432 PART III Analytes

TABLE 25-1 Ma jor Hormone s a nd Fre q ue ntly Me a s ure d Hormone P re c urs ors a nd Cytokine s
Endocrine Organ and Hormone Chemical Nature o Hormone Major Sites o Action Principal Actions
Hypothalamus
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) Peptide (3aa,* Glu-His-Pro) Anterior pituitary Release o TSH and prolactin (PRL)
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) or Peptide (10aa) Anterior pituitary Release o LH and FSH
luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone
(LH-RH)
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) Peptide (41aa) Anterior pituitary Release o ACTH and β-lipotropic hormone
(LPH)
Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GH-RH) Peptides (40, 44aa) Anterior pituitary Release o growth hormone (GH)
Somatostatin† (SS) or growth hormone- Peptides (14, 28aa) Anterior pituitary Suppression o secretion o many hormones
inhibiting hormone (GH-IH) (e.g., GH, TSH, gastrin, vasoactive
intestinal polypeptide [VIP], gastric
inhibitory polypeptide [GIP], secretin,
motilin, glucagon, and insulin)
Prolactin-releasing peptide Peptide (20aa) Anterior pituitary Release o PRL
Prolactin-releasing/inhibiting actor Dopamine Anterior pituitary Suppression o synthesis and secretion o PRL
Anterior Pituitary Lobe
Thyrotropin or thyroid-stimulating hormone Glycoprotein, heterodimer‡ Thyroid gland Stimulation o thyroid hormone ormation and
(TSH) (α, 92aa; β, 112aa) secretion
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) Glycoprotein, heterodimer‡ Ovary Growth o ollicles with LH, secretion o
(α, 92aa; β, 117aa) estrogens, and ovulation
Testis Development o semini erous tubules;
spermatogenesis
Luteinizing hormone (LH) Glycoprotein, heterodimer‡ Ovary Ovulation; ormation o corpora lutea;
(α, 92aa; β, 121aa) secretion o progesterone
Testis Stimulation o interstitial tissue; secretion o
androgens
PRL Peptide (199aa) Mammary gland Proli eration o mammary gland; initiation o
milk secretion; antagonist o insulin action
Growth hormone (GH) or somatotropin Peptide (191aa) Liver Production o IGF-1 (promoting growth)
Liver and peripheral tissues Anti-insulin and anabolic e ects
Corticotropin or adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) Peptide (39aa) Adrenal cortex Stimulation o adrenocortical steroid ormation
and secretion
β-Endorphin (β-END)‡§ Peptide (31aa) Brain Endogenous opiate; raising o pain threshold
and in uence on extrapyramidal motor
activity
Chorionic gonadotropin (CG) or Glycoprotein, heterodimer‡
choriogonadotropin (α, 92aa; β, 145aa)
α-Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) Peptide (13aa) Skin Dispersion o pigment granules, darkening
o skin
Leu-enkephalin (LEK)†§ and met-enkephalin Peptide (5aa) Brain Same as β-endorphin
(MEK)†§
Posterior Pituitary Lobe
Vasopressin or ADH Peptide (9aa) Arterioles renal tubules Elevation o blood pressure; water
reabsorption
Oxytocin Peptide (9aa) Smooth muscles (uterus, Contraction; action in parturition and in sperm
mammary gland) transport; ejection o milk
Pineal Gland
Serotonin or 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) Indoleamine Cardiovascular, respiratory, Neurotransmitter; stimulation or inhibition o
and gastrointestinal various smooth muscles and nerves
systems; brain
Melatonin Indoleamine Hypothalamus Suppression o gonadotropin and GH
secretion; induction o sleep
Thyroid Gland
Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) Iodoamino acids General body tissue Stimulation o oxygen consumption and
metabolic rate o tissue
Calcitonin or thyrocalcitonin Peptide (32aa) Skeleton Uncertain in humans
 CHAPTER 25 Hormones 433

TABLE 25-1 Ma jor Hormone s a nd Fre q ue ntly Me a s ure d Hormone P re c urs ors a nd Cytokine s —c ont’d
Endocrine Organ and Hormone Chemical Nature o Hormone Major Sites o Action Principal Actions
Parathyroid Gland
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) or parathyrin Peptide (84aa) Kidney Increased calcium reabsorption,
inhibited phosphate reabsorption;
increased production o 1,25-
dihydroxycholecalci erol
Skeleton Increased bone resorption
Adrenal Cortex
Aldosterone Steroid Kidney Salt and water balance
Androstenedione¶¶ Steroid Hormone precursor Conversion to estrogens and testosterone
Cortisol Steroid Many Metabolism o carbohydrates, proteins, and
ats; anti-in ammatory e ects; others
Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and Steroids Hormone precursors Conversion to estrogens and testosterone
dehydroepiandrostenedione sul ate
(DHEAS)
17-Hydroxyprogesterone Steroid Hormone precursor Conversion to cortisol
Adrenal Medulla
Norepinephrine and epinephrine Aromatic amines Sympathetic receptors Stimulation o sympathetic nervous system
Epinephrine Liver and muscle, adipose Glycogenolysis
tissue Lipolysis
Ovary
Activin A Peptides¶ 2 βA-subunits Pituitary, ovarian ollicle Stimulation o release o FSH; enhanced FSH
action; inhibition o androgen production
by theca cells
Activin B Peptides¶ 2 βB-subunits beta See activin Aabove See activin Aabove
DHEAand DHEAS Steroids Hormone precursors Conversion to androstenedione
Estrogens Phenolic steroids Female accessory sex Development o secondary sex characteristics
organs
Bone Control o skeletal maturation, etc.
Follistatin Peptides (288aa, 315aa) Pituitary, ovarian ollicles Inhibition o FSH synthesis and secretion by
binding o activin
Inhibin A Peptide (α-subunit and βA- Hypothalamus, ovarian Inhibition o FSH secretion; stimulation o
subunit) ollicle theca cell androgen production
Inhibin B Peptide (α-subunit and βB- See inhibin Aabove See inhibin Aabove
subunit)
Progesterone Steroid Female accessory Preparation o the uterus or ovum
reproductive structure implantation, maintenance o pregnancy
Relaxin Peptide** Uterus Inhibition o myometrial contraction
Testis
Inhibin B See above Anterior pituitary, Control o LH and FSH secretion
hypothalamus
Testosterone Steroid Male accessory sex Development o secondary sex characteristics,
organs maturation, and normal unction
Placenta
Estrogens See above See above See above
Progesterone See above See above See above
Relaxin See above See above See above
Chorionic gonadotropin (CG) or Glycoprotein, heterodimer‡ Same as LH Same as LH; prolongation o corpus luteal
choriogonadotropin (α, 92aa; β, 145aa) unction
Placental growth hormone (GH-V) Peptides (22 and 26 kDa) Same as GH Same as GH
Chorionic somatomammotropin (CS) or Peptide (191aa) Same as PRL Same as PRL
placental lactogen (PL)
Pancreas
Amylin Peptide (37aa) Pancreas Inhibition o glucagon and insulin secretion
Glucagon Peptide (29aa) Liver Glycogenolysis
Insulin Peptide†† Liver, at, muscle Regulation o carbohydrate metabolism;
lipogenesis
Continued
434 PART III Analytes

TABLE 25-1 Ma jor Hormone s a nd Fre q ue ntly Me a s ure d Hormone P re c urs ors a nd Cytokine s —c ont’d
Endocrine Organ and Hormone Chemical Nature o Hormone Major Sites o Action Principal Actions
Pancreas—cont’d
Pancreatic polypeptide (PP) Peptide (36aa) Gastrointestinal tract Increased gut motility and gastric
emptying; inhibition o gallbladder
contraction
Somatostatin (SS)§ Peptide (14aa) Pancreas Inhibition o secretion o insulin, glucagon
Gastrointestinal Tract
Gastrin§ Peptide (17aa) Stomach Secretion o gastric acid, gastric mucosal
growth
Ghrelin§ (GHRP) Peptide (28aa) Anterior pituitary Secretion o GH
Secretin Peptide (27aa) Pancreas Secretion o pancreatic bicarbonate and
digestive enzymes
Cholecystokinin-pancreozymin (CCK-PZ)§ Peptide (33aa) Gallbladder and pancreas Stimulation o gallbladder contraction and
secretion o pancreatic enzymes
Motilin Peptide (22aa) Gastrointestinal tract Stimulation o gastrointestinal motility
VIP§ Peptide (28aa) Gastrointestinal tract Neurotransmitter; relaxation o smooth
muscles o gut and o circulation;
increased release o hormones and
secretion o water and electrolytes rom
pancreas and gut
Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) Peptide (42aa) Gastrointestinal tract Inhibition o gastric secretion and motility;
increase in insulin secretion
Glucagon-like peptide-1 Peptide (30-31aa) Gastrointestinal tract Increased insulin and decreased glucagon
secretion; inhibition o gastric emptying
Bombesin§ Peptide (14aa) Gastrointestinal tract Stimulation o release o various hormones
and pancreatic enzymes, smooth muscle
contractions and hypothermia, changes in
cardiovascular and renal unction
Neurotensin§ Peptide (13aa) Gastrointestinal tract and Uncertain
hypothalamus
Substance P (SP)§ Peptide (11aa) Gastrointestinal tract and Sensory neurotransmitter, analgesic; increase
brain in contraction o gastrointestinal smooth
muscle; potent vasoactive hormone;
promotion o salivation, increased release
o histamine
Kidney
1,25-(OH)2 cholecalci erol Sterol Intestine Facilitation o absorption o calcium and
Bone phosphorus; increase in bone resorption in
conjunction with PTH
Kidney Increase in reabsorption o fltered calcium
Erythropoietin Peptide (165aa) Bone marrow Stimulation o red cell ormation
Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system Peptides (renin, 297aa; Ang I, Renin ( rom kidney) Increased blood pressure and stimulation o
10aa; Ang II, 8aa, produced catalyzes hydrolysis o secretion o aldosterone (see adrenal) by
rom Ang I by angiotensin- angiotensinogen ( rom Ang II
converting enzyme) liver, 485aa) to Ang I in
the intravascular space
Liver
IGF-1, ormerly called somatomedin Peptide (70aa) Most cells Stimulation o cellular and linear growth
IGF-2 Peptide (67aa) Most cells Insulin-like activity
Thymus
Thymosin and thymopoietin Peptides (28, 49aa) Lymphocytes Maturation o T lymphocytes
Heart
Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP, atriopeptin) Peptide with an intrachain Vascular, renal, and adrenal Regulation o blood volume and blood
disulfde bond (28aa) tissues pressure
B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) Peptide with an intrachain Vascular, renal, and adrenal Regulation o blood volume and blood
disulfde bond (32aa) tissues pressure
 CHAPTER 25 Hormones 435

TABLE 25-1 Ma jor Hormone s a nd Fre q ue ntly Me a s ure d Hormone P re c urs ors a nd Cytokine s —c ont’d
Endocrine Organ and Hormone Chemical Nature o Hormone Major Sites o Action Principal Actions
Adipose Tissue
Adiponectin Peptide oligomers o 30-kDa Muscle Increased atty acid oxidation
subunits Liver Suppression o glucose ormation
Leptin Peptide (167aa) Hypothalamus Inhibition o appetite, stimulation o metabolism
Resistin Peptide (94aa) Liver Insulin resistance
Multiple Cell Types
Estrogens See above See above See above
Galanin Peptide (30aa) Brain, pancreas, GI tract Regulation o ood intake, memory, and
cognition; inhibition o endocrine and
exocrine secretions o pancreas; delayed
gastric emptying; prolonged colonic
transport times
Parathyroid hormone-related peptide Peptides (139, 141, 173aa) Kidney, bone Physiological unction conjectural; PTH-like
(PTH-RP) actions; tumor marker
Growth actors (e.g., epidermal growth actor, Peptides Many Stimulation o cellular growth
fbroblast growth actor, trans orming
growth actor amily, platelet-derived
growth actor, nerve growth actors)
Monocytes/Lymphocytes/Macrophages
Cytokines (e.g., interleukins 1 to 18, tumor Peptides Many Stimulation or inhibition o cellular growth;
necrosis actor, inter erons) other
*aa, Amino acid residues.
†Also produced by gastrointestinal tract and pancreas.
‡Glycoprotein hormones composed o two dissimilar peptides. The α-chains are similar in structure or identical; the β-chains di er among hormones and con er specifcity.
§Androstenedione is also produced in the ovary and testis.
¶Two chains linked by two disulfde bonds: α, 24aa; β, 29aa.

**Also produced in the brain.

††Two chains linked by two disulfde bonds: α, 21aa; β, 30aa.
¶¶ Each activin and inhibin is ound in multiple orms.

circulate in las a bound to roteins (thyroxine) or ree (cat- other hor ones. T ose other hor ones rovide negative eed-
echola ines). T yroxine binds avidly to three binding roteins back on secretion o the ituitary hor ones. Other regulators o
and has a hal -li e o about 7 to 10 days in the circulation; ree secretion o the ituitary hor ones include circadian rhythms
and unbound catechola ines such as e ine hrine have a very and a hy othala ic ulse generator that controls the ulsatile
short hal -li e o a inute or less. Like the water-soluble e tide secretion o gonadotro ins. Exa les o hor ones o the ante-
and rotein hor ones, these hor ones interact with e - rior ituitary gland (adenohypophysis) include the ollowing:
brane-associated rece tors and use a second essenger syste . • Gonadotropins (such as luteinizing hor one [LH] and
ollicle-sti ulating hor one [FSH]) regulate the (1) devel-
o ent, (2) growth, and (3) unction o the ovary and testis
Re le as e and Ac tio n o Ho rmo ne s
(see Cha ter 43). Ovarian and testicular hor ones in turn
T e hysiological unctions o hor ones have been broadly regulate (1) ubertal growth, (2) develo ent and ain-
categorized into those that (1) a ect growth and develo ent, tenance o secondary sex characteristics, (3) growth, (4)
(2) exert ho eostatic control o etabolic athways, and develo ent, (5) aintenance o the skeleton and uscles,
(3) regulate the roduction, use, and storage o energy. T e and (6) distribution o body at
descri tions that ollow illustrate exa les o these unctions • AC H regulates growth o the adrenal glands and synthesis
and echanis s o control o hor one secretion. and secretion o adrenal gland hor ones (see Cha ters 40
and 41)
Gro wth and De ve lo pme nt • T yroid-sti ulating hor one ( SH) regulates growth o
Nor al growth and develo ent o the whole hu an organis the thyroid gland and iodination o a ino acids to roduce
are de endent on the co lex integrative unction o any hor- the thyroid hor ones triiodothyronine and thyroxine (see
ones, including (1) gonadal steroids (estrogenic and andro- Cha ter 42)1
genic), (2) growth hor one, (3) cortisol, and (4) thyroxine.
Also, several pituitary hor ones are res onsible s eci cally or Ho me o s tatic Co ntro l o Me tabo lic Pathways
the growth and develo ent o endocrine glands the selves, Homeostasis is de ned as the ability or tendency o an organ-
and thus are res onsible or control o synthesis and secretion o is or cell to aintain internal equilibriu by adjusting its