Masculinity in Pakistan

A Formative Research Study

September 2016

This publication is produced as Masculinity in Pakistan for the Gender Equity Program Aurat
Foundation with the financial support of the American people through the United States Agency for
International Development (USAID).

Copyrights © Aurat Foundation and Information Services Foundation.

II Masculinity in Pakistan
Masculinity in Pakistan
A Formative Research Study
This publication is made possible by the support of the American people through the United States Agency
for International Development (USAID) under the Gender Equity Program of Aurat Foundation.The
contents are the sole responsibility of Aurat Foundation and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID
or the United States Government.
 Preface

Preface
The Gender Equity Program (GEP) is a fundamental part of Aurat Foundation’s long-term commitment
to serving the cause of women’s empowerment and advancement in Pakistan. GEP aims to minimize the
gender gap in Pakistan. Implemented with the collaboration of Asia Foundation, GEP strives to facilitate
behavioral change, enable women to access information, resources and information, acquire control of
their lives and improve societal attitudes towards women and their issues.

The objectives of GEP are:

1. Enhancing gender equity by expanding women’s access to justice and women’s human rights

2. Increasing women’s empowerment by expanding knowledge of their rights and opportunities to

exercise their rights in the workplace, community, and home

3. Combating gender-based violence

4. Strengthening the capacity of Pakistani organizations that advocate for gender equity, women
empowerment and the elimination of gender-based violence.

During the initial years, GEP carried out extensive research on its core objectives covering women
empowerment, access to legal rights and justice and GBV issues. However we felt the need to further
explore the crucial underlying concepts that underpin gender behavior. In this regard research studies
were commissioned on gender identities, as under:

• Formative Research on Femininity in Pakistan

• Formative Research on Masculinity in Pakistan

• Qualitative Comparative Analysis of Femininity and Masculinity in Pakistan

• Research Study on Transgender Community in Pakistan

The first two formative research studies on femininity and masculinity in Pakistan, while exploring
gendered norms for both women and men, indirectly explored socio economic context and relations
that shape women’s lives, their current subordination and evolution of changing gender norms. A third
consultant was hired by GEP at the recommendation of USAID to carry out a comparative analysis of
the femininity and masculinity studies. These are very important and complex concepts and enhancing
their understanding will go a long way in determining societal and cultural norms that impact lives,
behaviors and relationships in the context of gender.

The fourth study investigated the vulnerabilities, consequences and challenges associated with the
transgender community in Pakistan. This research study highlights specific advocacy initiatives towards
realization of equal citizenship and dignity for transgender community. Given that this subject was very
sensitive, GEP ensured that the selected researchers were ready to undertake this study with sensitivity
and empathy.

Masculinity in Pakistan III

Preface

The studies make recommendations based on understanding of key issues surrounding gender identities,
which will help in holistic designing of gender related interventions in Pakistan in the future.

We would like to acknowledge and appreciate USAID in reposing confidence in GEP for undertaking this
important piece of research in Pakistan.

Simi Kamal

Chief of Party (CoP)

Gender Equity Program

IV Masculinity in Pakistan
 Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements
The Formative Study on Masculinity in Pakistan was led by Dr Shumaila (CEO Change Consulting) who
supervised this whole piece of assignment, coordinated resources, conducted interviews with experts
and gave valuable inputs to analysis. Acknowledgments are due to Mr Ihatsham Akram (the Research
Supervisor) who directed the research design and undertook the report review and finalization. Mr
Aftab Hamid (Research Manager) who developed the research tools, collected data and undertook the
preliminary analysis. Mr Pervaiz Tufail (the Gender Expert on the study) for his insights and guidance on
the gender aspects in research designs, analysis and writing of this report.

We our thankful to our field researchers that included Ms Feroza Azmat in Sindh, Mr Muhammad
Ramzan in Punjab, Mr Haroon Rasheed in Balochistan and Ms. Nadia Asgahr in Azad and Jammu Kashmir,
and Mr Sajid Pervez who reached out to respondents and collected the data.

Special thanks to all the IDI respondents who took time out of their extremely busy schedules to
provide their insights on the subject of masculinity. We owe huge thanks to males and females who
actively took part in the research and provided information.

Finally, we would like to extend our appreciation to Ms Johdah Bokhari, Director, Monitoring, Evaluation
& Research and Ms Muneezeh Khan, Research Specialist from GEP, Aurat Foundation who maintained
close contact with us and provided support through the course of this study, from the development of
the research framework and the tool development, to the completion of the final work. Special thanks to
Ms Sara Hafeez Kazi, Research Associate at the School of Culture, Education, and Human Development,
New York, USA for making the final edits to the study.

Masculinity in Pakistan V
Acknowledgements

VI Masculinity in Pakistan
 Table of Contents

Table of Contents
Preface.....................................................................................................................................................................III
Acknowledgements.............................................................................................................................................. V
List of Tables..........................................................................................................................................................XI
List of Figures.......................................................................................................................................................XII
Acronyms & Abbreviations..............................................................................................................................XIII
Glossary.............................................................................................................................................................. XIV
Executive Summary........................................................................................................................................... XV
1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Research Objectives............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Research Design and Methodology................................................................................................. 1
1.2.1 Secondary Information Review................................................................................................. 1
1.2.1.1 Purpose and Objectives............................................................................................................ 1
1.2.1.2 Methodology................................................................................................................................ 1
1.2.2 Primary Research.......................................................................................................................... 2
1.2.2.1 Respondents................................................................................................................................ 2
1.2.3 Distribution of Tools.................................................................................................................... 2
1.2.3.1 Key Informant Interviews......................................................................................................... 2
1.2.3.2 Focus Group Discussions (FGD)............................................................................................ 3
1.2.4 Data Collection and Management............................................................................................ 4
1.2.4.1 Interviews and FGD Guidelines.............................................................................................. 4
1.2.4.2 Data Collectors........................................................................................................................... 5
1.2.4.3 Training of Data Collectors...................................................................................................... 5
1.2.4.4 FGD Participant Recruitment ................................................................................................ 6
1.2.4.5 Conducting Community FGDs................................................................................................ 6
1.2.4.6 Conducting KIIs........................................................................................................................... 7
1.2.4.7 Data Recording and Transcription.......................................................................................... 7
1.2.4.8 Data Analysis................................................................................................................................ 7
2. Desk Review Findings........................................................................................................ 9
2.1 Masculinity as a Concept..................................................................................................................... 9
2.2 Masculinity as a Social Construct...................................................................................................... 9
2.3 Types of Masculinities.........................................................................................................................11
2.4 Masculinity and Hegemony...............................................................................................................11
2.5 Masculinity in Context of Pakistan..................................................................................................13
2.5.1 Regional Masculinity in Pakistan...............................................................................................13
2.5.2 Economic and Social Linkages of Masculinity.......................................................................14
2.5.3 “Real Man” ...................................................................................................................................14

Masculinity in Pakistan VII

Table of Contents

2.5.4 Sexuality and Masculinity..........................................................................................................14

2.6 Masculinity and Violence Against Women......................................................................................15
2.7 Masculinities and Engaging Men......................................................................................................15
2.8 Summary.............................................................................................................................................. 16
3. Findings & Analysis from Qualitative Survey................................................................ 19
3.1 Definition and Perception of Masculinity.....................................................................................19
3.1.1 Masculinity.....................................................................................................................................19
3.1.1.1 Findings from Key Informant Interviews.............................................................................19
3.1.1.2 Findings from Focus Group Discussions.............................................................................19
3.1.2 Masculinity Defined by Traits, Personality Types or Looks................................................20
3.1.2.1 Findings from Key Informant Interviews.............................................................................20
3.1.2.2 Findings from Focus Group Discussions.............................................................................22
3.1.3.2 Findings from Focus Group Discussions.............................................................................24
3.1.4 Masculinity: Perspectives (Biology vs social upbringing)........................................................25
3.1.4.1 Findings from Key Informant Interviews.............................................................................25
3.1.4.2 Findings from Focus Group Discussions.............................................................................26
3.2 Societal Roles & Behaviors..............................................................................................................26
3.2.1 The Impact of Masculinity on Men, Women, Family and Society ....................................26
3.2.1.1 Findings from Key Informant Interviews.............................................................................26
3.2.1.2 Findings from Focus Group Discussions.............................................................................30
3.2.2 Evolution of Masculinity ................................................................................................................34
3.2.2.1 Findings from Key Informant Interviews.............................................................................34
3.2.2.2 Findings from Focus Group Discussions.............................................................................34
3.2.3 Promotion of Positive Masculine Aspects .................................................................................35
3.2.3.1 Findings from Key Informant Interviews.............................................................................35
3.2.3.2 Findings from Focus Group Discussions.............................................................................36
3.2.4 An Ideal Masculine Response towards the Stressful Situations in Life...........................37
3.2.4.1 Findings from Key Informant Interviews.............................................................................37
3.2.4.2 Findings from Focus Group Discussions.............................................................................37
3.2.5 Key pressures on an individual to keep his masculinity.......................................................38
3.2.5.1 Findings from Key Informant Interviews.............................................................................38
3.2.5.2 Findings from Focus Group Discussions.............................................................................38
3.3 Masculinity and Gender Based Violence........................................................................................39
3.3.1 Correlation between Masculinity and GBV...........................................................................39
3.3.1.1 Findings from Key Informant Interviews ............................................................................39
3.3.1.2 Findings from Focus Group Discussions ............................................................................39
3.3.2 Attributes associated with GBV and Masculinity..................................................................40

VIII Masculinity in Pakistan

 Table of Contents

3.3.2.1 Findings from Key Informant Interviews.............................................................................40

3.3.2.2 Findings from Focus Group Discussions.............................................................................40
3.4 Masculinity and Sexuality .................................................................................................................40
3.4.1 Masculine Traits Associated with Sexuality.............................................................................40
4. Discussion, Conclusions and Recommendation............................................................ 43
4.1 Discussion ...........................................................................................................................................43
4.1.1 Masculinity Definition and Perception....................................................................................43
4.1.1.1 Masculinity Definition ............................................................................................................43
4.1.1.2 Biological Difference or Social Upbringing/Cultural Expectation..................................45
4.1.1.3 Implicit Association Traits........................................................................................................45
4.1.2 Societal Role and Behaviors.......................................................................................................46
4.1.3 Masculinity and Gender Based Violence.................................................................................47
4.1.4 Masculinity and Sexuality............................................................................................................47
4.2 Conclusions..........................................................................................................................................48
4.2.1 Masculinity Definition and Perception....................................................................................48
4.2.1.1 Perception of Masculinity........................................................................................................48

4.2.2 Societal Role and Behaviors.......................................................................................................49

4.2.2.1 Social Pressures.........................................................................................................................49

4.2.2.2 Impact of Masculinity on Men................................................................................................49

4.2.2.3 Impact of Masculinity on Women..........................................................................................50

4.2.2.4 Impact of Masculinity on Family............................................................................................51

4.2.2.5 Impact of Masculinity on Society...........................................................................................51

4.2.2.6 Masculine Response in Stressful Situation...........................................................................52
4.2.2.7 Positive Masculine Aspects to be Enhanced........................................................................52
4.2.2.8 Evolution of the Masculinity...................................................................................................52

4.3 Image of Masculine Personality........................................................................................................54

4.4 Recommendations..............................................................................................................................55
Annexures............................................................................................................................. 57
Annex 2 ................................................................................................................................ 59
Annex 3................................................................................................................................. 61
References ............................................................................................................................ 61

Masculinity in Pakistan IX
Table of Contents

X Masculinity in Pakistan
 List of Tables

List of Tables
Table 1 Geographical Distribution of KIIs

Table 2 Background of the KII Respondents

Table 3: FGD Participants’ Background

Table 4A: Analysis Techniques for Primary Research

Table 4B: Scale Construction

Table 5 Attributes of Men and Women

Table 6 Men Engagement Projects in Pakistan

Table 7 Masculinity Definition (KII responses)

Table 8 Traits and Behaviors of Masculinity (FDG responses)

Table 9 Masculinity and Implicit Association Traits (KII responses)

Table 10 Masculinity and Implicit Association Traits (FGD responses)

Table 11 Impact of Masculinity on Family (KII responses)

Table 12 Impact of Masculinity on Society (KII responses)

Table 13 Impact of masculinity on Men (FGD responses)

Table 14 Impact of Masculinity on Women (FGD responses)

Table 15 Impact of Masculinity on Family (FGD responses)

Table 16 Impact of Masculinity on Society (FGD responses)

Table 17 Gender Based Violence and Association with Different Attributes (KII responses)

Table 18 Gender Based Violence and Association with Different Attributes (FGD responses)

Table 19 Masculinity and Sexuality

Table 20 Link between Masculinity and Sexuality

Table 21 Evolution of the Masculinity

Masculinity in Pakistan XI
List of Figures

List of Figures
Figure 1 Lewis’s Model for Gender Stereotyping

Figure 2 Lewis’s Model for Gender Stereotyping in Pakistan Urban and Rural Perspective

Figure 3 Relationship between Masculinity and Two Groups of IATs

Figure 4 Society to and from Men Process Flow Diagram

Figure 5 Socio-ecological Model of Impact of Masculinity

Figure 6 Perception of Masculinity

Figure 7 Masculinity by IATs Group and Bio Vs Socio Perspective

Figure 8 Masculinity Pressures on Men

Figure 9 Impact of Masculinity on Men

Figure 10 Impact of Masculinity on Family

Figure 11 Impact of Masculinity on Society

Figure 12 Masculinity Response in Stressful Situations

Figure 13 Ways to Enhance the Positive Aspects of Masculinity

Figure 14 Cause and Effect Relationship Between Masculinity and Gender Based Violence

XII Masculinity in Pakistan

 Acronyms & Abbreviations

Acronyms & Abbreviations

AF Aurat Foundation

AJK Azad Jammu and Kashmir

FGDs Focus Group Discussions

FPAP Family Planning Association of Pakistan

GB Gilgit-Baltistan

GBV Gender Based Violence

GEP Gender Equity Program

IDIs In-depth Interviews

IEC Information, Education and Communication

KIIs Key Informant Interviews

KP Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

MNA Member of National Assembly

MPA Member of Provincial Assembly

NGO Non-Government Organization

Rutgers WPF Rutgers World Population Foundation

SACHET Society for the Advancement of the Community Health, Education and Training

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

VAW Violence Against Women

Masculinity in Pakistan XIII

Glossary

Glossary
Ana Ego

Aurat Woman

Baap Father

Bara Samjhta Hai Feel Superior

Bardasht Tolerance

Bhai Brother

Chars Hash

Ghairat Honor

Hakeem A Herbal Doctor

Izzat Honor and Respect

Jazbati Emotional

Karo Kari A Custom Practiced on Name of Honor Killing

Khawhisahat Wishes

Madressah An Islamic Institution

Mard Man

Mardangi Masculinity

Mohabat Love

Muasharti Societal

Mursmano Masculine

Pukhtoons People of Khyber Pukhtoonkhua Province

pukhtoonwali Masculine

Shalwar Kameez A Traditional Suit Wear in Pakistan

Taqat Power

Tashadud Violence

Vani A Custom of Marrying Female for her Male Relatives Crimes

Watta Satta Simul taneous Marriage of a Brother-sister Pair from Two Households

XIV Masculinity in Pakistan

 Executive Summary

Executive Summary
Masculinity is a social mindset that originates 3. Gender based violence and masculinity
from cultural norms and is used by society for
desired ends. Understanding masculinity is crucial 4. Sexuality and masculinity
in addressing gender justice. Efforts targeted at Consistent with literature findings, masculinity in
problems faced by the women, such as violence Pakistan was determined by notions with power.
and gender discrimination/injustice, require Patriarchy and masculinity go hand in hand and
that masculinity is studied in detail. Masculinity, are mutually reinforcing. Masculinity is associated
mostly connotes negative repercussions, may with men’s ability to control this dynamic, leading
also carry the opportunities to promote positive to the subjugation of women, and control over
attitudes and behaviors. It is therefore useful their bodies, decision-making, mobility and
to understand, highlight and promote positive relationships. The social construct of honor, and
aspects of the concept of masculinity. its preservation, is also an important area that is
The Formative Research on Masculinity was inherently linked with women in Pakistani society.
commissioned by the USAID’s Gender Equity Whereas the overall perception of masculinity
Program being implemented in Pakistan by remains linear, some variation in opinions
the Aurat Foundation. This study aimed to was observed in urban and rural settings. For
explore the construct of masculinity in Pakistan instance, urban masculinity was manifested by
with regards to its manifestations, associated an Anglicized dressing style, being clean shaven
behaviors, evolution and implications. or stylish beard. Conversely, rural masculinity
This was a national formative research that was highlighted by wearing shalwar qameez
included both primary and secondary data. and growing a heavy moustache. Expressed as
The literature reviewed included reports and “Ghabru, jat, sher” in Punjab, “Kunay, pukhtun
documents accessed through the internet, sarrayday, jhalwan sarrayday ” in KP, “mursmano,
including the e-shelves of local and international melmadost,” “shah meraah/ handsome, smart,
organizations working on gender in Pakistan. zorawar/powerful, badi/fighter, shahkarkay,
The literature review helped unpack the concept masculinity is usually defined in Pakistan as a set
of masculinity and derive the dimensions for of attributes that is socially constructed. It is also
informing the tools of primary data collection, deeply associated with men and boys for their
that is, Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), and own benefit and is defined by certain behaviors,
In-depth Interviews (IDIs). A total of 42 FGDs appearances and traits in Pakistan. It is also
and 60 IDIs were conducted across Pakistan, divided on the basis of geography, ethnicity and
after which data was analyzed manually. Constant culture.
comparisons, tallying methods, grounded Findings suggest that gender stereotyping is
theory and analytical induction with graphical vehemently present in Pakistan. Masculinity in
presentation were used for analysis. Pakistan is more associated with males, although
The study focused on four key themes: studies have shown that there are conflicting
realities in urban and rural areas of Pakistan.
1. Definitions and perceptions of In urban areas a shift has been observed in
masculinity the gender roles. The “One Gender” concept
appears to be finding some roots, which,
2. Societal roles and behaviors in terms if capitalized properly, can be a window of
of the impact of masculinity on men, opportunity to catalyze the social change process
women, family, and society through appropriate interventions. Consistent
with earlier findings, gender stereotyping still

Masculinity in Pakistan XV
Executive Summary

continue to have a stronghold in rural areas of pressures/demands both positively and negatively
Pakistan. However, hairline cracks have started in our socio-ecological masculinity impact model.
to appear in the form of increased awareness of
gender rights Masculinity appears to be a cause and effect of
GBV. Predominantly, gender power relations
The study found that difference between men (masculinity associated with men) have left
and women was strongly believed to be due a legacy whereby women are more likely to
to social upbringing and cultural expectations. be disadvantaged relative to men, have less
Socially the masculinity can be termed as access to resources, benefits, information
provider, protector, loyal, leader, respecting and decision making, and to have fewer rights
women, honest and kind and having good both within the household and in the public
heart while psychologically it is termed as sphere. Masculinity in Pakistan is pre dominantly
hard worker, decision maker, competitor, associated with characteristics such as aggression,
consistent, responsible, aggressive, courageous, dominance, strength, courage and control. These
and emotionally restrained and solution finder. characteristics result from a combination of
Overall, it was understood as a construct biological, cultural and social influences, and
stemming from a combination of biological and relate to the power in society as a whole. These
social differences between males and females. traits of masculinity are termed to be the major
contributor to the violence happening from men.
It appears that masculinity has evolved in
Pakistani society in a series of stages. In the first Another big reason for the violence particularly
stage men dominated society, in that, they did not in urban areas of Pakistan, are changes in the
need to prove their identity; in stage two, there economy, social structures, and household
was seen a shift towards hegemonic masculinity. composition which are resulting in ‘crises of
This was continuously challenged and resulted in masculinity’ and causing “demasculinizing” effect.
changes in male norms and values. The third stage Men, consequently seek affirmation of their
is currently being influenced by post-structural masculinity in other ways particularly reported as
feminists, who, in cities like Karachi, Lahore and gender based violence.
Islamabad, are challenging traditional Pakistani
masculinity. The study recommends that masculinity has
positive traits which need to be capitalized for
This study observed that male and female social stabilization and reformation especially
constructs are created biologically and for improving the tolerance and patience level
handed over to society by means of gender of society, for a more peaceful and harmonious
role socialization and the stereotyping, traits, co-existence of individuals especially males and
behaviors, appearance for acceptance and females. The efforts to control the GBV should
occupations based on the traits and appearances. inter alia focus on minimizing the effects of
At next level the society creates institutions masculinity in GBV context. There is a changing
through which these norms are transferred trend that masculinity is no more denial of
to male and female, mainly these institutions women rights. In many places especially in urban
consist of mother, family, neighborhood, religion, settings masculinity does refer to getting rights
schools, workplace, and media. The most such as education to women. Such traits of
influencing institutions in the Pakistan appear to masculinities need to be amplified in society
be mothers, curriculum taught in schools, wrong especially given the observation that women
understanding and interpretation of religion and economic empowerment is also being reacted
media. The societal demands from men create to as a challenge to masculinity resulting into
the pressures on men (socially, psychologically, violence against women.
economically and physically) which he
reciprocates to other layers in reaction to those Women education and media appear to be key

XVI Masculinity in Pakistan

 Executive Summary

levers of change that can help diffusion of the

positive masculinities in societies at large. Positive
masculinity needs to be branded and promoted
as a life style approach hooked with the honor
aspirations of the society. Along with promotion
of the positive traits of masculinity, efforts will
be required to lower the pressures on men for
keeping their masculinity intact. Changes will be
required in the curriculum for diffusing gender
neutral values in the society along with focus on
the first training institute of a child i.e. mothers.

A trivial balance will be required to be observed

while promoting the positive traits of masculinity
lest those also turn into pressures on males
resulting into chaos and identity crises of the
individuals. Change process has initiated, it needs
to be catalyzed and strengthened in urban areas.
However, more efforts will be needed in rural
settings.

The study in hand is first national study on

masculinities which explored various dimensions
of the concept. More research is needed to
further improve the understanding on the
subject. The focus of further research may
include Masculinity in different sub cultures given
the fact that Pakistan hosts a heterogeneous
society. There is a sheer need of exploring all the
social and psychological aspects of masculinity in
all roles it is being observed i.e. father, brother,
son and husband. A deeper understanding will
be required for each of the key roles that man
is expected to play at family, community and
society level. The study did not hint towards
any role of religion in masculinity construct and
practices. This however further needs to be
explored especially in the rural context where
masculinity’s traditional concept is still upheld.
There is a need to explore how masculinity
manifests itself in political, economic and judicial
structures of the society.

Masculinity in Pakistan XVII

Executive Summary

XVIII Masculinity in Pakistan

 Chapter -1

Chapter -1
Introduction
1. Introduction To examine how men and women are challenging
the stereotypical masculine identity (emerging
Aurat Foundation and The Asia Foundation are variances in gender roles)
implementing a five-year USAID-supported
Gender Equity Program (GEP). The program To study the effect of masculinity on men’s
supports Pakistani organizations and institutions sexuality
working in the area of gender equity with a focus
on enhancing gender equity, increasing women’s 1.2 Research Design and Methodology
empowerment, combating gender based violence This was a formative research that comprised of
and strengthening the capacity of Pakistani two parts:
organizations that advocate for gender equity,
women’s empowerment and the elimination of Secondary information review
gender-based violence. GEP launched a series of
research studies in this regard. The study in hand Primary research through qualitative study
focuses upon Masculinity. 1.2.1 Secondary Information Review
1.1 Research Objectives 1.2.1.1 Purpose and Objectives
The study explored the socio economic context The overall purpose of this exercise was to form
and relations that shape men’s lives, their a research framework and develop tools for field
dominance and change. The specific objectives of data collection.
the assignment were:
The specific objective was to unpack the concept
To identify normative understanding of masculine of “masculinity” specifically in terms of its
identify in Pakistan definition, typology and properties, and develop a
To assess the impact of masculinity on men – preliminary understanding of the phenomenon in
associated pressures of being a man in Pakistani a Pakistani context.
society (for example, bread earner, decision 1.2.1.2 Methodology
maker, head of family, coping with issues of being
a ‘man, etc.) A liberal internet search was conducted to
collect the relevant literature. Whereas, Google
To identify negative and positive aspects of this in general and Google Scholar in particular was
identity used to find out the relevant literature, efforts
To identify the impact on society, specifically on was made to collect Pakistan specific literature
violence against women (VAW) by visiting key organizations’ websites that are
known to have a mandate of gender work. These
To assess the positive impact of masculinity on included: Aurat Foundation, Rutgers WPF, Rozan,
society Aahung, ShirkatGah, Amal Foundation, UNESCO,
UNWOMEN, SACHET etc. Both published
What can be done to deal with the negative and unpublished grey literature collected over
aspects and how can positive aspects be the last 15 years was included in the review.
enhanced The first 20 links identified by Google in each
search criteria were explored for relevant

Masculinity in Pakistan 1
Chapter -1

literature. The initial key search terms included: policy issues.

masculinity, manhood, men, manliness, Pakistan.
Realizing the scarcity of literature on masculinity The participants approached for FGDs were:
in Pakistan the search criteria was expanded to
• Male and female community members
include “gender”- this brought forth a substantial
(Married)
number of studies. The outcome of the review is
presented in a later section of this report. • Community influentials
1.2.2 Primary Research • Community youth
This was a qualitative study. Two methods of data 1.2.3 Distribution of Tools
collection were employed:
This was a national study and data was collected
• Key Informant Interviews (KIIs). across Pakistan in all four provinces. A special
effort was made include both urban and rural
• Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). perspectives based upon urban and rural divide,
Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) were conducted across major ethnicities and gender division.
with individuals assumed to be well versed with 1.2.3.1 Key Informant Interviews
community norms and behaviors by virtue of
their academic backgrounds, professions and field A total of 60 KIIs were conducted. The
experience. distribution is given in Table 1 and Table 2.
The information collected through KIIs was
complemented through Community Focus
Group Discussions (FGDs) with both males and Table 1: Geographical Distribution of KIIs
females to have an understanding of community
City Men Women Total
insights regarding masculinity in Pakistan.

1.2.2.1 Respondents Lahore 8 5 13

The respondents targeted for KIIs were: Peshawar 4 5 9

• NGOs working on gender in Pakistan Muzaffarabad 5 3 8

• Gender specialists Gilgit/Baltistan 2 1 3

• Psychologists
Quetta 5 5
• Sociologists
Karachi 5 6 11
• Medical Experts (Hakeem)
Islamabad 5 6 11
• Human Rights Commission of Pakistan
Total 34 26 60
• Women Development Departments

• Lawyers

• (same as bullet 2 above) Media experts

Local journalists with experience in covering

violence, women, gender, human rights, and public

2 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Chapter -1

Table 2: Background of the KII Respondents

Sr No Type of Respondent Men Women Sub Total

1 Representatives of NGOs working on women’s rights and human 6 2 8

rights
2 Psychologists 3 3 6

3 Sociologists/Gender specialists 4 3 7

4 Health Care Providers/Hakeems 2 1 3

5 School Teachers 2 3 5

6 Individuals working with GBV survivors – Edhi, shelters, lawyers, etc. 3 5 8

7 Media representatives/film and drama script writers 3 1 4

8 Human Rights Commission (Government) 3 3
9 Departments of Health, Education, Women Development (Govern- 4 3 7
ment)
10 National /Provincial Commission on Status of Women (Govern- 1 3 3
ment)
11 Judge who has worked on women’s rights/gender based violence 1 1 2

12 Legislator/MNA/MPA 2 1 3

Total 34 26 60

1.2.3.2 Focus Group Discussions (FGD) the geographical breakup, urban/rural division and
respondent categories is given in Table 3 below:
A total of 42 FGD were conducted. The
distribution of FGD in all provinces based upon
Table 3: FGD Participants’ Background

Geographical Spread Division Married Married Influential youth FGDs

Male Female Target
Provinces Areas

Punjab Lahore Urban 1 1 1 1 4

Multan Rura l 1 1 1 1 4

Kyber Peshawar Urban 1 1 1 1 4

Pukhtoonkhua
Abbotabad Rural 1 1 1 1 4
Azad Jammu Muzzaffarabad 1 1 1 1 4
Kashmir
Gligit/Baltistan Gilgit 1 1 1 1 4

Masculinity in Pakistan 3
Chapter -1

Balochistan Quetta Urban 1 1 1 1 4

Pishin Rural 1 1 1 1 4

Sindh Karachi Urban 1 1 1 1 4

Mirpurkhas Rural 1 1 1 1 4

Islamabad Islamabad 1 1 2

Total 11 11 10 10 42

1.2.4 Data Collection and Management Observations from pretesting

1.2.4.1 Interviews and FGD Guidelines Some key observations made during the
pretesting phase are as follows:
Semi structured guidelines were developed
to conduct the KIIs and FGD. Open ended • The guide entailed a discussion spanning
questions exploring the areas of inquiry were approximately two hours which
included with possible probes to solicit more was uncomfortable/inconvenient for
clear responses from the respondents and participants.
establish priority responses. The guides were
later translated into Urdu. • Some questions were repetitive in nature

Pretesting of Guides • Frequent probing, and in some instances

prompting, was required to solicit
The next important activity was the pretesting of responses.
the guides. The overall purpose of this step was
to identify necessary changes for the guide. The • The content of female FGDs
specific objectives were: disproportionate to that of the sessions
with the males. This could hint towards a
• To identify local vocabulary for questions culture in which females are direct victim
of violence from men. (this point doesn’t
• To check the time requirements for make sense to me).
executing the protocol
• Females were more open in sharing their
• To identify inappropriate areas of inquiry/ experiences compared to their male
questions/probes counterparts.
• To have a feeling of richness of the data • Males were hesitant to respond to
to be generated questions related to masculinity and
The pretesting was done with two groups (one sexuality.
male and one female). The female team members • Overall, Elderly men and women
conducted FGDs with female groups and male were more open in providing more
members conducted one FGD with male information than their younger
members. The pretesting was conducted at the counterparts.
Islamabad Change Consulting office.
• Detailed answers were sought only after

4 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Chapter -1

rigorous probing. 2. Participant recruitment

Changes in the Guide 3. Rapport building

The pre-testing phase leads to the following 4. Introductions

changes to the guide:
5. Ethical considerations:
All the repetitive questions were merged. Confidentiality and
Further probing questions were introduced. The Informed Consent
updated guides are attached as Annex 1.
6. Collecting demographic
1.2.4.2 Data Collectors information

Five teams collected data in all four provinces 7. Moderating

and 2 regions of Pakistan. Each team comprised
one interviewer and a note taker. All FGDs were 8. Ensuring participation of
conducted by a team of same sex facilitators respondents
and note takers. These lead facilitators were 9. Use of guides
experienced in at least one data collection task
prior to this study. 10. Note taking and recording
1.2.4.3 Training of Data Collectors 11. Participant appreciation,
time and participation
Once the teams were in place, one-day FGD/ requirements
KII training, led by team leaders, was organized
to provide an elaborate description of the 12. Completion of notes
study objectives areas of inquiry, and tools. The
training was conducted in a participatory manner. Introduction to the guidelines
It began with a round of introduction of the After familiarizing participants with the
participants. The training methodology included theoretical background of the study, the research
taking through the data collectors through both manager explained the FGDs/KII guides to the
theory and practical. The team leader took the participants. Briefly the themes were introduced
participants through following items: to the participants and encouraged them to
• Purpose of the overall project brainstorm examples of the questions under
each area of inquiry. Examples of appropriate and
• Need and objectives of the assignment inappropriate phrasing of the questions were
being undertaken (formative research) given in order to highlight the difference between
the two.
• Prospective use of the findings of the
formative research Mock exercise
• Introduction and description of FGDs The next step of the training was to conduct a
and KIIs as method of data collection trial run of tools for firming up the theoretical
knowledge imparted to the participants and
• Introduction to FGDs and KIIs making them exercise their agreed roles. The
• FGD/KII Method participants were split up into two groups, in
separate rooms, according to their gender. The
1. Pre FGD/KIIs preparations / research manager observed these interactions
Development phase and later provided feedback.

Masculinity in Pakistan 5
Chapter -1

1.2.4.4 FGD Participant Recruitment working in the area. Notable and well-reputed
individuals such as shopkeepers, and mosque
Using purposive sampling, a diverse set of leaders would serve as strong contributors to
participants was recruited to participate in the the FGDs.
FGDs. A special effort was made to incorporate
a sample that was socio-culturally and To ensure maximum participation, the FGDs
economically varied, and also met the inclusion were conducted at venues conveniently
criteria (married males, married females, youth, accessible to the participants. For the most part,
and community influentials). male FGDs were conducted in community places
such as hujras (community centers), baithak,
As a first step from each district, FGD organizers whereas female FGDs were conducted in the
were identified through NGOs working in the participant’s homes.Youth FGDs were conducted
respective district. These organizers were briefed at local universities.
by the field researchers about the inclusion
criteria of the participants and tasked with The average number of participants per FGD was
identification of at least 20 participants with 10-12 individuals.
diverse backgrounds. The organizer identified
the potential participants with the background 1.2.4.5 Conducting Community FGDs
details such as their residence, age, occupation, Based on the findings from the pre-testing phase,
willingness to participate, and availability, amongst the following modus operandi was adopted for
others. . Upon successful participant identification the Community FGDs:
and deliberation amongst researchers, 15
individuals were finalized. A time and venue was The lead facilitator started the discussion/asked a
agreed for holding the FGD. question
A total of 383 FGD participants attended 42 Based on the responses, the lead facilitator
FGDs. further probed, if necessary.
Inclusion criteria The note taker recorded (in either Urdu
or English) the discussion where allowed by
A) Married Male and Female FGDs the participants Once the FGDs participants
• Age: 25 – 45 assembled, the lead facilitator shared the
purpose of the discussion and sought their
• Marital Status: Married formal, but verbal, consent to participate in the
study. The respondents were informed about
• Children:Yes their rights to leave the discussion, refuse any
• Youth FGDs information, or not answer any question. Having
obtained consent, the lead facilitator established
• Age: 21-35 rules of discussion, which included providing
opportunities for all participants to talk, avoiding
• Education Status: Enrolled in university cross talk and arguing. The discussion began
• Influential FGDs with the facilitator asking open ended questions
followed by probing questions listed in the guide.
Field Officers at each site were assigned the Each session, on average, lasted between 80 - 90
task of identifying frequently visited community minutes. Upon completion of the discussion, the
venues (such as shops, mosques, doctor/health facilitator thanked the respondents for their time
worker clinics), respected individuals who had and contributions, and responded to any queries
been living in the locality for over 15 years as they had.
well as prominent political party wing leaders

6 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Chapter -1

1.2.4.6 Conducting KIIs respondents and asked them for any queries
and replied to them within the limitations of the
The participants of the KIIs were contacted study.
for their availability in collaboration with local
NGOs. On the agreed date and time, the team 1.2.4.7 Data Recording and Transcription
met them at the place of their convenience.
Save for participants in Sindh Gilgit/Baltistan
The lead Interviewer shared the purpose of
and Balochistan, all FGD participant agreed to
the meeting with the respondents and sought
the sessions being recorded via note taking
their formal but verbal consent to participate and recording devices. . Notes were taken to
in the study. The respondents were informed counter any risk of technical failures of the
about their rights to leave the study or to refuse electronic devices Furthermore, this method
any information or to not answer any question also allowed for non-verbal body language to be
without being questioned. Once the respondent recorded.
has given the informed consent to participate,
the lead Interviewer started asking the questions Upon completion of each FGD/IDI the field team
with generic open ended questions followed by sat together and discussed their findings and
probing questions. On average each interview noted their onsite observations and important
consumed 60-80 minutes. Having completed events during the discussions/interviews.
the discussion, the lead Interviewer thanked the

Table 4A: Analysis Techniques for Primary Research

Constant Comparison/ Tally Analytical Induction Graphical Analysis

Method/Grounded Theory
Themes and further sub-themes Data was analysed in the following categories: All the findings were
were developed using FGD and analysed using graphical
KII guidelines. KIIs were analysed by professional categories, representations. Microsoft
first, separately and then, later, combined. Word cloud and Info-
FGD/KII transcripts and field graphic were used to
notes were consulted to gather FGD data was analyzed on the basis of inclusion
develop the presentation
information related to each categories () first, separately and later, combined.
of the findings of the Tally
theme Method.
Data was also analyzed on the urban and rural
Codes were generated for the level.
responses.
Hypothetical themes were also constructed
Consistencies between codes from the gathered data for example “We are
were tabulated using the tally biologically created and socially constructed” and
method. “Hegemonic Masculinity in Pakistan Society”.

Excel was used for tabulation

1.2.4.8 Data Analysis transcriptions were analyzed manually. The data

analysis was approached with the framework
The first step in data analysis phase was to determined from the objectives of the study.
generate detailed transcripts of the sessions. The transcripts/notes were analyzed by the team
The recorded data was carefully transcribed and leader, research manager and qualitative research
complemented with field notes. Data collected specialists. Analysis of the gathered data was
through various sources in the form of notes or done on three levels, as tabulated in the Table No

Masculinity in Pakistan 7
Chapter -1

4 A. In addition, the strength of the responses

under each theme, were grouped and sorted
both categorically and cumulatively. A two-stage
scale was constructed for estimating the strength
of responses (Table 4B).

Table 45B: Scale Construction

Responses in FGDs are ranked as follows:

Mentioned in 1-3 FGDs * Low

Mentioned in 4-7 FGDs ** Medium

Mentioned in 8-11 FGDs *** Highly

Overall strength

1-4 stars Low

5-8 stars Medium
9-12 stars High

The findings from the data were then studied

by looking at confirming or contradicting
research findings (listed in the bibliography of
this report). National and international surveys
regarding men and masculinities and relevant
research studies were consulted to describe the
data collected through the study in hand and
presented under the “Discussion, Conclusion and
Recommendations” section.

8 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Chapter -2

Chapter -2
Desk Review Findings
2. Desk Review Findings idea, masculinity is a process of creating manly
behavior. ‘Who exercises the Power’ is therefore
Men play diverse roles in the economy, the the underlying question behind masculinity [10]
community and the family. Men are husbands, [11].
fathers, brothers and sons. Across differences of
class, race, ethnicity, sexuality, age and religion, 2.2 Masculinity as a Social Construct
one of the few commonalities that men share, as
a ‘distinct group’, is their gender privilege. Men, Masculinity is regarded as merely a set of
like women, are affected by power structures attributes or a quality that a man or boy
that are interwoven with other hierarchical may possess to different extents. It refers to
structures such as those based on gender, race the socially constructed attributes and traits
and class [1] [2] [3]. generally expressed through dominance,
discrimination, violence, oppression, possession
2.1 Masculinity as a Concept and stigma irrespective of sex and gender. [12]
This implies that masculinity is not simply a
Masculinities as a field of study, was a significant function of sex/gender and masculinity attributes
outcome of feminist discourse and activism, are not restricted only to MEN or all men cannot
informed by the latter’s focus on patriarchal have the attributes of masculinity. The women can
systems of power. It was focused as an ideology, also have the characteristics of masculinity [6]
was not seen as monolithic but rather shaped
by many processes and intersecting identities The gendered concept of masculinity or
or conditions that produce multiple variables manliness has fluidity and flexibility in terms of its
amongst different groups, individuals, institutions meaning and interpretation. In its wider meaning
and societies [4] [5]. and construction, masculinity is understood
as a way and an expression of being ‘man’ or
Masculinity as a manly attribute defined through ‘manhood’. It refers to the characteristics or
the cultural practices and social norms. [13]. attributes of being man. It refers to the men’s
Traditionally people have attached meanings behavior, practices and acts on the basis of their
to masculinity on the basis of men having gendered identity being men. The characteristics
different qualities. However, it does not exist and attributes are expressed through the
in isolation from femininity [9]. In a way behaviors and actions. The actions associated
femininity is perceived as negative masculinity. with the male gendered behavior are called
In most societies, masculinity and femininity masculinity. [8]
are mirror images of each other; if men are
expected to dominate and control, women must Masculinity as a ‘dominant’ and ‘superior’ gender
be submissive; if men are supposed to order, position is produced through customary laws,
women have to take orders, and so on. Societal family, religion, norms and sanctions, popular
members decide what being a boy/man or a culture and media, regulations, state and its
girl/woman means (e.g., dominant or passive, mechanism and has specific consequences for
brave or emotional), and males will generally women. [14] It is the society that makes us
respond by defining themselves as masculine masculine and feminine through the process
while females will generally define themselves as of gendered socialization. It defines how boys/
feminine. In this sense, as a socially constructed men should behave, dress, what attitudes and

Masculinity in Pakistan 9
Chapter -2

qualities they should have, and how they should the following:
be treated in contrast to girls/women. [15]
The content of gender stereotypes may be Table 5: Attributes of Men and Women
analyzed into four separate components that
Men Women
people use to differentiate men from women
—traits, behaviors, physical characteristics, and Strong Weak
occupations [16] as shown in Figure 1. Rational Emotional
Objective Subjective
Aggressive/Assertive Gentle/Passive

It is however important to note here that these

opposite attributes do not conform to any
empirical reality. These are exhibited by people
in combinations and these overlap to a great
extent that it is hard to make such obvious
comparisons. Besides, human traits are not
distributed in society in a structured way that
would result into women who are rational,
strong, assertive and logical, and men who
are dependent, passive, emotional and weak.
Figure 1 Lewis’s Model for Gender Furthermore human beings are not in possession
Stereotyping of fixed and immutable traits that reflect stability
across time and space. For example, the same
There are at least three major theories that person, man or woman, can act in a very brave,
explain the development of femininity and assertive or logical manner in one situation, and
masculinity: Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud, 1927), weak, timid or irrational in another. Alfred et al
Cognitive-Developmental Theory (Kohlberg, has also established in their studies on sexuality
1966), Learning Theories that emphasize direct that that the ideas of masculine and feminine
reinforcement (Weitzman, 1979) and Modeling are theoretical constructions and no man or
(Mischel, 1970). In all of these theories, a two- woman strictly conforms to what is considered
part process is involved. In the first part, the child ‘masculinity’ or ‘femininity’ in any given society at
comes to know that she or he is female or male. a particular moment in history.
In the second part, the child comes to know
what being female or male means in terms of Whereas, there seems a consensus on
femininity or masculinity. fluidity, discursiveness and binary opposition
characteristics of masculinity, the later feminist
It has long been recognized that masculinity, like researches have accepted that both masculinity
femininity, is a discursive construction – an idea and femininity are social constructions that
created, reformed, reformulated and solidified in tend to force people into fixed and absolute
discourse. Doctors, psychiatrists, political leaders, categories by imposing behavioral standards and
heads of governments and groups, cultural and norms upon them. Such norms and standards are
religious spokespersons, writers, poets, thinkers based on the patriarchal imperative of creating
and army commanders all talk about what it mutually exclusive categories with fixed roles and
means to be masculine and a man. Conversely, responsibilities. [17]. As femininity and masculinity
they also elaborate upon what is not masculine, are social and historical constructions, they are
in other words what is feminine or unmanly. The not natural.
two concepts are most often constructed in a
series of two relative oppositions which include Masculinities are not natural and eternal but

10 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Chapter -2

social and historical. These are transformed • Complicit Masculinity: This is when
across time, space and culture. What may have men do not fit the characteristics of
been considered masculine a few decades or hegemonic masculinity but do not
some centuries ago may not be masculine today. challenge it either. Instead, individuals
Women in a number of cultures now perform often admire the characteristics of
many tasks that were, until recently, believed to hegemonic masculinity
be ‘man’s work’. Roles such as pilots, construction
workers, engineers, athletes, wrestlers, astronauts, • Marginalized Masculinity: Men cannot fit
scientists, military commanders belie the idea into the hegemonic because of certain
that there is something masculine about those characteristics such as race, sexuality,
who engage in these professions. The concept age, religion. However, they still subscribe
of masculinity is fluid and malleable and subject to norms of hegemonic masculinity such
to constant re-articulation and reconfiguration, as having physical strength and being
especially as it comes to be deployed for specific aggressive.
purposes of the State, nation, ethnic or religious • Subordinate Masculinity: Men exhibit
group. The articulation of masculinities is a qualities that are the opposite
function of the geographical conditions, needs of of those values in hegemonic
specific communities, history, culture and folklore masculinity. For example, they may
of a particular community. . Masculinity may be exhibit physical weakness or be
articulated differently in different social classes, very expressive with emotions Gay
ethnic formations, religious sects and linguistic or effeminate men are often linked
groups [18] [19] [20]. to subordinate masculinity
2.3 Types of Masculinities 2.4 Masculinity and Hegemony
The concept of multiple masculinities refers to Hegemonic masculinity is the dominant form of
the notion that various masculinities are defined masculinity by which men measure themselves
in relation to other men, other masculinities, and other masculinities. This form of masculinity
women, femininities and other differences, such causes the social pressures and societal
as age, ethnicity, appearance, socio-economic expectations boys and men face. Domination,
position and religion [20]. Masculinity is a aggressiveness, competitiveness, athletic prowess,
relational, evolving collection of meanings created stoicism, and control characterize hegemonic
in culture, constructed in relationships with masculinity. Love, affection, pain, and grief are
others, meaning different things at different times improper displays of emotion. “Any male [or
to different people [21]. In multicultural societies women trying to be hegemonically masculine]
such as the UK there are therefore likely to who fails to qualify in any one of these ways is
be multiple definitions, dynamics and norms of likely to view himself [or herself]... as unworthy,
masculinity that are continually being constructed incomplete, and inferior” (Goffman, 1963, p.
and reconstructed [22]. 128).”
Different types of masculinities have been Hegemonic masculinities usually rest upon
identified: and generate patriarchy - systems of power
• Hegemonic Masculinity: This is the most inequalities and imbalances between women
dominant form of masculinity in our and men. It is this very system – through this
society, and is culturally valued the notion of hegemonic masculinities – that uses
most. Qualities such as heterosexuality, violence as a means to ensure that these power
whiteness, physical strength, and the imbalances stay in place. Gender-based violence
suppression of emotions are favoured. becomes a means to acquire resources and

Masculinity in Pakistan 11
Chapter -2

deny access of these resources to others. It which masculinities are defined

also becomes a means to solidify relations
of domination that uphold this “structure of • Family formation, having children, care
inequality”…“involving a massive dispossession of giving and domestic roles.
social resources” (Connell, 2005: 83). • Schooling and education, such as the
Masculinity requires various representative length of time in school, educational
traits like physical strength, functionality, experience and its relevance to future
sexuality, emotion and intellect.t is also to work.
masculinity, like masculine being should be • Employment – the nature of work, the
success oriented, ambitious, aggressive, egotistical, extent of the commitment, the degree to
moral, trustworthy, decisive competitive, which men provide for their households,
and adventurous, amongst others. So these and so on – is a fourth key domain for
characteristics associated with masculinity exert defining masculinities.
crippling pressures over male members in the
family. [26]. Men’s roles and responsibilities were largely
understood through three main roles: those
So far masculinities can be restricted to two of provider, protector, and procreator. The
major concepts: performance of these roles and responsibilities
1. Manhood: Manhood refers to the emerged as a critical factor in, men’s
qualities and attributes that men achieve understanding of masculinity; The International
through both a biological maturation, and Masculinity survey indicated that 66 percent of
passage of rites into adulthood. Manhood men ranked these roles and responsibilities as the
is mostly associated with sex roles most essential aspect of masculinity. [28] [29]
assigned to the male sex and mile stones • The provider role was understood as
men have to cross to be called ‘real men’. being a hard worker through earning
2. Manliness: Manliness refers to the money and providing the social status for
manifestation of qualities that are the family.
associated with providing meaning to • The role of the procreator is closely tied
gender identity and gender roles for men. to masculine sexuality. Having children
Qualities such as strength, taking risks, emerged as a universal sign of masculinity.
and bravery are all signs of manliness
• The protector is viewed as a fearless and
Masculinities are constructed in various arenas, courageous man who protects the honor
including hegemonic images related to physical of the household by protecting the
and emotional strength, a disregard of domestic children and women in the family.
tasks, and a strong commitment to financial
success and high status in employment. According to an Indian Discrimination Survey
(2002) most men described masculinity in the
What it means to be a man has changed over following ways:
time, but five key areas can be reasonably taken
as core domains of any practical definition of • Physical appearance of men such as
masculinities [27]: physique (body building, muscle tone,
“steel” body etc.), physical strength,
• Physical dominance as expressed in facial hair / moustache, style (walking,
strength, violence, risky behavior, and voice, talking, mannerisms, gestures and
ultimately, in poorer health outcomes presentation), what he wears (cleanliness,
constitutes the first important domain in type of attire, and clothing).

12 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Chapter -2

• Display of power such as social status, • Men’s attire is invariably different from
having an influence on other men’s women; negation of feminine traits is
actions, having an influence on women’s important for a man’s identity.
actions, others being afraid of you, having
financial and non-financial resources, Women’s perceptions of masculinity [31]
maintaining order in the community, and • Men earn, make decisions, are
maintaining order of the family. trustworthy and have a need to control
• Display of control such as control over their wife
oneself, being demanding, not being • Men resort to violence in intimate
dominated, controlling people outside relationships
your family (men and women), and
controlling one’s wife. • Men blame women for infertility and do
not want to be questioned about their
• Display of sexual virility by having potency
children.
2.5.1 Regional Masculinity in Pakistan
2.5 Masculinity in Context of Pakistan
Masculinity has also been associated with
Consistent with international literature findings, maintaining the anonymity of female household
masculinity in Pakistan is also determined by a members. In Sindh, a male’s masculinity is
number of notions. Central to it, is the notion questioned if women work outside of the home,
of power which is manifested in various ways. and thus, a powerful mursmano (masculine)
The most obvious case of masculine power is man will not permit such activity. In line with
the patriarchal relationship between a man and masculinity norms, male members of the family
a woman. Important in this regard is also the do not support women in completing household
social construct of honor, which is inherently chores due to its feminine nature. In their role
linked with a woman in Pakistani society and its as protectors, men are expected to control
preservation as an objective, as well as identity of women’s behaviors, dress codes and activities
masculinity. According to one survey conducted outside the home, and guard them at all times.
in Pakistan, men and women expressed the [41]. Essential to a man’s honor is his ability to
following perceptions about masculinity. control. A man’s extravagance may symbolize his
Men’s perceptions of masculinity [31] honor, but this honor is not meaningful unless
accompanied by the ability to control[44].
• A real man should ensure that he Whereas, masculinity in general is underpinned
remains sexually potent by authority, power and honor, it also connotes
men being important, superior to women, being
• A man provides for the family, earns educated, and not tortured or victimized[57].
himself and does not depend upon a Men who cannot exercise control on women
women’s income or pay excess attention to women’s desires are
• A man needs to control his wife, look considered to be weak.
after the needs of his parents more than Men are not only expected to safeguard the
his wife, and take major decisions within honor of their women, but that also of their
family family.[65]. In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), a
• Violent behavior and harassment of woman’s honor is paramount, thus, men do not
powerless groups are part of being a real tolerate any humiliation or insulting of a woman’s
man. respect. [9]. However, it is difficult to demarcate
the boundaries between the two, as they

Masculinity in Pakistan 13
Chapter -2

overlap in many ways. All the same, a family’s In the domain of social utility, masculinity
honor includes aspects such as participation demands of men to be leaders, and undertake
in tribal conflicts and the safeguarding of one’s out of home tasks. [64]. it is important to note
tribal identity. This leads to manifestations of that these, and the majority of other masculine
masculinity such as the possession of weapons. attributes, are relative to females. The superlative
Traditionally this has been more common in expressions such as “more”, “better”, “higher”
Pukhtoons but it is also a significant and common are mostly measures of masculinity attributes of
symbol of masculinity and power in Punjab. males vis-à-vis females.

2.5.2 Economic and Social Linkages of 2.5.3 “Real Man”

Masculinity
Withstanding pain, injury, stress, tension,
Besides power connotations, masculinity has also accidents and other anomalies of life without
been linked with productivity. The perception complaining, is another attribute of being
about men being economic and social authorities masculine [31], [66]. “Boys are strong” and “boys
is an important element of the masculinity don’t cry” are common expressions that define
identity [52]. Men are assumed to cater to the episodes of pain in a man’s life [40]. Another
economic needs of the family. Males who fail important notion related to masculinity is of “real
to engage themselves in income generation men” being fearless, risky, and aggressive in the
activities, or do not contribute to the family face f life threatening situations. [31]. This, was
income have reported feelings of hopelessness more prominent when it came to establishing
and failure to command their family’s respect. dominance by one group of males on upon
another, for example, in street conflicts.
The traits of masculinity discussed in the
aforementioned paragraphs are linked with 2.5.4 Sexuality and Masculinity
certain micro and macro socio-economic
outcomes. For example, socio-economic Masculinity is also associated with sexual
development is a function of the labor supply and superiority and possessiveness [55]. Men have
affects poverty reduction and income generation been documented to believe that they are
and distribution. Masculinity requires males to entitled to “sexual acts” any time they feel like.
participate in the labor market, and excludes a There is religious interpretation also attached
large proportion of skilled female workers who with this. Men believe that a woman who refuses
can play a significant role in the socio-economic to have sexual intercourse with her husband
development of Pakistani society [32]. will be punished as per the instructions of the
Quran [57]. Sexual virility and ability to produce
However, men experience more work related off springs is another dimension of masculinity.
stress and have been more likely to report Producing a male child and being sexually
depression, suicide, previous arrests and use powerful enough to keep a wife in control are
of violence against their wives. The narrow some of the other expectations of a real man
social definition of manhood and the perceived [31].
failure to live up to these expectations can
compromise men’s health and invoke anti-social Masculinity as a gender expectation has different
behaviors.61]. Men have also expressed family effects on males, females and society in general.
disruption and negative effects of such violence While it places a man in a higher position, it
on children. Fulfilling expectations of manhood, inevitably forces females into a low social status.
men risk losing their jobs, which results in more This promotes the in institutionalization of
problems at home, and loss of respect from their structural and socio-cultural gender inequities
families, communities and surrounding social and perpetuates patriarchy in society [31], [41],
networks[57], [63]. [42].

14 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Chapter -2

The strong internalization of masculinity norms to exert their aggression on their wives and
transforms men and boys in to emotionless family without fear of being reprimanded Females
individuals, disconnected from their natural are excluded from all decision-making, receive
feelings of compassion and empathy. This leads the lowest priority, and are forced to accept
to the emotional insensitivity, aggression and choices determined for them by their families.
competitiveness [40]. Their incomes, voting choices, dowries, assets
and social interactions are in the hands of men
The promotion of masculinity in different [54].
forms results in the subjugation of women and
hinders their efforts towards empowerment. For The interpretation of the Quran varies in the
instance, women’s entry into local politics was context of gender inequalities. Some believe that
insufficient in yielding them equal opportunities Quran sanctifies the disciplining of women in
to participate in the political sphere. Such order to obey their husbands. Others, however,
political activity is still highly limited, reducing see the Quran as calling for the respect of
them to a lower status to men within political women and not tolerating any kind of violence
parties and councils. against them. In this matter, it is could be of great
benefit to ally with religious leaders to reduce
Masculinity norms lead to inflexible gender the high levels of violence against women in
stereotyping impacting women in various ways Pakistan. [57].
such as restricted mobility, withdrawal from
school and control over interactions with According to June 2014 report the data showed
males[35], [49]. that 3,296 cases of violence against women had
been reported in Punjab during the first six
2.6 Masculinity and Violence Against months the year. 2,575 incidents were reported
Women in the first half of 2013. 3,550 women were
An inevitable result of the efforts to preserve subjected to violence in the first half of 2014.
and practice masculinity is violence against The monthly breakdown of the statistics stood
women. Men adopt different physical and at 419, 483, 498, 573, 683 and 640 for the first
psychological means to deliver their role as real six months respectively. The figure includes
men, which is linked with the ability to control 809 abductions, 687 rape cases, 449 murders,
women and their honor. Men who resort to 296 suicides, 162 honor killings, 131 suicide
domestic violence usually use it as a tool of attempts, 124 rape attempts, 88 cases of torture,
control and power.[42]. The social fear of their 35 of harassment, 11 incidents of vani, 5 of karo
power being compromised triggers men to kari, 4 instances of child marriages and 4 forced
commit honor crimes against women out of marriages.
revenge, anger and aggression. The celebration of 2.7 Masculinities and Engaging Men
such men leads to more arrogance and creates a
distorted understanding of power and morality. What can be done to deal with the negative
[13]. aspects of masculinity? There is a growing
consensus to shift focus from “women”
The overall social acceptance of male dominance to “gender” and create a differentiated
reinforces violent acts by men over women. understanding of gender relations in the
Violence against women is usually not seen as perspective of development. Men dominate
problematic and is dealt by society as a private strategic level decision making positions in the
or family matter that requires no interference family, community and state, and are in control
[57]. Society accepts the head of the household of resources required for more gender equality.
to have strong ego and aggressive temperament Such resources mandate efforts for changing
towards his wife and family and thus allows men men’s attitudes and behaviors to promote gender

Masculinity in Pakistan 15
Chapter -2

equality. Women-only approaches have been differentials are text books through which future
reported to have very limited impact in created generations continue to internalize the biases
gender equity. Additionally, neglecting men in of existing societal understandings of gender.
interventions can aggravate male hostility and Current textbook and curriculum development
create further problems. Excluding men from processes in Pakistan do not include any gender
the conversation is akin to losing sight of a large expertise use. What this creates is an “enabling
share of development resources [61]. environment” for coercive actions by men on
women. [33], [40],[59].
In Pakistan working with men is divided into two
broad categories: Available literature also suggests that honor
killings are not solely driven by customs and
• Working with men to redress their traditions, but is propagated by the local
problems; gender system, conceptions of manhood,
• Working with men as a strategy to and the complicit role of state institutions
address women’s issues and law enforcement agencies [41]. The main
players documented in the incidents of honor
While there is recognition for the need to killings are feudal lords and state institutions,
engage men in overcoming gender inequality, particularly members of the police force[13].
literature emphasizes the need for more work to This underscores the need for the government’s
be done in this regard. The identification of entry immediate action to review current policies,
points for including masculinity into policies will rules and regulations towards gender rights and
be a function of questioning how existing policy responsibilities. In addition to this, the provision
frameworks can be deployed to promote and of universal access to education needs to
sustain creative strategies for the engagement of become a pre-requisite [35],[38], [42], [61].
men in the cause for gender equality. Men’s role
in the advancement of gender also needs to be A global literature review highlights the lack of
outlined, along with how gender can become a masculinity-centered work being done in Pakistan
part of men’s identities and how to overcome in contrast to the other countries. Most of the
the existing limited conceptual frameworks will discourse in Pakistan, in this regard, is focuses
be the key questions required to be answered on women such as rights, subjugation, social
for improving the policies and programs focusing inclusion, and violence. In contrast, there is a
gender equalities [61]. limited focus on masculinity. However, existing
work has offered deep insights into the construct
2.8 Summary of manhood and masculinity and the processes
governing the internalization and reinforcement
Within Pakistan work on masculinity has been of this construct.
largely limited due since initiatives have been
taken only by a handful of NGOs. Gender Further research is required to understand the
studies departments have yet to acknowledge intricacies of the relationship of masculinity and
the existence of this emerging discourse and violence against women, and the identification
to place it within the framework of mainstream of the avenues of incorporation of masculinity
curriculum. As a result, academic research in into women’s rights advocacy and awareness
this area is rare and, therefore, inadequate. programs. Deeper and context specific
What is glaringly absent is an interface between understanding of the perceptions of men and
development practitioners and academic women around masculinities, exploration
research that can inform and plug into these of the links between notions of masculinity
processes. and undesired behaviors also require further
investigation.
Important in the efforts to address the gender

16 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Chapter -2

Table 6: Men Engagement Projects in Pakistan

Theme Initiative Issues Addressed Methods adopted
Working with Sexual Health services offered Sexual and reproductive health, Psychological
boys and men by the FPAP Program. sexual and physical abuse, counseling, health
and their emotional health and sensitization services, condom
vulnerabilities, Amal’s Youth Empowering to socialization processes, gender distribution, training
especially those Skills Program for children: discrimination. programs.
intensified by Conducts training sessions on
masculine norms the unpacking of masculinities
and stereotypes. related to violence and
vulnerability.
SAHIL: Counselors explore
issues such as anger
management, interpersonal
relationships, social
adjustment, and conflict
resolution.
Rozan: Work with the police
on gender issues with a focus
on masculinity.
SAHIL: child rights and sexual
abuse, and executed a juvenile
rehabilitation program in
Pakistani jails.
Working with Community Development Issues of women, raise awareness Raising conscious-
men as a strategy Foundation: Executed the and consciousness of men around ness in men through
to address wom- “We Can Campaign” which gender roles, discrimination of seminars, r cam-
en’s issues aimed at educating men and women both within homes and paigns, activities,
boys about violence against also in the public domain and development of
women. institutions ( law, governance and messaging and IEC
media etc.) and the role of men as material and involv-
IDRAK: Worked with young a ‘powerful gender’. ing the influential’s
males’ health and social jus- and religious leaders.
tice issues around gender and
gender based violence.

Sarsabz Foundation: Launched

a district wide campaign in
2007 titled “Engaging Men Al-
lies in Ending Violence Against
Women”

SEHER: Launched a pledge

campaign in 2008 which
aimed at changing attitudes
and behaviors in over five
million ‘Change Makers’ who
pledged against committing
violence against women.

White Ribbon Campaign

Pakistan: Launched campaigns
in educational institutions
in more than 50 districts
in Pakistan to educate the
youth about violence against
women.

Masculinity in Pakistan 17
Chapter -2

18 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Chapter -3

Chapter -3
Findings & Analysis
from Qualitative Survey
3. Findings & Analysis from Qualitative Masculinity was overwhelmingly mentioned as
Survey a construct stemming from a combination of
biological and social differences between males
This section presents findings and analyses from and females. Respondents from all 12 categories
qualitative surveys focusing on four themes: (59 out of 60) mentioned that nature created
Definition and Perception, Societal Roles/ humans in the form of two sexes: male and
Behaviors, Gender Based Violence, and Sexuality. female (who can reproduce), but, the roles
3.1 Definition and Perception of expected of them were socially constructed.
Masculinity Geography, ethnicity and sub cultures were
Definitions and perceptions of masculinity are also mentioned as factors effecting versions
given below. of masculinity This was cited by the following:
Sociologists (5 out of 7), psychologists (4
3.1.1 Masculinity out of 6), NGO representatives (2 out of 8),
government representatives (3 out of 8) and
3.1.1.1 Findings from Key Informant human right representatives (1 out of 2), lawyers
Interviews and judges (1 out of 3), media representatives (2
All KII respondents, across professional and out of 4).
academic backgrounds and sector, defined Masculinity was also defined as being able to
masculinity as a social construct. provide shelter, food, security and care for one’s
What forms the social construct of masculinity? family (by nearly one fifth of respondents), while
half of the respondents associated masculinity
A majority respondents in each category, i.e. with sense of power, strength, decision-making,
psychologists (5 out of 6), sociologists (6 out of hard work , responsibility, patience, and being the
7), NGO representatives (5 out of 8), individuals head of the family. Only 1 respondent believed
working in GBV (6 out of 8), human rights that the construct of masculinity was obsolete.
representatives (1 out of 2), teachers (3 out
of 5), judges and lawyers (2 out of 3), hakeem/ 3.1.1.2 Findings from Focus Group
health provider (2 out of 3) and government Discussions
representatives (5 out of 8) mentioned the A wide variety of responses were expressed
importance of physical appearances (being tall, when FGD participants were asked about their
broad shouldered, having strong muscles, and understanding of masculinity. A majority of the
being healthy and handsome). Additionally, body responses fell in the categories of behaviors,
language such as posture, speech (soft in urban traits and appearances mostly associated with
areas and loud in rural areas), and appetite men.
(having a full belly and increased hunger) were
considered to be physical manifestations of AJK married male FGD; “Ae key kuriyan yank am
masculinity. keta ai mardan wan kam kariyan wa”

It is interesting to note is that despite masculinity (You have done this job like a woman; you should
being linked to a social construct, almost all have done it like a man).
the respondents also associated it with biology.

Masculinity in Pakistan 19
Chapter -3

Whereas, in male FGDs various traits and such as fighting, being powerful, and fighting
physical appearance were the key responses, under tough circumstances with tolerance,
to most of the female participants in FGDs, a patience and bravery).
masculine man was one who cares for supports
and loves his family. Such a man also possesses Peshawar influential FGD; “Chaie pe khor mor
a sense of responsibility and provides his okhaza nang ana ki haga mard na de”
dependents with food and shelter. It may be (He who cannot protect and fight for honor is
due to women’s religious (Islamic) beliefs that not a man).
lead males to be expected to be responsible for
taking care of the family. Married male Peshawar FGD; Mardangi se murad
hukmaraniat(ruling) hai aur mard se hi wabasta
Pishin FGD Female; Mardangi se murad eik aisa hai is se amuman yahi murad li jati hai aisa shaks
mard jo apne aur apne ghar walon k lie bethar jo hifazat kare, jo paisa kamie, jo zimadar ho, jo
sochta ho, aur us soch per amal bhi karta ho, ghar ki mehnat kash ho, jo faisala karne ki salahiyat rakhta
tamam zaruriyat puri kare aur sub ko eik jaisi izzat ho
de aur ghar ka muhafiz ho” (Masculinity means a
man who thinks for the betterment of his family (Masculinity is linked to ruling and a man who
and acts upon it too. He fulfills their needs and protects, earns, is responsible, works hard and
protects this family and treats everyone equally). can take decisions).
Mirpurkhas FGD Female; “Mardangi eik to ghar ko 3.1.2 Masculinity Defined by Traits,
security provide kare, apne ghar walon ki zaruriat Personality Types or Looks
puri kare aur khawhisahat ka khayal rakhe”(A
masculine man provides his home with security 3.1.2.1 Findings from Key Informant
and fulfills his family’s needs and wishes.) Interviews

Quetta FGD female; Bardasht, muhabat, khayal A majority of the respondents categorically
rakhna aur zaruriyat ko poora karna mardangi defined masculinity in terms of traits and
ki alamat hai (Tolerance, love, care giving and behaviors, while physical appearance was the
providing basic needs are masculine traits). second most mentioned defining factor but
varied with local geography, culture, and urban/
A few respondents from the female FGD also rural differences. A man’s occupation was found
mentioned that being smart, tall, healthy, strong, to be the least distinction attribute of masculinity.
and attractive were also elements of masculinity. Masculine traits and behaviors, mentioned by
Masculinity was mostly associated with married almost three-fourths of respondents, included
males, being influential and youthful. breadwinning, providing shelter, being powerful
and hardworking, and exercising strong decision-
Being the provider and protector of the family making skills. In the words of one of the
(21), honour (Ghariat aur anna) (19), being respondents:
hardworking (19), having power and strength
(16), being bravery (14), being patience (13), “Mard ne kamana hai, khilana hai, tafuz dena hai,
having confidence (8), and being unemotional kapre le kar dene hain, bache paida karne hain,
(17) were the key traits and behaviors mentioned waghaira waghaira, ye sub to har jaga k mard
in the different categories of male FGD. ne karna hai laikin wo dhike ga kaise ye wahan
k mohal(environment) per depend karta hai k
AJK married male FGD; “Mardangi ki kuch specific us ne shalwar kameez pehnani hai ya pent shirt,
alamat hain jaise ki Larna jhagrna, Quwat ko hona, monchaien rakhni hain ya clean shave karni hai.We
bardasht ka hona, sabar o tahmul se kaam lena aur are divided in urban and rural classes, phir cultures
sakht se sakth cheez ka bhaduri se muqabla karna” per bhi depend karta hai” (Men everywhere have
(Masculinity consists of some specific attributes

20 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Chapter -3

to earn, protect, provide clothes, reproduce etc. with the opposite sex, masculinity could not be
But his physical appearance – whether he wears defined in one strict criteria. For example, almost
shalwar kameez or pants; or whether he has a three-fourths of respondents reported the
moustache or is clean-shaven depends on where army, police, judiciary, politics and engineering as
he lives. We are divided in urban and rural classes, careers, now, being pursued by women. Similarly,
so it also depends on different cultures). men were also reported to be entering fields
such as fashion designing, cooking, and tailoring.
Occupation as a determinant of masculinity was Having said that, some participants (one fourth of
negated by almost half the respondents. They felt the total), acknowledged the lack of acceptance
that t men and women, now, had the freedom to of such a trend.
choose their careers. Women were mentioned
to have acquired the ability to seek education in The table 7 presents a key informant interview
fields that were once considered male dominated summary of the defining traits and behaviors,
professions. Since women and men, both, are now appearances and occupations reported to be
opting out for fields that were once associated associated with masculinity:

Table 7: Masculinity Definition (KII Responses)

Category Traits & Behaviors Appearance Occupation

(findings)
KIIs A majority of the respondents A majority of the respondents A majority of the
mentioned the following traits mentioned that physical respondents believed
and behaviors associated with appearance varied according that masculinity
masculinity: to place and culture. Widely was not limited
expressed masculine: by occupation. A
• Powerful greater fluidity was
• Tall identified in peoples’
• Strong choices of occupation.
• Broad shoulders Respondents quoted
• Provides shelter and following occupations
security to a family • Muscular
as examples for women
• Healthy and men:
• Protects a family
• Facial and body hair • Women
• Decision-maker
• Rural Areas • Policewoman
• Hard-work
• Moustaches (rural • Army
• Responsible
areas) employee
• Brave
• Dressed in shalwar • Politician
• Aggressive kameez
• Judge
• Respectiful to women
• Engineering
• Courageous

Masculinity in Pakistan 21
Chapter -3

• Patient • Urban Areas • Men

• Few of the respondents • Clean shaven • Fashion

also mentioned the designer
following traits • Dressed in western
attire • Tailoring
• Independent
• Chef
• Competitive

• Honorable

• Problem solving

• Authoritative

• Controlling

• Consistent

• Confident

• Loyal

• Following traits
were mentioned by
one of the NGO
representative

• Exploratory

• Innovative

3.1.2.2 Findings from Focus Group Discussions

The key rating on masculine traits and behaviors through FGD is given below.

Table 8: Rating of Masculine Traits and Behaviors (FGD Responses)

Particulars Married Married Influential Youth Overall

Male Female Strength
Traits and Behaviors
Positive Traits
Provider of food and shelter *** *** *** *** High
Protector to the family *** *** *** *** High
Strength *** * *** *** High
Patience *** * *** ** High
Hard working ** ** ** *** High
Responsible ** ** *** ** High
Tolerance ** ** ** ** Medium
Decision making ** ** ** ** Medium
Strong attitude and character ** *** ** * Medium

22 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Chapter -3

Braveness ** * ** ** Medium
Honor (Ghairat and Anna) ** * ** * Medium
Self-confidence * ** * * Medium
Courageous * * * * Low

Care * ** * Low
Competitiveness * * * Low

give respect, love and care to the family * ** NM NM Low

Risk taking attitude NM NM * * Low

Unemotional * NM NM * Low

Boldness NM NM * * Low

Negative traits
Aggression *** ** *** *** High

Violence *** ** *** ** High

Disrespect to women or sense of ** ** *** ** High
superiority
Negative manifestation of traits make ** * ** ** Medium
them positive or negative
Inequality between men and women * *** * NM Medium
Greed ** * Low

Drug Use NM * NM NM Low

Appearances
Appearance may vary from place to *** *** *** *** High
place especially in urban and rural
settings.
Tall *** *** *** *** High
Well-built or strong muscles *** *** *** *** High

Broad shoulders *** *** *** *** High

Healthy *** *** *** ** High

Moustache ** ** ** ** Medium

Clean shaven ** ** ** ** Medium

Attire: local (shalwar kameez) ** ** ** ** Medium

Attire: Western (pants and shirt) ** ** ** ** Medium

Masculinity in Pakistan 23
Chapter -3

Not looking feminine ** * * ** Medium

Loud * ** * * Medium

Deep voice * * * * Low

Well Nourished ** NM * * Low

Fancy beard NM * NM * Low

Body Hair NM * NM NM Low

Occupations

Masculinity is not linked to a specific ** ** ** *** High

occupation

Doctor (Health Professional) ** * ** ** Medium

Labor work ** * ** * Medium

Career followed by passion * NM ** * Low

Driving (truck, taxi) * * * * Low

Construction * * * * Low

Hakeem * * * * Low

Security Guard * * * * Low

Shopkeeper * * * * Low

Mosque leader * * * * Low

Office job NM NM * * Low

Media representative NM NM NM * Low

NM: Not Mentioned

3.1.3.2 Findings from Focus Group responsible for earning money, protecting the
Discussions family and providing them with shelter. In-home
tasks such as child rearing, and home and family
There was little diversity of opinion about management were women oriented tasks.
masculinity in the FGDs conducted in rural areas. However, there was also a reported need for
Within women, this construct was associated men to be able to maintain a work-life balance by
with men performing out-of-house activities, fulfilling their responsibilities, but also engaging
being creative, liberated and immersed in their in pleasurable activities and taking care of their
careers. This is because men were considered families.

24 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Chapter -3

Table 10: Masculinity and Implicit Association Traits (FGD responses)

FGD Categories
IAT Groups Married Married Influential Youth Strengths
Males Females Participants
Both Groups ** ** *** ** Strongly associated

Family, Home and Children * ** * * Mildly

Career, Freedom and Creative * NM * * Somewhat

Skills
NM: Not Mentioned

Urban and rural trends from FGD Component of Masculinity:

The only trend that emerged from the options “The difference between the role of men and women
asked from the participants of FGDs was that in is created by our society. If a boy is born to a farmer,
rural areas of Pakistan masculinity is associated he sees his father doing work in the field, bearing the
with family, home and children. Getting more hardships of extreme weather.This boy will learn the
specific all the rural regions from Sindh, concept of masculinity from this example and believe
Baluchistan and Khyber Phukhtoonkhua reported it to be linked to strength, courage and patience.
association of Masculinity with this group Similarly, one who is born to an urban and career-
explicitly. oriented professional will grow up striving for a good
career, education and taking care of his family”.
3.1.4 Masculinity: Perspectives (Biology vs
social upbringing) Only four respondents believed that those
biological differences were the cause of
3.1.4.1 Findings from Key Informant men’s’ superiority over women. Here, males
Interviews were defined as the donors while females
Masculinity was predominantly linked to social were recipients. Biological differences were
upbringing and cultural expectations by the key argued using the example of the male sperm,
informants. There was, however, an acceptance which are active and energetic in comparison
of biological forces that create sex differences. . to the females’ eggs that are passive. Such a
However, a majority of the respondents believed characteristic was translated in to the behavior
that, both, biology and social forces intermingle of men and women: men being active and
and shape masculinity as it is perceived. energetic, whereas females were passive, and
silent. The case for biology was also argued by
As one of the respondents said; “We are highlighting anatomical differences such as bone
biologically created and socially constructed”. densities and muscle mass, which reflect sex-
related strengths and characteristics. Participants
One of the NGO representatives said: “Mard described how men have rough and strong
Eik Zameen ki tarah hai aur is society ne us per bones while women’s are soft and delicate.
Mardangi Naam ki eik building khari ki hai” (A man Furthermore, men’s stronger muscles reflect
is like a piece of land on which society has built men’s’ superior strength compared to women.
masculinity. One of the respondents was quoted saying;
Another respondent spoke about the social “Aurat ko Mard ki Pasli se banya gya hai” (A woman
has been created from the rib of a man).

Masculinity in Pakistan 25
Chapter -3

3.1.4.2 Findings from Focus Group “Biological differences are universal truths
Discussions and cannot be changed. For example, consider
muscular differences in men and women. Even
A majority of respondents from all FGDs after professional training, men and women in
categories believed that nature was primary in all sports compete in separate categories, not
creating sexual differences between men and with each other. Similarly, it is expected of males
women, but society and cultural expectations to lead, pursue higher education, have successful
defined gender roles and masculinity. careers, or fulfill the family’s needs, whereas
Married male FGD Lahore; ”Hum bachpan mein females take care of the household and family. In
apne bachon ko khelne k lie khilone (toys) dete this way, both genders are brought up accordingly.
hain to larke k lie hum truck, pistol waghaira lete A very common social practice is that after
hain jabk bachion k lie guria, kitchen set waghaira graduation males are worried about finding an
lete hain to iska taluq society k banaie hue roles internship or job, but most females are getting
se hai na k naturally sex k sath” ready for marriage and settle down” (Youth FGD
Abbotabad).
When we give toys to our children, we choose
trucks, pistol sets for boys, and dolls, kitchen sets Respondents from married male and female
etc. for our girls. This shows that sex roles are FGDs in Pishin and Quetta mentioned that sex
associated with socialization, not biology.) differences were biological and women were
created weaker than men.
Differences in sex roles depend on our
opportunities, culture, society and environment Urban and rural trends in FGD
and are taught to children from a very early age. . The study observed an obvious trend which
A participant quoted the example how women’s showed an acceptance for patriarchal structures
roles vary from province to province in Pakistan. in society. Men were believed to be more
For example, women in KPK and Balochistan are powerful, strong, and controlling members of the
restricted to their homes and expected to cover family. This trend is observed under the shades
themselves when in public. In contrast, women in of social upbringing and the larger freedom men
Punjab have the liberty to seek employment and enjoy in society.
work outside their homes.
3.2 Societal Roles & Behaviors
Influential FGD Quetta; Muasharti farq hai kuin
k paida dono barabar hote hain, laikin muashara The societal roles and behaviors accrued to
hi ink kaam aur paishey ko alag alag karta hai masculinity are as follows:
(It is a social difference - both are born equally,
but society makes their roles and occupations 3.2.1 The Impact of Masculinity on Men,
different). Women, Family and Society

Female FGD Peshawar; “Mard aur aurat Allah 3.2.1.1 Findings from Key Informant
Tallah ne banye hain, laikin muahsahre mein Interviews
jeeney ka saliqa, eik dossre se bat cheet kaise Impact on men
karni hai, kamana kis ne hai, khandan kaise akhta
rakhna hai, kapre kaise pehnane hain, dhikna kaisa Masculinity was described having both negative
hai ye sub to hamari society aur phir wahan ka and positive effects on men. The pressure to
culture btata hai” Man and woman has prove one’s identity, that is, “I am a man” was the
been created by Allah, but our society and most frequently mentioned pressure at a social
culture dictate how we survive, how we treat level. Men appeared to not have much choice in
each other, how we earn, how we raise our defining their role in society, other than to satisfy
families, and how we should dress and behave. ” the demands of the male sex role. To struggle

26 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Chapter -3

and face hardships in earning for the house, earn, children in a position to earn.
protect the family, control emotions, and never
express vulnerabilities in front of others were Financial pressure was also mentioned by almost
key gender expectations of masculinity that were more than three-fourths of the respondents. To
reported by key informant respondents. this end, breadwinning, providing the family with
shelter, security and care were defined as being
One of the sociologists said: “Mard paida hota the most important male duty that would require
hai to usko shuru se hi shikaya jata hai hamari financial support.
her institution k through that he has to earn and
support his family” A sense of responsibility and ownership,
trustworthiness and leadership were the most
From birth, every social institution teaches a man mentioned positive effects on both the social and
that he has to earn and support his family. psychological health of a man.

In another interview an NGO representative said The most mentioned negative effect of
that; “Aap ne bahut famous hearings, kahanyian masculinity was related to its effect on women.
sunni hongi k hai bechara 3 behnon ka iklota bhai . “I am superior to women” was the most
hai, ya eik akela kamane wala hai aur 5 bande mentioned negative belief propagated by
khane wale hain ya koi man apni shaeli ko khe masculinity. This leads to studying where these
rahi hogi mera putar kamane joga ho gaya hai ab beliefs stem from: A majority of respondents,
mujhe kia fikar waghair waghaira, to ye sub instill especially development professionals, believed
karti hain k mard se kamana expected hai, usi ne that educational curriculum, socialization by
kharche pure karne hain, behnon ki shaadiyan mothers, and the media were responsible for
karwani hain, man aur baap ki medicines puri teaching men beliefs about gender superiority.
karni hain so in short man is expected to earn, Such a mindset was believed to infiltrate males
support and provide to his family” (You might from childhood, when mothers give priority
have heard stories: He is one brother to 3 sisters, to boys over the girls. Later, similar beliefs are
or he is a lone earner who is responsible for 5 reinforced through educational curricula, and
people, or a mother who is relieved and says gender segregation in schools.
“My son is earning, so I don’t need to fear.”. All
these rules teach us that a man has to earn, Frustration and fatigue were the second most
fulfill social and familial demands, get his sisters mentioned negative psychological effects
married, and provide medicines for his parents. of masculinity on men. One-third of the
In short, a man is expected to earn, support and respondents believed that the consequences of
provide for his family. such frustration lead to violent male behavior.

In the words of one of the psychologist; “Mard Being emotionally controlled and constantly
ki zindagi eik ghan chakar ki tarah hai, thora bara “strong” were the third most frequently
hota hai kamane ki position mein hota hai to mentioned psychological consequences since
maan baap, behn bhai k lie kamata hai, apni shaadi men could never express their thoughts and
karne k lie kamata hai, shaadi ho jati hai to biwi feelings openly. This was, also however considered
aur family dono ki zaruriyat puri karne mein lag to have positive effects in situations where
jata hai, aur jab bache ho jate hain to phir wo tab important decisions needed to be made or
tak bound ho jata hai jab tak bache kamane k certain roles required the same. Being masculine
qabil na ho jaien”(A man’s life is a twisted trail. also helped men to be strong and courageous,
As he matures and reaches an earning age, he nevertheless, being emotionally controlled was
earns for his parents, siblings and for his own mentioned to affect mental health.
marriage. Once married, he has to fulfill the Feelings of inferiority, high stress levels were also
responsibilities of his wife and children until his reported to be consequences of masculinity.

Masculinity in Pakistan 27
Chapter -3

Sexual potency was the most mentioned physical attitudes:

factor which influenced the men throughout
life. A masculine man should be sexual potent in • Physical violence (hitting and injuring
order to fulfill his partner’s desires. If he failed to women)
do so, he would lose respect. • Sexual violence (Rape and sexual abuse)
Impact on women • Banning from seeking education
There was variance in the impact of masculinity • Their rights are not provided to them
on women in urban and rural settings. Positive
effects dominated the urban responses, • Promotion of gender stereotypical role
whereas rural women mostly reported negative for women (cooking, child-care, teaching,
experiences. means of sexual gratification
Masculinity was mentioned to have positive • Demoralization and humiliation
impacts such as women men being dutiful to
their families, and providing security, shelter • Lack of political status and power
and growth opportunities for them. The most • Emotional and verbal abuse
frequently mentioned advantage was the enabling
of an educational environment, in terms of It was also interesting to note women’s
both access and opportunity. Respondents also responses describing how b some of the
mentioned women being able to choose male positive effects were beginning to have negative
dominated professions such as joining the police, repercussions as well. For example, a majority
army and engineering fields. of participants claimed that increasing economic
stability and education were causing more familial
Although social wellbeing was the most conflicts and violence as women demanded equal
mentioned benefit of masculinity for women, rights and opportunities.
only 2 respondents spoke about its on women’s
mental and physical health. This is quite intriguing Very few respondents reported masculinity
given that health is defined as the state of playing a role to decrease the rate of harmful
complete physical, mental and social well-being traditional cultural norms and practices such as
and if all 3 areas are not achieved, other positive like karo kari, watta satta, child marriages and
effects may not actualize. This may explain the the trading of women for money and property.
rise of non-communicable illnesses such as Similarly, only one respondent mentioned that
hypertension, which is occurring despite the gendered values such as smoking, using abusive
improvement of health facilities. language and dressing like men were being
challenged by the power of masculinity.
Human rights awareness regarding protection,
shelter and gender based violence laws, and Impact on family
their interaction with media representation was
the second most indicated positive influence The impact caused by masculinity on family, is
on women. An increase in women’s economic summarized in the table No 11.
empowerment and the distribution sexual
decision making powers was also commonly
mentioned. Women also reported feeling a
sense of security and belongingness, confidence,
productivity and support.

Alternatively, when masculinity was abused,

women reported the following negative men

28 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Chapter -3

Table 11:The Impact of Masculinity on the Family (KII Responses)

Negative Positive
Imposition of male decisions on the family, unequal Participation in family decision-making, family planning,
resource distribution amongst family members, and and child career choice.
discrimination.

Violence (physical, sexual, emotional, verbal) Division of labor within the family, discipline, unity and
understanding amongst family members.

Prevalence of gender discriminatory practices Equal education opportunities for both, boys and girls.
beginning from early childhood.

An increase in family honor.

Feelings of security.

Impact on society

The impact caused by masculinity on society, is summarized in the table No 12.

Table 12:The Impact of Masculinity on Society (KII Responses)

Negative Positive

Since social norms are defined at their advantage, An increase in trends to gain education in both, urban
men are allowed to exercise their freedom. and rural areas.

Power, control over resources freedom and decision Acceptance of women as a potential member of
making opportunities were the most commonly society.
mentioned

Sociologist and NGO representatives were Changes in the perception of stereotypical gender
particularly of the view that women do not play any roles and women’s protection laws.
role in defining the society norms.

Social norms that accept violence and discrimination Changes in oppressive social norms in urban areas
against women. and quite stable and traditional (12) especially honor
killing (7)

Masculinity in Pakistan 29
Chapter -3

3.2.1.2 Findings from Focus Group Discussions

Impact on men

The impact of masculinity on men is summarized in Table13:

Table 13:The Impact of Masculinity on Men (FGD Responses)

FGD Category
Themes/Sub Themes Strengths
Married Married
Influentials Youth
Males Females
Impact on Men
Positive and negative effects *** *** *** *** High
Positivity *** *** *** * High
Strength and optimism *** *** ** ** High
Ability to feel like a “man” *** * *** ** High
Occupational freedom ** ** *** ** High
Financial freedom ** *** ** ** High
Liberty (think what not to be think even) ** ** *** ** High
Freedom of movement and interaction with ** ** ** * Medium
peers
Being respected ** * ** NM Medium

Being honest * * * * Low

Loyalty to others * ** * NM Low

Courage * * * * Low

Lack of physical constraints NM NM * * Low

Stress *** *** *** *** Low

Satisfying family financial needs * * ** NM Low

Protection of family * * ** NM Low

Emotional Stoicism * * * NM Low

Shouldering family responsibility ** NM * NM Low
Feelings of superiority * *** ** *
Unhealthy Habits ** * ** *
Smoking cigarettes ** * ** *

Smoking Hash(Chars) * NM * NM
Alcohol Consumption * NM * NM Low

NM: Not Mentioned

30 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Chapter -3

Impact on women

The impact of masculinity on women is summarized in Table14:

Table 14:The Impact of Masculinity on Women (FGD Responses)

FGD Category
Themes/Sub Themes Strengths
Married Married
Influentials Youth
Males Females
Impact on Women

Positive use of masculinity by men ** *** ** ** High

Increase in women’s education status ** ** ** ** High

Strength ** ** ** * High

Respect ** * ** NM High

Security * *** * NM High

Love and care ** ** * NM High

Sense of responsibility * * * NM Medium

Unity of the family * * NM NM High

Child-rearing * * NM NM Medium

Violence against women *** *** *** ** Medium

Deprivation of women’s rights ** *** ** ** Medium

Man’s ability to manage female relationships * * * NM Medium

Interference into personal matters * * NM NM Medium

Sexual abuse NM * * * Medium

NM: Not Mentioned

Masculinity in Pakistan 31
Chapter -3

Impact on Family

The impact of masculinity on the family is summarized inTable15:

Table 15 Impact of Masculinity on Family (FGD Responses)

FGD Category
Themes/Sub Themes Strengths
Married Married
Influentials Youth
Males Females
Impact on Family

Feelings of security ** ** ** * Medium

Education ** * ** ** Medium

Enrichment of values and culture ** * ** NM Medium

Enhanced prosperity ** *** * NM Medium

Emotional Stoicism * ** *

Regulation of aggression * ** *

Participation in decision making *

Negative manifestation of traits result in nega- *** *** *** *** High
tive impact on family

Aggression *** ** *** ***

Strength *** * *** ***

Honor ** * ** *

Control and domination * **

Frustration ** * * *

Disrespect ** ** ** * Medium

Gender Discrimination * * * * Low

Children’s Self Esteem * * * NM Low

NM: Not Mentioned

32 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Chapter -3

Impact on Society

The impact of masculinity on society is summarized in Table 16:

Table 16 Impact of Masculinity on Society (FGD Responses)

FGD Category
Themes/Sub Themes Strengths
Married Married
Influentials Youth
Males Females
Impact on Society

Positive use of masculinity by men *** *** *** *** High

Effect of positive deeds and attitudes ** *** ** * Medium

Unity, love and brotherhood *** ** ** * Medium

Hardwork and courage * NM ** * Low

Patience with others ** * NM Low

Morality * * * NM Low

Tolerance * NM * NM Low

Resilience in the face of challenges NM * NM Low

If traits of masculinity exhibited negatively a *** *** *** *** High

negative culture will prevail in the society

Aggression in society ** ** ** ** Medium

Violence in society * ** * ** Medium

Harmful traditions * * * ** Medium

Honor Killings * * * **

Watta-Satta *

Crime rates * NM * ** Low

Gender Discrimination NM NM * * Low

NM: Not Mentioned

Masculinity in Pakistan 33
Chapter -3

3.2.2 Evolution of Masculinity 3.2.2.2 Findings from Focus Group

Discussions
3.2.2.1 Findings from Key Informant
Interviews The change in masculinity was more often
expressed in the form of the shifting demand
Masculinity has changed over the passage of time, for masculine attributes. For example, the most
especially in urban settings compared to rural frequently mentioned aspect in this regard was
settings. The most important change observed the increase in the demand for girls’ education.
in this regard was that many of masculine traits This is contrary to education being only a
were no longer limited to men, but have cut priority for boys a few decades ago. Associated
across both genders.. The key manifestations with this was the observation that a male who
in this regard for women include economic allowed girls’ education is masculine.
empowerment, adopting professions and
occupations that were previously considered Male FGD Quetta; “Pichle zamanon mei mard
masculine, and sharing the power, resources, ki taleem ko auraton ki taleem per fouqiat di jati
house-hold duties and decision-making powers thi, per ab auraton ki taleem ka riwaj aam hai”
related to family planning. The key drivers of this (Women’s education was not common in earlier
change include women’s rights awareness,, an ages, but now-a-days it is common that a woman
increase in women’s education and the demand be educated).
for female education in rural areas.
Influential FGD Mirpurkhas; “Phele jo mard apni
A father personifies masculinity in Pakistani bachion ki taleem ki baat karta tha usko haqeer
society. Respondents, through describing the nazron se aur namard kaha jata tha. Ajkal auraton
changes in a father figure, substantiated the ki taleem ko bilkul bhi bura nai samjha jata”
evolving concept of masculinity. For instance, the (Earlier, a man who talked about education for
newfound ability of children to make educational his daughter was seen with hatred and was not
and future decisions for themselves, to demand consideredmanly. But now-a-days, a women being
things directly from their fathers, engaging in educated is not at all looked down upon.
debates and discussions on sensitive issues and
freely expressing themselves in front of a father The change in masculinity was also expressed
figure are recent developments One of the in terms of the shift of financial and productive
sociologist described this trend in the following power. Conventionally, masculinity embodied
words; “Phele baap ghar mein atta tha to sub sum financial and productive abilities that were
mun buk mun ho jate the ab bechara baap ghar aa perceived to rest with men only. Whereas, in
kar sum mun buk mun ho jata hai” (Earlier, when a recent times women were mentioned to be
father came home, the children would be silent getting more empowered (more in urban areas
– but , now-a-days, the father remains silent). than in rural areas). An increase in women’s
freedom of expression and choice of careers
Technology was the third most mentioned were also mentioned as changes in the social
factor responsible for the changing concepts of construct of masculinity. These were the second
masculinity. Modernization of life has allowed most mentioned change by the respondents in all
female to access amenities that have reduced categories of FGD.
their dependency on men. NGOs who are
working on gender sensitization have also helped Female FGD Peshawar; “Ab trend change ho
changed the topography of gender relations. gaya hai auratien bhi mardon k shana bashana
Most respondents appreciated the role that kama sakti hain, family ko support kar sakti hain
NGOs were playing in defining the roles of unki zaruriyat puri kar sakti hain” (The trend has
gender among the masses. changed: women can earn as much as men,can
support the family and fulfill their needs).

34 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Chapter -3

Influential FGD Mirpurkhas; “Aaj shehr ki aurat to mard hath uthane se phele eik dafa sochta zarur
ba-Ikhtiyar ho gai hai, apni zehanat, aur kaam se hai” (I witnessed a mam hitting a woman, and the
murdon ko peechey chor rahi hai” (Now-a-days, woman called the police. He was imprisoned for
urban women are authoritative and can take three days and freed only once he apologized to
decisions; they are surpassing men through their her. Now whenever such a situation will come
intelligence and hard work). up, men will think twice before being violent
towards women).
All of the FGD respondents believed that the
media had a key role to play in the increase in Marreid femle FGD AJK; “Ab agr kahin aurat per
women’s rights and education awareness. zulm ho raha hota hai to woh NGO walon ko phone
kar deti hai jo foran uski madad k lie ponch jate
According to a married male FGD Multan; hain” (Now if violence occurs with any woman
“Auratien bari tezzi se age barh rahi hain aur anywhere, she calls the NGO representatives and
mardon ko unki dominated fields mein challenge they reach the site to rescue her).
kar rahi hain aur is awareness ki bahut bari waja
media hai, jo aurton ko unk haquq k lie sensitize kar Gender roles are now being redefined and
raha hai” (Women are progressing very fast and fewer traditional gender roles (cooking, washing,
challenging men in their dominated fields. The child rearing) are being followed. (However,
media is one of the major reasons for this as it is westernization is morally and ethically destroying
educating women about their rights). our society.

An important yardstick to gauge societal change It is important to note the observation of the
is the change in legislation and laws, and efforts positioning of women’s role in the evolution of
to diffuse change across society. Interestingly, a masculinity. Male FGDs participants believed
majority of FGD participants linked the changes that women were challenging the concept of
in the concept of masculinity with new pro- masculinity, whereas female FGD participants
women legislation and laws in recent years, and called it a struggle for their rights. One can say
the media and civil society’s efforts to increase that male participants are part and parcel of this
women rights awareness and caretaking. Such society and have deeply internalized masculinity
trends highlight the fact that masculinity, as a and could not express themselves without being
concept, is changing, both, at top and bottom possessive for their masculinity.
levels of societal hierarchy.
Female FGD AJK; “Phele auratien ro dho k chup
Violence against women has conventionally kar jati thin ab wo mardon ko rulati hain” (Gone are
been a fundamental attribute of masculinity. The the days when women would silently cry; now
decrease in violence, especially in urban areas, they make men cry).
was also mentioned by a majority of respondents
as sign of change in the construct of masculinity. 3.2.3 Promotion of Positive Masculine
An increase in the level of education, awareness Aspects
of pro women laws and legislations, NGOs 3.2.3.1 Findings from Key Informant
support to the victims of Domestic violence and Interviews
acceptance to the empowerment of women as
the major reasons behind this decrease. A number of positive aspects of masculinity
were expressed by respondents that have been
Married male FGD Islamabad; “Mere samne mard noted in an earlier section of the report. The
ne aurat ko mara aur us ne police ko call kar di. respondents were asked for their suggestions to
Police ai aur bande ko utha le kar chali gai.Teen din promote positive aspects of masculinity. Several
jail mein rehna k bad us ne muafi mangi to wo reha important suggestions were given:
ho kar aya. Ab ap batien aisa waqia kahin bhi ho jaie

Masculinity in Pakistan 35
Chapter -3

The most mentioned avenues of change were encourage positive aspects of masculinity in
changes in the educational curriculum taught Pakistan.
in schools, in addition to how mothers treat
their children. The curriculum was mentioned Behavioral change campaigns targeting societal
to be changed to promote positive masculinity institutions such as the family, education, religion,
by having children adopt positive language, and media to increase pro-women practices and
modification of the content, improve teaching behaviors was suggested. Efforts to encourage
methods, and train teachers to be gender the participation of women in different walks of
sensitive. Mothers need to stop discriminating life, the promotion of culture of love, tolerance
amongst boys and girls. As one of the and kindness, changes in feudal practices and
respondents said: “Mardangi k musbat asrat ko positive image building of men were also
bethar bnane mein aurat ka kardar bahut important repeatedly mentioned in KIIs.
hai, Agr wo bache ki tarbiat mein aajazi-o-inkasari Some of the respondents also mentioned that
dale gi, logon k lie pyar muhabat paida karegi, extensive research was required in the field
discrimination ko motivate nai karegi to bahut of masculinity to describe its relationship with
sare masail hal ho jaiengi. Issi Tarah Schooling bhi different roles (son, father, brother, husband), how
important hai” (Women can play an important it effects these roles and relationships, and, how
role in the promotion of masculinity. If she it’s dynamics function at a sub-culture level and
educates her son with peace, love, tolerance, interact with other societal institutions.
humbleness, and doesn’t motivate discrimination,
then lots of masculinity issues can be resolved. 3.2.3.2 Findings from Focus Group
Similarly, the schooling of a child is very Discussions
important).
Demand for equal education, employment,
Respondents also noted the efforts being carried freedom, and decision to marry and in family
out for this purpose. It was mentioned that matters and division of resources summarized
curriculum change was already underway in as building of a gender balanced society was
Punjab and the association of masculine traits mentioned most by the FGDs conducted with
with men were being removed from textbooks. females. Male FGDs findings also suggested that
One respondent from a government education education is important for both men and women.
department mentioned the launch of the first
gender free English, Urdu, science and math Change in behavior of men such as men should
books for early grades. be moderate, and keep balance in attitude and
behaviors by promoting tolerance, patience ,
The second most mentioned instrument of cooperation and ability to listen, understand
promotion of positive aspects of masculinity was and accept others point of view in case of other
women’s education. Increased attention, at policy person is right were mentioned most in FGDs
and society level, towards the women’s education conducted with male.
was considered key in enhancing positive aspects
of masculinity. The use of media in gender A change in the behavior of men, such as
sensitization, generating discussion, debate moderation of behaviours and attitudes, being
and discourse around the positive aspects of tolerant, patient, cooperative and accepting was
masculinities, advocacy for change through laws recommended.
and policies, correct interpretations of religious Respondents also believed that by studying
injunctions, civic education, men’s capacity religion in its correct form, people could
building for gender equitable practices and internalize positive traits that would, in turn,
behaviors, and gender sensitization campaigns benefit society and the belief about masculinity.
were frequently mentioned approaches to

36 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Chapter -3

Abbotabad male FGD; “Hamara deen mukamal situation. For example one of the respondents
zabta-e-ikhlaq hai jee us mein sub mojud hai k hum said: “Agr apk bache ko koi thapar mar jaie to aap
ne kis se kaisa bartao karna hai, agar hum samjhien kya karienge react karienge ya patience se kaam
to (Our religion tells us everything about how to lete hue darguzar kar deinge, 80% ka response
behave with other, if we try to understand it). aggression aur badla hoga aur 20% bhi wo hain
jin mein zyada number unka hoga jo atleast gali to
3.2.4 An Ideal Masculine Response deinge hi” (If someone hits your child what will be
towards the Stressful Situations in Life your reaction? Will you react with anger or let
3.2.4.1 Findings from Key Informant the other person walk away? 80% of people will
Interviews react and 20% will at least use abusive language, if
not react aggressively).
When the respondents were asked about the
ideal masculine response towards a stressful Another respondent was quoted as saying;
situation in life, they said the following: “Aap showroom se nai gari le kar niklien aur mein
apki gari ko takar mar dun to aap mera sir phar
• Don’t lose hope deinge ya patience, hope aur emotional control sub
kahin gum ho jata hai.” (If you come out of a car
• Accept mistakes showroom with brand new car, and I hit your car
• Keep trying to achieve your targets with mine, will you break my head or observe
patience? All such feelings of hope and emotional
• Learn lessons from your mistakes, and control vanish in stressful situations).
don’t repeat them
3.2.4.2 Findings from Focus Group
• Be firm in the decisions you take and Discussions
think logically about what the next step
should be Some of the responses from FGDs were almost
similar to those mentioned by KII respondents.
• Be patient Following were the key responses in FGDs in this
regard:
• Be courageous
• Observing patience and being tolerant
The respondents were specifically asked about
the response they expected from a masculine • Don’t give up until you achieve targets/
person in instances of emotional events such as destination
deaths and accidents. A majority of respondents
believed that a person should demonstrate a • Don’t be aggressive on every second
balance of emotions, that is, not too much crying thing and learn to control ones emotion
but also not too much stiffness and strictness. • Respect other human beings
Crying was considered the natural phenomena,
therefore was not encouraged to hold back. • Manage time distribution between family,
However, excessive crying would be more friends/peers and work
stressful and could prevent a man from being
seen as masculine. • Keep balance in delivering your duties in
your relationships
A few respondents were also of the view that
there was no such thing as “an ideal masculine • Don’t be nervous
response” since it was situation dependent. A • Remain humble
response that could be considered ideal in one
situation may not be perceived as such in another Married male FGD Multan; “Hamien bachpan se

Masculinity in Pakistan 37
Chapter -3

eik baat sikhai jati hai mard rota nai hai, to ye jumla that a male has to withstand pressures that
sum-up kar deta hai k mardangi ka ideal response are associated with leadership, stewardship,
kya hona chaie” (From our childhood we have management, protection, and responsibility. Above
been taught that men never cry. It defines what all most of these pressures extend throughout a
an ideal masculine response should be). man’s life up until death. Irrespective of old age,
a man is required to maintain and exercise his
FGD youth AJK; “Lamhat kar dat kar muqabla power in order to fulfill his obligations.
karna, umeed ka daman na chorna, aur apne jazbat
per qbau pana hi mardangi ki alamat hai” (Facing What embodies these pressures and how are
difficult situationsbravely and firmly, never losing they communicated to individuals? A majority
hope, and controlling one’s emotions are positive of the respondents stated that socialization
masculine responses). of masculinity began from mothers who instill
societal demands in to their children. Such
3.2.5 Key pressures on an individual to education is later reinforced by the media and
keep his masculinity educational curriculum. A person’s peers also
3.2.5.1 Findings from Key Informant played an important role in reinforcing masculine
Interviews pressures. Such pressure compelled individuals to
adhere to norms of masculinity.
Societal pressure was the most frequently
mentioned source of pressure for men with Furthermore, economic pressure was mentioned
regards to the preservation of their masculinity. also powerful since men were responsible for the
Such a pressure emanates from societal financial survival of his family in order to maintain
expectations that are internalized by individuals. power in society.
A male remains under the pressure to fulfillment 3.2.5.2 Findings from Focus Group
of these roles throughout his life. Discussions
Some of the expectations that have to be fulfilled As in KIIs, the FGD respondents also mentioned
by a male are as follows: societal pressures.. To prove his male identity was
• Be powerful and show strength one of the biggest pressures faced by a man. This
included a man’s responsibility to earn, provide
• Be a hard worker security for his family, feed them and provide
them with the basic amenities. Being a sole bread
• Be a decision maker winner a man is pressured throughout of his life.
• Be brave Married female Pishin; “Aadmi ka rol eik ghar mein
• Be aggressive sarbarah, mazbut satun ki tarah hota hai jo ghar
ko control karte, akhate rakhta hai, aur apne ghar
• Be responsible walon ki zaruriyat mein balance kar pata hai.” (The
role of a man is like a leader and a pillar of the
• Do not express emotions home. He exhibits control in the home, unites
everyone and fulfills the needs of everyone by
• Be respectful towards women
keeping a balance).
• Be dominant
Married male FGD Lahore; “Mardan wal kam
• Be problem solver kareya kar, ki har vele zananiyan wal kam to nasna
aien” (Work like men, don’t run from it like
Struggle and fight, but don’t lose your honor women).
A closer look at the role expectations highlight Married women FGD Mirpurkhas; “Faisle to mard

38 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Chapter -3

hi karte hain unka hi kaam hai jee unko hi acha satisfy his family’s financial demands. Frustration
agta hai” (Decisions are always made by men, and resulting from failure to fulfill these expectations
it is their work). was the third most reported cause of violence.

Youth FGD AJK; “Agr apk pass job nai hai, paisa Respondents also believed that the new
nai hai, safarish aur tagrey resources nai hain to trends such as women taking over male roles
mard ki is society mein koi jaga nai hai ajkal” (A (behaviors, professions, occupations, economic
man has no place in this society if he doesn’t opportunities), threatened masculinity and male
have a job, money, and some influential support privilege, and in turn, caused violence. However,
or resources). such a phenomenon was more prevalent in urban
areas.
FGD male Islamabad; “Agr doston k lie time na
nikalo to dost khete hain ka run mureed ho gaya The social acceptance of male violence against
hai, aur doston ko tym do to biwi kheti hai k apk women was reported to play a role in the
lie apke dost bahut important hain” (If you don’t continuation of such practices, since many
spend time with your friends, they say that you’ve believed that masculinity required a man to be
become a slave to your wife. If you spend too violent in order to maintain control.
much time with your friends, your wife will say
that your friends are important to you than me). 3.3.1.2 Findings from Focus Group
Discussions
FGD married male Abbottabad; “Hamare andar
violence ko sub se zyada hawa peers hi dete hain Participants believed that aggression was
khud beshak biwi k neeche lage hue honge per significant cause for gender based violence.
hamien sabaq dete hain k biwi ko daba kar rakho Inequalities in power and the demonstration of
nai to wo tum per havi ho jaiegi aur beja ki rok that power to maintain dominancy were also
tok karegi” (Peers are a triggering factor for the mentioned repeatedly. According to an influential
violence in man. Even if they themselves are FGD participant from Lahore: “Agar haftey mein
slaves to their wives, they will teach you to keep eik dafa biwi ko mara jaie to baqi ka hafta sukoon
your wife under your control, so that you don’t se guzarta hai (If wife is beaten once a week, the
get influenced and prevented from doing things rest of the week passes by peacefully ).

A majority of the respondents stated that there Most women believed that patriarchy and male
was no religious pressure on men to maintain his domination caused gender based violence. They
masculinity. Conversely, religion was perceived to also stated that in order to control their wives,
provide men with solutions to fulfill their societal men were physically and verbally violent.
duties. In the words of one of the respondents “Ye sari
3.3 Masculinity and Gender Based Violence cheezaien bhi apna role play karti hain per eik maze
ki baat ye hai k tasdud ki major waja aurat hoti hai
3.3.1 Correlation between Masculinity and jee. Biwi k roop mein khud bhi mar khatti hai aur
GBV mard se ghar walon per bhi karwati hai. Maan k
roop mein biwi per karwati hai” (All these reasons
3.3.1.1 Findings from Key Informant could be reasons for violence, but women are
Interviews also the reason for violence. As a wife, she gets
A majority of respondents believed that there beaten, and also causes her family to be beaten.
was a positive correlation between masculinity Holding onto decision making functions and
and GBV. Aggression in men was considered to imposing decisions was also mentioned as one
be the foremost trigger of male violent behavior, of the reasons for violence. A majority of male
followed by unemployment and pressure to participants, and a few women respondents,

Masculinity in Pakistan 39
Chapter -3

believed that men were violent if women talked 3.3.2.2 Findings from Focus Group
too much and posed invalid arguments. Discussions

FGD female Peshawar; “Aurat mar apni zuban ki Table 18 highlights the responses of the FGD
waja se khati hai, wo bilawaja tur tur na kare to participants:
mard hath nai uthata” (A Woman gets beaten
because of her tongue; a man will not hit her if
she did not talk unnecessarily. 3.4 Masculinity and Sexuality
It was intriguing that FGD participants did not The correlation between sexuality and
believe that there was a relationship between masculinity was explored in this section.
masculinity and GBV. This is despite the fact that
a number of negative traits masculinity were 3.4.1 Masculine Traits Associated with
described. This may be due to the internalization Sexuality
of masculine norms, rendering it difficult to be
aware of the link. Table 19 highlights the responses of the key
informants regarding sexuality and masculinity:
3.3.2 Attributes associated with GBV and
Masculinity When the FGD participants were probed about
particular traits their response appeared as
3.3.2.1 Findings from Key Informant shown in the table no 20.
Interviews

When respondent was probed about particular

attributes, their response appeared as shown in
the table no 17.
Table 17: Gender Based Violence and Association with Different Attributes (KII Responses)

Category Age Education Polygamy, dowry Employment Substance

& Social Status Status Abuse
KIs Third most Second most Fourth most Most Mentioned Fifth most
mentioned mentioned mentioned mentioned

Table 18: Gender Based Violence and its Association with Different Attributes (FGD
responses)
Attributes FGD Category Link

Married Married Influen- Youth

Males Females tials
Education *** ** *** *** Strongly
Employment Status ** *** *** *** Strongly
Age ** * ** ** Mildly
Polygamy, Dowry & Social Status * ** * NM Slightly
Substance Use * * * NM Slightly
NM: Not Mentioned

40 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Chapter -3

Table 19: Masculinity and Sexuality (KII Responses)

Category Sexual Relations Initiation of Fertility/ More or Active Participation/

Sex male children Multiple partners

KIIs Less less than half More than Majority of the Majority of the
of the respondents half of the respondent does not respondents has not
believed that this trait respondents agree to this trait to mentioned multiple
to be masculine mentioned be a masculine trait partners as a masculine
this trait to be (53) traits (52)
masculine (34)

Table 20: Link Between Masculinity and Sexuality (FGD Responses)

Married Married
Particulars Influentials Youth FGD Ratings
Males Females
Sexual relationships (anytime/every time) *** ** *** *** Strongly
are masculine

Initiating sex is masculine *** ** ** *** Strongly

Having more children or male children is ** * ** *** Strongly

masculine
Having more sexual relationships is mas- * NM * * Slightly
culine
NM: Not Mentioned

Urban and Rural trends from FGD

It was interesting to see that married females

from rural areas believed that initiating sex, and
having more male children were symbols of
masculinity.

Masculinity in Pakistan 41
Chapter -3

42 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Chapter -4

Chapter - 4
Discussion, Conclusions and
Recommendation
4. Discussion, Conclusions and as “Ghabru”, “jat”, “sher” in Punjab, “Kunay”,
Recommendation “pukhtun sarrayday”, “jhalwan sarrayday ” in KP,
“mursmano”, “melmadost”, “shah meraah”,
Drawing upon the findings, this section presents zorawar/powerful, badi/fighter, shahkarkay.
a discussion and conclusions about the attributes Masculinity is usually defined in Pakistan as a set
and perspectives around masculinity in Pakistani of attributes which are socially constructed and
society. It also attempts to understand how associated with men for their own benefit. It is
these attributes are interlinked with gender defined by certain behaviors, looks and traits, and
based violence, and how they impact the lives is divided by geography, ethnicity and culture.
of men, women, families and society itself.
Based upon findings, sets of recommendations To summarize, “Masculinity is perceived as a demi
have been presented to promote positive god character who will be tall, muscular, powerful,
aspects of masculinity, and minimize its negative fight bravely, compete to strive, confident,
consequences. courageous, tolerate, strong in emotions and
provide shelter and security, food, protection for
4.1 Discussion family.”
4.1.1 Masculinity Definition and Perception Gender stereotyping
4.1.1.1 Masculinity Definition A gender stereotype consists of beliefs about
Consistent with the existing international the psychological traits and characteristics of,
discourse [4,5,16], masculinity in Pakistan appears as well as the activities appropriate to, men or
to be a product of complex social processes women. When people associate a pattern of
expressed through the socio-cultural norms, behavior with either women or men, they may
primarily focused on men, and underpinned by overlook individual variations and exceptions and
a division of power between men and women come to believe that the behavior is inevitably
that benefits men. Although a social construct, associated with one gender but not the other.
masculinity is popularly measured in terms of Gender stereotypes are very influential; they
physical and physiological parameters as well affect conceptualizations of women and men and
as different behaviors [16].Pakistani society is establish social categories for gender. Findings
no exception. The patriarchal nature of society suggest that gender stereotyping also exists in
provides the foundations and cements the edifice Pakistan. Masculinity is associated with males,
of masculinity. although this study has highlighted that there are
conflicting realities in urban and rural areas of
Masculinity may take different shapes in different Pakistan. In urban areas, a shift has been observed
ethnicities [18, 19, 20]. and so is the case of in the gender roles and the “One Gender”
different sub-cultures of Pakistan. Whereas the concept appears to be growing. If capitalized
overall perception of masculinity remains similar, upon, this can be a window of opportunity
some variation was observed in urban and rural to catalyze social change using appropriate
settings. For instance, urban masculinity requires interventions. In rural areas of Pakistan,
western style dressing of men, clean shaven or consistent with the earlier findings [19], gender
stylish beard whereas rural masculinity includes stereotyping continues to have a stronghold
shalwar qameez and moustaches. Expressed although hairline cracks have started to appear

Masculinity in Pakistan 43
Chapter -4

due to an increase in gender awareness and Cluster 3: Action

education.
• Hardwork
According to Lewis (1984) the content of gender
stereotypes can be grouped into four separate • Decision-Making
components that people use to differentiate
male from female—traits, behaviors, physical • Warrior
characteristics, and occupations. This study also
observed that people in Pakistan differentiate • Leader
masculinity in terms of male traits, behaviors, and
• Competition
physical characteristics. However, the parameter
of occupation (as defined by Lewis) is not • Problem Solving
considered a masculine attribute in rural areas.
Providing and protecting are the key documental
The most prominent masculine traits and
global masculine traits (Gregor 1985) and
behaviors observed in this study can be divided
Pakistan is no exception. Masculinity in Pakistan
into three different human personality clusters as
also symbolizes:
shown below:
Provider: Security and provide resources (Food,
Shelter)
Cluster 1: Strength Protector: Defend home, family and territory
• Power Appearances vary according to place and the
local culture. Being tall, broad shouldered, healthy,
• Strength
muscular and, to some extent handsome, were
• Courage nationwide description of a manly man. However,
growing a moustache or being clean shaven,
• Aggression wearing shalwar kameez oror western clothing
varied across urban and rural areas.
• Bravery
The study observed less occupational
• Responsibility stereotyping since women were encouraged to
pursue male dominated professions such as the
Cluster 2: Honor police, army, engineering, hard labor and even
the security forces in urban areas. In rural areas,
• Loyalty
however, there is clear gender segregation by
• Shelter occupation that still exists.

• Independence Given above, the Lewis model in Pakistani

context will look like (Figure 2):
• Protection

• Provider/Breadwinner
Figure 2 Lewis’s Model for Gender
Stereotyping in Pakistan Urban and Rural
Perspective

In urban areas, while physical appearances,

traits and behaviors are strongly related and

44 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Chapter -4

Physical Physical
Appearance Appearance

Occupation Occupation

Traits and Traits and

Behaviors Behaviors
Urban Areas Rural Areas

stereotyped, they are not linked to occupation. and children implicit association traits (IATs)
That is, people do not view stereotypes for group or with the career oriented, creativity
women and men as separate and dichotomous and skills and freedom set of IATs. By and large
categories, but as probabilistic and overlapping masculinity was associated with both of the
in terms of occupation. In rural areas they are IATs groups. Due to the biological differences,
strongly interlinked with each other. reproduction is the obvious fact related to
the men in Pakistan. Upbringing of children is
4.1.1.2 Biological Difference or Social associated more with women, but the provision
Upbringing/Cultural Expectation of food, shelter, protection and all other basic
The study found that male and female differences needs of children, wife, parents and siblings
were strongly believed to be due to social are a man’s duty. However, this role is evolving,
upbringing and cultural expectations. Denial of especially in urban areas of Pakistan. The
biological differences, however, was not observed evolution is a function of several factors. Firstly,
throughout the study. Where expressed, women have started sharing these responsibilities
biology was related to reproduction and sexual by being involved in income generation activities.
satisfaction for both males and females. How Secondly, there is a growing realization that for a
to eat, behave, act, talk and appear masculine man to earn respect in society, he must possess
are societally determine. Society crafts the role a sound career. Also, for a man to protect
for both males and females and teaches norms the family he must have money in his pocket.
through two different mediums: observation Next expectation for masculinity is career
and reading. Both of these mediums help to development for which one must be creative and
socially nurture. “We are biologically created highly skilled to achieve success. Freedom is also
and socially created” was a common phrase that associated with men in our society especially the
was observed. Interestingly, it appears that the freedom of expression, career choice, and social
norms are associated with biology. Beliefs such as activities.
“male is the donor and female is the recipient”, Masculinity is thus viewed as a set of practices
and “sperms are active, strong and can live or which men are expected to exhibit in the
survive longer than the eggs” were common to contexts of their family, area, work and sub-
hear. Additionally, the roughness and smoothness cultures. Socio-economic positioning profoundly
of male and female bones highlighted the impacts the men’s status in the society and he
construction of these norms. feel himself as a representative of masculine
4.1.1.3 Implicit Association Traits identity

A mixed trend surfaced in the findings about

masculinity being more related to family, home

Masculinity in Pakistan 45
Chapter -4

which are commonly associated with males. We

Masculinity
can argue that masculinity underwent structural
IAT Set 1 changes as and when influenced by social
IATs Set 2 Children norms. It appears that masculinity has evolved in
Career Family Pakistani society
Creativity & Skills Home
Freedom First stage related to “Men dominated Society”
Figure 3 Relationship between Masculinity where men did not need to prove their identity,
and two groups of IATs second stage was a shift towards hegemonic
masculinity which was continuously challenged
that resulted in changes in norms and values
So it can be concluded as masculinity is
for proving the identity by men, and in third
associated with both the Implicit Association
stage it is being influenced by feminists post-
Traits set, further as IATs set 2 can also termed
structuralism which is challenging the traditional
as pre requisite to the IAT set 1, as shown in
masculinity in Pakistan urban areas especially big
Figure 3.
three (Islamabad, Lahore & Karachi).
4.1.2 Societal Role and Behaviors
How masculinity in observed in Pakistan socially
As discussed earlier, masculinity consists of those can be summarized as shown in Figure 4.
behaviors, languages and practices, existing in
specific cultural and organizational locations,

Biologically
Created

Man
Dominated
Society
Woman Men Input Gender Stereotyping
Roles. Traits, behaviors and
Appearance
Transgender
Society give Men
the responsibility
of Masculinity
Institution Development
Mother, family, Peers,
Curriculum, teachers, media,
Create Social, Religion
Psychological,
MEN/BOYS Injected Physical and
Economical
Roles: Father, Husband,
Pressures
Brother and Son

Circumstances
Generate Demand
Be powerful, Be decision-maker,
Culture Settings
Be Aggressive, Be Kind, Be
Protector, Be Provider, Be
Independent, Be Hardworker,
Be Sexually Potent

Positive and Negative Impact

Men Women Family Society

Results of Impact / Lesson Learnings / Reactions

Effects are inserted back to process

Figure 3 Society to and from men process flow diagram

46 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Chapter -4

How is masculinity institutionalized in society? dominance, strength, courage and control. These
Viewing through socio-ecological lens one characteristics result from a combination of
sees that Masculinity cuts across four layers of biological, cultural and social influences, and
Pakistani society. relate to the power in society as a whole. These
traits of masculinity are termed to be the major
contributor to the violence happening from men.

Another big reason for the violence particularly

in urban areas of Pakistan, are changes in the
economy, social structures, and household
composition which are resulting in ‘crises of
masculinity’ and causing “demasculinizing” effect.
Men, consequently seek affirmation of their
masculinity in other ways particularly reported as
gender based violence.

4.1.4 Masculinity and Sexuality

As documented in existing discourse, masculinity

and sexuality were found to be associated
in Pakistan as well. Sexual promiscuity and
Figure 4 Socio-ecological Model of Impact
prowess is related with being more masculine.
of Masculinity
The relationship is so strong that the word
The study observed that masculinity; male and “mardana kamzoori” generally used to express
female constructs were created biologically sexual impotency has been derived from “mard”
and handed over to society by means of which means man. Masculinity is also manifested
gender stereotypical roles, traits, behaviors, and in sexual relationships of men with women for
appearances. Society then creates institutions, instance it is manly for husband to express the
such as the family, neighborhood, religion, school, desire for having sex as opposed to female who
workplace, and media, through which these is not expected to express this desire before her
norms are transferred. The most influential male partner. Similarly, having more male children
institution in Pakistan is mothers, education, is also a symbol of masculinity.
religion and the media. Men’s societal demands
In summary, the understanding of masculinity has
create pressures which he reacts to t both
demonstrated that masculinity is not ‘natural’.
positively and negatively.
Instead, it is seen as a gender identity that is
4.1.3 Masculinity and Gender Based socially and culturally constructed, historical
Violence and political. It has represented the social and
cultural interpretation of maleness learnt through
Masculinity appears to be a cause and effect of engagement and participation in the society. The
GBV. Predominantly, gender power relations understanding of masculinity in modern society
(Masculinity associated with men) have left a has also seen femininity as a treat on masculinity
legacy whereby women are more likely to be and an evidence of that is the present crisis that
disadvantaged relative to men, have less access men face in the world or work and job roles in
to resources, benefits, information and decision the society. On the other hand challenging of
making, and to have fewer rights both within the masculinity has provoked the violent nature of
household and in the public sphere. Masculinity men, which consequently seen the increase in
in Pakistan is pre dominantly associated violence in the society.
with characteristics such as aggressiveness,

Masculinity in Pakistan 47
Chapter -4

4.2 Conclusions rural perspective is concluded in Figure 6.

The conclusion in each theme is presented 4.2.1.2 Masculinity association with IATs
through following infographic: groups and Bio Vs Socio perspective

4.2.1 Masculinity Definition and Perception Masculinity association in urban and rural

Figure 5 Perception of Masculinity

4.2.1.1 Perception of Masculinity perspective with six components of Implicit

Association Traits (career, freedom, creativity/
The perception of the masculinity in the society skills, family, home and children) and Biological
in terms of traits/behaviors, appearance and Vs Social perspective is concluded as shown in
occupation, as well as in context of urban and Figure 7.

48 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Chapter -4

Figure 8 Masculinity pressures on men

4.2.2 Societal Role and Behaviors

4.2.2.1 Social Pressures

Social pressures that a man has to face are

instilled by the different institutions, as shown in
Figure 8.

4.2.2.2 Impact of Masculinity on Men

Social pressures cause men to pass through

Figure 7 Masculinity by IATs group and Bio certain stages which result in different impact on
Vs Socio perspective them. Those impacts are presented in Figure 9.

Figure 9 Impact of Masculinity on Men

Masculinity in Pakistan 49
Chapter -4

4.2.2.3 Impact of Masculinity on Women • areas and to some extent in rural areas)

Masculinity affects women both positively • Feelings of security and belongingness,

and negatively, according to the cultural and confidence, productivity and support.
geographical differences. One major observation
was that violence in urban was areas was • Women are allowed to marry by choice,
increasing although women were becoming build careers and occupations which
economically strong , free, and educated, The key were perceived to be male dominated.
impacts are as follows: Negative Impact
Positive Impact • Increase in violence due to women’s
• Power, decision making and resource economic stability, internal arguments
sharing examples stated are family • Less Increase in demands for equal rights
planning, sex, problems faced by men and opportunities in Rural Areas.
outside the home, and property disputes.
• Limited opportunities to speak,
• Challenging traditional norms, values and make decisions, seek education and
practices like karo kari, watta satta, early professional work, particularly in rural
and child marriages areas.
• Enabling educational environments: • Promotion of passive personality
Access and opportunities (more in urban characteristics (limited opportunities for
areas, but increasing in rural areas as marriage by choice, not allowed to speak
well) in case of rights violation)
• Increased level of women’s rights • Promotion of the traditional role of
awareness– protection, shelter, laws women(cooking, looking after children,
• Increased women’s economic source of sexual gratification for men)
empowerment (particularly in urban • Raped and sexual assault

Figure 10 Impact of Masculinity on Family

50 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Chapter -4

• Women are deprived of resources 4.2.2.5 Impact of Masculinity on Society

• Psychological trauma, physical ailments, Masculinity effects on society are concluded as

limited access to family planning shown in the Figure 11.
and sexual and reproductive health
treatments

4.2.2.4 Impact of Masculinity on Family

Impacts of Masculinity on family are concluded as

shown in the figure 10.

Figure 11 Impact of Masculinity on Society

Masculinity in Pakistan 51
Chapter -4

4.2.2.6 Masculine Response in Stressful 4.2.2.8 Evolution of the Masculinity

Situation
Masculinity underwent different change over the
The ideal Masculine responses in a stressful past few years. These changes can be concluded
situation collated from study are represented in as shown in table no 21.
Figure 12.

4.2.2.7 Positive Masculine Aspects to be

Enhanced

The ways to enhance the positive masculine

aspects in the society are shown in Figure 13.

Figure 12 Masculine’ response in stressful situations

52 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Chapter -4

Figure 13 Ways to enhance the positive aspects of masculinity

Table 21: Evolution of the Masculinity

Before After
• Less Education for both men and women • Education status is increasing (frequently in
urban areas and gaining pace in rural areas)
• Less Awareness of the rights
• Today it is Information age due to which the
• Lack of technology, no existence of informa- bar of awareness about the right are continu-
tion on gender ously raising

• Media was not sensitizing the gender at all. • Media is playing role in gender sensitization

• Gender roles wasn’t being challenged • Gender roles has been challenged and re-de-
fined
• Women were not taking on male dominated
professions (Police, army, health, engineering) • Women are entering in male dominated pro-
fessions(police, army, engineering) but harass-
• Women were not participating in decision ment increases
making process at any level (household, famil-
ial, community and society) • Women are participating in decision making
(Domestic violence increases)
• Women were killed and bartered for power
and resources • Traditional norms are being challenged.

• Women wasn’t economic stable • Women are getting economic stable

• Women were not part of judicial and political • Women can be seen in judicial and political
infrastructure infrastructure

• Father figure was a symbol of fear • Father figure changed a lot as more and more
debate happenings

Masculinity in Pakistan 53
Chapter -4

Figure 14 Cause and effect relationship between masculinity and gender based violence

4.3 Image of Masculine Personality of men. Physical appearance such as tall heighted,
broad shoulders, strong muscles, body hair,
Masculinity is perceived as the socially healthy, not-feminine and handsome were the
constructed element which possesses certain common findings while moustaches, shalwar
appearance, behavior, traits and skills mostly kameez and traditional cultural clothes for rural
associated with men. It varies on the basis and clean shave or fashion beard and western
of geography, ethnicity and culture. Strong clothing (suits, pent & shirt) for urban were the
association of masculinity with men is observed sectoral findings. Socially the masculinity can
in rural sector then in urban sector. Appearance be termed as provider, protector, loyal, leader,
of masculinity is mostly perceived as appearance respecting women, honest and kind and having

54 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Chapter -4

good heart while psychologically it is termed • Proving his ability to demonstrate

as hard worker, decision maker, competitor, manhood whenever required.
consistent, responsible, aggressive, courageous,
and emotionally restrained and solution finder. • Exercising his freedom by less answering
to those who are weak and expressing
Summarily put, perception of masculinity can be his expression of interest more
concluded as:
• Choosing and adopting specific
• Traditional definition of masculinity profession (soldiers, engineers, doctor)
prevails all over Pakistan for which he is appreciated.

• Masculinity is primarily seen as gender 4.4 Recommendations

stereotyping to men.
• Masculinity has positive traits which
• Masculinity is more focused around the need to be capitalized on to gain social
positive traits of traditional masculinity stability and reformation to improve
component i.e. Men. tolerance and patience for a more
peaceful and harmonious co-existence of
Besides the characteristics of men that are both the genders. .
socially constructed masculinity in Pakistan can
be depicted as: • Masculinity underlies gender based
violence and is, both, a direct and
• Being macho, heroic and ideal. indirect cause of GBV. It can trigger as
• Controlling the emotion and feelings well as aggravate other factors, such as
(don’t cry at any occasion, don’t be sad) unemployment, poverty and conflicts
responsible for GBV. Efforts to control
• Using powers i.e. muscular, decision GBV should focus on minimizing the
making, controlling etc. effects of masculinity on GBV.

• Using violence and force to control • There is a changing trend that masculinity
women and society is no more denial of women rights. In
many places especially in urban settings
• Making bold decisions for himself and masculinity does refer to getting rights
family, being rigid and firm in all situations such as education to women. Such traits
and circumstances of masculinities need to be amplified in
• Being sexually active, potent and fit society especially given the observation
to reproduce, prove others that he is that women economic empowerment is
“manly man” with sexual promiscuity. also being reacted to as a challenge to
masculinity resulting into violence against
• Fulfilling the protector’s role and women.
remaining shield for family
• Women education and media appear
• Providing food, shelter and other basic to be key levers of change that can help
needs to family diffusion of the positive masculinities in
societies at large. Positive masculinity
• Striving for career and fighting to earn needs to be branded and promoted as
socially perceived “rights” a life style approach hooked with the
honor aspirations of the society.
• Using resources and aggression to
control situations • Along with promotion of the positive

Masculinity in Pakistan 55
Chapter -4

traits of masculinity, efforts will be for each of the key roles that
required to lower the pressures on man is expected to play at family,
men for keeping their masculinity intact. community and society level.
Socio-ecological model provides a good
explanation as how the masculinity • More research will be required on 4
traits, behaviours, appearance and types of masculinities i.e.
occupation are institutionalized at the • The study does not hint towards
society, community and family levels. The any role of religion in masculinity
efforts to change these will have to be construct and practices. This
targeted at all these levels. An enabling however further needs to be
environment will be required to help explored especially in the rural
males get rid of the pressures attached context where masculinity’s
with the social expectations from them. traditional concept is still upheld.
• Changes will be required in the • There is a need to explore how
curriculum for diffusing gender neutral masculinity manifests itself in
values in the society along with focus on political, economic and judicial
the first training institute of a child i.e. structures of the society.
mothers.
• In contrast to anecdotal evidence, local
• A trivial balance will be required to be and scientific evidence base needs to be
observed while promoting the positive strengthened on the impact of engaging
traits of masculinity lest those also men in different activities of gender
turn into pressures on males resulting sensitization and capacity building around
into chaos and identity crises of the gender equity.
individuals.

• Change process has initiated, it needs to

be catalyzed and strengthened in urban
areas. However, more efforts will be
needed in rural settings.

• The study in hand is first national

study on masculinities which explored
various dimensions of the concept. More
research is needed to further improve
the understanding on the subject in
following key areas:

• Masculinity in different sub cultures

given the fact that Pakistan hosts a
heterogeneous society.

• Masculinity is associated with men.

There is a sheer need of exploring
all the social and psychological
aspects of masculinity in all roles
it is being observed i.e. father,
brother, son and husband A deeper
understanding will be required

56 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Annexures

Annexures Q3: Is masculinity characterized by values of

Annex 1 Focus Group Discussion and Key (IAT)
Informants career, freedom and creative work, or
family, home, children
Introduction Q4: Is the difference in the perception between
men and women a function of their biological
Asslam O Alaikum: My name is ……….. We differences? Or is it a result of differences
have come to you on behalf of an organization in socialization/upbringing or the cultural
which works for the betterment of Gender expectations held for each sex?
Empowerment and Rights. The purpose of today’s (Probe for differences)
discussion is to collect information from you Q5:What are the positive traits of masculinity
with regards to a research study which aims Q6:What are the negative traits of masculinity
to learn the different aspects and normative
understanding of Masculinities in Pakistan. We
appreciate your willingness to share your time
Societal Roles/ Behavior
with us in this regard. The information you give
us will help us develop/improve programs to
improve Gender Empowerment and eliminate Q7-What is the impact of masculinity on men
the Gender based violence as well as the themselves
Situation of Men in Society. What you say here
is confidential. We are interested in hearing your (Probe=>negative and positive aspects of this
experiences: your name will not be included in identity, give examples)
any reports. The discussion may take 1- 2 hrs.
Your participation in this discussion is voluntary. Q8-What is the impact of masculinity on
Before or during the discussion if you wish to women
leave, you are free to do so. There will be no (Probe=>negative and positive aspects of this
objection and you will not have any kind of identity, give examples)
obligation in this regard. I will be moderating this
discussion. ___________will be recording the Q9-What is the impact of masculinity on family
discussion (if you allow) and taking notes.
(Probe=>negative and positive aspects of this
Now if you all agree can we start? identity, give examples)
(Have each participant introduce him or herself Q10-What is the impact of masculinity on
by name.) society

Definition and Perception of Masculinity (Probe=>negative and positive aspects of this

identity, give examples)
Q1: What do you understand of the term Q11-How can positive aspects be enhanced
masculinity? (probe=> how can they benefit society)
Q2: Is masculinity defined by traits, by
personality ‘type’, or looks?
Which of the following do you associate with
femininity (Probe=> Physical Appearance, Traits,
Behaviors, Occupation)

Masculinity in Pakistan 57
Annexures

Q13-What are the reasons (traits/role) Q18: How do you think following attri-
that give a bad name to masculinity butes have their effects on masculinity
and Gender Based Violence?
Q14-How has the concept of mascu-
linity evolved/changed over the last 10 • Age; education; marital/co-
years (Probe=> how men and wom- habitation status; polygamy &
en are challenging masculine identity, dowry; stress and reactions
emerging variances in gender roles, associated with employment
give examples) status, substance abuse
Q15: What is an ideal masculine re-
sponse towards the stressful situations Sexuality
in life? Q19: Do you think men wanting sexual
relations anytime with their wives, is a
Probes: masculine trait?
• Interpersonal clash/ disagree- Q20: Do you think a man initiating sex,
ment is a masculine trait?
• Failure to achieve targets Q21: Are having more/male children a
symbol of masculinity
• Unemployment
Q22: Is it considered masculine to have
• Work stresses
multiple sexual relationships at the
• Relationship stresses same time

• Emergencies/deaths

Q16: What are key pressures on an

individual to keep his masculinity?

• Probes:

• Society

• Family

• Peer

• Economic

• Religious

Violence/GBV
Q17: What is the co-relationship be-
tween masculinity and Gender Based
Violence?

58 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Annex 2

Annex 2 •

•
Higher social economic background

Lower social economic background

Key Informant Interview Guidelines; specific
categories • Urban

Common question to be asked in all KIIs • Rural

• Are you aware of any intervention/study/ • Educated (primary level or higher)

research/article on femininity? • Uneducated
Specific questions • Health Care Providers/Hakeems
• Psychologists (working in Social Welfare 1. What elements of physical
Departments, District Hospitals and appearance are generally considered
private clinics) feminine and which ones are not?
1. What is the general understanding of 2. What are the most significant
masculinity? concerns of women regarding
2. How is masculinity affected (positively masculinity?
or negatively) by socio-economic and/or • School Teachers
geographic background, and educational
levels? 1. How is masculinity affected by
education levels?
• Higher social economic
background 2. What is the role of school/curriculum
in determining masculinity? How does
• Lower social economic background it impact masculinity?
• Urban • Individuals working with GBV survivors –
• Rural Edhi, shelters, lawyers, etc.

• Educated (primary level or higher) 1. Do you know about any laws on violence
against women? Please elaborate
• Uneducated
2. What type of violence do women face
• Sociologists/gender specialist (Teachers inside the home?
in Sociology /Gender Departments of
Universities: Punjab University, Quaid- 3. What is the impact of violence against
e-Azam University, Karachi University, women in the home?
SZABIST, Islamia University, University 4. Do women face violence outside the
of Baluchistan and other private home? Can you give examples?
universities)
5. What is the impact of violence against
1. What is the general understanding of women outside the home?
masculinity?
6. How can this be stopped and eventually
2. How is masculinity affected (positively prevented? Should the government do
or negatively) by socio-economic and/or anything? What should it do?
geographic background, and educational
levels? What can women do to protect themselves?

Masculinity in Pakistan 59
Annex 2

• Media representatives/film and drama

script writers

1. What is the role of media in

determining masculinity?/What
are the different ways in which the
media manifests women’s sexuality?

2. How do you see women being

projected in media?

3. Do you agree with the way women

are projected in the media?

4. How should masculinity be depicted

in the media?

• Government Departments, other

Institutions & key stakeholders

1. How effective are the policies/laws/

legislations protecting/promoting the
rights of women in Pakistan? What
would your recommendation be in
terms of making it more enforceable?

2. What would you personally like to

advocate for?

60 Masculinity in Pakistan
 Annex 3

Annex 3 2012.

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64 Masculinity in Pakistan
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Masculinity in Pakistan 65
Annex 3

Web: http://www.af.org.pk/gep
Email: info.gep@af.org.pk,
Mail: PO Box No. 1105, Islamabad, Pakistan

66 Masculinity in Pakistan