enforces a column to not accept

NULL values
OR Includes rows where either condition is true

ORDER BY Sorts the result set in ascending or descending order
OUTER JOIN Returns all rows when there is a match in either left
table or right table
PRIMARY KEY A constraint that uniquely identifies each record in a

database table
PROCEDURE A stored procedure
RIGHT JOIN Returns all rows from the right table, and the
matching rows from the left table
ROWNUM Specifies the number of records to return in the result

set
SELECT Selects data from a database
SELECT DISTINCT Selects only distinct (different) values
SELECT INTO Copies data from one table into a new table
SELECT TOP Specifies the number of records to return in the result

set
SET Specifies which columns and values that should be

updated in a table
TABLE Creates a table, or adds, deletes, or modifies columns
in a table, or deletes a table or data inside a table
TOP Specifies the number of records to return in the result

set
TRUNCATE TABLE Deletes the data inside a table, but not the table itself
UNION Combines the result set of two or more SELECT

statements (only distinct values)
UNION ALL Combines the result set of two or more SELECT

statements (allows duplicate values)
UNIQUE A constraint that ensures that all values in a column

are unique
UPDATE Updates existing rows in a table
VALUES Specifies the values of an INSERT INTO statement
VIEW Creates, updates, or deletes a view
WHERE Filters a result set to include only records that fulfill a

specified condition
SQL ADD Keyword

❮ SQL Keywords ReferenceNext ❯
ADD
The ADD command is used to add a column in an existing table.
Example
Add an "Email" column to the "Customers" table:

SQL ADD CONSTRAINT Keyword
ADD CONSTRAINT
The ADD CONSTRAINT command is used to create a constraint after a table is
already created.
The following SQL adds a constraint named "PK_Person" that is a PRIMARY KEY
constraint on multiple columns (ID and LastName):
Example
ALTER TABLE Persons
SQL ALL Keyword

ALL
The ALL command returns true if all of the subquery values meet the condition.
The following SQL statement returns TRUE and lists the productnames if ALL the
records in the OrderDetails table has quantity = 10:
Example
SELECT ProductName
FROM Products
WHERE ProductID = ALL (SELECT ProductID FROM OrderDetails WHERE Quantity
= 10);
SQL ALTER Keyword
ALTER TABLE
The ALTER TABLE command adds, deletes, or modifies columns in a table.
The ALTER TABLE command also adds and deletes various constraints in a table.
Example
Example
DROP COLUMN Email;
ALTER COLUMN
The ALTER COLUMN command is used to change the data type of a column in a
table.
The following SQL changes the data type of the column named "BirthDate" in
the "Employees" table to type year:
Example
ALTER TABLE Employees
ALTER COLUMN BirthDate year;
SQL ALTER COLUMN Keyword
ALTER COLUMN
table.
Example
SQL ALTER TABLE Keyword
ALTER TABLE
Example
Example
DROP COLUMN Email;
SQL AND Keyword
AND
The AND command is used with WHERE to only include rows where both
conditions is true.
The following SQL statement selects all fields from "Customers" where country
is "Germany" AND city is "Berlin":
Example
WHERE Country='Germany' AND City='Berlin';
SQL ANY Keyword
ANY
The ANY command returns true if any of the subquery values meet the
condition.
The following SQL statement returns TRUE and lists the productnames if it finds
ANY records in the OrderDetails table where quantity = 10:
Example
SELECT ProductName
FROM Products
WHERE ProductID = ANY (SELECT ProductID FROM OrderDetails WHERE Quantity
= 10);
The following SQL statement returns TRUE and lists the productnames if it finds
ANY records in the OrderDetails table where quantity > 99:
Example
SELECT ProductName
FROM Products
WHERE ProductID = ANY (SELECT ProductID FROM OrderDetails WHERE Quantity
> 99);
SQL AS Keyword
AS
The AS command is used to rename a column or table with an alias.
An alias only exists for the duration of the query.
Alias for Columns

The following SQL statement creates two aliases, one for the CustomerID
column and one for the CustomerName column:
Example
SELECT CustomerID AS ID, CustomerName AS Customer
FROM Customers;
The following SQL statement creates two aliases. Notice that it requires double
quotation marks or square brackets if the alias name contains spaces:
Example
SELECT CustomerName AS Customer, ContactName AS [Contact Person]
FROM Customers;
The following SQL statement creates an alias named "Address" that combine
four columns (Address, PostalCode, City and Country):
Example
SELECT CustomerName, Address + ', ' + PostalCode + ' ' + City + ', ' +
Country AS Address
FROM Customers;
Note: To get the SQL statement above to work in MySQL use the following:
SELECT CustomerName, CONCAT(Address,', ',PostalCode,', ',City,',

',Country) AS Address
FROM Customers;
Alias for Tables

The following SQL statement selects all the orders from the customer with
CustomerID=4 (Around the Horn). We use the "Customers" and "Orders"
tables, and give them the table aliases of "c" and "o" respectively (Here we use
aliases to make the SQL shorter):
Example
SELECT o.OrderID, o.OrderDate, c.CustomerName
FROM Customers AS c, Orders AS o
WHERE c.CustomerName="Around the Horn" AND c.CustomerID=o.CustomerID;
SQL ASC Keyword
ASC
The ASC command is used to sort the data returned in ascending order.
The following SQL statement selects all the columns from the "Customers"
table, sorted by the "CustomerName" column:
Example
ORDER BY CustomerName ASC;
SQL BACKUP DATABASE Keyword
BACKUP DATABASE
The BACKUP DATABASE command is used in SQL Server to create a full back up of
an existing SQL database.
The following SQL statement creates a full back up of the existing database
"testDB" to the D disk:
Example
TO DISK = 'D:\backups\testDB.bak';
Tip: Always back up the database to a different drive than the actual database.
If you get a disk crash, you will not lose your backup file along with the
database.
A differential back up only backs up the parts of the database that have
changed since the last full database backup.
The following SQL statement creates a differential back up of the database

"testDB":
Example
TO DISK = 'D:\backups\testDB.bak'
WITH DIFFERENTIAL;
Tip: A differential back up reduces the back up time (since only the changes are
backed up).
SQL BETWEEN Keyword

BETWEEN
The BETWEEN command is used to select values within a given range. The values
can be numbers, text, or dates.
The BETWEEN command is inclusive: begin and end values are included.
The following SQL statement selects all products with a price BETWEEN 10 and
20:
Example
WHERE Price BETWEEN 10 AND 20;
To display the products outside the range of the previous example, use NOT
BETWEEN:
Example
WHERE Price NOT BETWEEN 10 AND 20;
The following SQL statement selects all products with a ProductName BETWEEN
'Carnarvon Tigers' and 'Mozzarella di Giovanni':
Example
WHERE ProductName BETWEEN 'Carnarvon Tigers' AND 'Mozzarella di Giovanni'
SQL CASE Keyword
CASE
The CASE command is used is to create different output based on conditions.
The following SQL goes through several conditions and returns a value when the
specified condition is met:
Example
SELECT OrderID, Quantity,
CASE
WHEN Quantity > 30 THEN 'The quantity is greater than 30'
WHEN Quantity = 30 THEN 'The quantity is 30'
ELSE 'The quantity is under 30'
END
FROM OrderDetails;
The following SQL will order the customers by City. However, if City is NULL,
then order by Country:
Example
SELECT CustomerName, City, Country
FROM Customers
ORDER BY
(CASE
WHEN City IS NULL THEN Country
ELSE City
END);
SQL CHECK Keyword
CHECK
The CHECK constraint limits the value that can be placed in a column.
SQL CHECK on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a CHECK constraint on the "Age" column when the
"Persons" table is created. The CHECK constraint ensures that you can not have
any person below 18 years:
MySQL:

Age int,
CHECK (Age>=18)
);

Age int CHECK (Age>=18)
);


Age int,
City varchar(255),
CONSTRAINT CHK_Person CHECK (Age>=18 AND City='Sandnes')
);
SQL CHECK on ALTER TABLE

To create a CHECK constraint on the "Age" column when the table is already
ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD CHECK (Age>=18);

ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD CONSTRAINT CHK_PersonAge CHECK (Age>=18 AND City='Sandnes');

ALTER TABLE Persons

MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons
SQL COLUMN Keyword
ALTER COLUMN
table.
Example
DROP COLUMN
The DROP COLUMN command is used to delete a column in an existing table.
The following SQL deletes the "ContactName" column from the "Customers"
table:
Example
DROP COLUMN ContactName;
SQL CONSTRAINT Keyword

ADD CONSTRAINT
The ADD CONSTRAINT command is used to create a constraint after a table is
already created.
The following SQL adds a constraint named "PK_Person" that is a PRIMARY KEY
constraint on multiple columns (ID and LastName):
Example
ALTER TABLE Persons
DROP CONSTRAINT
The DROP CONSTRAINT command is used to delete a UNIQUE, PRIMARY KEY,
FOREIGN KEY, or CHECK constraint.

ALTER TABLE Persons

MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons


ALTER TABLE Persons

MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP PRIMARY KEY;

ALTER TABLE Orders

MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Orders


ALTER TABLE Persons

MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons

SQL CREATE Keyword
CREATE DATABASE
The CREATE DATABASE command is used is to create a new SQL database.
The following SQL creates a database called "testDB":
Example
CREATE TABLE
The CREATE TABLE command creates a new table in the database.
The following SQL creates a table called "Persons" that contains five columns:
PersonID, LastName, FirstName, Address, and City:
Example
PersonID int,
City varchar(255)
);
CREATE TABLE Using Another Table

two columns of the "Customers" table):
Example
FROM customers;
CREATE INDEX
The CREATE INDEX command is used to create indexes in tables (allows duplicate
values).
Indexes are used to retrieve data from the database very fast. The users cannot
see the indexes, they are just used to speed up searches/queries.
The following SQL creates an index named "idx_lastname" on the "LastName"

column in the "Persons" table:


CREATE UNIQUE INDEX

The CREATE UNIQUE INDEX command creates a unique index on a table (no
duplicate values allowed)
The following SQL creates an index named "uidx_pid" on the "PersonID" column
in the "Persons" table:
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX uidx_pid

ON Persons (PersonID);
CREATE VIEW
The CREATE VIEW command creates a view.
A view is a virtual table based on the result set of an SQL statement.

The following SQL creates a view that selects all customers from Brazil:
Example
FROM Customers
WHERE Country = "Brazil";
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW

The CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW command updates a view.
Example
FROM Customers
Query The View

Example
CREATE PROCEDURE
The CREATE PROCEDURE command is used to create a stored procedure.
The following SQL creates a stored procedure named "SelectAllCustomers" that

selects all records from the "Customers" table:
Example
AS
GO;
Example
SQL CREATE DATABASE Keyword
CREATE DATABASE
Example
SQL CREATE INDEX Keyword
CREATE INDEX
values).



SQL CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW

Keyword

Example
FROM Customers
Query The View
Example
SQL CREATE TABLE Keyword
CREATE TABLE
Example
PersonID int,
City varchar(255)
);

two columns of the "Customers" table):
Example
FROM customers;
SQL CREATE PROCEDURE
Keyword
CREATE PROCEDURE

Example
AS
GO;
Example
SQL CREATE UNIQUE INDEX

Keyword
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX

The CREATE UNIQUE INDEX command creates a unique index on a table (no
duplicate values allowed)
The following SQL creates an index named "uidx_pid" on the "PersonID" column
in the "Persons" table:
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX uidx_pid

ON Persons (PersonID);
SQL CREATE VIEW Keyword
CREATE VIEW
A view is a virtual table based on the result set of an SQL statement.
Example
FROM Customers
Query The View

Example
SQL DATABASE Keyword
CREATE DATABASE
Example
DROP DATABASE
The DROP DATABASE command is used is to delete an existing SQL database.
The following SQL drops a database named "testDB":
Example

SQL DEFAULT Keyword

DEFAULT
The DEFAULT constraint provides a default value for a column.
The default value will be added to all new records if no other value is specified.
SQL DEFAULT on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL sets a DEFAULT value for the "City" column when the
My SQL / SQL Server / Oracle / MS Access:

City varchar(255) DEFAULT 'Sandnes'
);
The DEFAULT constraint can also be used to insert system values, by using
functions like GETDATE():

OrderDate date DEFAULT GETDATE()
);
SQL DEFAULT on ALTER TABLE

To create a DEFAULT constraint on the "City" column when the table is already
MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons

ALTER City SET DEFAULT 'Sandnes';
SQL Server:
ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD CONSTRAINT df_City
DEFAULT 'Sandnes' FOR City;
MS Access:
ALTER TABLE Persons

ALTER COLUMN City SET DEFAULT 'Sandnes';
Oracle:
ALTER TABLE Persons

MODIFY City DEFAULT 'Sandnes';
DROP a DEFAULT Constraint

MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons

ALTER TABLE Persons

SQL DELETE Keyword
DELETE
The DELETE command is used to delete existing records in a table.
"Customers" table:
Example
DELETE FROM Customers WHERE CustomerName='Alfreds Futterkiste';
Note: Be careful when deleting records in a table! Notice the WHERE clause in
the DELETE statement. The WHERE clause specifies which record(s) should be
deleted. If you omit the WHERE clause, all records in the table will be deleted!
It is possible to delete all rows in a table without deleting the table. This means
that the table structure, attributes, and indexes will be intact:
The following SQL statement deletes all rows in the "Customers" table, without
deleting the table. This means that the table structure, attributes, and indexes
will be intact:
Example
DELETE FROM Customers;
SQL DESC Keyword
DESC
The DESC command is used to sort the data returned in descending order.
table, sorted descending by the "CustomerName" column:
Example
SELECT DISTINCT
The SELECT DISTINCT command returns only distinct (different) values in the
result set.
The following SQL statement selects only the DISTINCT values from the
"Country" column in the "Customers" table:
Example
SQL DROP Keyword

DROP COLUMN
table:
Example

ALTER TABLE Persons

MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons


ALTER TABLE Persons

MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP PRIMARY KEY;
ALTER TABLE Orders

MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Orders


ALTER TABLE Persons

MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP DEFAULT
The DROP DEFAULT command is used to delete a DEFAULT constraint.
ALTER TABLE Persons

MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP INDEX
The DROP INDEX command is used to delete an index in a table.
MS Access:
SQL Server:
DB2/Oracle:
MySQL:

DROP DATABASE
The DROP DATABASE command is used is to delete an existing SQL database.
Example

DROP TABLE
The DROP TABLE command deletes a table in the database.
The following SQL deletes the table "Shippers":

Example
Note: Be careful before deleting a table. Deleting a table results in loss of all
information stored in the table!
DROP VIEW
The DROP VIEW command deletes a view.
Example
SQL DROP COLUMN Keyword
DROP COLUMN
table:
Example
SQL DROP CONSTRAINT

Keyword
DROP CONSTRAINT
The DROP CONSTRAINT command is used to delete a UNIQUE, PRIMARY KEY,
FOREIGN KEY, or CHECK constraint.

ALTER TABLE Persons

MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons


ALTER TABLE Persons

MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP PRIMARY KEY;


ALTER TABLE Orders
MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Orders


ALTER TABLE Persons

MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons

SQL DROP DATABASE Keyword
DROP DATABASE
The DROP DATABASE command is used to delete an existing SQL database.
Example

SQL DROP DEFAULT Keyword
DROP DEFAULT
The DROP DEFAULT command is used to delete a DEFAULT constraint.
ALTER TABLE Persons

MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons

SQL DROP INDEX Keyword
DROP INDEX
MS Access:
SQL Server:
DB2/Oracle:
MySQL:
SQL DROP TABLE and TRUNCATE

TABLE Keywords
DROP TABLE
Example
TRUNCATE TABLE
The TRUNCATE TABLE command deletes the data inside a table, but not the table
itself.
The following SQL truncates the table "Categories":
Example
TRUNCATE TABLE Categories;
SQL DROP VIEW Keyword

DROP VIEW
Example
SQL EXEC Keyword
EXEC
The EXEC command is used to execute a stored procedure.
The following SQL executes a stored procedure named "SelectAllCustomers":
Example
SQL EXISTS Keyword
EXISTS
The EXISTS command tests for the existence of any record in a subquery, and
returns true if the subquery returns one or more records.
The following SQL lists the suppliers with a product price less than 20:
Example
SELECT SupplierName
FROM Suppliers
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT ProductName FROM Products WHERE SupplierId =
Suppliers.supplierId AND Price < 20);
The following SQL lists the suppliers with a product price equal to 22:
Example
SELECT SupplierName
FROM Suppliers
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT ProductName FROM Products WHERE SupplierId =
Suppliers.supplierId AND Price = 22);
SQL FOREIGN KEY Keyword
FOREIGN KEY
The FOREIGN KEY constraint is a key used to link two tables together.
A FOREIGN KEY is a field (or collection of fields) in one table that refers to the
PRIMARY KEY in another table.
SQL FOREIGN KEY on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a FOREIGN KEY on the "PersonID" column when the
"Orders" table is created:
MySQL:

PersonID int,
FOREIGN KEY (PersonID) REFERENCES Persons(PersonID)
);

OrderID int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
PersonID int FOREIGN KEY REFERENCES Persons(PersonID)
);
To allow naming of a FOREIGN KEY constraint, and for defining a FOREIGN KEY
constraint on multiple columns, use the following SQL syntax:

PersonID int,
CONSTRAINT FK_PersonOrder FOREIGN KEY (PersonID)
REFERENCES Persons(PersonID)
);
SQL FOREIGN KEY on ALTER TABLE

To create a FOREIGN KEY constraint on the "PersonID" column when the
"Orders" table is already created, use the following SQL:
ALTER TABLE Orders

ADD FOREIGN KEY (PersonID) REFERENCES Persons(PersonID);
To allow naming of a FOREIGN KEY constraint, and for defining a FOREIGN KEY
ALTER TABLE Orders

ADD CONSTRAINT FK_PersonOrder
FOREIGN KEY (PersonID) REFERENCES Persons(PersonID);

MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Orders

ALTER TABLE Orders

SQL FROM Keyword
FROM
The FROM command is used to specify which table to select or delete data from.
The following SQL statement selects the "CustomerName" and "City" columns
from the "Customers" table:
Example
table:
Example
"Customers" table:
Example
DELETE FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerName='Alfreds Futterkiste';

FULL OUTER JOIN
The FULL OUTER JOIN command returns all rows when there is a match in either
left table or right table.

FROM Customers
Note: The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword returns all the rows from the left table
(Customers), and all the rows from the right table (Orders). If there are rows in
"Customers" that do not have matches in "Orders", or if there are rows in
"Orders" that do not have matches in "Customers", those rows will be listed as
well.
SQL GROUP BY Keyword
GROUP BY
The GROUP BY command is used to group the result set (used with aggregate
functions: COUNT, MAX, MIN, SUM, AVG).
The following SQL lists the number of customers in each country:
Example
FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country;
The following SQL lists the number of customers in each country, sorted high to
low:
Example
FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country
SQL HAVING Keyword
HAVING
The HAVING command is used instead of WHERE with aggregate functions.
The following SQL lists the number of customers in each country. Only include
countries with more than 5 customers:
Example
FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country
HAVING COUNT(CustomerID) > 5;
The following SQL lists the number of customers in each country, sorted high to
low (Only include countries with more than 5 customers):
Example
FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country
HAVING COUNT(CustomerID) > 5
SQL IN Keyword
IN
The IN command allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause.
The IN operator is a shorthand for multiple OR conditions.

The following SQL selects all customers that are located in "Germany", "France"
and "UK":
Example
WHERE Country IN ('Germany', 'France', 'UK');
The following SQL selects all customers that are NOT located in "Germany",
"France" or "UK":
Example
WHERE Country NOT IN ('Germany', 'France', 'UK');
The following SQL selects all customers that are from the same countries as the
suppliers:
Example
WHERE Country IN (SELECT Country FROM Suppliers);
SQL INDEX Keyword
CREATE INDEX
values).


DROP INDEX
MS Access:
SQL Server:
DB2/Oracle:
MySQL:

SQL INNER JOIN Keyword
INNER JOIN
The INNER JOIN command returns rows that have matching values in both
tables.
The following SQL selects all orders with customer information:

Example
SELECT Orders.OrderID, Customers.CustomerName
FROM Orders
INNER JOIN Customers ON Orders.CustomerID = Customers.CustomerID;
Note: The INNER JOIN keyword selects all rows from both tables as long as
there is a match between the columns. If there are records in the "Orders" table
that do not have matches in "Customers", these orders will not be shown!
information:
Example
FROM ((Orders
SQL INSERT INTO Keyword
INSERT INTO
The INSERT INTO command is used to insert new rows in a table.
The following SQL inserts a new record in the "Customers" table:
Example
The following SQL will insert a new record, but only insert data in the
automatically):
Example
SQL INSERT INTO SELECT
Keyword
INSERT INTO SELECT

The INSERT INTO SELECT command copies data from one table and inserts it
into another table.
The following SQL copies "Suppliers" into "Customers" (the columns that are not
filled with data, will contain NULL):
Example
SELECT SupplierName, City, Country FROM Suppliers;
The following SQL copies "Suppliers" into "Customers" (fill all columns):
Example
SELECT SupplierName, ContactName, Address, City,
PostalCode, Country FROM Suppliers;
The following SQL copies only the German suppliers into "Customers":
Example
SELECT SupplierName, City, Country FROM Suppliers
SQL IS NULL Keyword

IS NULL
The IS NULL command is used to test for empty values (NULL values).
The following SQL lists all customers with a NULL value in the "Address" field:
Example
FROM Customers
WHERE Address IS NULL;
Note: A NULL value is different from a zero value or a field that contains
spaces. A field with a NULL value is one that has been left blank during record
creation!
Tip: Always use IS NULL to look for NULL values.
SQL IS NOT NULL Keyword
IS NOT NULL
The IS NOT NULL command is used to test for non-empty values (NOT NULL
values).
The following SQL lists all customers with a value in the "Address" field:
Example
FROM Customers
WHERE Address IS NOT NULL;
SQL JOIN Keyword

INNER JOIN
The INNER JOIN command returns rows that have matching values in both
tables.
The following SQL selects all orders with customer information:
Example
SELECT Orders.OrderID, Customers.CustomerName
FROM Orders
INNER JOIN Customers ON Orders.CustomerID = Customers.CustomerID;
Note: The INNER JOIN keyword selects all rows from both tables as long as
there is a match between the columns. If there are records in the "Orders" table
that do not have matches in "Customers", these orders will not be shown!
information:
Example
FROM ((Orders
LEFT JOIN
The LEFT JOIN command returns all rows from the left table, and the matching
rows from the right table. The result is NULL from the right side, if there is no
match.
The following SQL will select all customers, and any orders they might have:
Example
FROM Customers
Note: The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all records from the left table
(Customers), even if there are no matches in the right table (Orders).
RIGHT JOIN
The RIGHT JOIN command returns all rows from the right table, and the
matching records from the left table. The result is NULL from the left side, when
there is no match.
The following SQL will return all employees, and any orders they might have
placed:
Example
FROM Orders
FULL OUTER JOIN


FROM Customers
well.

LEFT JOIN
The LEFT JOIN command returns all rows from the left table, and the matching
rows from the right table. The result is NULL from the right side, if there is no
match.
The following SQL will select all customers, and any orders they might have:
Example
FROM Customers
Note: The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all records from the left table
(Customers), even if there are no matches in the right table (Orders).
SQL LIKE Keyword
LIKE
The LIKE command is used in a WHERE clause to search for a specified pattern
in a column.
You can use two wildcards with LIKE:
 % - Represents zero, one, or multiple characters

 _ - Represents a single character (MS Access uses a question mark (?)
instead)
The following SQL selects all customers with a CustomerName starting with "a":
Example
The following SQL selects all customers with a CustomerName ending with "a":
Example
WHERE CustomerName LIKE '%a';
The following SQL selects all customers with a CustomerName that have "or" in
any position:
Example
WHERE CustomerName LIKE '%or%';
The following SQL statement selects all customers with a CustomerName that
starts with "a" and are at least 3 characters in length:
Example
SQL SELECT TOP, LIMIT and

ROWNUM Keywords
SELECT TOP, LIMIT and ROWNUM

The LIMIT, SELECT TOP or ROWNUM command is used to specify the number of
records to return.
Note: SQL Server uses SELECT TOP. MySQL uses LIMIT, and Oracle
uses ROWNUM.
"Customers" table (SQL SERVER):
Example
The following SQL statement shows the equivalent example using the LIMIT
clause (MySQL):
Example
LIMIT 3;
The following SQL statement shows the equivalent example using ROWNUM
(Oracle):
Example
WHERE ROWNUM <= 3;

ROWNUM Keywords

records to return.
uses ROWNUM.
Example
clause (MySQL):
Example
LIMIT 3;
(Oracle):
Example
WHERE ROWNUM <= 3;
SQL NOT NULL Keyword
NOT NULL
The NOT NULL constraint enforces a column to not accept NULL values, which
means that you cannot insert or update a record without adding a value to this
field.
The following SQL ensures that the "ID", "LastName", and "FirstName" columns
will NOT accept NULL values:
Example
ID int NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
Age int
);
The following SQL creates a NOT NULL constraint on the "Age" column when the
"Persons" table is already created:
ALTER TABLE Persons

MODIFY Age int NOT NULL;
SQL OR Keyword
OR
The OR command is used with WHERE to include rows where either condition is
true.
The following SQL statement selects all fields from "Customers" where city is
"Berlin" OR city is "München":
Example
WHERE City='Berlin' OR City='München';
ORDER BY
The ORDER BY command is used to sort the result set in ascending or descending
order.
The ORDER BY command sorts the result set in ascending order by default. To
sort the records in descending order, use the DESC keyword.
Example
ORDER BY CustomerName;
ASC
The ASC command is used to sort the data returned in ascending order.
Example
ORDER BY CustomerName ASC;
DESC
The DESC command is used to sort the data returned in descending order.
table, sorted descending by the "CustomerName" column:
Example
FULL OUTER JOIN


FROM Customers
well.
SQL PRIMARY KEY Keyword
PRIMARY KEY
The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a table.
A table can have only one primary key, which may consist of one single or of
multiple fields.
SQL PRIMARY KEY on CREATE TABLE

The following SQL creates a PRIMARY KEY on the "ID" column when the
MySQL:

ID int NOT NULL,
Age int,
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);

ID int NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
Age int
);
To allow naming of a PRIMARY KEY constraint, and for defining a PRIMARY KEY

ID int NOT NULL,
Age int,
CONSTRAINT PK_Person PRIMARY KEY (ID,LastName)
);
Note: In the example above there is only ONE PRIMARY KEY (PK_Person).
However, the VALUE of the primary key is made up of TWO COLUMNS (ID +
LastName).
SQL PRIMARY KEY on ALTER TABLE

To create a PRIMARY KEY constraint on the "ID" column when the table is
already created, use the following SQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD PRIMARY KEY (ID);
To allow naming of a PRIMARY KEY constraint, and for defining a PRIMARY KEY
ALTER TABLE Persons

Note: If you use the ALTER TABLE statement to add a primary key, the primary
key column(s) must already have been declared to not contain NULL values
(when the table was first created).

MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons

DROP PRIMARY KEY;
ALTER TABLE Persons

SQL CREATE PROCEDURE
Keyword
CREATE PROCEDURE

Example
AS
GO;
Example
RIGHT JOIN
The RIGHT JOIN command returns all rows from the right table, and the
matching records from the left table. The result is NULL from the left side, when
there is no match.
The following SQL will return all employees, and any orders they might have
placed:
Example
FROM Orders

ROWNUM Keywords

records to return.
uses ROWNUM.
Example
clause (MySQL):
Example
LIMIT 3;
(Oracle):
Example
WHERE ROWNUM <= 3;
SQL SELECT Keyword
SELECT
The SELECT command is used to select data from a database. The data returned
is stored in a result table, called the result set.
The following SQL statement selects the "CustomerName" and "City" columns
from the "Customers" table:
Example
table:
Example
SELECT DISTINCT
The SELECT DISTINCT command returns only distinct (different) values in the
result set.
The following SQL statement selects only the DISTINCT values from the
"Country" column in the "Customers" table:
Example
SQL SELECT INTO Keyword
SELECT INTO
The SELECT INTO command copies data from one table and inserts it into a new
table.
The following SQL statement creates a backup copy of Customers:
SELECT * INTO CustomersBackup2017

FROM Customers;
The following SQL statement uses the IN clause to copy the table into a new
table in another database:
SELECT * INTO CustomersBackup2017 IN 'Backup.mdb'

FROM Customers;
The following SQL statement copies only a few columns into a new table:
SELECT CustomerName, ContactName INTO CustomersBackup2017

FROM Customers;
The following SQL statement copies only the German customers into a new
table:
SELECT * INTO CustomersGermany

FROM Customers
WHERE Country = 'Germany';
The following SQL statement copies data from more than one table into a new
table:

INTO CustomersOrderBackup2017
FROM Customers
LEFT JOIN Orders ON Customers.CustomerID = Orders.CustomerID;
ROWNUM Keywords

records to return.
uses ROWNUM.
Example
clause (MySQL):
Example
LIMIT 3;
(Oracle):
Example
WHERE ROWNUM <= 3;
SQL SET Keyword

SET
The SET command is used with UPDATE to specify which columns and values
that should be updated in a table.
The following SQL updates the first customer (CustomerID = 1) with a new
ContactName and a new City:
Example
UPDATE Customers
The following SQL will update the "ContactName" field to "Juan" for all records
where Country is "Mexico":
Example
UPDATE Customers
the UPDATE statement. The WHERE clause specifies which record(s) that should
be updated. If you omit the WHERE clause, all records in the table will be
updated!
SQL TABLE Keyword
CREATE TABLE
Example
PersonID int,
City varchar(255)
);

A copy of an existing table can also be created using CREATE TABLE.
the "Customers" table):
Example
FROM customers;
ALTER TABLE
Example
Example
DROP COLUMN Email;
DROP TABLE
Example
TRUNCATE TABLE
itself.
Example

ROWNUM Keywords

records to return.
uses ROWNUM.
Example
clause (MySQL):
Example
LIMIT 3;
(Oracle):
Example
WHERE ROWNUM <= 3;
SQL DROP TABLE and TRUNCATE

TABLE Keywords
DROP TABLE
Example
TRUNCATE TABLE
itself.

Example
SQL UNION Keyword
UNION
The UNION command combines the result set of two or more SELECT statements
(only distinct values)
The following SQL statement returns the cities (only distinct values) from both
Example
UNION
ORDER BY City;
SQL UNION ALL Keyword
UNION ALL
The UNION ALL command combines the result set of two or more SELECT
statements (allows duplicate values).
The following SQL statement returns the cities (duplicate values also) from both
Example
UNION ALL
ORDER BY City;
SQL UNIQUE Keyword
UNIQUE
The UNIQUE constraint ensures that all values in a column are unique.
SQL UNIQUE Constraint on CREATE

TABLE
The following SQL creates a UNIQUE constraint on the "ID" column when the

ID int NOT NULL UNIQUE,
Age int
);
MySQL:

ID int NOT NULL,
Age int,
UNIQUE (ID)
);


ID int NOT NULL,
Age int,
CONSTRAINT UC_Person UNIQUE (ID,LastName)
);
SQL UNIQUE Constraint on ALTER TABLE

To create a UNIQUE constraint on the "ID" column when the table is already
ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD UNIQUE (ID);

ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD CONSTRAINT UC_Person UNIQUE (ID,LastName);

MySQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons

ALTER TABLE Persons

SQL UPDATE Keyword

UPDATE
The UPDATE command is used to update existing rows in a table.
The following SQL statement updates the first customer (CustomerID = 1) with
a new contact person and a new city.
Example
UPDATE Customers
The following SQL statement will update the contactname to "Juan" for all
records where country is "Mexico":
Example
UPDATE Customers
the UPDATE statement. The WHERE clause specifies which record(s) that should
be updated. If you omit the WHERE clause, all records in the table will be
updated!
SQL VALUES Keyword
VALUES
The VALUES command specifies the values of an INSERT INTO statement.
The following SQL inserts a new record in the "Customers" table:
Example
The following SQL will insert a new record, but only insert data in the
automatically):
Example
SQL VIEW Keyword
CREATE VIEW
In SQL, a view is a virtual table based on the result set of an SQL statement.
Example
FROM Customers
Query The View

Example

Example
FROM Customers
DROP VIEW
Example
SQL WHERE Keyword
SELECT
The WHERE command filters a result set to include only records that fulfill a
specified condition.
The following SQL statement selects all the customers from "Mexico" in the
"Customers" table:
Example
SQL requires single quotes around text values (most database systems will also
allow double quotes).
However, numeric fields should not be enclosed in quotes:

Example
WHERE CustomerID=1;
Note: The WHERE clause is not only used in SELECT statement, it is also used
in UPDATE, DELETE statement, etc.!
The following operators can be used in the WHERE clause:
= Equal
<> Not equal. Note: In some versions of SQL this operator may
be written as !=
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or equal
<= Less than or equal
BETWEEN Between a certain range
LIKE Search for a pattern

IN To specify multiple possible values for a column
MySQL Functions
MySQL has many built-in functions.
This reference contains string, numeric, date, and some advanced functions
in MySQL.
MySQL String Functions

Function Description
ASCII Returns the ASCII value for the specific character
CHAR_LENGTH Returns the length of a string (in characters)
CHARACTER_LENGTH Returns the length of a string (in characters)
CONCAT Adds two or more expressions together
CONCAT_WS Adds two or more expressions together with a

separator
FIELD Returns the index position of a value in a list of
values
FIND_IN_SET Returns the position of a string within a list of strings
FORMAT Formats a number to a format like

"#,###,###.##", rounded to a specified number of
decimal places
INSERT Inserts a string within a string at the specified

position and for a certain number of characters
INSTR Returns the position of the first occurrence of a string

in another string
LCASE Converts a string to lower-case
LEFT Extracts a number of characters from a string

(starting from left)
LENGTH Returns the length of a string (in bytes)
LOCATE Returns the position of the first occurrence of a

substring in a string
LOWER Converts a string to lower-case

LPAD Left-pads a string with another string, to a certain
length
LTRIM Removes leading spaces from a string
MID Extracts a substring from a string (starting at any

position)
POSITION Returns the position of the first occurrence of a

substring in a string
REPEAT Repeats a string as many times as specified
REPLACE Replaces all occurrences of a substring within a

string, with a new substring
REVERSE Reverses a string and returns the result
RIGHT Extracts a number of characters from a string

(starting from right)
RPAD Right-pads a string with another string, to a certain

length
RTRIM Removes trailing spaces from a string
SPACE Returns a string of the specified number of space

characters
STRCMP Compares two strings
SUBSTR Extracts a substring from a string (starting at any

position)
SUBSTRING Extracts a substring from a string (starting at any

position)
SUBSTRING_INDEX Returns a substring of a string before a specified

number of delimiter occurs
TRIM Removes leading and trailing spaces from a string
UCASE Converts a string to upper-case
UPPER Converts a string to upper-case
MySQL Numeric Functions

ABS Returns the absolute value of a number

ACOS Returns the arc cosine of a number
ASIN Returns the arc sine of a number
ATAN Returns the arc tangent of one or two numbers
ATAN2 Returns the arc tangent of two numbers
AVG Returns the average value of an expression
CEIL Returns the smallest integer value that is >= to a number
CEILING Returns the smallest integer value that is >= to a number
COS Returns the cosine of a number
COT Returns the cotangent of a number
COUNT Returns the number of records returned by a select query
DEGREES Converts a value in radians to degrees
DIV Used for integer division

EXP Returns e raised to the power of a specified number
FLOOR Returns the largest integer value that is <= to a number
GREATEST Returns the greatest value of the list of arguments
LEAST Returns the smallest value of the list of arguments
LN Returns the natural logarithm of a number
LOG Returns the natural logarithm of a number, or the

logarithm of a number to a specified base
LOG10 Returns the natural logarithm of a number to base 10
MAX Returns the maximum value in a set of values
MIN Returns the minimum value in a set of values
MOD Returns the remainder of a number divided by another

number
PI Returns the value of PI

POW Returns the value of a number raised to the power of
another number
POWER Returns the value of a number raised to the power of

another number
RADIANS Converts a degree value into radians
RAND Returns a random number
ROUND Rounds a number to a specified number of decimal places
SIGN Returns the sign of a number
SIN Returns the sine of a number
SQRT Returns the square root of a number
SUM Calculates the sum of a set of values
TAN Returns the tangent of a number
TRUNCATE Truncates a number to the specified number of decimal

places
MySQL Date Functions
ADDDATE Adds a time/date interval to a date and then returns

the date
ADDTIME Adds a time interval to a time/datetime and then

returns the time/datetime
CURDATE Returns the current date
CURRENT_DATE Returns the current date
CURRENT_TIME Returns the current time
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP Returns the current date and time
CURTIME Returns the current time
DATE Extracts the date part from a datetime expression
DATEDIFF Returns the number of days between two date

values
DATE_ADD Adds a time/date interval to a date and then returns

the date
DATE_FORMAT Formats a date
DATE_SUB Subtracts a time/date interval from a date and then

returns the date
DAY Returns the day of the month for a given date
DAYNAME Returns the weekday name for a given date
DAYOFMONTH Returns the day of the month for a given date
DAYOFWEEK Returns the weekday index for a given date
DAYOFYEAR Returns the day of the year for a given date
EXTRACT Extracts a part from a given date
FROM_DAYS Returns a date from a numeric datevalue
HOUR Returns the hour part for a given date
LAST_DAY Extracts the last day of the month for a given date
LOCALTIME Returns the current date and time

LOCALTIMESTAMP Returns the current date and time
MAKEDATE Creates and returns a date based on a year and a

number of days value
MAKETIME Creates and returns a time based on an hour,

minute, and second value
MICROSECOND Returns the microsecond part of a time/datetime
MINUTE Returns the minute part of a time/datetime
MONTH Returns the month part for a given date
MONTHNAME Returns the name of the month for a given date
NOW Returns the current date and time
PERIOD_ADD Adds a specified number of months to a period
PERIOD_DIFF Returns the difference between two periods
QUARTER Returns the quarter of the year for a given date

value
SECOND Returns the seconds part of a time/datetime

SEC_TO_TIME Returns a time value based on the specified seconds
STR_TO_DATE Returns a date based on a string and a format
SUBDATE Subtracts a time/date interval from a date and then

returns the date
SUBTIME Subtracts a time interval from a datetime and then

returns the time/datetime
SYSDATE Returns the current date and time
TIME Extracts the time part from a given time/datetime
TIME_FORMAT Formats a time by a specified format
TIME_TO_SEC Converts a time value into seconds
TIMEDIFF Returns the difference between two time/datetime

expressions
TIMESTAMP Returns a datetime value based on a date or

datetime value
TO_DAYS Returns the number of days between a date and

date "0000-00-00"
WEEK Returns the week number for a given date
WEEKDAY Returns the weekday number for a given date
WEEKOFYEAR Returns the week number for a given date
YEAR Returns the year part for a given date
YEARWEEK Returns the year and week number for a given date
MySQL Advanced Functions

BIN Returns a binary representation of a number
BINARY Converts a value to a binary string
CASE Goes through conditions and return a value when the

first condition is met
CAST Converts a value (of any type) into a specified datatype
COALESCE Returns the first non-null value in a list

CONNECTION_ID Returns the unique connection ID for the current
connection
CONV Converts a number from one numeric base system to

another
CONVERT Converts a value into the specified datatype or character

set
CURRENT_USER Returns the user name and host name for the MySQL
account that the server used to authenticate the current
client
DATABASE Returns the name of the current database
IF Returns a value if a condition is TRUE, or another value if

a condition is FALSE
IFNULL Return a specified value if the expression is NULL,

otherwise return the expression
ISNULL Returns 1 or 0 depending on whether an expression is

NULL
LAST_INSERT_ID Returns the AUTO_INCREMENT id of the last row that has

been inserted in a table
NULLIF Compares two expressions and returns NULL if they are

equal. Otherwise, the first expression is returned
SESSION_USER Returns the current MySQL user name and host name
SYSTEM_USER Returns the current MySQL user name and host name
USER Returns the current MySQL user name and host name
VERSION Returns the current version of the MySQL database
SQL Server Functions
SQL Server has many built-in functions.
This reference contains string, numeric, date, conversion, and some

advanced functions in SQL Server.
SQL Server String Functions

ASCII Returns the ASCII value for the specific character
CHAR Returns the character based on the ASCII code
CHARINDEX Returns the position of a substring in a string

CONCAT Adds two or more strings together
Concat with + Adds two or more strings together
CONCAT_WS Adds two or more strings together with a separator
DATALENGTH Returns the number of bytes used to represent an

expression
DIFFERENCE Compares two SOUNDEX values, and returns an integer

value
FORMAT Formats a value with the specified format
LEFT Extracts a number of characters from a string (starting

from left)
LEN Returns the length of a string
LOWER Converts a string to lower-case
LTRIM Removes leading spaces from a string
NCHAR Returns the Unicode character based on the number code
PATINDEX Returns the position of a pattern in a string

QUOTENAME Returns a Unicode string with delimiters added to make
the string a valid SQL Server delimited identifier
REPLACE Replaces all occurrences of a substring within a string,

with a new substring
REPLICATE Repeats a string a specified number of times
REVERSE Reverses a string and returns the result
RIGHT Extracts a number of characters from a string (starting

from right)
RTRIM Removes trailing spaces from a string
SOUNDEX Returns a four-character code to evaluate the similarity of

two strings
SPACE Returns a string of the specified number of space

characters
STR Returns a number as string
STUFF Deletes a part of a string and then inserts another part

into the string, starting at a specified position
SUBSTRING Extracts some characters from a string

TRANSLATE Returns the string from the first argument after the
characters specified in the second argument are
translated into the characters specified in the third
argument.
TRIM Removes leading and trailing spaces (or other specified

characters) from a string
UNICODE Returns the Unicode value for the first character of the
input expression
UPPER Converts a string to upper-case
SQL Server Math/Numeric Functions

ABS Returns the absolute value of a number
ACOS Returns the arc cosine of a number
ASIN Returns the arc sine of a number
ATAN Returns the arc tangent of a number

ATN2 Returns the arc tangent of two numbers
AVG Returns the average value of an expression
CEILING Returns the smallest integer value that is >= a number
COUNT Returns the number of records returned by a select query
COS Returns the cosine of a number
COT Returns the cotangent of a number
DEGREES Converts a value in radians to degrees
EXP Returns e raised to the power of a specified number
FLOOR Returns the largest integer value that is <= to a number
LOG Returns the natural logarithm of a number, or the

logarithm of a number to a specified base
MAX Returns the maximum value in a set of values

MIN Returns the minimum value in a set of values
PI Returns the value of PI
POWER Returns the value of a number raised to the power of

another number
RADIANS Converts a degree value into radians
RAND Returns a random number
ROUND Rounds a number to a specified number of decimal places
SIGN Returns the sign of a number
SIN Returns the sine of a number
SQRT Returns the square root of a number
SQUARE Returns the square of a number
SUM Calculates the sum of a set of values
TAN Returns the tangent of a number

SQL Server Date Functions
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP Returns the current date and time
DATEADD Adds a time/date interval to a date and then returns

the date
DATEDIFF Returns the difference between two dates
DATEFROMPARTS Returns a date from the specified parts (year,

month, and day values)
DATENAME Returns a specified part of a date (as string)
DATEPART Returns a specified part of a date (as integer)
DAY Returns the day of the month for a specified date
GETDATE Returns the current database system date and time
GETUTCDATE Returns the current database system UTC date and

time
ISDATE Checks an expression and returns 1 if it is a valid

date, otherwise 0
MONTH Returns the month part for a specified date (a
number from 1 to 12)
SYSDATETIME Returns the date and time of the SQL Server
YEAR Returns the year part for a specified date
SQL Server Advanced Functions

CAST Converts a value (of any type) into a specified

datatype
COALESCE Returns the first non-null value in a list
CONVERT Converts a value (of any type) into a specified

datatype
CURRENT_USER Returns the name of the current user in the SQL Server
database
IIF Returns a value if a condition is TRUE, or another value

if a condition is FALSE
ISNULL Return a specified value if the expression is NULL,
otherwise return the expression
ISNUMERIC Tests whether an expression is numeric
NULLIF Returns NULL if two expressions are equal
SESSION_USER Returns the name of the current user in the SQL Server
database
SESSIONPROPERTY Returns the session settings for a specified option
SYSTEM_USER Returns the login name for the current user
USER_NAME Returns the database user name based on the specified

id
MS Access Functions
MS Access has many built-in functions.
This reference contains the string, numeric, and date functions in MS Access.
MS Access String Functions
Asc Returns the ASCII value for the specific character
Chr Returns the character for the specified ASCII number

code
Concat with & Adds two or more strings together
CurDir Returns the full path for a specified drive
Format Formats a value with the specified format
InStr Gets the position of the first occurrence of a string in

another
InstrRev Gets the position of the first occurrence of a string in

another, from the end of string
LCase Converts a string to lower-case
Left Extracts a number of characters from a string (starting

from left)
Len Returns the length of a string

LTrim Removes leading spaces from a string
Mid Extracts some characters from a string (starting at any

position)
Replace Replaces a substring within a string, with another

substring, a specified number of times
Right Extracts a number of characters from a string (starting

from right)
RTrim Removes trailing spaces from a string
Space Returns a string of the specified number of space

characters
Split Splits a string into an array of substrings
Str Returns a number as string
StrComp Compares two strings
StrConv Returns a converted string
StrReverse Reverses a string and returns the result

Trim Removes both leading and trailing spaces from a string
UCase Converts a string to upper-case
MS Access Numeric Functions

Abs Returns the absolute value of a number
Atn Returns the arc tangent of a number
Avg Returns the average value of an expression
Cos Returns the cosine of an angle
Count Returns the number of records returned by a select query
Exp Returns e raised to the power of a specified number
Fix Returns the integer part of a number

Format Formats a numeric value with the specified format
Int Returns the integer part of a number
Max Returns the maximum value in a set of values
Min Returns the minimum value in a set of values
Randomize Initializes the random number generator (used by Rnd())

with a seed
Rnd Returns a random number
Round Rounds a number to a specified number of decimal places
Sgn Returns the sign of a number
Sqr Returns the square root of a number
Sum Calculates the sum of a set of values
Val Reads a string and returns the numbers found in the

string
MS Access Date Functions
Date Returns the current system date
DateAdd Adds a time/date interval to a date and then returns the

date
DateDiff Returns the difference between two dates
DatePart Returns a specified part of a date (as an integer)
DateSerial Returns a date from the specified parts (year, month, and
day values)
DateValue Returns a date based on a string
Day Returns the day of the month for a given date
Format Formats a date value with the specified format
Hour Returns the hour part of a time/datetime
Minute Returns the minute part of a time/datetime

Month Returns the month part of a given date
MonthName Returns the name of the month based on a number
Now Returns the current date and time based on the

computer's system date and time
Second Returns the seconds part of a time/datetime
Time Returns the current system time
TimeSerial Returns a time from the specified parts (hour, minute,

and second value)
TimeValue Returns a time based on a string
Weekday Returns the weekday number for a given date
WeekdayName Returns the weekday name based on a number
Year Returns the year part of a given date

MS Access Some Other Functions
CurrentUser Returns the name of the current database

user
Environ Returns a string that contains the value of an

operating system environment variable
IsDate Checks whether an expression can be

converted to a date
IsNull Checks whether an expression contains Null

(no data)
IsNumeric Checks whether an expression is a valid

number
SQL Quick Reference from

W3Schools
SQL Statement Syntax
AND / OR SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name
WHERE condition
AND|OR condition
ALTER TABLE ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD column_name datatype
or

DROP COLUMN column_name
AS (alias) SELECT column_name AS column_alias

FROM table_name
or
SELECT column_name
FROM table_name AS table_alias
BETWEEN SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name
WHERE column_name
BETWEEN value1 AND value2
CREATE DATABASE CREATE DATABASE database_name
CREATE TABLE CREATE TABLE table_name

(
column_name1 data_type,
...
)
CREATE INDEX CREATE INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column_name)
or
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column_name)
CREATE VIEW CREATE VIEW view_name AS

FROM table_name
WHERE condition
DELETE DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE some_column=some_value
or
DELETE FROM table_name

(Note: Deletes the entire table!!)
DELETE * FROM table_name

(Note: Deletes the entire table!!)
DROP DATABASE DROP DATABASE database_name
DROP INDEX DROP INDEX table_name.index_name (SQL Server)

DROP INDEX index_name ON table_name (MS
Access)
DROP INDEX index_name (DB2/Oracle)
DROP INDEX index_name (MySQL)
DROP TABLE DROP TABLE table_name
EXISTS IF EXISTS (SELECT * FROM table_name WHERE id

= ?)
BEGIN
--do what needs to be done if exists
END
ELSE
BEGIN
--do what needs to be done if not
END
GROUP BY SELECT column_name,

aggregate_function(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value
GROUP BY column_name
HAVING SELECT column_name,

aggregate_function(column_name)
FROM table_name
GROUP BY column_name
HAVING aggregate_function(column_name) operator
value
IN SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name
IN (value1,value2,..)
INSERT INTO INSERT INTO table_name
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,....)
or
INSERT INTO table_name

(column1, column2, column3,...)
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,....)
INNER JOIN SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name1
INNER JOIN table_name2
ON
table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name
LEFT JOIN SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name1
LEFT JOIN table_name2
ON
RIGHT JOIN SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name1
RIGHT JOIN table_name2
ON
FULL JOIN SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name1
FULL JOIN table_name2
ON
LIKE SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name
WHERE column_name LIKE pattern
ORDER BY SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name [ASC|DESC]
SELECT SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name
SELECT * SELECT *
FROM table_name
SELECT DISTINCT SELECT DISTINCT column_name(s)

FROM table_name
SELECT INTO SELECT *
INTO new_table_name [IN externaldatabase]
FROM old_table_name
or
INTO new_table_name [IN externaldatabase]
FROM old_table_name
SELECT TOP SELECT TOP number|percent column_name(s)

FROM table_name
TRUNCATE TABLE TRUNCATE TABLE table_name
UNION SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1

UNION
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name2
UNION ALL SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1

UNION ALL
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name2
UPDATE UPDATE table_name

SET column1=value, column2=value,...
WHERE some_column=some_value
WHERE SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name

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SQL Tutorial

Www.w3schools.com, 2024. — 299 p.

SQL is a standard language for storing, manipulating and retrieving data in

SQL is a standard language for accessing and manipulating databases.

What Can SQL do?

SQL is a Standard - BUT....

Using SQL in Your Web Site

 An RDBMS database program (i.e. MS Access, SQL Server, MySQL)

The data in RDBMS is stored in database objects called tables. A table is a

Look at the "Customers" table:

A column is a vertical entity in a table that contains all information associated

SQL statements consists of keywords that are easy to understand.

SELECT * FROM Customers;

Below is a selection from the Customers table used in the examples:

CustomerI CustomerNa ContactNa Address City PostalCo Countr

1 Alfreds Maria Obere Str. Berlin 12209 German

2 Ana Trujillo Ana Trujillo Avda. de la Méxic 05021 Mexico

3 Antonio Antonio Mataderos Méxic 05023 Mexico

5 Berglunds Christina Berguvsväg Luleå S-958 22 Sweden

Keep in Mind That...

In this tutorial we will write all SQL keywords in upper-case.

Semicolon after SQL Statements?

Semicolon is the standard way to separate each SQL statement in database

Some of The Most Important SQL

SQL SELECT Statement

The SQL SELECT Statement

SELECT CustomerName, City FROM Customers;

1 Alfreds Maria Obere Str. Berlin 12209 German

2 Ana Trujillo Ana Trujillo Avda. de la Méxic 05021 Mexico

3 Antonio Antonio Mataderos Méxic 05023 Mexico

4 Around the Thomas 120 Londo WA1 1DP UK

5 Berglunds Christina Berguvsväg Luleå S-958 22 Sweden

Select ALL columns

SELECT * FROM Customers;

_____________ * FROM Customers;

SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement

The SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement

SELECT DISTINCT Country FROM Customers;

CustomerI CustomerNa ContactNa Address City PostalCo Countr

1 Alfreds Maria Obere Str. Berlin 12209 German

2 Ana Trujillo Ana Trujillo Avda. de la Méxic 05021 Mexico

3 Antonio Antonio Mataderos Méxic 05023 Mexico

4 Around the Thomas 120 Londo WA1 1DP UK

5 Berglunds Christina Berguvsväg Luleå S-958 22 Sweden

SELECT Example Without DISTINCT

Note: The COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) is not supported in Microsoft

Here is a workaround for MS Access:

Test Yourself With Exercises

_____________._____________ Country FROM Customers;

SQL WHERE Clause

It is used to extract only those records that fulfill a specified condition.

SELECT * FROM Customers

CustomerI CustomerNa ContactNa Address City PostalCo Countr

1 Alfreds Maria Obere Str. Berlin 12209 German

2 Ana Trujillo Ana Trujillo Avda. de la Méxic 05021 Mexico

4 Around the Thomas 120 Londo WA1 1DP UK

5 Berglunds Christina Berguvsväg Luleå S-958 22 Sweden

Text Fields vs. Numeric Fields

However, numeric fields should not be enclosed in quotes:

Operators in The WHERE Clause

_._ Country FROM Customers;