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Biomass Combustion

Technical Report · January 2010

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 Agriculture and Natural Resources
DIVISION OF AGRICULTURE
RESEARCH & EXTENSION
University of Arkansas System

FSA1056

Biomass Combustion
Sammy Sadaka What Is Combustion? Combustion has three require­
Assistant Professor ­ ments – fuel, air and heat. If any of
Combustion is a reaction of a fuel
Extension Engineer these three are removed, burning
with oxygen in air to release heat.
stops. When all three are available in
Donald M. Johnson This process is used every day in
the correct proportion, combustion is
Professor households for heating and cooking
self­sustaining, because the fuel
and in industries for generating heat
releases excess heat to initiate
or steam. Combustion accounts for
further burning.
85 percent of our world’s energy usage
and is vital to our current way of life.
Complete combustion of biomass
Combustion is a complex interaction
requires a certain amount of air. Air
of physical and chemical processes.
consists of 21 percent oxygen and
Good fuels for combustion are about 79 percent nitrogen. Therefore,
materials rich in hydrogen and the product of a stoichiometric
carbon, called hydrocarbons. Such combustion of biomass in air will
fuels include natural gas, coal, diesel, include carbon dioxide, water vapor
gasoline, propane, wood, agricultural and nitrogen. This reaction will
residues and municipal solid waste. generate heat. The stoichiometric
Ideally, all hydrogen and carbon equation for the combustion of biomass
would split off and combine with the is given as follows:
oxygen in the air to create water
vapor, carbon dioxide and heat. Below Biomass + Air Carbon Dioxide +
Water Vapor + Nitrogen + Heat
is the generalized formula for a
combustion reaction:
What Is the Combustion
Mechanism?
Fuel + Oxygen Carbon Dioxide +
Water Vapor + Heat
For solid biomass to be converted
Since biomass fuels are primarily
into useful heat energy, it has to
composed of carbon, hydrogen and
undergo combustion. Although there
oxygen, the main products from
are many different combustion systems
burning biomass are carbon dioxide
available, the principle of biomass
Arkansas Is and water. Flame temperatures can
exceed 2000°C, depending on the combustion is essentially the same for
Our Campus heating value and moisture content of each. There are three main stages to
the fuel, the amount of air used to the combustion process as shown in
burn the fuel and the construction of Figure 1.
Visit our web site at:
https://www.uaex.uada.edu the furnace.

University of Arkansas, United States Department of Agriculture and County Governments Cooperating
 How Much Air Is Required for the
Complete Combustion Process?
Complete combustion will occur when the proper
amounts of fuel and air (fuel­to­air ratio) are mixed
for the correct amount of time under appropriate
conditions of turbulence and temperature. Biomass
can be represented chemically as CH2O. Therefore, to
burn 30 pounds of biomass, you need to supply
32 pounds of oxygen, which is accompanied by
FIGURE 1. Main stages of combustion process
105.3 pounds of nitrogen in the air (air is 21 percent
Drying – All biomass contains moisture, and this oxygen and 79 percent nitrogen). Hence, the required
amount of air will be 32 + 105.3 = 137.3 pounds.
moisture has to be driven off before combustion can
In other words, we need about 4.58 pounds of air
take place. The heat for drying is supplied by radia­
for complete burning of 1.0 pound of bone­dry
tion from flames and from the stored heat in the body
(0 percent moisture content) biomass. In addition to
of the combustion unit.
heat, this reaction will yield 18 pounds of water
Pyrolysis – When the temperature of the dry vapor, 44 pounds of carbon dioxide (greenhouse gas)
biomass reaches between 200ºC and 350ºC, the and 105.3 pounds of nitrogen. In other words, we
volatile gases are released. Pyrolysis products need about 4.58 pounds of air for complete burning
include carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), of 1.0 pound of bone­dry (0 percent moisture
methane (CH4) and high molecular weight compounds content) biomass.
(tar) that condense to a liquid if cooled. These gases
Theoretically, stoichiometric combustion provides
mix with oxygen from the air and burn producing a
the perfect fuel­to­air ratio, which lowers losses and
yellow flame. This process is self­sustaining as the
extracts all of the energy from the fuel. In reality,
heat from the burning gases is used to dry the fresh stoichiometric combustion is unattainable due to
fuel and release further volatile gases. Oxygen has to many factors, making 100 percent efficiency impossi­
be provided to sustain this part of the combustion ble. In practice, in order to achieve complete combus­
process. Char is the remaining material after all the tion, it is necessary to increase the amount of air to
volatiles have been burned off. the combustion process to ensure the burning of all of
the fuel. The amount of air that must be added to
Oxidation – At about 800ºC, the char oxidizes or
make certain all energy will be retrieved is known as
burns. Again oxygen is required, both at the fire bed
excess air. Typical excess air required for various
for the oxidation of the carbon and, secondly, above
combustion systems is in the range of 5 to 50 percent,
the fire bed where it mixes with carbon monoxide to
depending on the fuel characteristics and the
form carbon dioxide that is given off to the atmos­
system configuration.
phere. Long residence time for fuel in a combustor
allows the fuel to be completely consumed. It is worth
How Much Heat Could Be Produced
From Combustion of Various Fuels?
bearing in mind that all the above stages can occur
within a fire at the same time.
The amount of heat produced by combustion
Combustion is complete when 100 percent of the depends on the type of fuel and the combustion effi­
energy in the fuel has been extracted. It is important ciency of the equipment used. The quantity of heat
to strive for complete combustion to preserve fuel and produced by a material’s complete combustion at a
improve the cost efficiency of the combustion process. designated standard temperature and pressure
There must be enough air in the combustion chamber (atmospheric pressure and 25°C) is called the mate­
for complete combustion to occur. The addition of rial’s Heating Value (HV) or Calorific Value (CV).
excess air greatly lowers the formation of carbon In the following table is a selection of typical mate­
monoxide (CO) by allowing CO to react with O2. More rials and their HV in BTUs per pound. One BTU is
complete combustion will result in less CO in the the amount of heat energy required to raise the
flue gas. temperature of 1 pound of water 1 degree Fahrenheit.
 Fuel Heating Valuedry matter (BTU/lb) Circulating stoves are constructed with a metal
box spaced about 1 inch from the wall of the firebox.
Coal 6,450 ­ 11,080
Vents in the top and bottom of the outer box allow
Diesel 19,260
natural or fan­forced air currents to carry the heat
Ethanol 12,760 away from the stove. Circulating stoves can be
Gasoline 20,335 installed closer to combustible material than radiant
Glycerin 8,160 stoves, because their outer surface is not as hot. A
Methane 23,870 circulating stove is better suited than a radiant stove
Hybrid poplar 8,183 ­ 8,491 for heating a large room.
Wheat straw 6,964 ­ 8,148
Corn stalks 7,587 ­ 7,967 Furnaces – A central heating system, although
Rice hull 6,811 ­ 8,838 more expensive, has several advantages over stoves.
Located in the basement or other isolated room, it

What Are the Combustion Reactors?

provides longer, more efficient burn cycles and more
uniform temperatures throughout the house. It also
Biomass, such as wood, crop residues and animal keeps the ash and dust out of the living area. Auto­
manure, is burned in various types of combustion matic controls make a central heating system safer to
reactors. What you are left with is a number of gases, operate. Furnaces are available that heat air and
fragments of partially oxidized hydrocarbons and distribute it through a duct system.
water vapor. Below is a list of some combustion
reactors and a brief description of how they work: Wood­Chip and Pellet Furnace – These furnaces,
fed from a hopper or by a small auger, are very effi­
Fireplace – A masonry fireplace supplies radiant cient, and the firing rate can be controlled to match
energy to bring quick comfort to a cold room. the heating load. Wood­chip furnaces are generally
However, it is a very inefficient heating device. In restricted to commercial applications, as chips are not
addition, air that supports combustion in the fire­ readily available in most areas and must be stored
place is drawn from the room and must be replaced under cover. Outdoor wood­fired furnaces keep the
by cold outside air. The heat radiated to the room dirt and ash outside the home. The unit is usually
may be less than the heat contained in the air that is located within 200 feet of the house, where fuel can
drawn up in the chimney. Additional heat can be lost be easily supplied and where the heat can be piped to
if the flue damper is left open after the fire dies out. the home.
Fireplaces should be used to take the chill off the
room during mild spring and fall weather. Furnaces With Boilers – The furnace of the
boiler is where the fuel and air are introduced to
Stoves – There are manufacturers of wood and combust; fuel/air mixtures are normally introduced
coal stoves throughout the world. Size, appearance, into the furnace by using burners, where the flames
style, finish, construction, material, weight, durability are formed. The resulting hot gases travel through a
and ability to burn the fuel efficiently for maximum
series of heat exchangers, where heat is transferred
heat are just some of the characteristics to be evalu­
to the water flowing though them. The combustion
ated before purchasing a stove. There are two types of
gases are finally released to the atmosphere via
stoves, radiant and circulating, and many styles to fit
the exhaust section of the boiler. The boiler is
almost any location and furnishings. Most wood and
an enclosed vessel in which water is heated and
coal stoves transfer heat to the room by radiating heat
circulated, either as hot water, steam or superheated
from the hot surface of the stove.
steam for the purpose of heating, powering and/or
generating electricity.
Radiant heaters produce heat that is most
intense at close proximity and diminishes rapidly
Industrial Combustion Systems – Three of the
with distance from the stove. Surfaces in direct line
most common types of industrial combustion systems
with the stove will be heated. Many people find the
are downdraft combustion, updraft combustion and
comfort of radiant heat hard to beat and enjoy the
fact that the family’s activities tend to center around fluidized bed (Figure 2) combustion systems. Down­
the fire. draft combustion is where flames are drawn into the
combustion chamber and combustion occurs inside What Is Draft?
the reactor, while updraft combustion is where the
combustion occurs outside and above the reactor. In Draft refers to the flow of gases through the
fluidized bed combustion, solid fuels are suspended combustion system, beginning with the introduction
on upward­blowing jets of air during for the combus­ of air at the inlet of the burner. Once combustion
tion process. This mixes the gas and solids in a occurs, the heated gas leaves the combustion chamber,
turbulent regime. Fluidized bed combustors provide passes heat exchangers and exits the exhaust stack.
an effective environment for chemical reactions and Depending upon the design of the combustion system,
heat transfer. draft is natural, meaning combustion air is pulled in
by heated gases venting up the stack, or it is mechan­
ical, meaning air is pushed or pulled through the
system by a fan. Often, draft relies on a combination
of both natural and mechanical means.

The flow of gases in the stack must be carefully

controlled to ensure that all the gases of combustion
are removed from the combustion zone at the correct
rate. Monitoring draft is important, not only to
increase combustion efficiency but also to maintain
safe conditions. Low draft creates a buildup of highly
toxic gases such as carbon monoxide and highly explo­
sive gases such as hydrogen/air mixture. These
buildups may take place in the combustion chamber
or may even be ventilated indoors creating health
risks. Conversely, extremely high draft can cause
FIGURE 2. Simple fluidized bed combustion system
unwanted turbulences in the system preventing
complete combustion. Unwanted high draft tends

What Is Combustion Efficiency?

to damage the combustion chamber and heat
exchanger materials.
Combustion efficiency is a measure of how well
the fuel is being burned. Essentially, it is the percent­ What Is Combustion Analysis?
age of the energy of a fuel that has been used up in
Combustion analysis is the monitoring of the gas
the burning process. While complete combustion
that escapes after combustion, or flue gas, in order
(100 percent combustion efficiency) is theoretically
to improve the overall process. It is important to
possible, in reality it is not, mostly due to heat losses.
monitor the content of the flue gas for three reasons –
Below is a table of selected combustion processes and
environmental concerns, safety and maintenance of
their typical combustion efficiencies.
machinery and maximum combustion efficiency.

Combustion Processes and

The EPA has set standards for the amount of
Their Combustion Efficiency Ranges
pollution allowed in the air. They are called the
Process Efficiency National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS).
Home fireplace 10%­30% Regular testing of the flue gas ensures compliance
Space heater 50%­80% with the environmental standards required by law.
Commercial gas boiler 70%­82%
Combustion analysis can provide information on
Residential gas boiler 70%­82%
the concentration of certain toxic gases. Equipment
Oil burner heating system 73%­85%
can be shut off or modified if the concentration
Induced draft furnace 74%­80% exceeds a certain amount, since it could be dangerous
Boiler with gas burner 75%­85% to those working in close proximity to the equipment
Condensing furnace (gas and oil) 85%­93% or living in the surrounding area. High concentrations
of toxic gas can also be an indication that maintenance optimum level minimizes these combustion byproducts.
of the machinery needs to be performed in order to Use of a low­sulfur or desulfurized fuel will minimize
reduce the toxic compounds. the amount of SO2 emissions.

The presence of compounds such as carbon

What Combustion Products Pollute
the Home?
monoxide (CO) indicates that the combustion
process could run more efficiently, which would
conserve expensive fuel and save money. Using The major combustion pollutants released indoors
combustion analysis is vital to achieving maximum from combustion reactors include carbon monoxide,
combustion efficiency. nitrogen dioxide and particles. Unvented kerosene
burners generate acid aerosols. Combustion gases
What Are the Combustion and particles can come from chimneys that are

Analysis Factors?
improperly installed or maintained and cracked
furnaces. Pollutants from fireplaces and woodstoves
Combustion analysis involves the measurement with no dedicated outdoor air supply can be
of flue gas concentrations, temperatures and pressure “back­drafted” from the chimney into living spaces,
for boiler tune­up and emissions. particularly in weatherized homes.

Oxygen, Carbon Monoxide and Carbon Dioxide How Much Heat Can Be Produced
When oxygen (O2) is found in the flue exhaust, it From Burning Rice Straw?
usually means that more air was supplied than
The use of agricultural crop residue as a biomass
needed for complete combustion to occur. When too
for heating is receiving renewed interest. The figures
little oxygen is supplied to the burner, carbon
below provide an approximate analysis of the heating
monoxide (CO), a highly toxic gas, forms in the flue
potential of one acre of rice straw: one acre of rice
gas. Not only improved fuel efficiency but also
land produces about 3,000 pounds of rice straw.
decreased soot generation will occur when the correct
amount of air is supplied to the combustion process.  One pound of as­received rice straw contains
about 5,890 Btu.
Temperature and Draft
 One acre of rice straw produces approximately
The stack loss, or chimney loss, of a combustion 17.6 MMBtu.
system is the amount of heat that travels up the
stack without doing any useful work. It depends on  Assume that the combustion efficiency is about
the amount of air traveling through the burner and 50 percent.
the temperatures of inlet and outlet air. There are
 Therefore, one acre of rice straw produces
also some fuel­specific factors that will affect stack
approximately 8.8 MMBtu of usable heat.
loss. Naturally, this is not a true measure of all the
losses that will occur in a combustion system, but  One acre of rice straw can replace about
stack loss is a useful number that shows factors that 410 pounds of propane.
can be changed when tuning a combustion system.

Nitrogen Oxides, Sulfur Dioxide Hydrocarbons Summary

or Volatile Organic Compounds and Soot Biomass combustion simply means burning
Additional byproducts from the combustion organic materials. Biomass combustion takes place
process are nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur dioxide when biomass reacts with the oxygen in air to
(SO2), hydrocarbons (HCs)/volatile organic produce heat. The heat created by the burning of
compounds (VOCs) and soot. Because of regulatory biomass is used in the operation of equipment such
and efficiency concerns, it is best to minimize the as boilers, furnaces, kilns and engines. Along with
presence of these potentially harmful byproducts. heat, carbon dioxide and water vapor are created as
Keeping the air temperature and air flow at the byproducts of the chemical reaction.
 Farmers and other rural homeowners are
increasingly looking to biomass heat as an economical
alternative to propane or furnace oil. Biomass burn­
ing provides a relatively cheap fuel source, reduces
reliance on fossil fuels and provides self­sufficiency,
even during blackouts. On the other hand, open field
burning of biomass (Figure 3) is a major contributor
to poor air quality and reduced visibility. Open field
burning produces significant amounts of air pollu­
tants that have been linked to numerous health
problems. Effective burning of biomass can help
reduce our dependence on fossil fuels.
FIGURE 3. Fields of burning biomass

For more information concerning combustion, visit:

 http://www.e­inst.com/combustion/
 https://www.epa.gov/environmental­topics/air­topics
 https://www.epa.gov/clean­air­act­overview
 http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/fuels­higher­calorific­values­d_169.html

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professor in the Department of Agricultural and Extension Education at Director, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Arkansas. The
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