ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING – II

CE - 31501
 UNIT - II
Topics to be Covered
• Introduction
• Filtration Media
• Classification of filters
• Slow sand filter (It’s components, mechanism,
advantages, disadvantages, design criteria)
• Rapid sand filter (It’s components, mechanism,
advantages, disadvantages, design criteria)
• Comparison of SSF and RSF
• Design of RSF with an underdrainage system
 Introduction
• Removal of very fine colloidal particles which cannot
be removed by sedimentation is done by filtration.
Water after sedimentation is allowed to flow through a
bed of sand where in these particles are filtered out.

• The process of passing the water through the beds of

granular material (sand and gravel) is known as
Filtration.

• By doing filtration, we can remove bacteria, colour,

taste, odours and produce clear and sparkling water.
 Sand
• Sand either coarse or fine, is generally used as filter
media.

• The layers of sand may be supported on gravel, which

permits the filtered water to move freely to the under
drains and allow the wash water to move uniformly
upward.

• The filter sand should generally be obtained from rock

like quartzite and should have following properties:
a. It should be free from dirt and other impurities
b. It should be of uniform size
c. It should be hard
 Gravel
• The sand beds are supported on the gravel bed.
The gravel used should be hard, durable, free
from impurities & properly rounded.

• The gravel is placed in 5-6 layers having finest size

on top.

• Other material:- Other material which can be

used are anthracite, Garnet, Sand or local
material like coconut husks, rice husks.
 Classification of Filters
• Filters are classified broadly in 5 categories on
the basis of-

1. Direction of flow
2. Type of filter media and beds
3. Driving force
4. Method of flow rate control
5. Filtration rate
Ex:- Sand, coal,
coconut shell,
diatomaceous earth
and granular activated
carbon are used as
granular filter media in
which sand is most
commonly used.
Both Rapid Sand Filter and Slow Sand Filter are down flow,
granular medium (single medium) gravity filters
 Slow Sand Filter
• Provides single stage treatment.

• Normally no pre-treatment is
required.

• The filter basically consists of a

- supernatant water layer,
- Filter media layer and
-under drain support structure.

• Water enters from the top and

the filtrate is removed from the
bottom.
• Slow Sand filter was the earliest type , they were
called slow sand filter because the rate of
filtration through them is about 1/20th or less of
the rate of filtration through rapid sand filter.

• Due to low filtration rate, slow sand filters require

large area of land and are costly to install. Surface
area (As) of tank varies from 50 to 1000 sqm

• They are expensive to operate due to laborious

method of bed cleaning by surface scrapping.
Due to this slow sand filters are not used these
days.
 Components of Slow Sand Filter
A slow sand filter unit consists of the following parts

1. Enclosure tank (It consist of an open water tight

rectangular tank made of concrete or masonry)

2. Filter media (Sand)

3. Base Material (Gravel)

4. Under drainage system (The base material are supported

over the under drainage system which centrally collects
the filter water. The water drainage system consists of a
central drain collecting water from a number of lateral
drains. The lateral drains are open jointed pipe drains or
perforated pipes of 7.5 to 10 cm dia spaced at 2 to 4 m
centre to centre)
5. Inlet & Outlet arrangement (An inlet chamber,
is constructed for admitting the effluent from
PST)

6. Other appurtenances :- Various appurtenances

that are generally installed for efficient working
are the devices for-
• Guage- Measuring loss of head through filter
media.
• Telescopic Tube- Maintaining constant rate of
flow through filter.
• Meter- to measure flow
• Controlling depth of water above the filter media.
Slow Sand Filter
 Mechanism of Slow Sand Filter
• In a slow sand filter, water is subjected to various
purifying influence as it percolates through the
sand bed.

• Impurities are removed by a combination of

following processes-
1. Mechanical Straining
2. Sedimentation
3. Biological
4. Bio-chemical
 1. Mechanical Straining
• Sand contains small pores, the suspended
particles which are bigger than the size of the
voids in the sand layer cannot pass through these
voids and get arrested in them as the water
passes through the filter media (sand).

• Most of the particles are removed in the upper

few centimeters of the filter media, these
arrested particles forms a mat on the top of the
bed which further helps in straining out
impurities.
 2. Sedimentation
• In mechanical Straining, only those particles
which are coarser than the void size are arrested.
Finer particles are removed by sedimentation.

• The voids between grains of filters act like small

sedimentation tanks. The colloidal matter
arrested in the voids is a gelatinous mass and
therefore, attract other finer particle. These finer
particle thus settle down in the voids and get
removed.
 3. Biological action
• When a filter is put into operation and the water is passed
through it, during the first few days, the upper layer of sand
grain become coated with sticky deposit of decomposed
organic matter.

• After some time on the upper most layer of sand, there

exists a film of algae, bacteria and protozoa etc. This film is
called ‘schmutzdecke’ layer or dirty skin which acts as an
extremely fine messed straining mat. This layer further
helps in absorbing and straining out the impurities.

• The organic impurities present in water become food for

micro-organisms residing in the film. Bacteria breakdown
the organic matter and convert them into harmless
compounds.
 4. Bio-chemical
• The sand particles of filter media and the
impurities in water carry electric charge of
opposite nature, therefore they attract each
other and neutralize the charge of each other.

• After long use the electric charge of filter sand

is exhausted, which is renewed by washing the
filter bed.
 Slow Sand Filter
Advantages: Disadvantages:

• Simple to construct and • Initial cost is low but

operate. maintenance cost is much
more than rapid sand filter.
• Physical, Chemical and
Bacteriological quality of • These filters need a lot of
treated water is very high. space.

• Reduces bacterial count by • Less efficient in the removal

99.9% & E. coli by 99% of colour of raw water. They
remove about 20 to 25 %
colour of water.
 Design Criteria of Slow Sand Filter
S. No. Parameter Value
1. Rate of Filtration 100 l/sqm/hr to 200 l/sqm/hr

2. Design period 10 years

3. Effective size of sand 0.25 mm to 0.35 mm

4. Uniformity co efficient of sand 3.0 – 5.0

5. Under Drain system Open Jointed brick masonry

 Design Criteria of Slow Sand Filter
S. No. Parameter Value
6. Gravel Bed Gradation
• Top most 1 to 2 mm
• Second 3 to 6 mm
• Third 9 to 18 mm
• Bottom most 27 to 54 mm
(Each layer is 60 mm thick and total
thickness is 300 mm)
7. Depth of Filter Bed :
• FB – 0.2 m,
• Water Depth – 1.0 m,
• Filter media – 1.0 m,
• Gravel support – 0.3 m,
• Brick Drain – 0.2 m
Total Depth – 2.7 m
8. Length of Filter run not less than 6 – 8 weeks
 Rapid Sand Filter
• Rapid sand filters comprises of a bed of sand serving as single
medium granular matrix supported on gravels overlying an
underdrainage system.

• It may yield as high as 30 times the yield given by the slow sand
filter.

• These filters employ coarser sand with effective size around 0.5
mm. Water from the coagulation sedimentation tank are used in
these filters.

• Components of rapid sand filter are-

1. Enclosure tank (It is generally rectangular in plan, constructed
either of masonary or of concrete, coated with water proof
material.)
2. Filter Media (Sand)
3. Base Material (Gravel)
4. Under Drainage System
5. Other appurtenances
 Under Drainage System
The under drainage system serves the two purpose
1. It collects the filter water uniformly over the area of gravel
bed.
2. It provides uniform distribution of backwash water
without disturbing or upsetting the gravel bed and filter
media.

There are various types of Under drainage System such as :-

1. Manifold and Lateral
- Perforated & Pipe System
- Pipe and Straining System
2. Wheeler System
3. Leopald System
 Underdrainage System
Manifold and Lateral
• It consist of a manifold
running lengthwise along
the centre of the filter
bottom. Several pipe
called laterals taken off in
both the direction at right
angle to the manifold. In
perforated pipe type of
this system, the laterals
are provided with holes at
the bottom side.
Rapid Sand Filter
 Mechanism of Rapid Sand Filter
• In RSF removal of particle takes place in 2 distinct
steps-
1. Transport step
2. Attachment step

• In first step, impurity particle must be brought

from the bulk of liquid within the pores close to
surface of medium. As it comes close to the
surface of medium the attachment step takes
place & the particle is allowed to retain on the
surface instead of letting it flow down the filter.
Transport step may be accomplished by-
• Straining
• Gravity settling
• Impaction
• Interception
• Hydrodynamics
• Diffusion
Aided by flocculation in interstices of filter

Transport step is a physical process affected by-

• Size of filter medium
• Density & size of suspended particles
• Water temperature
 Attachment step is a physiochemical process
involving-
• Electrostatic interaction
• Vander Wall’s force of molecular attraction
• Chemical bridging or specific adsorption

Attachment step is affected by-

• Chemical characteristics of water
• Filter medium
Back Washing of Rapid Sand Filter
• When the clean filter bed is put in to operation,
in the beginning the loss of head is very small,
but as the bed gets clogged, the loss of head
increases. When the head losses becomes
excessive, the filtration rate decreases and the
filter bed must be washed.

• Rapid gravity filters are washed by sending air

and water upward through the bed the reverse
flow through the underdrainage system
 Rapid Sand Filter
Advantages: Disadvantages:

• Occupies less space • Requires treated water

• Filtration is rapid • Costlier

• Washing of filter is easy • Removes bacteria by

90-92%
• More flexibility in
operation
Design Criteria of Rapid Sand Filter
S. No. Parameter Value
1. Rate of Filtration 4000 l/sqm/hr to 6000 l/sqm/hr

2. No. of unit N= (√Q)/4.69 (min -2 nos.)

3. Area max 100 sqm for one unit

4. Length : Width (L:B) 1.25 to 1.33

5. Effective size of sand 0.45 mm to 0.75 mm

6. Uniformity co efficient of sand 1.3 – 1.7

7. Under Drain system Piping grid with Manifold in the

centre and laterals placed across
 Design Criteria of Rapid Sand Filter
S. No. Parameter Value

8. Gravel Bed Gradation

• Top most 2 to 5 mm
• Bottom most 50 mm
(with a thickness of 30 to 50 cm)

9. Depth of Filter Bed : 2.6 m incl. 0.5 m FB

• Water Depth – 1 to 2 m
• Filter media – 0.75 m,
• Gravel support – 0.3 m,

10. Head Loss 2.5 – 3.0 m

 Estimation of depth of Sand bed
Min. depth required is given by Hudson’s formula

Where,
• q = Filtration rate in m3/m2/hr[Assumed filtration rate x Factor of
safety (2)]
• D = sand size in mm = 0.6 mm
• H = terminal head loss in m = 2.5 m
• l = depth of sand bed in m
• Bi = Break through index = 4 x 10-4 to 6 x 10-3
 Estimation of depth of Gravel
• To start with, a size gradation of 2 mm at top and
50 mm at bottom is assumed.

• The required depth (l) in cm of a component of

gravel layer of size d (mm) can be computed by
following equation:-
l = 2.54 x K x log(d)
Where,
K = 12 (range- 10 to 14)
d = gravel size in mm
Design Criteria for Underdrainage System
of Rapid Sand Filter
In perforated pipe type of this system, the laterals are provided with holes at the
bottom side. These holes are 5 to 12 mm in dia and make an angle of 30o

S. No. Parameter Value

1. Ratio of Length of Lateral on each side of Should not be more than 60
the manifold to its diameter
2. Ratio of total area of orifices to filter bed 0.15 to 0.5% Preferably 0.3%
area
3. Ratio of cross sectional area of laterals to 2:1 to 4:1 preferably 3:1
area of orifices served
4. Diameter of Orifices 5 mm to 12 mm
5. Spacing of Orifices 200 mm c/c for 12 mm dia to
80 mm c/c for 5 mm dia
6. Ratio of area of Manifold to area of laterals 1.5:1 to 2:1
served
7. Amount of wash water required 2 to 4% of total water feed
 Comparison of RSF and SSF
S. No. Parameter Slow Sand Filter Rapid Sand Filter
1. Area required More Less
2. Quantity of sand More Less
required
3. Effective size of sand 0.25 mm to 0.35 mm 0.45 mm to 0.7 mm
4. Uniformity coefficient 3 to 5 1.3 to 1.7
of sand (D60/D10)
5. Distribution of sand in uniform Finer at top &
bed coarser at bottom
6. Pre-treatment No chemical Chemical treatment
treatment required is required (PST,
when turbidity is less Coagulation,
than 100 NTU Flocculation)

7. Flexibility of operation Not possible Possible

 Comparison of RSF and SSF
S. No. Parameter Slow Sand Filter Rapid Sand Filter
8. Rate of Filtration 100 to 200 l/m2/hr 4000 to 6000 l/m2/hr
9. Size of 1 unit 30 to 60 m 6 to 8 m or 8 to 10 m
10. Underdrainage Open Jointed Drain Manifold & Lateral
System system
11. Period of cleaning 1 to 3 months 24 to 48 hr

12. Method of cleaning Scrapping the top layer Back washing

13. Amount of wash 0.2 to 0.6 % of water 2 to 4 % water

water required filtered filtered
14. Skilled Supervision Not essential Essential
 Comparison of RSF and SSF
S. No. Parameter Slow Sand Filter Rapid Sand Filter
15. Initial cost of installation More Less
16. Cost of maintenance Less More

17. Efficiency Efficient in removal Bacterial removal

of bacteria & efficiency is less (80
suspended matter to 90%) but removes
upto 98 to 99% but colour, odour & taste
can’t remove colour from the water.
from the water.