FILTRATION:

-Even after sedimentation, there remain some fine suspended materials and bacteria. These
are removed by filtration.
-Filtration: Passing raw water through granular material. It helps to remove fine suspended
materials, colour, turbidity and pathogens

Theory of filtration

Filtration occur under four different process

1. Mechanical straining
2. Flocculation and sedimentation
3. Biological metabolism
4. Electrolytic changes
FILTRATION:
-Even after sedimentation, there remain some fine suspended materials and bacteria. These
are removed by filtration.
-Filtration: Passing raw water through granular material. It helps to remove fine suspended
materials, colour, turbidity and pathogens

Theory of filtration

Filtration occur under four different process

1. Mechanical straining
2. Flocculation and sedimentation
3. Biological metabolism
4. Electrolytic changes
1. Mechanical straining

-Impurities bigger than the size of voids of filter media get arrested
-The major removal takes place only in the upper few centimeters of the filter media
-These arrested particles form a mat, and further help in straining the impurities

2. Flocculation and sedimentation

-In mechanical straining only those particles which are coarser than the void size are arrested.
-Finer particles are arrested by “sedimentation action”
-Void space act like a coagulation sedimentation tank
-Colloidal matter in void is a gelatinous mass which attract other fine particles and settle down
and get removed.
3. Biological metabolism

-Certain microbes and bacteria present in voids

-They consume the impurities as their food and convert into harmless compound
-When a filter is put into commission and the raw water is passed through it, during the first
few days the upper layers of sand grains becomes coated with a reddish brown sticky deposit of
partly decomposed organic matter together with iron, manganese, aluminum and silica
-After sometime, there exists in the uppermost layer of sand a film of algae, bacteria, and
protozoa etc
-These harmless compound form a layer called dirty skin (schmutzdecke)
-This dirty skin further help in absorbing and straining out impurities

4. Electrolytic changes

-Sand grain and water impurities carry electrical charges of opposite nature.
-When they come in contact, they neutralize each other making the water purer.
Filter materials:

Sand: filter media

It should be free from dirt and other impurities. It should be uniform
in nature and size. It should be hard and resistant

Effective size of sand (D10 )

= 0.2 - 0.4 mm (slow sand filter)
= 0.35 - 0.55 mm (Rapid sand filter)

Uniformity coefficient (Cu)

= 1.8 – 2.5 (slow sand filter)
= 1.3 - 1.7 (Rapid sand filter)
Gravel : Supporting media
-It should be hard, durable, free from impurities
-Used in different size arranged in 3 – 4 layers of each 10 – 15 cm thick
-Coarsest size (20 – 60 mm) – Placed in the bottom
- Finest Size (3 – 6 mm) – placed at the top

Type of filters:
1. Slow sand gravity filter
2. Rapid sand gravity filter
3. Pressure filter
Slow sand gravity filter:
-Removes large percentage of impurities. But rate of filtration is slow
-It uses effluent from plain sedimentation tank
-Used to get relatively clearer water
-Water from coagulation – sedimentation cannot be used in this filter as the
floc clog the voids
-Rate of filtration = 100 – 200 litre/hour/m2
-Efficiency: it is highly efficient as it can remove 98 – 99 % bacteria. It also
removes suspended solids, odour and taste. It can remove turbidity only upto
50 mg/l
Construction of slow sand filter:

Enclosure tank
-Open rectangular tank- Made of masonry or concrete
-Depth = 2.5 – 3.5 m
-Plan area = 100 – 200 m2

Filter media
-Sand – 90 – 110 cm thick
-Effective size = 0.2 – 0.4 mm
-Uniformity coefficient (Cu) = 1.8 – 2.5
-Sand should be of uniform size
-If different size are present, then coarsest size at the bottom and finest
size at the top
Base material- Gravel
-To support sand
-Thickness = 30 – 75 cm
-3 – 4 layers of each 15 – 20 cm thick
-At the bottom layer = 40 – 60 mm size
-Intermediate layer = 20 – 40 mm
6 – 20 mm
-Top layer = 3 – 6 mm

Under drainage system

-It consist of a central drain and a lateral drain
-Lateral drain: open jointed or porous drain. It collect filtered water and
discharge into the main drain. It is Placed 3 – 5 m apart
-Main drain: Collect filtered water from the laterals and lead it to the filtered
water well
Inlet and outlet arrangements

-Inlet chamber with automatic valve admit effluent

-Outlet: filtered water well at the outlet side with a telescopic tube to
maintain constant discharge
Cleaning of slow sand filter:

Filter head / filtering head

-Head loss caused by the resistance of sand to the flow of water. It is the
difference in elevation in the filter tank and filtered water well.
-Usually filter head is 10 – 15 cm.
-But it goes on increasing as the filter layer gets clogged.
-When it becomes high (0.7 – 1.2 m) the filter unit must be put out of
service and it should be cleaned.
Cleaning of slow sand filter:

-Scrapping and removing 1.5 – 3 cm of top sand layer.

-The top surface is finally racked, cleaned and washed
-A lot of manual labour is required for cleaning
-After each cleaning, the filter plant is made into working again. But the water
will not be pure as the formation of film is not taking place and is not used for 24–
36 hours.
-After the formation of the film (dirty skin or schmutzdecke), the water get
filtered properly and can be used
-Cleaning interval for slow sand filter is 1 – 3 month
Uses of Slow sand Filter:
Slow sand filter is used for small plant
It is used for water with low colour and low turbidity
It requires huge area, huge quantity of filtering materials and huge space
Design six units of slow sand for the following data

Population to be served =50,000 persons

Per capita water demand =150 lit/hr/day
Rate of filtration =180lit/hr/m2
Length of each bed = twice the breadth
Assume Maximum demand as 1.8 times Average daily demand
Also assume that out of six units, one unit will act as stand by.
Rapid sand Filter:
-Used for large town
-Uses large sized particles
-High rate of filtration = 3000 – 6000 litre/hour/m2 (3 – 6 m3/hr/m2 )
-Water from coagulation and sedimentation tank is used
-The filtered water is treated with disinfectants
-Less efficient in removing bacteria and turbidity
-Removes bacteria only upto 80 – 90%
-Remaining bacteria is removed by disinfection methods
-Turbidity removes only upto 35 – 40 mg/l
Construction of Rapid Sand Filter:

Enclosure tank
-Open rectangular tank-Made of masonry or concrete
-Depth = 2.5 – 3.5 m
-Area = 10 – 80 m2 for each unit

Filter media
-Sand layer = 60 - 90 cm thick
-D10 = 0.35 - 0.55 mm
-Cu = 1 - 1.7
-Coarser particles at the bottom and finer particles at the top
Base material: Gravel
-It act as supporting media
-Gravel = 60 - 90 cm thick
-Used as 5 – 6 layers of each 10 – 15 cm thick
-Coarsest size (40 – 60 mm) – Placed in the bottom
-Intermediate size – 40mm – 6 mm
-Finest Size (3 – 6 mm) – placed at the top

Under drainage system

-It receive and collect filtered water
-It allow back washing for cleaning
-It consist of manifold and lateral drains

Manifold or main drain

40 cm diameter main drain running along the center
Lateral drains
10 cm diameter laterals spaced at 10 – 30 cm apart
Laterals may be
1. Perforated pipes system
2. Pipe and strainer system

1. Perforated pipes system

-Lateral drains with holes at the bottom
-6 – 13 mm diameter holes at 300 with vertical
-Spacing of holes = 7.5 – 20 cm

2. Pipe and strainer system

-Lateral drain with strainer pipe having perforated cap
-Strainer pipe at 15 cm apart on lateral pipe
Other appurtenances

Wash water trough

-To collect dirty wash water comes out of filter after cleaning it
- It can be square, v-shaped or semi-circular in section
- It is made of concrete, steel or fibre glass
- Spacing = 1.1 – 2 m apart
- Discharge through wash water trough is given by Q=1.376 by3/2

Air compressor
- For agitating filter during back washing
- It should be able to provide compressed air at a high rate
Working of Rapid sand filter:

-Effluent from coagulation sedimentation tank enter into the inlet chamber
-It get filtered as it percolates through the sand layer
-Then it passes through gravel layer and finally collected in the under drains
-The filtered water is then taken out from the drain

Cleaning of Rapid sand filter:

-Cleaning of rapid sand filter is done by back washing and surface washing
Back washing

-Wash water and compressed air is sent back upward through the filter bed
-This will agitate the sand particles and remove impurities
-This dirty water after cleaning is collected in wash water troughs
-After cleaning, the filter is again set to work, but the filtered water cannot be used for
sometimes as it contains some impurities.
- The entire process of back washing takes 15 minutes
-Amount of water for back washing = 2 – 5% of total filtered water
- Rapid sand filter have to be washed every 24 – 48 hours
- Rate of washing = 15 – 90 cm/minutes
-Pressure for washing = 40 kN/m2

Surface wash

-Clean filtered water applied to the sand bed from above using nozzle
- It scour the particles and clean the surface
Operational troubles in Rapid sand filter
1. Air binding
2. Formation of mud ball
3. Cracking of filter

1.Air binding
-When head loss due to clogging, negative pressure develops.
-This results in releasing of dissolved air in water and cause formation of air bubbles
-These bubbles stick to the sand grains and affect the working of filter badly
-It decrease the rate of filtration

Remedial measures
-Avoid situation of head loss
- Control growth of algae
-Super saturate water with air
-Prevent water getting warmed
2. Formation of mud ball
-Mud from atmosphere accumulate on sand surface
-During inadequate washing, these mud sink down into the filter bed
-Mud sticks to sand grains and form mud ball
-Their size go on increasing and affect filtration and back washing

Remedial measures

-Brake mud ball mechanically

-Brake mud ball by water nozzle
-Use compressed air to scour mud ball
-Apply caustic soda
-Replace filter bed
3. Cracking of filter
-Fine sand on top layer shrink and cause shrinkage crack
-Impurities sink down directly through this crack
-Affect the efficiency of filter

Remedial measures
-same as those adopted for preventing mudball formations
Design of Rapid Sand Filter:

Design of filter tank

-Area of Filter bed = Discharge/ Rate of filtration
-Length of filter tank = 1.5B – 2B
Where B is the width of filter tank
-Rate of filtration = 3000 – 6000 litre/hour/m2

Design of under drainage system

-Manifold and perforated pipes
-Total cross-sectional area of perforation = 0.2% of total filter area
-Cross-sectional area of each lateral = 2 – 4 times of area of perforation
-Cross-sectional area of manifold = 2 times that of laterals
-Max permissible velocity in manifold to provide wash water = 1.8 – 2.4 m/s
Design of wash water troughs
-Spacing = 1.1 – 2 m
-No of unit = Width of filter/ Spacing of trough
-Discharge through wash water trough is given by Q=1.376 by3/2
where b = width of trough
y = depth of water in the trough
-Width of trough is assumed to be equal to depth in trough (OR assume b= 0.2 m)
-Rate of washing = 15 – 90 cm/min
-Wash water discharge = rate of washing *area of filter
Design a set of rapid sand filters for treating water required for a population of 50,000.
Rate of water supply =180 lit/hr/day. The filters are rated to work at 5000 lit /hr/m2
Rapid Sand Filter
Design a rapid sand filter for a total demand of 4 MLD of water with all its
principal components.
comparison of slow sand and rapid sand filter
comparison of slow sand and rapid sand filter
Pressure filter:

-It is placed in a closed vessel and water pass under pressure

- Its rate of filtration is high as 6,000 – 15,000 lit/hr/m2
-It is less efficient and produce poor quality effluent
- It is not used for public supplies. It is used for individuals, industries, swimming pool,
etc.
- It is very compact and easy to handle

Construction

-It consists of a steel cylinder of 1.5 – 3 m diameter and 3.5 – 8 m length having
inspection windows at the top.
-It can be installed as horizontal or vertical
Horizontal Pressure filter

Vertical Pressure filter

Working:
-Coagulated but not flocculated water is used
-Flocculation takes place inside the filter
-Water enter into the sand bed under pressure, pass through gravel and reaches laterals.
-From laterals it is taken outside
-Cleaning: By back washing

Advantages of pressure filters

-Compact and easy
-Less space required
-High rate of filtration

Disadvantages of pressure filters

-Less capacity
-Less efficient
-Inspection is difficult as it closed
-Cleaning is difficult
-Poor quality effluent