3.4 5.

Article

Hydrological Changes and

Sediment Dynamics in the Inner
Mongolia Section of the Yellow
River: Implications for Reservoir
Management

Jingjing Xu, Ying Zhao, Yin Chen, Pengfei Du and Liqin Qu

Special Issue
The Interrelationship between Climate Change, Human Activities and Hydrological Processes,
Volume II
Edited by
Dr. Qianfeng Wang, Dr. Haijun Deng and Dr. Jinshi Jian

https://doi.org/10.3390/w16060810
 water
Article
Hydrological Changes and Sediment Dynamics in the
Inner Mongolia Section of the Yellow River: Implications
for Reservoir Management
Jingjing Xu 1,2 , Ying Zhao 1,2 , Yin Chen 1,2, *, Pengfei Du 1,2 and Liqin Qu 1,2

1 China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research, No. 20 Chegongzhuang West Road,
Beijing 100048, China; xujj@alu.cau.edu.cn (J.X.); zhaoying@iwhr.com (Y.Z.); dupf@iwhr.com (P.D.);
liqin.qu@iwhr.com (L.Q.)
2 State Key Laboratory of Simulation and Regulation of Water Cycle in River Basin, A-1, Fuxing Road,
Haidian District, Beijing 100038, China
* Correspondence: chenyin@iwhr.com

Abstract: The Inner Mongolia section of the Yellow River is a primary alluvial segment of the main
channel. The variations in water and sediment not only alter the cross-sectional morphology and
flow capacity of the river but also impact the scheduling of upstream cascade reservoirs. Based on
runoff and sediment load data and topographic information from typical hydrological stations, the
characteristics of runoff and sediment load variations and the evolutionary pattern of siltation in
the Inner Mongolia River section were analyzed via trend analysis methods, Mann–Kendall test
methods, the sediment load transport rate method, and the water level–flow relationship. The results
showed that the water and sediment loads at the hydrological stations in the Inner Mongolia River
section significantly changed from the 1960s to after 2000, with runoff decreasing by approximately
22% to 32% and the sediment load decreasing by approximately 65% to 73%. Sedimentation in the
river section generally increased, and the average annual siltation amount reached 0.144 billion t. The
joint utilization of the Longyangxia and Liujiaxia reservoirs in 1987 was the main reason for the rapid
increase in siltation, and siltation in the Inner Mongolia River section was slightly reduced after 2005.
In addition, the critical sediment load coefficients of the Bayangaole–Sanhuhekou and Sanhuhekou–
Toudaoguai River sections were 0.0073 and 0.0051 kg·s/m6 , respectively, from 1952 to 1968, and
Citation: Xu, J.; Zhao, Y.; Chen, Y.; Du, 0.0053 and 0.0037 kg·s/m6 , respectively, from 1969 to 2020. This study could provide technical
P.; Qu, L. Hydrological Changes and
support for river flood control and reservoir water sediment regulation in Inner Mongolia.
Sediment Dynamics in the Inner
Mongolia Section of the Yellow River:
Keywords: Inner Mongolia reach; sediment load variation; erosion; sedimentation
Implications for Reservoir Management.
Water 2024, 16, 810. https://doi.org/
10.3390/w16060810

Academic Editor: Achim A. Beylich 1. Introduction

Received: 1 February 2024 Rivers are the origin of human civilizations and an important support for national
Revised: 4 March 2024 economic and regional development, with multiple applications such as irrigation, navi-
Accepted: 5 March 2024 gation, and power generation [1]. The evolving understanding of rivers has propelled a
Published: 8 March 2024 developmental trend focusing on their utilization and transformation [2]. In particular, the
construction of a series of water projects has realized the comprehensive utilization of river
resources [3].
Large-scale water conservancy projects, integral for flood control and power gener-
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
ation, induce alterations in the dynamics of water and sediment discharge, disrupting
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
the adaptive equilibrium between water and sand conditions and river morphology [4–6],
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
leading to responsive siltation adjustments in the riverbed downstream of the dam [7]. So
conditions of the Creative Commons
far, more than tens of thousands of dams have been constructed worldwide, changing the
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
natural runoff and sediment processes [8]. However, due to the differences in reservoir
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ capacity, operation mode, and main construction purposes, the response phenomena and
4.0/).

Water 2024, 16, 810. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16060810 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/water

Water 2024, 16, 810 2 of 18

mechanisms of downstream riverbed erosion and sedimentation adjustments to changes in

water and sediment processes are not entirely the same [9,10].
The main impact of the impoundment of the Gongola River is a significant reduction
of 11.5% in flood peaks below the reservoir, resulting in a reduction of 38.3% in the width of
channel bankfull and 72.2% in the width of the riverbed, respectively [11]. E. B. Campbell
Dam is located in the Saskatchewan River in Canada, with the dam downstream of the
0~81 km range of river width, whereby the water depth increase is small from the dam
mileage of more than 81 km section of the riverbed deformation [12]. Fortore River, Italy,
saw the construction of the Occhito Dam from 1958 to 1966, wherein the upstream and
downstream channels were narrowed up to 81% and 98%, respectively, and the channel
planform was transformed from a multi-branch channel to a single river type [13,14]. After
the construction of the Massanjore Reservoir in India, the channel downstream of the dam
exhibited narrowing of the river width bundle, coarsening of the riverbed, reduction in
lateral stability, and an increase in the branching index [15]. After the impoundment of the
Xiaolangdi Reservoir on the Yellow River, the downstream river continued to be flushed,
the bankfull discharge increased, and the river situation was adjusted [16–18]. Since the
construction of the Danjiangkou Reservoir, the downstream has been transformed from an
accretionary channel to a scouring channel, with weakening of wandering characteristics
and strengthening of deep erosion in the bending section [19]. After the completion of the
Aswan Dam, sand delivery from the Nile Delta dropped by nearly 98% [20]. The storage of
water in the Three Gorges Reservoir has led to a change in the hydrological situation in the
middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, with a significant reduction in the amount
of sand transport, which has an impact on the downstream river [21]. Large reservoir
impoundment usage has changed the water and sand conditions, and the characteristics of
the downstream erosion and siltation adjustment of the dam have received widespread
attention [22,23].
The Yellow River is the second longest river in China and is known for its outstanding
sediment problems. The upper reaches of the Yellow River are the main water area of
the whole river, and its rich hydroelectric resources support the economic and social
development of the basin [24]. The Inner Mongolia reach is an alluvial river section in
the upper reaches of the Yellow River and is characterized by high sand delivery, severe
sediment siltation, and frequent channel migration [25,26]. In recent years, under the
influences of climate change and human activities in the basin, the incoming runoff and
sediment load in the Inner Mongolia reach of the Yellow River have changed, which in turn
has led to problems such as siltation and channel shrinkage. In particular, the joint use of
reservoirs in the upper reaches of the Yellow River, a continuous reduction in incoming
water in the basin, and an increase in water consumption for industry and agriculture,
have led to a significant reduction in the amount of water in this river section during
the flood season. This has caused the main river channel to shrink annually and the
riverbed to silt up continuously [27–29]. Sediment siltation and a reduced flow capacity
have caused the water level (a flow rate of 2000 m3 /s) to rise by 0.5 to 2.0 cm per year,
resulting in frequent breakout events even when the water volume is low in the Inner
Mongolia reach of the Yellow River [30–32]. Since 1986, there have been seven breaches
in this reach, causing severe damage. For example, in 2008, the highest water level since
the establishment of the Sanhuhekou hydrological station resulted in river embankment
breakout in the Inner Mongolia River section, affecting 10,241 people and causing a direct
economic loss of 691 million yuan. Therefore, it is a major demand of the country to carry
out joint scheduling of reservoirs to improve the river flood discharge capacity and sand
transfer efficiency, as well as to ensure the safety of flood control and bullying.
Water–sediment changes and siltation evolution in alluvial rivers have long remained
popular research topics. Several scholars have studied sediment siltation and its causes
in the Inner Mongolia reach using measured data [33,34] and quantified the contributions
of various influencing factors by determining the relationships between water–sediment
conditions and sedimentation [35]. Sliding t-test method, M–K nonparametric mutation test,
Water 2024, 16, 810 3 of 18

cumulative distance level method, double cumulative curve method, and water sediment
relationship curves were used to analyze the trend of annual runoff and annual sand
transport, mutation trend, and correlation analysis. The operation of upstream reservoirs
has significantly impacted the hydraulic conditions of the Inner Mongolia reach [36], such
as reducing the flood frequency, increasing the channel width/depth ratio, and restoring
the channel flow capacity [27,37]. Therefore, the effects of silt flats and brush channels can
be realized by joint reservoir dispatching in the downstream section of a river.
The study of runoff and sediment load change patterns constitutes the basis for
understanding the characteristics of rivers. In recent years, the water and sediment loads
in the Inner Mongolia section of the Yellow River have considerably changed under the
influences of climate change and human activities. There is still much uncertainty in the
characteristics of water and sand changes and the evolution of river channel siltation in the
Inner Mongolia River section. Therefore, in this paper, the trends in water and sediment
load changes in the Inner Mongolia River section from 1950 to 2020 were systematically
analyzed by using runoff and sediment load data from representative hydrological stations.
Moreover, the volume of silt in the trunk channel was calculated according to the sediment
volume balance method, thereby elucidating the spatial and temporal distributions of the
siltation process in this reach. The coupled relationship between the amount of incoming
water and the sediment and riverbed evolution was analyzed, and the threshold value of
the water sediment factor was subsequently calculated when the Inner Mongolia reach
exhibited flushing and siltation equilibrium. This study could provide technical support
for river flood control and reservoir water–sediment regulation in Inner Mongolia.

2. Study Area
The Inner Mongolia reach is located in the lower part of the upstream zone of the
Yellow River and exhibits a total length of approximately 823.0 km (Figure 1). This region
includes the Shizuishan–Bayangaole reach and the Bayangaole–Toudaoguai reach. The
main stream comprises four major hydrological stations arranged in sequence from up-
stream to downstream: Shizishan, Bayangaole, Sanhuhekou, and Toudaoguai. The former
is a valley river section, while the latter is a typical plain river section and the main river
section studied. The Bayangaole–Sanhuhekou reach is located in the alluvial plain area,
wherein the river channel is wide and shallow, sandbars are scattered, and the river section
is a wandering river section. The Sanhuhekou–Toudaoguai reach is narrow and deep,
exhibits a low river gradient, and is a meandering river section.

Figure 1. Inner Mongolia section of the Yellow River.

Water 2024, 16, 810 4 of 18

The upper reaches of the Yellow River comprise the major hydropower development
area, and the construction and joint operation of cascade reservoirs inevitably alters the wa-
ter and sediment processes in the river. Starting from 1961, a series of reservoirs were built
in the upper reaches of the Yellow River, such as Yanguoxia, Sanshenggong, Qingtongxia,
Liujiaxia, and Longyangxia (Table 1), such that the conditions of water and sand coming
from the Inner Mongolia river section have been adjusted considerably. Especially after the
Longyangxia Reservoir was put into operation, the amount of water in the upper reaches
of the Yellow River during the flood season was significantly reduced compared with that
during the operation of the Liujiaxia Reservoir. The Bayangaole–Sanhuhekou section is
distributed within the Kubuqi Desert and Shidakongdui, the flood sediment problem is
prominent in the Shidakongdui, and a large amount of sediment enters the Yellow River
during heavy rains.

Table 1. Basic information on reservoirs in the study area.

Name Completion Time (Year) Regulation Mode Reservoir Storage (Billion m3 )

Yanguoxia 1961 Daily regulation 0.22
Sanshenggong 1961 / 0.08
Qingtongxia 1967 Daily regulation 0.61
Liujiaxia 1969 Annual regulation 5.7
Longyangxia 1986 Multi-year regulation 24.7

3. Method
3.1. Calculation of River Sedimentation
The sediment transport balance method refers to the use of the balance principle to
calculate the amount of river erosion and sedimentation. This approach is one of the main
methods for calculating the amounts of channel scour and fill. In the Inner Mongolia River
section, the region is dry and windy year-round, and the Ulanbuhe Desert and Kubuqi
Desert occur along both banks of the Yellow River and are among the main areas of wind
and sand activity in the Yellow River basin. Therefore, the sediment in this river section
originates not only from upstream and tributary sediments but also from wind-generated
sand. Therefore, the amount of channel scour and fill in the Inner Mongolia River section
can be calculated as follows:

∆Ws = Wsi + ∑ Wsi − Wso (1)

where ∆Ws is the amount of channel scour and fill, billion t; Wsi is the imported sediment
transport in the river section, billion t; and Wso is the sediment transport at the river outlet.
∑ Wsi is the amount of sediment that enters the reach, which mainly includes aeolian
sand from the desert and sediment from Shidakongdui, which refers to the ten tributaries
of the Yellow River. Among them, aeolian sand should be included in the Bayangaole–
Sanhuhekou reach, and the sediment load originating from the tributaries of Shidakongdui
should be included in the Sanhuhekou–Toudaoguai reach.

3.2. Incoming Sediment Coefficient

The incoming sediment coefficient (ISC) is an important parameter that represents the
coordination of incoming water and sediment conditions, and it is an important parameter
that affects the sediment transport capacity of a river. It denotes the sand content per unit
flow, indicating the concurrence of water and sand in the river. A lower incoming sand
coefficient signifies easier river flushing and a more favorable alignment of water and sand
conditions. The value determines the variation characteristics of sediment transport and
channel erosion and deposition. In alluvial rivers, the relationship between the ISC and
the amount of channel erosion and deposition is often analyzed to determine the effect
of different water–sand combinations on the river channel. The ISC can be calculated
as follows:
ξ = S/Q (2)
Water 2024, 16, 810 5 of 18

where S is the sediment concentration of the suspended load, kg/m3 ; and Q is the dis-
charge, m3 /s.

3.3. Mann–Kendall Test

The Mann–Kendal l nonparametric rank order correlation test is used to establish the
M–K test statistic for a sequence of hydrological variables.

U = τ/[Var (τ )]1/2 (3)

τ = 4P/N ( N − 1) (4)
Var (τ ) = 2(2N + 5)/9N ( N − 1) (5)



where P is the number of ( x i < x j in the sequence of hydrological variables xi , x j , i < j ;
N is the total number of sequences of hydrological variables.
U is the standard normal distribution, U > 0, the hydrological series is increasing trend;
U < 0, the hydrological series is decreasing trend. The larger |U | is, the more significant is
the trend of the hydrological series.
Let the confidence levels be α = 0.05. From the normal distribution table, U is 1.96.

3.4. Data Sources

In this study, the measured runoff and sediment load data of four hydrological sta-
tions in the Inner Mongolia section of the Yellow River, including Shizishan, Bayangaole,
Sanhuhekou, and Toudaoguai, were collected for analyzing the relationship between water
and sand changes during the period of 1950–2020, and the data were obtained mainly from
the Hydrological Yearbook of the People’s Republic of China.
To comprehensively investigate flushing and siltation characteristics in diverse river
sections, this study compiled measured data encompassing cross-sectional morphology
(elevation), consistent-flow water levels, flood flow, and sediment load data from Maobula
Kongtui and Xiliugou at the hydrological stations. These data, obtained directly from
the hydrological stations, were supplemented by information on wind-formed sands and
tributaries’ uninformative Kongtui data, acquired through a literature review, aiding in the
derivation of sand quantities entering the Yellow River.

4. Results
4.1. Trends of Runoff and Sediment Load Variations
The average annual runoff values at the Shizuishan, Bayangaole, Sanhuhekou, and
Toudaoguai hydrological stations in the Inner Mongolia reach from 1950 to 2020 were 27.671 bil-
lion m3 , 22.45 billion m3 , 21.49 billion m3 , and 21.6631 billion m3 , respectively (Figure 2a).
The sediment loads at each hydrological station were 105 million tons, 965 million tons,
918 million tons, and 986 million tons, respectively (Figure 2b). The runoff and sediment
transport values at each hydrological station fluctuated with peaks and valleys at different
times but showed an overall decreasing trend. Runoff decreased from 32.625 billion m3 ,
27.176 billion m3 , 26.983 billion m3 , and 27.103 billion m3 in the 1960s to 25.485 billion m3 ,
18.602 billion m3 , 18.801 billion m3 , and 18.686 billion m3 , respectively, from 2000–2020, which
represents a decrease ranging from 22% to 32% at the Shizuishan, Bayangaole, Sanhuhekou,
and Toudaoguai hydrological stations. The sediment load at each station decreased from
171 billion t, 148.8 billion t, 173 billion t, and 182.7 billion t in the 1960s to 0.601 billion t,
0.405 billion t, 0.520 billion t, and 0.528 billion t, respectively, from 2000–2020, which represents
a decrease of approximately 65~73%.
The ISC is more sensitive to channel erosion and deposition than to runoff or sediment
transport. The average annual sediment inflow coefficients at the Shizuishan, Bayangaole,
Sanhuhekou, and Toudaoguai hydrological stations from 1950 to 2020 were 0.004614767,
0.006486497, 0.00582, and 0.00589 (kg·s)/m6 , respectively. The change process of the
ISC was basically similar at each station (Figure 3). For example, at the Bayangaole
hydrological station, the ISC was high and increased annually before 1960. In addition,
Water 2024, 16, 810 6 of 18

it was low and not highly variable from 1961–1986. After 1986, it continuously increased
and reached a maximum value of 0.0225 (kg·s)/m6 in 1997, which is 3.47 times the average
value, indicating that the water–sand relationship was not harmonized during this period.
Since 2005, the ISC has progressively decreased, indicating more favorable conditions for
incoming water and sediment in the river.

Figure 2. Runoff and sediment transport in the Inner Mongolia section of the Yellow River: (a) Runoff
and (b) sediment load.

Figure 3. ISC in the Inner Mongolia section of the Yellow River.

Water 2024, 16, 810 7 of 18

4.2. Mutation Test of Runoff and Sediment Load Variations

The M–K statistical variables of runoff at Shizuishan, Bayangaole, Sanhuhekou, and
Toudaoguai are basically the same, experiencing the process of decreasing-increasing-
decreasing-increasing before 1986, and then decreasing in 1986, with the absolute value
less than 1.96 before 1996, and then continuing to decrease after 1996, with a rebound but
with final values of −2.23, −4.12, −2.77, and −3.27, respectively (Figure 4a), with absolute
values greater than 1.96. The corresponding double cumulative curves continued to deviate
downward to the right after 1995, indicating that the annual runoff volume at each station
had a decreasing trend (Figure 5).

Figure 4. M–K test for runoff and sediment transport in the Inner Mongolia section of the Yellow
River: (a) runoff and (b) sediment load.

Figure 5. Changes in runoff and sediment transport accumulation in the Inner Mongolia section of
the Yellow River.
Water 2024, 16, 810 8 of 18

Although the M–K statistical variables of sediment load at Shizuishan, Bayangaole,

Sanhuhekou, and Toudaoguai began to decrease at the end of the 1960s, the absolute values
were still less than 1.96 before 1973 and 1986, respectively, and then continued to decrease
to −5.86, −6.98, −4.86, and −5.30 (Figure 4b), and the bicumulus lines of sand and water
were all upwardly convex. This indicates that the annual sand transport at the two stations
is obviously decreasing (Figure 5).

4.3. Amount of Sand Entering the Inner Mongolia Reach

The southern bank of the Inner Mongolia section of the Yellow River is close to the
Kubuqi Desert, which is one of the main windy desert areas of the Yellow River [38]. There
are three ways for wind-generated sand to reach the Inner Mongolia reach: (1) Sand from
the Kubuqi Desert is blown directly into the Yellow River, whereby the sands entering the
Yellow River are coarse, basically deposited in the riverbed, and seldom form suspended
materials. (2) Sediment flows into the Yellow River through the ten tributaries of the
Kubuqi Desert. Sand is blown by wind into the tributaries and then carried by floodwaters
into the main stream of the Yellow River during flood periods. After complex sorting,
coarse sediment is deposited in the riverbed, while some of the fine sediment forms into
a suspended mass that is carried by the river to be deposited downstream. (3) Sand
originating from quicksand covering the riverbank alluvial plain is blown into the main
stream by strong winds. These sediments comprising relatively coarse particle sizes are the
main component of the sediment deposited in the Inner Mongolia River section [39,40].
Sediment enters the Bayangaole–Sanhuhekou reach of the Yellow River mainly through
the first and third pathways. According to the data, the annual amount of sand blown by
wind entering the Ningmeng River reach reached 37.1 million tons, 15.4 million tons entered
the Qingtongxia–Shizuishan reach, 18 million tons entered the Shizuishan–Bayangaole
reach, and 3.7 million tons entered the Bayangaole–Sanhuhekou reach [41].
Sediment entered the Sanhuhekou–Toudaoguai reach mainly through the second
pathway, which involves the convergence of the tributaries of Shidakongdui. Water and
soil loss in the Shidakongdui basin is severe, accounting for 82% of the watershed area. In
addition, the river reach exhibits a high gradient, and the water flow is rapid, leading to
the tributaries carrying a large amount of sediment into the Yellow River during the flood
season. However, among the ten tributaries, only two tributaries, namely Maobula Kongdui
and Xiliugou, have sediment observation data. Therefore, the sediment transport amount
from each tributary was measured separately based on the different geomorphological
and rainfall conditions, and the sediment transport was subsequently summed to obtain
the total annual sediment transport (Figure 6). The average annual sand inflow from
the tributaries of Shidakongdui into the Inner Mongolia reach reached approximately
0.237 billion t. This inflow was mainly concentrated in a few years, while the inflow in the
remaining years was very low [42].

Figure 6. Sediment load in the tributaries of Shidakongdui.

Water 2024, 16, 810 9 of 18

4.4. Change in Siltation

4.4.1. Siltation in the River Reaches
The average annual siltation in the Inner Mongolian River channel from 1950 to 2020,
calculated using the sediment transport balance method, reached 0.144 billion t (Figure 7).
Notably, the river channel was dominated by scouring or a balance between scouring and
siltation from 1960 to 1985, siltation from 1986 to 2004, and siltation after 2005. Among
the different reaches, the downstream reaches were more susceptible to siltation than the
upstream reaches which are influenced by the confluence of the tributaries of Shidakongdui.
The average annual siltation amounted to 0.011 billion tons in the Bayangaole–Sanhuhekou
reach and 0.133 billion tons in the Sanhuhekou–Toudaoguai reach.

Figure 7. Erosion and sedimentation in the Inner Mongolia River section: (a) Bayangaole–Sanhuhekou
reach; (b) Sanhuhekou–Toudaoguai reach (note: “+” denotes sedimentation; “–” denotes erosion).

4.4.2. Siltation in the Hydrological Station Section

The evolution of channel erosion and siltation is generally manifested as adjustments
in the cross-sectional morphology, increase and decrease in water levels at the same flow
rate, and changes in the river regime. Figure 8 shows the cross-sectional morphology of the
Shizuishan, Bayangaole, Sanhuhekou, and Toudaoguai hydrological stations. The figure
reveals the following:
(1) The cross section at the Shizuishan hydrological station is a U-shaped cross section
with a basically constant cross-sectional morphology, with siltation dominating from
1992 to 2004 and scouring dominating from 2004 to 2020, and the depth of the main
trough in 2020 was greater than that in 1992.
Water 2024, 16, 810 10 of 18

(2) The cross section at the Bayangaole hydrological station is a deviated V-shaped cross
section, the main trough shifted to the right from 1992 to 2005, and the right bank beach
was seriously silted and elevated, with an average silt thickness of approximately
1.1 m. The right side of the section was gradually washed away from 2005 to 2020.
(3) The cross section at the Sanhuhekou hydrological station was seriously silted from
1987–2002, with the width of the main channel decreasing by approximately 150 m.
The main channel generally shifted to the left and silted from 2002–2010, while the
cross section was flushed and silted with little change from 2010–2015. However,
the cross section was seriously scoured after 2015, and the cross-sectional area below
the post flood elevation of 1019.37 m in 2020 increased by approximately 880 m2
compared to that in 2002.
(4) Compared with those during the same period in 1987, the main channel of the cross
section at the Toudaoguai hydrological station shifted to the right in 2005, the left
side of the channel was elevated by siltation, and the right side was flushed. How-
ever, there was little change in erosion and sedimentation in the cross section from
2005 to 2020.

Figure 8. Cross-sectional morphology of the typical hydrological stations: (a) Shizuishan hydrological
station, (b) Bayangaole hydrological station, (c) Sanhuhekou hydrological station, and (d) Toudaoguai
hydrological station.

The increases and decreases in the water level (with the same discharge) in the cross
section not only reflect the changes in riverbed elevation and discharge area but also reflect
the changes in the flood carrying capacity and adjustment in riverbed scouring and siltation.
The water level changes (a flow rate of 1000 m3 /s) at the four hydrological stations in the
Inner Mongolia reach are shown in Figure 9. The water level decreased from 1950 to 1985,
increased from 1986 to 2004, and subsequently decreased after 2005.
(1) The average water level (at the same discharge) in the 1950s at the Shizuishan hydro-
logical station was 1086.14 m, and the amplitude of river siltation was approximately
Water 2024, 16, 810 11 of 18

0.2 m. Since the construction of the Liujiaxia and Longyangxia reservoirs upstream,
the siltation in this section has been basically balanced, and the change in the water
level varied between 0 and 0.1 m from 1960 to 1985, with an average of 1085.97 m.
From 1987 to 2020, the water level slightly increased, with an average water level
of 1086.02 m. In the long term, the water level in this river section has remained
relatively stable.
(2) The changes in the water level (at the same discharge) at the Bayangaole and Sanhuhekou
hydrological stations were basically the same over time. From 1961 to 1986, the total
amount of erosion in the Bayangaole–Sanhuhekou reach was 0.30 billion tons, and the
water levels at the two hydrological stations decreased by 1.09 and 0.84 m, respectively.
From 1984 to 2004, the total amount of sedimentation in the Bayangaole–Sanhuhekou
reach was 0.22 billion tons, and the water levels at the two hydrological stations increased
by 1.31 and 0.66 m, respectively. From 2005 to 2020, the total amount of erosion in
the Bayangaole–Sanhuhekou reach was 0.16 billion tons, and the water levels at the
two hydrological stations decreased by 2.06 and 0.68 m, respectively.
(3) The change process of the water level at the Toudaoquan hydrological station varied.
The water level (under the same discharge conditions) did not remain constant but
rather fluctuated within a relatively small range. This occurs because the erosion
benchmark section in the Inner Mongolia River section is located approximately
30 km below the Toudaoquan hydrological station, so the water level in this section
fluctuates within only a small range.

Figure 9. Water level (at a flow rate of 1000 m3 /s) after flooding in the Inner Mongolia section:
(a) Shizuishan hydrological station, (b) Bayangaole hydrological station, (c) Sanhuhekou hydrological
station, and (d) Toudaoguai hydrological station.

5. Discussion
5.1. Reliability Analysis
Relevant studies have shown that the critical ISC of the Inner Mongolia reach for
the balance between erosion and siltation during different periods ranges from 0.004
to 0.009 (Table 2). The critical ISC calculated in this paper ranged from 0.0037 to 0.0073
from 1952 to 2020, which is basically consistent with the results of previous studies [43,44].
Water 2024, 16, 810 12 of 18

Table 2. Critical ISC of the Inner Mongolia reach for the balance between erosion and siltation.

Year Reach Critical ISC (kg·s/m6 ) Reference

1952–2003 Inner Mongolia reach 0.005~0.009 [45]
1950–2010 Bayangaole–Sanhuhekou reach 0.006 [46]
Bayangaole–Sanhuhekou reach 0.007
1952–2012 [47]
Sanhuhekou–Toudaoguai reach 0.005

In addition, the small specific drop, low flow velocity, and large sediment grain size in
the Inner Mongolia reach resulted in a low sediment transport capacity of the river. The
critical ISC of the Inner Mongolia reach for the balance between erosion and siltation was
only approximately one third of that of the lower Yellow River during the flood period,
increasing the sensitivity of this reach to incoming water and sand changes [48]. Therefore,
optimizing the incoming water and sand conditions can easily affect the river erosion and
sedimentation conditions by regulating upstream reservoirs.

5.2. Trend Analysis of Runoff and Sediment Load Variations

The runoff process and values were similar at the Shizuishan, Bayangaole, San-
huhekou, and Toudaoguai hydrological stations. After the construction of the Liujiaxia
Reservoir in 1968, the annual runoff from 1969–1986 decreased by 14%, 15%, 14%, and
17% compared to that from 1960–1968 (Figure 2a). After the Longyangxia Reservoir was
impounded and utilized in 1986, the annual runoff from 1987–2000 decreased by 21%,
33%, 32%, and 32% compared to that from 1969–1986. This occurs because the Liujiaxia
Reservoir provides a low capacity and limited ability to regulate the annual runoff. In con-
trast, the Longyangxia Reservoir provides a higher capacity and is a multiyear regulating
reservoir, with a greater impact on the annual runoff. After 2010, there was a trend toward
an increasing annual runoff at each station as rainfall increased in the watershed.
The sediment load decreased overall at each hydrological station, but the magnitude of
the decrease varied during different periods. The Longyangxia Reservoir focuses on regulat-
ing runoff, and the sediment retention effect of the Liujiaxia Reservoir is highly significant.
The annual sediment loads at the hydrological stations from 1969–1986 decreased by 48%,
53%, 51%, and 45% compared to those from 1960–1968 before the construction of the Liuji-
axia Reservoir. The annual sediment loads at the hydrological stations from 1987 to 2000
decreased by 8%, 21%, 47%, and 61% compared to those before the operation of the
Longyangxia Reservoir (Figure 2b).
It was found that the decrease in sand delivery from 1969 to 1986 was 34 percentage
points higher than the decrease in runoff, and the decrease in sediment load from 1987 to 2000
was 4 percentage points higher than the decrease in runoff, which is relatively close to the
decrease in runoff. However, the decrease in sediment load at Toudaoguai station from
1987 to 2000 was 29% higher than the decrease in runoff, and the decrease in sediment at
Bayangaole station was 15% lower than the decrease in runoff. This is closely related to
reservoir regulation and rainfall. Liujiaxia Reservoir is an incomplete annual regulating
reservoir, with an effective regulating capacity of 4.15 billion m3 , which is relatively small
and has a relatively small effect on the regulation of runoff, while its effect on the regulation
of sediment is more obvious. Longyangxia Reservoir is a multi-year regulation reservoir,
with effective regulation of the reservoir capacity of 19.36 billion m3 , whereby as the reservoir
capacity is larger, the larger the impact on the annual runoff [34]. From the water–sand
change mutation test, two of the mutation points are consistent with the time nodes when
Longyangxia Reservoir and Liujiaxia Reservoir were put into operation, which also indicates
that the reservoir regulation has a greater impact on the water–sand relationship of the river
downstream of the project [28].
Water 2024, 16, 810 13 of 18

5.3. Reasons for the Changes in River Siltation

The water–sand process is the driving condition for river evolution, and the incoming
sediment load and the average annual amount of scouring and siltation in the Inner
Mongolia reach during the different periods are given in Table 3.

Table 3. Incoming sediment load and the average annual erosion and sedimentation volume in the
Inner Mongolia reach.

Erosion and Sedimentation Volume

Sediment Load (Billion Tons)
Year (Billion Tons)
Bayangaole– Sanhuhekou–
Shizuishan Bayangaole Sanhuhekou Toudaoguai Shidakongdui
Sanhuhekou Reach Toudaoguai Reach
1961–1968 1.94 1.69 1.97 2.10 2768.44 −0.24 0.15
1969–1986 0.97 0.84 0.93 1.10 1865.41 −0.06 0.01
1987–2004 0.83 0.64 0.46 0.39 2563.68 0.22 0.32
2005–2020 0.603 0.368 0.582 0.614 266.194 −0.16 −0.0428
1950–2020 1.05 0.965 0.9177 0.9865 1764.41 0.011 0.1336

(1) From 1961 to 1968.

From 1961 to 1968, several reservoirs in the Inner Mongolia River reach were put
into operation, with a scouring volume of 24 million tons in the Bayangaole–Sanhuhekou
reach and a siltation volume of 15 million tons in the Sanhuhekou–Toudaoguai reach.
Although the amount of water and sand in the main stream and the amount of sand in the
tributaries of Shidakongdui were large during this period, the average annual siltation was
very low, which is basically consistent with that during the natural period. The influence
of human activities during this period was relatively limited. Although the upstream
Yanguoxia Reservoir, Qingtongxia Reservoir, and Sanshenggong Water Conservancy Hub
were built and put into operation in 1961, 1967, and 1961, respectively, the regulating
capacities of the Yanguoxia, Qingtongxia, and Sanshenggong reservoirs are 0.22, 0.61, and
0.08 billion m3 , respectively. They are all power stations without storage and with a low
ability to regulate the flow rate and intercept the sediment load. The impact of reservoir
construction on water–sediment processes during this period was insignificant. Therefore,
the water–sediment conditions of the river during this period were similar to those during
the natural period.
(2) From 1969 to 1986 (reservoir impoundment).
The 1969 to 1986 period was the operation period of the Liujiaxia Reservoir, with an
annual erosion volume of 0.06 billion tons in the Bayangaole–Sanhuhekou reach and an
annual siltation volume of 0.01 billion tons in the Sanhuhekou–Toudaoguai reach. With the
construction of water conservancy projects in the upper reaches of the Yellow River, the
reservoir’s ability to store water and stop sand has gradually increased, and the amount
of incoming sand has obviously decreased, whereby the annual average silt deposition of
sediment in the Liujiaxia Reservoir is 0.58 billion m3 [34]. Moreover, the amount of sand
originating from the tributaries of Shidakongdui decreased during this period. The Inner
Mongolia reach experienced overall erosion, indicating that the impact of the incoming
sediment load on scouring and siltation was very significant.
(3) From 1987 to 2004 (joint scheduling of reservoirs).
After 1986, the joint use of the Longyangxia and Liujiaxia reservoirs affected the
water and sand conditions in the Inner Mongolia River section, resulting in siltation in
the river section during this period, with siltation amounting to 0.22 billion tons in the
Bayangaole–Sanhuhekou reach and 0.32 billion tons in the Sanhuhekou–Toudaoguai reach.
This occured because reservoir regulation caused a reduction in the amount of water
and high-flow processes during the flood season, weakening the dynamic conditions for
sediment transport and triggering siltation in the river. For example, before 1986, the flood
peak flow at the Shizuishan Station was higher than 2000 m3 /s in 92% of the years, while
Water 2024, 16, 810 14 of 18

after 1986, the proportion decreased to 25% due to the reduction in the peak flow caused
by the joint use of the reservoirs (Figure 10). Moreover, the amount of sand fed into the
Yellow River stemming from the tributaries of Shidakongdui was larger during this period,
especially in 1989, 1994, 1998, and 2003, leading to obvious siltation in the river channel.

Figure 10. Peak flow in the Inner Mongolia reach.

(4) From 2005 to 2020.

From 2005 to 2020, the Bayangaole–Sanhuhekou reach was dominated by scour-
ing, with an average annual erosion volume of 0.16 billion tons, while the Sanhuhekou–
Toudaoguai reach experienced scouring or siltation, with an average annual erosion volume
of 0.0428 billion tons. This mainly occured because since the 21st century, the sediment
load in the upper reaches of the Yellow River has significantly decreased, reaching only
approximately 20% of the amount from 1959–1968. In addition, the river experienced
high-flow processes in 2010, 2018, and 2020, imposing greater scouring effects on the river.

5.4. Response of River Channel Siltation and Water–Sediment Processes

The morphology of a natural river is shaped by the movement of water and sediment
under certain boundary conditions. The incoming water is the main driving force of sedi-
ment transport, and the incoming sediment is the main factor of erosion and sedimentation
in rivers. The river channel responds to accommodate this change when the ISC changes. In
general, river erosion and sedimentation are influenced not only by single factors, such as
the flow rate or sediment concentration, but also by complex water–sediment relationships.
The correlations between the erosion and siltation volume per unit of water volume and
the ISC in the Inner Mongolia reach during the different periods are shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11. Relationships between the erosion and siltation volume per unit of water volume and the ISC
in the Inner Mongolia reach: (a) Bayangaole–Sanhuhekou reach; (b) Sanhuhekou–Toudaoguai reach.
Water 2024, 16, 810 15 of 18

There exists a favorable correlation between the siltation volume per unit water
volume and the ISC in the two reaches of Inner Mongolia. With increasing ISC, channel
siltation increases, while when the ISC is low, channel scouring may occur. Therefore,
the critical ISC at the equilibrium of flushing and siltation in the river section can be
calculated for ∆W_SF equal to zero. According to the regression equation, from 1952–1968
and 1969–2020, the critical ISC at the balance between erosion and siltation was 0.0073
and 0.0051 kg·s/m6 , respectively, in the Bayangaole–Sanhuhekou reach, and 0.0053 and
0.0037 kg·s/m6 , respectively, in the Sanhuhekou–Toudaoguai reach (Table 4).

Table 4. Regression equation between the erosion and siltation volume per unit of water volume and
the ISC in the Inner Mongolia reach.

Reach Year Regression Equation Correlation Coefficient Critical ISC

Bayangaole– 1952–1968 ∆WSF = 412.29ξ − 3.02 0.70 0.0073
Sanhuhekou reach 1969–2020 ∆WSF = 289.99ξ − 1.47 0.86 0.0051
Sanhuhekou– 1952–1968 ∆WSF = 279.14ξ − 1.505 0.52 0.0053
Toudaoguai reach 1969–2020 ∆WSF = 504.88ξ − 1.87 0.36 0.0037

In recent years, Bayangaole–Sanhuhekou reach flushing occurs mainly by the upper

reaches of the water and sand conditions, while Sanhuhekou–Toudaoguai reach flushing
occurs by the wind-sand and sediment inflow from the Shidakongdui, in addition to the
upper reaches of the water and sand conditions. The main reason for the recent massive
siltation of fine and medium sands is the reduction in water volume and high flow processes
during the flood season of the main stream, and the weakening of the power of sediment
transport by the water flow. Based on the above analysis, to control the siltation of the
river channel in the Inner Mongolia river section, it is advisable to take comprehensive
management measures, in accordance with the management idea of “increasing water,
reducing sediment, and regulating water and sediment”. Firstly, optimize the operation
of the upstream terrace reservoirs, increase the discharge flow during the flood season,
and reduce the siltation of the river channel [34]. Secondly, the Kubuqi Desert and the
upstream areas of the Shidakongdui should be subject to a comprehensive erosion control
project, planting shrubs and grasses in the desert areas, strengthening the construction
of check dams in the upstream gully areas of Shidakongtui, restoring the vegetation, and
intercepting the flood sediments.

5.5. Research Shortcomings and Prospects

The commonly used methods for calculating the amount of river erosion and siltation
include the sediment-transport balance method, cross-sectional method, and mathematical
modeling. The sediment-transport balance method provides satisfactory spatial and tem-
poral continuity levels and can yield siltation data that reflect the characteristics of river
channel siltation within a short period. However, this method requires the consideration
of numerous factors and often results in a lower accuracy due to insufficient or erroneous
measured data. The cross-sectional method aims to analyze river channel siltation by using
a typical large measured cross-sectional set of information, which is useful for analyzing the
siltation distribution in a certain cross section or the siltation volume in the river channel
between adjacent cross sections. However, this method also suffers limitations, with poor
spatial and temporal continuity levels and high measurement effort. This study showed
that in the Inner Mongolia River channel, the calculation results of these two methods
are similar; each exhibits unique characteristics and can be used as a complement to each
other [49]. Therefore, the sediment-transport balance method was adopted in this paper
to calculate erosion and siltation in the Inner Mongolia River channel and analyze the
erosion and siltation conditions at typical hydrological station sections using cross-sectional
morphology data.
Water 2024, 16, 810 16 of 18

In this study, the amount of sand entering the Yellow River in the Inner Mongolia
River section was calculated by using the multiyear average without considering the
specificity of each year. In addition, the sediment discharge in large irrigation areas along
the Inner Mongolia River is insignificant and exerts a relatively limited impact on the
overall results [50]. Therefore, the calculations of river erosion and sedimentation did not
consider the impacts of water and sediment diversion.
In this paper, the correlation between the average annual sediment load and the ISC
was used to calculate the critical threshold for balancing Inner Mongolia River channel
siltation. However, siltation in the Inner Mongolia reach is mainly concentrated during the
flood season [33], and more accurate results can be obtained if water and sand data for the
flood season are used in future studies.

6. Conclusions
This study analyzed the characteristics of runoff and sediment load variations and
the evolutionary pattern of siltation in the Inner Mongolia River section by trend analysis
methods, Mann–Kendall test methods, the sediment load transport rate method, and the
water level–flow relationship. Some central conclusions can be summarized as follows:
(1) The multiyear average runoff values at the Shizuishan, Bayangaole, Sanhuhekou, and
Toudaoguai hydrological stations in the Inner Mongolia section were 27.671 billion m3 ,
22.45 billion m3 , 21.49 billion m3 , and 21.6631 billion m3 , respectively. The multiyear
average sediment loads at each hydrological station were 105 million tons, 965 million
tons, 918 million tons, and 986 million tons, respectively. The water and sediment
loads at the various hydrological stations in the Inner Mongolia River section changed
significantly from the 1960s to after 2000, with the runoff decreasing by approximately
22% to 32% and the sediment load decreasing by approximately 65% to 73%.
(2) The decreases in the upstream runoff and lower peak flow due to the joint use of the
Longyangxia Reservoir and Liujiaxia Reservoir resulted in severe siltation in the Inner
Mongolia reach. The average annual siltation volumes in the Bayangaole–Sanhuhekou
reach and Sanhuhekou–Toudaoguai reach from 1960 to 2020 were 0.011 billion tons
and 0.133 billion tons, respectively.
(3) In the Inner Mongolia reach, the sedimentation amount per unit water volume in-
creased with increasing ISC. The critical sediment load coefficients of the Bayangaole–
Sanhuhekou reach and Sanhuhekou–Toudaoguai reach were 0.0073 and 0.0051 kg·s/m6 ,
respectively, from 1952 to 1968, and 0.0053 and 0.0037 kg·s/m6 , respectively,
from 1969 to 2020.
(4) Siltation changes in the Inner Mongolia section of the Yellow River are affected by
wind-sand and sediment inflow from the Shidakongdui, in addition to upstream
water and sand conditions. The siltation of the river is slowed down by optimizing
the operation of the upstream terrace reservoirs and carrying out comprehensive
erosion control projects in the Kubuqi Desert and Shidakongdui.

Author Contributions: J.X. and Y.C. wrote the main manuscript text and prepared figures. Y.Z. and
L.Q. collected the data and revised the manuscript. P.D. advised the study design and data analyses.
All authors had reviewed and agreed on the contents of the paper. All authors have read and agreed
to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant
number U2243213), the National Key Research and Development Plan of China (grant number
2021YFE0113800), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant number U22A20237), the
National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant number U2243212), and the China Institute of
Water Resources and Hydropower Research Youth Torch Project (grant number SC110145B0012023).
Data Availability Statement: The data used in this research are available in the public domain.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Water 2024, 16, 810 17 of 18

References
1. Maavara, T.; Chen, Q.; Van Meter, K.; Brown, L.E.; Zhang, J.; Ni, J.; Zarfl, C. River dam impacts on biogeochemical cycling. Nat.
Rev. Earth. Environ. 2020, 1, 103–116. [CrossRef]
2. Gurnell, A.M.; Rinaldi, M.; Belletti, B.; Bizzi, S.; Blamauer, B.; Braca, G.; Buijse, A.D.; Bussettini, M.; Camenen, B.; Comiti, F.;
et al. A multi-scale hierarchical framework for developing understanding of river behavior to support river management. Aquat.
Sci. 2016, 78, 1–16. [CrossRef]
3. Di Baldassarre, G.; Wanders, N.; AghaKouchak, A.; Kui, L.; Rangecroft, S.; Veldkamp, T.I.E.; Garcia, M.; Van Oel, P.R.; Breinl, K.;
Van Loon, A.F. Water shortages worsened by reservoir effects. Nat. Sustain. 2018, 1, 617–622. [CrossRef]
4. Kondolf, G.M.; Mathias; Schmitt, R.J.P.; Carling, P.; Darby, S.; Arias, M.; Bizzi, S.; Castelletti, A.; Cochrane, T.A.; Gibson, S.; et al.
Changing sediment budget of the Mekong: Cumulative threats and management strategies for a large river basin. Sci. Total
Environ. 2018, 625, 114–134. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
5. Casserly, C.M.; Turner, J.N.; O’Sullivan, J.J.; Bruen, M.; Bullock, C.; Atkinson, S.; Kelly-Quinn, M. Effect of low-head dams on
reach-scale suspended sediment dynamics in coarse-bedded streams. J. Environ. Manag. 2021, 277, 111452. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
6. Tena, A.; Batalla, R.J.; Vericat, D. Reach-scale suspended sediment balance downstream from dams in a large Mediterranean river.
Hydrol. Sci. J. 2012, 57, 831–849. [CrossRef]
7. Phillips, J.D.; Slattery, M.C.; Musselman, Z.A. Channel adjustments of the lower Trinity River, Texas, downstream of Livingston
Dam. Earth Surf. Processes Landforms 2005, 30, 1419–1439. [CrossRef]
8. Batalla, R.J.; Gomez, C.M.; Kondolf, G.M. River impoundment and changes in flow regime, Ebro River basin, northeastern Spain.
J. Hydrol. 2004, 290, 117–136. [CrossRef]
9. Wang, Z.; Chen, Z.; Yu, S.; Zhang, Q.; Wang, Y.; Hao, J. Erosion-control mechanism of sediment check dams on the Loess Plateau.
Int. J. Sediment Res. 2021, 36, 668–677. [CrossRef]
10. Yao, Z.; Xiao, J.; Ta, W.; Jia, X. Planform channel dynamics along the Ningxia–Inner Mongolia reaches of the Yellow River from
1958 to 2008: Analysis using Landsat images and topographic maps. Environ. Earth Sci. 2013, 70, 97–106. [CrossRef]
11. Tukur, A.L.; Mubi, A.M. Impact of Kiri dam on the lower reaches of river Gongola, Nigeria. Geol. J. 2002, 56, 93–96.
12. Smith, N.D.; Morozova, G.S.; Pérez-Arlucea, M.; Gibling, M.R. Dam-induced and natural channel changes in the Saskatchewan
River below the EB Campbell Dam, Canada. Geomorphology 2016, 269, 186–202. [CrossRef]
13. Scorpio, V.; Rosskopf, C.M. Channel adjustments in a Mediterranean river over the last 150 years in the context of anthropic and
natural controls. Geomorphology 2016, 275, 90–104. [CrossRef]
14. Apollonio, C.; Balacco, G.; Gioia, A.; Iacobellis, V.; Piccinni, A.F. Flood hazard assessment of the Fortore River downstream the
Occhito dam, in Southern Italy. Int. Conf. Comput. Sci. Appl. 2017, 10405, 201–206.
15. Pal, S. Impact of Massanjore dam on hydro-geomorphological modification of Mayurakshi river, Eastern India. Environ. Dev.
Sustain. 2016, 18, 921–944. [CrossRef]
16. Wang, J.; Xu, J.; Kong, D. Time-Lagged Response of Streamflow in the Lower Yellow River to the Water Regulation by Xiaolangdi
Reservoir: Implication for Efficient Water Supply. Water 2024, 16, 78. [CrossRef]
17. Kong, D.; Latrubesse, E.M.; Miao, C.; Zhou, R. Morphological response of the Lower Yellow River to the operation of Xiaolangdi
Dam, China. Geomorphology 2020, 350, 106931. [CrossRef]
18. Lu, M.; Zhao, Q.; Ding, S.; Wang, S.; Hong, Z.; Jing, Y.; Wang, A. Hydro-geomorphological characteristics in response to the
water-sediment regulation scheme of the Xiaolangdi Dam in the lower Yellow River. J. Clean. Prod. 2022, 335, 130324. [CrossRef]
19. Song, X.; Zhuang, Y.; Wang, X.; Li, E. Combined effect of Danjiangkou reservoir and Cascade reservoirs on hydrologic regime
downstream. J. Hydrol. Eng. 2018, 23, 05018008. [CrossRef]
20. Banna, M.M.E.; Frihy, O.E. Natural and human impact on the northeastern Nile delta coast of Egypt. J. Coastal Res. 1998,
14, 1109–1118.
21. Deng, S.; Xia, J.; Zhou, M.; Lin, F. Coupled modeling of bed deformation and bank erosion in the Jingjiang reach of the middle
Yangtze River. J. Hydrol. 2019, 568, 221–233. [CrossRef]
22. Rubin, Z.K.; Kondolf, G.M.; Carling, P.A. Anticipated geomorphic impacts from Mekong basin dam construction. Int. J. River
Basin Manag. 2015, 13, 105–121. [CrossRef]
23. Legleiter, C.J. Downstream effects of recent reservoir development on the morphodynamics of a meandering channel: Savery
Creek, Wyoming, USA. River Res. Appl. 2016, 31, 1328–1343. [CrossRef]
24. Quan, L.; Liu, C.; Niu, C.; Zhao, D.; Luo, Q.; Xu, Y.; Zhao, C.; Liu, S.; Hu, C. Analysis of variation trend and driving factors of
baseflow in typical Yellow River basins. Water 2023, 15, 3647. [CrossRef]
25. Wang, S.; Yan, Y.; Li, Y. Spatial and temporal variations of suspended sediment deposition in the alluvial reach of the upper
Yellow River from 1952 to 2007. Catena 2012, 92, 30–37. [CrossRef]
26. Jia, X.; Wang, H.; Wang, H. Sources and trace element geochemical characteristics of the coarse sediment in the Ningxia-Inner
Mongolia reaches of the Yellow River. Geosci. J. 2014, 18, 181–192. [CrossRef]
27. Qin, Y.; Zhang, X.; Wang, F.; Yan, H.; Han, H. Scour and silting evolution and its influencing factors in Inner Mongolian Reach of
the Yellow River. J. Geogr. Sci. 2011, 21, 1037–1046. [CrossRef]
28. Su, T.; Wang, S.; Mei, Y.; Shao, W. Comparison of channel geometry changes in Inner Mongolian reach of the Yellow River before
and after joint operation of large upstream reservoirs. J. Geogr. Sci. 2015, 25, 930–942. [CrossRef]
Water 2024, 16, 810 18 of 18

29. Su, T.; Huang, H.Q.; Zhou, Y.Y.; Yu, G.A. Dam Operation for Mitigating Ice Jam Flooding Risks under the Adjustment of
River Channel-Forms: Implications from an Evaluation in the Ningxia-Inner Mongolia Reach of the Upper Yellow River, China.
Water 2019, 11, 1136. [CrossRef]
30. Duan, G.; Shu, A.; Rubinato, M.; Wang, S.; Zhu, F. Collapsing mechanisms of the typical cohesive riverbank along the Ningxia–
Inner Mongolia catchment. Water 2018, 10, 1272. [CrossRef]
31. Du, H.; Dou, S.; Deng, X.; Xue, X.; Wang, T. Assessment of wind and water erosion risk in the watershed of the Ningxia-Inner
Mongolia Reach of the Yellow River, China. Ecol. Indic. 2016, 67, 117–131. [CrossRef]
32. Luo, D. Risk evaluation of ice-jam disasters using gray systems theory: The case of Ningxia-Inner Mongolia reaches of the Yellow
River. Nat. Hazards 2014, 71, 1419–1431. [CrossRef]
33. Wang, Y.; Wu, B.; Zhong, D.; Wang, Y. Calculation method for sediment load in flood and non-flood seasons in the Inner Mongolia
reach of the Yellow River. J. Geogr. Sci. 2016, 26, 707–721. [CrossRef]
34. Zhang, Y.; Feng, Q.; Zhang, X.; Xiao, Q. Response of erosion and deposition in Ningxia-Inner Mongolia reach to the application of
Long-Liu reservoir on the upper Yellow River. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 2019, 384, 012223. [CrossRef]
35. Shi, C. Decadal trends and causes of sedimentation in the Inner Mongolia reach of the upper Yellow River, China. Hydrol.
Process. 2016, 30, 232–244. [CrossRef]
36. Wang, S.; Li, L.; Ran, L.; Yan, Y. Spatial and temporal variations of channel lateral migration rates in the Inner Mongolian reach of
the upper Yellow River. Environ. Earth Sci. 2016, 75, 1255. [CrossRef]
37. Sun, D.; Yang, Z.; Zhang, L.; Li, B. Analysis of riverbed form adjustment based on energy dissipation in the Inner Mongolia Reach
of Yellow River. Adv. Water Sci. 2011, 22, 653–661.
38. Du, H.; Xue, X.; Wang, T.; Deng, X. Assessment of wind-erosion risk in the watershed of the Ningxia-Inner Mongolia Reach of the
Yellow River, northern China. Aeolian Res. 2015, 17, 193–204. [CrossRef]
39. Pan, B.; Pang, H.; Zhang, D.; Guan, Q.; Wang, L.; Li, F.; Guan, W.; Cai, A.; Sun, X. Sediment grain-size characteristics and its source
implication in the Ningxia–Inner Mongolia sections on the upper reaches of the Yellow River. Geomorphology 2015, 246, 255–262.
[CrossRef]
40. Yue, Z.; Yuan, X.; Cao, L.; Tian, F.; Han, C.; Zhang, H. Characteristics and variation law of wind-blown sand delivered to the
Ningxia–Inner Mongolia reach of the Yellow River under a changing environment. Int. J. Sediment Res. 2022, 37, 188–201.
[CrossRef]
41. Yang, G.S.; Tuo, W.Q.; Dai, F.N.; Liu, Y.X.; Jing, K.; Li, B.Y.; Zhang, O.Y.; Lu, R.; Hu, L.F.; Tao, Y. Contribution of sand sources to
the silting of riverbed in Inner Mongolia section of Yellow River. J. Desert Res. 2003, 23, 54–61.
42. Xu, J. Temporal and spatial variations in erosion and sediment yield and the cause in the ten small tributaries to the Inner
Mongolia reach of the Yellow River. J. Desert Res. 2014, 34, 1641–1649.
43. Fan, X.; Shi, C.; Shao, W.; Zhou, Y. The suspended sediment dynamics in the Inner-Mongolia reaches of the upper Yellow River.
Catena 2013, 109, 72–82. [CrossRef]
44. Yao, B.; Liu, Q. Characteristics and influencing factors of sediment deposition-scour in the Sanhuhekou-Toudaoguai Reach of the
upper Yellow River, China. Int. J. Sediment Res. 2018, 33, 303–312. [CrossRef]
45. Hu, X.; Wang, J.; Lan, Y.; Li, W.; Zhao, C. Relationship between channel scouring/silting amount and water-sediment transport
process in Inner Mongolia reach of Yellow River. J. China Hydrol. 2012, 32, 44–48.
46. Ling, H.; Wang, X.; Wang, Y.; Zhong, D.; Zhang, H. Research on the flow and sediment conditions and critical incoming sediment
coefficient in Ningxia section of Yellow River. Yellow River 2015, 37, 19–23.
47. Hou, S.; Wang, P.; Guo, X.; Chu, W. Responses of river sedimentation to water-sediment conditions in Inner Mongolia reach of
upper Yellow River. J. Sediment Res. 2015, 40, 61–66.
48. Wu, B.; Wang, G.; Xia, J.; Fu, X.; Zhang, Y. Response of bankfull discharge to discharge and sediment load in the Lower Yellow
River. Geomorphology 2008, 100, 366–376. [CrossRef]
49. An, C.; Lu, J.; Qian, Y.; Wu, M.; Xiong, D. The scour-deposition characteristics of sediment fractions in desert aggrading
rivers-taking the upper reaches of the Yellow River as an example. Quatern. Int. 2019, 523, 54–66. [CrossRef]
50. Wu, Y.; Shi, X.; Li, C.; Zhao, S.; Pen, F.; Green, T.R. Simulation of hydrology and nutrient transport in the Hetao Irrigation District,
Inner Mongolia, China. Water 2017, 9, 169. [CrossRef]

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.