C04 Calculus Topics

Calculus
Topics
REVISION: 3029
12 May 2024
AZIZ MANVA
AZIZMANVA@GMAIL.COM
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Get all the files at: https://bit.ly/azizhandouts
Aziz Manva (azizmanva@gmail.com)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................. 2
1. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS ................. 3
1.1 Definition and Basics 3
1.2 Separable Equations 5
1.3 Slope Fields 15
1.4 Euler’s Method 17
2.1 Logistic Growth 18
2. CALCULUS TOPICS .............................. 20

2.1 Newton-Raphson Method 20
2.2 Radius of Curvature 20
2.3 Parametric Differentiation 21
2.4 Parametric Integration 23
2.5 Polar Coordinates-I: Differentiation 26
2.6 Polar Coordinates-II: Integration 30
2.7 Vector Derivatives 35
2.8 Vector Integration 38
2.9 Hyperbolic Function Derivatives 39
3. SEQUENCES AND SERIES .................... 42

3.1 Finding Maclaurin Series 42
3.2 Operations with Maclaurin Series 48
3.3 Taylor Series/Convergence 55
3.4 Infinite Series 61
3.5 Integral Test 69
3.6 Comparison Test 75
3.7 Absolute Convergence; Ratio Test 80
3.8 Alternating Series; Conditional Convergence 83
3.9 Radius and Interval of Convergence 86
3.10 Further Topics 90
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1. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
1.1 Definition and Basics
A. Differential Equations
1.1: Differential Equation

An equation that has a derivative in it is called a differential equation.
Example 1.2
𝑑𝑦
A simple differential equation is 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥). Solve it.
Which can be solved by integrating both sides with respect to 𝑥:

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ 𝑦 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1.3: Order and Degree

In a differential equation:
➢ Order is the order of the highest derivative in the equation
➢ Degree is the highest exponent of the highest order derivative
Notes:
1. Order and degree are always positive integers (if defined).
2. We will see cases where the degree is not defined in the next definition.
Example 1.4
Find the order and the degree of the following differential equations.
4 2019)
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2
A. 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2 = {1 + (𝑑𝑥 ) } (CBSE 2019)
2
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 4
B. 𝑥 3 (𝑑𝑥 2 ) + 𝑥 (𝑑𝑥 ) = 0 (CBSE 2013,
Part A Part B
𝑂𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 2 𝑂𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 2
𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 1 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 2
1.5: “Polynomial” versus Non-polynomial equations

➢ The definition of degree assumes that a differential equation can be written as a polynomial equation
in terms of its derivatives.
➢ If a differential equation is not polynomial, then it does not have a degree.
1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑦2 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 − 𝑥 = sin ( )
⏟ 2 𝑑𝑥 ⏟ 𝑑𝑥
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙⇒𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒=1 𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙⇒𝑁𝑜 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒
Example 1.6
Find the order and the degree (if defined) of the following differential equations
P a g e 3 | 90
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑2 𝑦
A. 2 + 𝑥 ( ) = 2𝑥 2 log ( 2 ) (CBSE 2019)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑦 3
B. {( ) } = 0 (CBSE 2015)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Part A Differentiate using the chain rule:

𝑂𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 2 𝑑𝑦 3−1 𝑑 2 𝑦
𝑑2𝑦 ( ) ( 2) = 0
Since log ( ) is not polynomial: 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2
𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑂𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 2
Part B 𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 1
1.7: Linear Differential Equation

A differential equation that can be written in the form
B. Verifying Solutions
Before finding solutions, we learn the useful technique of validating solutions which have already been found.
This requires differentiation, which is easier than integration.
Example 1.8
1 𝑑𝑦 𝑦
Verify that 𝑦 = ,𝑥 > 0 is a solution to 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑥 = 0.
√𝑥
1
Differentiate both sides of 𝑦 = :
√𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 1 𝑑 1 1 3 1
= ( )= (𝑥 −2 ) = − 𝑥 −2 = − 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
2𝑥 2
𝑦 1 1 1 1
=𝑦× = × = 3
2𝑥 2𝑥 √𝑥 2𝑥
2𝑥 2
We can now verify that:
𝑑𝑦 𝑦 1 1
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = + = − 3 + 3 = 0 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆
𝑑𝑥 2𝑥
2𝑥 2 2𝑥 2
Example 1.9
3 𝑑𝑦 1
Verify that 𝑦 = 𝑡 is a solution of 𝑑𝑡 = − 3 𝑦 2 .
Differentiate the given solution:

𝑑𝑦 3
=− 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑡
3 3
Substitute 𝑦 = ⇒ 𝑡 =
𝑡 𝑦
𝑑𝑦 3 3 3
=− 2 =− =− 2
𝑑𝑡 3 9 𝑦
(𝑦) 𝑦2
C. Forming Equations
1.10: General Solutions
P a g e 4 | 90
Differential equations are solved by integration, with an arbitrary constant of integration.

Hence, we get, an infinite number of solutions.
Such a solution is a called a general solution.
1.11: Number of Constants

An equation of 𝑛𝑡ℎ order will have 𝑛 arbitrary constants in its solution.
Example 1.12: Number of Constants in Solution
1.2 Separable Equations

A. Basics
1.13: Separable Equations

A differential equation that can be written in the form below is called a separable differential equation:
𝑦 ′ = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑦)
➢ The LHS contains only the derivative of 𝑦.

➢ The RHS is a product of a function of 𝑥, and a function of 𝑦.
A separable equation can be divided on both sides by the function of 𝑦 to give only 𝑦 variables on the LHS and
only x variables on the RHS.
𝑦′
= 𝑓(𝑥)
⏟
𝑔(𝑦)
⏟ 𝒙 𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒔
𝒚 𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒔
Example 1.14: Classifying Equations

Are the following equations separable?
A. 𝑦 ′ = 2𝑥 + 3𝑦
B. 𝑦 ′ = (2𝑥)(3𝑦)
C. 𝑦 ′ = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑦)
𝑁𝑜
𝑌𝑒𝑠
𝑁𝑜
1.15: Solving Separable Equations
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑦)
𝑑𝑥
Separate the variables:

1 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑔(𝑦) 𝑑𝑥
Integrate both sides with respect to 𝑥:

1 𝑑𝑦
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑔(𝑦) 𝑑𝑥
P a g e 5 | 90
Note that since the 𝑑𝑥 on the LHS cancels, you integrate with respect to 𝑦 on the LHS:
1
∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑔(𝑦)
1
Substitute ∫ 𝑔(𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 = 𝐺(𝑦), ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥), and add the constant of integration:
𝐺(𝑦) = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶
Example 1.16
𝑑𝑦 1
= − 𝑦2
𝑑𝑡 3

𝑑𝑦 1
− = 𝑑𝑡
𝑦2 3
Integrate:
𝑑𝑦 1
∫− 2
= ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑦 3
Carry out the integration:
1 1
= 𝑡+𝐶
𝑦 3
Add the fractions:
1 𝑡 + 3𝐶
=
𝑦 3
Take the reciprocal on both sides:
3
𝑦=
𝑡 + 3𝐶
Substitute 𝐾 = 3𝐶:
3
𝑦=
𝑡+𝐾
1.17: Constant of Integration

When integrating both sides of a differential equation, you will get a constant of integration on the LHS as well
as the RHS.
However, the two constants can be replaced by a single constant.
Example 1.18
𝑑𝑦 𝑥
Integrate the equation 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑦, and determine the curve determined by the equation you get.

𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Integrate:
∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑦2 𝑥2
=− +𝐶
2 2
P a g e 6 | 90
𝑦 2 = −𝑥 2 + 2𝐶
𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 = 2𝐶
Substitute 2𝐶 = 𝑟 2 :
𝑦2 + 𝑥2 = 𝑟2
Which is the equation of a circle.
Example 1.19
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑦 2 sin 𝑡
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦
= sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑦2
Integrate:
𝑑𝑦
∫ = ∫ sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑦2
1
− = − cos 𝑡 + 𝐶
𝑦
Solve for 𝑦:
1
𝑦=
cos 𝑡 − 𝐶
Substitute 𝐾 = −𝐶
1
𝑦=
cos 𝑡 + 𝐾
Example 1.20
𝑑𝑦
Solve the differential equation cos ( ) = 𝑎, (𝑎 ∈ ℝ) (CBSE 2018)
𝑑𝑥
Take the cos inverse on both sides:

𝑑𝑦
= cos−1 𝑎
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 = cos−1 𝑎 𝑑𝑥
Integrate both sides:
∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ cos −1 𝑎 𝑑𝑥
Note that cos−1 𝑎 is simply a constant:
𝑦 = (cos−1 𝑎)(𝑥) + 𝐶
Example 1.21
Solve for 𝑦:
𝑑𝑦
= −0.6𝑦
𝑑𝑡
P a g e 7 | 90
General Solution
𝑑𝑦
= −0.6 𝑑𝑡
𝑦
𝑑𝑦
∫ = ∫ −0.6 𝑑𝑡
𝑦
Integrate both sides to obtain the general solution:
ln|𝑦| = −0.6𝑡 + 𝐶
Solve for 𝒚
Exponentiate both sides to 𝑒:
|𝑦| = 𝑒 −0.6𝑡+𝐶
Since the RHS is positive, the LHS is also positive and hence |𝑦| = 𝑦:
𝑦 = 𝑒 −0.6𝑡+𝐶
Split the RHS:
𝑦 = 𝑒 −0.6𝑡 𝑒 𝐶
𝐶
Substitute 𝑘 = 𝑒 :
𝑦 = 𝑘𝑒 −0.6𝑡
Example 1.22
𝑑𝑦
Write the solution of the differential equation = 2−𝑦 (CBSE 2015)
𝑑𝑥

2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥
∫ 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 1 ∙ 𝑑𝑥
Carry out the integration to get:
2𝑦
= 𝑥 + 𝐶1
ln 2
Explicit Solution for 𝒚
Solving explicitly for y is not easy (or required) in all questions. However, in this one, we can do (if we want).
Cross multiply:
2𝑦 = 𝑥 ln 2 + 𝐶1 ln 2
Substitute 𝐶 = 𝐶1 ln 2:
2𝑦 = 𝑥 ln 2 + 𝐶
Take the natural log of both sides:
ln 2𝑦 = ln(𝑥 ln 2 + 𝐶)
ln(𝑥 ln 2 + 𝐶)
𝑦=
ln 2
Example 1.23
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑒 𝑥−𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑒 𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑒 𝑦
𝑒 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
P a g e 8 | 90
∫ 𝑒 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑒𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶
1.24: Verifying Solutions

The solution of a differential equation can be verified by differentiating it.
Example 1.25
𝑑𝑦
A. Find the solution of the differential equation 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 3 𝑒 −2𝑦 (CBSE 2015)
B. Verify the solution.
Part A To verify the solution, differentiate both sides of

Separate the variables: 2𝑒 2𝑦 = 𝑥 4 + 𝐶
𝑒 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 With respect to 𝑥.
Integrate both sides: 𝑑 𝑑 4
(2𝑒 2𝑦 ) = (𝑥 + 𝐶)
∫ 𝑒 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
(2)(𝑒 2𝑦 )(2) ( ) = 4𝑥 3
Carry out the integration: 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 2𝑦 𝑥 4 𝑑𝑦
= + 𝐶1 𝑒 2𝑦 = 4𝑥 3
2 4 𝑑𝑥
Multiply by 2 both sides to eliminate Fractions: 𝑑𝑦
= 𝑥 3 𝑒 −2𝑦
𝑥4 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 2𝑦 = + 2𝐶1 And the above is the equation that we solved in
2
Substitute 𝐶 = 2𝐶1: Part A.
2𝑒 2𝑦 = 𝑥 4 + 𝐶 Hence, the solution has been verified.
Part B
Example 1.26
𝑑𝑦
A. Find the general solution of the differential equation ln ( ) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 (CBSE 2022).
𝑑𝑥
B. Verify the solution.
Part A
Exponentiate both sides:
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑒 𝑏𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝑒 −𝑏𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑒 −𝑏𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 −𝑏𝑦 𝑒 𝑎𝑥
= + 𝐶1
−𝑏 𝑎
Eliminate Fractions:
𝑎𝑒 −𝑏𝑦 = −𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑥 − 𝑎𝑏𝐶1
Substitute 𝐶 = −𝑎𝑏𝐶1 :
𝑎𝑒 −𝑏𝑦 + 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶
Part B
P a g e 9 | 90
Example 1.27
𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥 in terms of 𝑥 given that 𝑦 = 2−𝑒 −0.8𝑥 and verify that 𝑑𝑥
= 0.8𝑦(1 − 𝑦)
′
𝑑𝑦 2 −1.6𝑒 −0.8𝑥
=( ) =
𝑑𝑥 2 − 𝑒 −0.8𝑥 (2 − 𝑒 −0.8𝑥 )2
2
Substitute 𝑦 = 2−𝑒 −0.8𝑥 in 0.8𝑦(1 − 𝑦):
2 2 1.6 −𝑒 −0.8𝑥 −1.6𝑒 −0.8𝑥
= 0.8 ( ) (1 − ) = ( ) ( ) =
2 − 𝑒 −0.8𝑥 2 − 𝑒 −0.8𝑥 2 − 𝑒 −0.8𝑥 2 − 𝑒 −0.8𝑥 (2 − 𝑒 −0.8𝑥 )2
𝑦(0) = 1
B. Initial Value Problems

An initial value problem is a condition that gives you information about the function that is a solution to the
differential equation. It lets you find a value of the constant in the differential equation.
1.28: Particular Solutions

A solution to a differential equation that has a specific value of the constant is called a particular solution.
Example 1.29
𝑑𝑦
Find the particular solution to 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑦 − 2)2 , 𝑦(1) = 0
Separate the variables, and integrate:

𝑑𝑦
∫ = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(𝑦 − 2)2
1 𝑥2
−= +𝐶
𝑦−2 2
Take the reciprocal, and move the minus sign to the RHS:
2
𝑦−2=− 2
𝑥 + 2𝐶
Solve for 𝑦:
−2 + 2𝑥 2 + 4𝐶 2𝑥 2 − 2 + 4𝐶 2(𝑥 2 − 1 + 2𝐶) 2(𝑥 2 − 1 + 𝐾)
𝑦= = = =
𝑥 2 + 2𝐶 𝑥 2 + 2𝐶 𝑥 2 + 2𝐶 𝑥2 + 𝐾
Substitute (𝑥, 𝑦) = (1,0)

2(1 − 1 + 𝐾)
0= ⇒ 0 = 2𝐾 ⇒ 𝐾 = 0
1+𝐾
Substitute 𝐾 = 0:
2(𝑥 2 − 1)
𝑦=
𝑥2
Example 1.30
Find the particular solution to:
𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥𝑦 2 , 𝑦(5) = 1
𝑑𝑥
P a g e 10 | 90
General Solution
𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑦2
Integrate:
𝑑𝑦
∫ = ∫ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑦2
1
− = 𝑥2 + 𝐶
⏟𝑦
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰
Particular Solution
Solve it for 𝐶, and substitute (𝑥, 𝑦) = (5,1):
1 1
𝐶 = − − 𝑥 2 = − − 52 = −26
𝑦 1
Solve Equation I for 𝑦, and substitute 𝐶 = −26:

1 1 1
𝑦=− 2 =− 2 =
𝑥 +𝐶 𝑥 − 26 26 − 𝑥 2
Example 1.31
𝑑𝑦
Find the particular solution of the differential equation = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦, given that 𝑦 = 0 when 𝑥 = 1.
𝑑𝑥
(CBSE 2014)
General Solution
The expression on the RHS is not separated, but we can separate it after factoring:
𝑑𝑦
= (1 + 𝑥)(1 + 𝑦)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= (1 + 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
(1 + 𝑦)
𝑑𝑦
∫ = ∫(1 + 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
1+𝑦
𝑥2
ln|1 + 𝑦| = 𝑥 + + 𝐶
2
Particular Solution
Substitute 𝑥 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 0:
1
ln|1 + 0| = 1 + + 𝐶
2
3
𝐶=−
2
3
Substitute 𝐶 = − in the general solution to get the particular solution:
2
𝑥2 3
ln|1 + 𝑦| = 𝑥 + −
2 2
Example 1.32
𝑑𝑦
Find the particular solution of the differential equation ln (𝑑𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 + 4𝑦, given that 𝑦 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0(CBSE
2014)
P a g e 11 | 90
General Solution
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑒 3𝑥+4𝑦 = 𝑒 3𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 4𝑦
𝑑𝑥
1
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 4𝑦
1 3𝑥
𝑒 −4𝑦 𝑒 3𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ = +𝐶
𝑒 4𝑦 −4 3
Particular Solution
Substitute 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 0:
𝑒0 𝑒0 7
= +𝐶 ⇒𝐶 =−
−4 3 12
7
Substitute 𝐶 = − in the general solution:
12
𝑒 −4𝑦 𝑒 3𝑥 7
= − ⇒ 4𝑒 3𝑥 + 3𝑒 −4𝑦 − 7 = 0
−4 3 12
Example 1.33
Find the particular solution of the differential equation (1 − 𝑦 2 )(1 + ln|𝑥|)𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0, given that 𝑦 = 0
when 𝑥 = 1. (CBSE 2016)

(1 + ln|𝑥|) 2𝑦
𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑥 1 − 𝑦2
1 ln|𝑥| 2𝑦
∫( + ) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑥 𝑥 1 − 𝑦2
(ln|𝑥|)2
ln|𝑥| + − ln|1 − 𝑦 2 | = ln 𝐶
2
Substitute 𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 1:
(ln 1)2
ln 1 + − ln|1 − 0| = ln 𝐶
2
ln 𝐶 = 0
Substitute ln 𝐶 = 0
(ln|𝑥|)2
ln|𝑥| + − ln|1 − 𝑦 2 | = 0
2
C. Tangent Lines
Example 1.34
𝑑𝑦
Find the tangent line to = 𝑥(𝑦 − 2)2 at (1,0) and use it to approximate 𝑦(0.7)
𝑑𝑥
Substitute (𝑥, 𝑦) = (1,0) in the equation:

𝑑𝑦
𝑚= = 1(0 − 2)2 = 4
𝑑𝑥
Substitute (𝑥, 𝑦) = (1,0), 𝑚 = 4 in the slope-point form of the equation of a line:
𝑦 − 0 = 4(𝑥 − 1)
P a g e 12 | 90
Substitute 𝑥 = 0.7 in the above equation:

𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 4 = 4(0.7) − 4 = 2.8 − 4 = −1.2
D. More Challenging Questions
Example 1.35
𝑑𝑦
Solve the differential equation (𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑒 −𝑦 − 1; 𝑦(0) = 0 (CBSE 2019)
Find the General Solution

𝑑𝑦 2 2 − 𝑒𝑦
(𝑥 + 1) = 2𝑒 −𝑦 − 1 = 𝑦 − 1 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑒 𝑒𝑦
𝑒𝑦 1
𝑦
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥
2−𝑒 𝑥+1
𝑒𝑦 1
−∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 −2 𝑥+1
Let 𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑦 − 2 ⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑦 𝑑𝑦:
1
− ∫ 𝑑𝑢 = ln|𝑥 + 1| + 𝐶1
𝑢
− ln|𝑢| = ln|𝑥 + 1| + 𝐶1
ln|𝑥 + 1| + ln|𝑒 𝑦 − 2| = −𝐶1

Use log 𝑎 + log 𝑏 = log 𝑎𝑏:
ln|(𝑥 + 1)(𝑒 𝑦 − 2)| = −𝐶1
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑒 𝑦 − 2) = 𝑒 −𝐶1
−𝐶1
Substitute 𝐶 = 𝑒
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑒 𝑦 − 2) = 𝐶
Find the particular solution
Substitute (𝑥, 𝑦) = (0,0):
𝐶 = (0 + 1)(1 − 2) = −1
Substitute 𝐶 = −1:
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑒 𝑦 − 2) = −1
1
𝑒𝑦 − 2 = −
𝑥+1
1
𝑦 = ln (2 − )
𝑥+1
Example 1.36
Find the particular solution of the differential equation 𝑒 𝑥 tan 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + (2 − 𝑒 𝑥 ) sec 2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0, given that 𝑦 =
𝜋
4
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0 (CBSE 2018)
Find the General Solution

𝑒 𝑥 tan 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑒 𝑥 − 2) sec 2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
sec 2 𝑦 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
tan 𝑦 𝑒 −2
P a g e 13 | 90
sec 2 𝑦 𝑒𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
tan 𝑦 𝑒 −2
Note that on both sides the numerator is the derivative of the denominator, and hence the integral is the
natural log of the denominator:
ln|tan 𝑦| = ln|𝑒 𝑥 − 2| + 𝐶1
Collate the log terms on one side:
ln|tan 𝑦| − ln|𝑒 𝑥 − 2| = 𝐶1
𝑎
Use the log property log 𝑎 − log 𝑏 = log :
𝑏
tan 𝑦
ln | 𝑥 | = 𝐶1
𝑒 −2
tan 𝑦
= 𝑒 𝐶1
𝑒𝑥 − 2
Eliminate fractions and substitute 𝑒 𝐶1 = 𝐶 to find the general solution:
tan 𝑦 = 𝐶(𝑒 𝑥 − 2)
Find the value of the constant
𝜋
Substitute 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 0 in the general solution to find the value of 𝐶:
4
𝜋
tan = 𝑒 𝐶 (𝑒 0 − 2)
4
𝑒 𝐶 = −1
Find the particular solution
Substitute 𝐶 = −1 in the general solution to find the particular solution:
tan 𝑦 = 2 − 𝑒 𝑥
E. Exponential Models
Example 1.37
Exponential Growth and Decay
Example 1.38
Newton’s law of cooling gives the temperature for an object which is warmer than its surroundings.
𝑑𝑇𝑡
= −𝑘(𝑇𝑡 − 𝑇𝑠 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑡 = 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡
𝑇𝑠 = 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑇𝑡
= −𝑘(𝑇𝑡 − 𝑇𝑠 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑇𝑡
= −𝑘 𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑡 − 𝑇𝑠
Integrate:
𝑑𝑇𝑡
∫ = ∫ −𝑘 𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑡 − 𝑇𝑠
ln|𝑇𝑡 − 𝑇𝑠 | = −𝑘𝑡 + 𝐶1
𝑇𝑡 − 𝑇𝑠 = 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡+𝐶 = 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 𝑒 𝐶1 = 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 𝐶
𝑇𝑡 − 𝑇𝑠 = 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 𝐶
P a g e 14 | 90
Use initial value conditions to find the value of 𝐶. Suppose the temperature at time 𝑡 = 0 is 𝑇0 .
Substitute 𝑡 = 0 ⇒ 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑇0
𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑠 = 𝑒 −𝑘×0 𝐶
𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑠 = 𝑒 0 𝐶
𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑠 = 𝐶
Finally, my equation is:
𝑇𝑡 − 𝑇𝑠 = (𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑠 )𝑒 −𝑘𝑡
1.3 Slope Fields

A. Basics
We have seen how to solve simple differential equations that using direct integration, or separation of
variables. However, certain differential equations may not have a closed-form solution1 that is easy to find. In
such cases, numerical integration is a way to understand the features of the differential equation.
𝒅𝒚
1.39: as slope
𝒅𝒙
𝑑𝑦
Given a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the quantity 𝑑𝑥 represents the slope of the function 𝑓 at the point 𝑥.
1.40: Slope Field

A slope field gives the slope at any point in the coordinate plane due to a differential equation.
➢ A slope field is a way of visualizing the behavior of a differential equation qualitatively, rather than
quantitatively.
➢ Every point in the coordinate plane is represented by a pair of coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦), and the slope field
associates with that pair (𝑥, 𝑦), the slope of the differential equation at that point.
➢ Slope can be represented using a vector. Hence, the input is a point on the coordinate plane, and the
output is a vector.
1.41: Single Variable Function

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
1.42: Vector Function

⃗ = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝒗
Example 1.43
𝑑𝑦
Sketch a slope field for the differential equation 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 over −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2, −1 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 22.
1
A closed form solution is an explicit solution that connects the variables.
2
https://www.geogebra.org/m/W7dAdgqc lets you plot slope fields.
P a g e 15 | 90
Example 1.44
𝑑𝑦
Sketch a slope field for the differential equation 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑥 over −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2, −2 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2.
Example 1.45
𝑑𝑦
Sketch a slope field for the differential equation 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦 over −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2, −2 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2.
Example 1.46
P a g e 16 | 90
𝑑𝑦 𝑥
Sketch a slope field for the differential equation 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑦 over −3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3, −3 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 3.
Rather than attempting this numerically, we integrate the differential equation

using separation of variables:
∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = − ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Integrate the above to get:
𝑦 2 = −𝑥 2 + 𝐶
2
Substitute 𝐶 = 𝑟 , and collate all variables on the left to get the equation of a
circle:
𝑦2 + 𝑥2 = 𝑟2
Hence, the slope field must have solution curve that are circles, and now drawing the slopes becomes much
easier.
1.4 Euler’s Method

A. Basics
1.47: Euler’s Method

𝐿(𝑥) = 𝑦0 + 𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )𝑑𝑥
Example 1.48
𝑑𝑓
𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: =𝑓−2
𝑑𝑥
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡: 𝑓(0) = 3
𝑥0 = 0
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡: 𝑑𝑥 = 0.1
𝑓(0.1) = 𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + 𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )𝑑𝑥 = 3 + (3 − 2)(0.1) = 3.1

𝑓(0.2) = 𝑦2 = 𝑦1 + 𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )𝑑𝑥 = 3.1 + (3.1 − 2)(0.1) = 3.21
𝑓(0.2) = 𝑦
Example 1.49
Solve the differential equation
𝑑𝑓
= 𝑓 − 2, 𝑓(0) = 3
𝑑𝑥
Separate variables and integrate both sides:

𝑑𝑓
∫ = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑓−2
ln|𝑓 − 2| = 𝑥 + 𝐶
Determine the value of C using the initial value condition 𝑓(0) = 3:

ln|3 − 2| = 0 + 𝐶 ⇒ 𝐶 = 0
The particular solution to the differential equation is:

ln|𝑓 − 2| = 𝑥
P a g e 17 | 90
Example 1.50
Compare the value found using Euler’s Method for 𝑥 = 0.2 and the actual value using the particular solution
to determine the difference between the two.
ln|𝑓 − 2| = 0.2
𝑓 − 2 = 𝑒 0.2
𝑓 = 𝑒 0.2 + 2 = 3.22140275
Difference
= 3.22140275 − 3.21
1.5 Logistic Growth
Exponential Model
Assume a population P. The death rate in the population
=dP
The birth rate in the population

=bP
The net change in the population is

=bP-dP=kP
Since the above is the rate of change of population, we can write

dP/dt = kP
The above model results in constant growth or constant decay (exponential model).
Logistic Growth Model

Assume an existing population P, and a carrying capacity or limiting population M, where M is the long term
value of the population.
k = r(M-P), r>0
Growth rate increases if the population is far below the carrying capacity, and decreases closer to (but still
below) the carrying capacity.
If, for some reason, the population increases above the carrying capacity, then P>M, and M-P<0.
Hence, the rate is negative.
Second Derivative and Interpretations

For M/2 < P<M:
First Derivative is positive and second derivative is negative.
The population is increasing, but the rate of increase is decreasing.
For P<M/2:
The first and second derivative are both positive. The population is increasing, and the rate of increase is also
P a g e 18 | 90
increasing.
For P=M/2:
The first is positive, but the second derivative is zero. The population is increasing, and the rate of increase is
constant.
P a g e 19 | 90
2. CALCULUS TOPICS
2.1 Newton-Raphson Method
A. Basics
2.1: Newton Raphson Method

Guess 𝑥1 as an approximation to the solution of the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0.
Use the recursive formula below to find further approximations:
𝑓(𝑥𝑛 )
𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝑛 − ′ , 𝑖𝑓 𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑛 ) ≠ 0
𝑓 (𝑥𝑛 )
2.2: Convergence
Newton’s method does not guarantee convergence.
2.3: Wrong Root

If you start too far away from the root, Newton’s method may not give you the root you wanted.
2.2 Radius of Curvature

2.4: Radius of Curvature
Example 2.5
(0,1)
𝑦 = cos 𝑥
𝑥2
𝑓(𝑥) = 1 −
2
𝑦 ′ = − sin 𝑥 , 𝑦 ′′ = − cos 𝑥
3 3 3
(1+𝑦′ )2 (1−sin2 𝑥)2 (cos2 𝑥)2 cos3 𝑥
`+𝑅|𝑥=0 = | 𝑦 ′′
|=| − cos 𝑥
|=| − cos 𝑥
| = |− cos 𝑥| = |− cos 2 𝑥| = 1
P a g e 20 | 90
𝑓 ′ = −𝑥, 𝑓 ′′ = −1
3 3 3
(1 + 𝑦 ′ )2 (1 − 𝑥 2 )2 (1 − 0)2 1
𝑅|𝑥=0 =| |=| |=| |=| |=1
𝑦′′ −1 −1 −1
2.3 Parametric Differentiation

A. Differentiation
2.6: Parametric Differentiation

If a curve is defined parametrically with 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡), then the rate of change of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥,
which is the derivative of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 is given by:
𝑑𝑦⁄
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥⁄
𝑑𝑡
We can motivate this 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 by thinking as below:

1 𝑑𝑦⁄
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 × 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 × 1 𝑑𝑥⁄𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Example 2.7: Concept

𝑑𝑦
Given 𝑥 = cos 𝑡 , 𝑦 = sin 𝑡, find
𝑑𝑥
A. using the formula for parametric differentiation
B. by eliminating 𝑡 and differentiating
Verify that the answers from both the parts are same.
Part A
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
Substitute 𝑑𝑡 = cos 𝑡 , 𝑑𝑡 = − sin 𝑡 in
𝑑𝑦⁄
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 = cos 𝑡 = − cot 𝑡
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥⁄ − sin 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Part B
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = cos2 𝑡 + sin2 𝑡 = 1
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 1
Differentiating implicitly with respect to 𝑥:

𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 + 2𝑦
=0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 cos 𝑡
=− = = − cot 𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑦 − sin 𝑡
B. Tangent Lines
P a g e 21 | 90
2.8: Tangent Line

To find the equation of a tangent line
𝑑𝑦
➢ 𝑚= | to find the slope of the tangent
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑥1
➢ Substitute the coordinates of a point 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑚 into the point slope form of the equation of a line
(𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ))
Example 2.9
An object moves along the curve given by 𝑥 = 2𝑡 2 , 𝑦 = 3𝑡 3 where 𝑡 is in seconds. Determine the direction of
movement of the object when 𝑡 = 2.
The direction of movement will be given by the tangent line.
𝑑𝑦⁄ 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 = 9𝑡 = 9𝑡
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥⁄ 4𝑡 4
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦 9∙2 9
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑚 = | = =
𝑑𝑥 𝑡=2 4 2
(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (2𝑡12 , 3𝑡13 ) = (2 × 22 , 3 × 23 ) = (8,24)
Substitute into 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )

9
𝑦 − 24 = (𝑥 − 8)
2
C. Parametric Curves
Example 2.10
Phillips Exeter Math 4
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
Differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑡, and note that 𝑥 ′ = , 𝑦′ = :
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
(2𝑥)𝑥 ′ − 2𝑥𝑦 ′ − 2𝑦𝑥 ′ + 4𝑦𝑦 ′ = 0
Collate all 𝑦′ terms on side:

𝑦 ′ (4𝑦 − 2𝑥) = 𝑥 ′ (2𝑦 − 2𝑥)
Solve for 𝑦′
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 ′ (𝑦 − 𝑥) 2(3 − 4) 2(−1)
= 𝑦′ = = = = −1
𝑑𝑡 2𝑦 − 𝑥 2(3) − 4 −2
P a g e 22 | 90
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
> 0, < 0, 𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 ⇒ 𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦
Example 2.11
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
⃗ = ( , ) = (2, −1), 𝒓
Substitute 𝒗 ⃗ = (4,3) in
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
⃗ ∙𝒓
𝒗 ⃗ (4)(2) + (3)(−1) 8−3 1
cos 𝜃 = = = =
|𝒗
⃗ ||𝒓
⃗ | √22 + 12 √42 + 32 √5√25 √5
1
𝜃 = cos−1 ( ) = 63.43°
√5
Example 2.12
𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ⇒ 𝑟 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
Differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑡:

2𝑟𝑟 ′ = 2𝑥𝑥 ′ + 2𝑦𝑦′
𝑥𝑥 ′ + 𝑦𝑦′ 4(2) + 3(−1) 8 − 3 5
𝑟′ = = = = =1
𝑟 5 5 5
2.4 Parametric Integration
A. Basics
Integration with respect to a parameter can be done by using substitution.
2.13: Parametric Integration

Given the parametric equations 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡), 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡):
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑔(𝑡) 𝑓′(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
Substitute 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦
= ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
Substitute 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡), 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓′(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡:
P a g e 23 | 90
∫ 𝑔(𝑡) 𝑓′(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
Example 2.14: Area of a Circle

Basic Example

Video
Example 2.16: Area of an Ellipse

A. Describe the motion of the parametrization 𝑥 = −3 sin 𝑡 , 𝑦 = 2 cos 𝑡.
B. Use the parametrization to determine the area enclosed by the ellipse.
Part A
The motion begins at (𝑥, 𝑦) = (0,2), and goes counter clockwise around the ellipse.
The motion covers the entire ellipse from 𝑡 = 0 to 𝑡 = 2𝜋.
Part B
To find the area of the ellipse, we use symmetry and multiply the area in the second quadrant by 4.
𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑥 = −3 , 𝑥 = 0
If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) then we get:

0 0
4 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 4 ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
−3 −3
Use a change of variables with the substitutions:

𝑦 = 2 cos 𝑡 , 𝑑𝑥 = −3 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜋
𝑥 = −3: − 3 = −3 sin 𝑡 ⇒ sin 𝑡 = 1 ⇒ 𝑡 =
2
𝑥 = 0: 0 = −3 sin 𝑡 ⇒ sin 𝑡 = 0 ⇒ 𝑡 = 0
Which gives us, after substitution:

0 0
= 4 ∫ (2 cos 𝑡)(−3 cos 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = −24 ∫ cos2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜋 𝜋
2 2
1+cos 2𝑡
Use the trigonometric identity cos 2 𝑡 = 2
and integrate:
P a g e 24 | 90
0
1 + cos 2𝑡 0
sin 2𝑡 0
−24 ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = −12 ∫ 1 + cos 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = −12 [𝑡 + ]
𝜋 2 𝜋 2 𝜋
2 2 2
Substitute the limits of integration:

𝜋
sin(2 ∙ 0) 𝜋 sin (2 ∙ 2 )
−12 [(0 + )−( + )]
2 2 2
𝜋
sin(2∙0) sin 0 0 sin(2∙ ) sin 𝜋 0
2
Substitute 2
= 2
= 2 = 0 and 2
=
=2=0 2
𝜋 𝜋
= −12 [(0 + 0) − ( + 0)] = −12 [− ] = 6𝜋
2 2
B. Velocity and Speed
2.17: Velocity
Given the parametric function (𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡)), we have
⃗
𝑑𝒓 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
⃗ =
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝒗 =( , )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
The position vector is:

⃗ = (𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡))
𝒓
The velocity is the rate of change of position with respect to time.

Differentiate the above to get:
⃗
𝑑𝒓 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝒗⃗ = = (𝑥′(𝑡), 𝑦′(𝑡)) = ( , )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2.18: Speed
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = √( ) +( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
⃗ =(
𝒗 , )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
The magnitude of the above vector is:

⃗ | = √(
|𝒗 ) +( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Example 2.19
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = √𝑡 4 − 2𝑡 2 + 1 + 4𝑡 2
Find (𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡))
√( ) + ( ) = √𝑡 4 − 2𝑡 2 + 1 + 4𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
P a g e 25 | 90
Square both sides:

( ) + ( ) = 𝑡 4 − 2𝑡 2 + 1 + 4𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
First Factorization:
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
( ) = 𝑡 4 − 2𝑡 2 + 1 = (𝑡 2 − 1)2 ⇒ = 𝑡2 − 1
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
( ) = 4𝑡 2 ⇒ = 2𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Second Factorization:
) + ( ) = 𝑡 4 + 2𝑡 2 + 1
(
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
( ) = 𝑡 4 + 2𝑡 2 + 1 = (𝑡 2 + 1)2 ⇒ = 𝑡2 + 1
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
( ) =0⇒ =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
C. Arc Length
2.20: Arc Length

𝑏
𝐿 = ∫ √( ) + ( ) 𝑑𝑡
𝑎 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = √( ) +( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Integrating the speed over time gives us distance. Distance is the length of the curve travelled:
2.5 Polar Coordinates-I: Differentiation

A. Polar Coordinates
2.21: Polar Coordinates

Polar coordinates define a point in the form:
(𝑟, 𝜃)
Where
𝑟 = 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
2.22: Polar to Cartesian Coordinates

𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
P a g e 26 | 90
2.23: Cartesian to Polar Coordinates

𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑦
tan 𝜃 =
𝑥
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 cos2 𝜃 + 𝑟 2 sin2 𝜃 = 𝑟 2
➢ When solving for 𝜃, you need to careful since the 𝑡𝑎𝑛 inverse has range only in quadrants I and IV,
whereas the angle can be any quadrant.
B. Relation between polar and parametric
2.24: Parametric Equations

We defined parametric equations to be of the form 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡), where 𝑡 is a time parameter.
Hence, the position of an object at time 𝑡 was given by:
(𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑓(𝑡), 𝑔(𝑡))
➢ Parametric equations with parameter 𝑡 (by convention) refer to situations where the position of an
object is a function of time.
➢ Apart from time, we can take other quantities as the parameter of interest.
2.25: Angle 𝜽 as a parameter

Instead of time parameter 𝑡, we can take angle 𝜃 as the parameter in a parametric setup. Given
𝑥 = 𝑓(𝜃), 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝜃)
We can conclude
(𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑓(𝜃), 𝑔(𝜃))
C. Differentiation
2.26: Parametric Differentiation

If a curve is defined parametrically with 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡), then the rate of change of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥,
which is the derivative of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 is given by:
𝑑𝑦⁄
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
=
𝑑𝑡
We can motivate this 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 by thinking as below:

1 𝑑𝑦⁄
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 × 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 × 1 𝑑𝑥⁄
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2.27: Polar Coordinates: Differentiation

Given 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝜃), 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝜃), the rate of change of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥, which is the derivative of 𝑦 with respect to
𝑥 is given by:
P a g e 27 | 90
𝑑𝑦⁄
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝜃
=
𝑑𝜃
Example 2.28
What is the interpretation of
𝑑𝑦⁄
A. 𝑑𝜃
B. 𝑑𝑥 ⁄𝑑𝜃
A. Rate of change of 𝑦 coordinate with respect to change in angle 𝜃

B. Rate of change of 𝑥 coordinate with respect to change in angle 𝜃
Example 2.29
𝑟 = 1 + sin 𝜃
Find the rate of change of the 𝑦 coordinate with respect to change in angle 𝜃.
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
To differentiate with respect to 𝜃 we first express 𝑦 as a function of 𝜃 by substituting 𝑟 = 1 + sin 𝜃
𝑦 = (1 + sin 𝜃)(sin 𝜃) = sin 𝜃 + sin2 𝜃
Differentiate the above with respect to 𝜃:

𝑑𝑦
= cos 𝜃 + 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝜃
Apply the double angle identity:

𝑑𝑦
= cos 𝜃 + sin 2𝜃
𝑑𝜃
Example 2.30
𝑟 = 1 + sin 𝜃
Find the rate of change of the 𝑥 coordinate with respect to change in angle 𝜃.
1
𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 = (1 + sin 𝜃)(cos 𝜃) = cos 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + sin 2𝜃
2
𝑑𝑥 1
= − sin 𝜃 + (cos 2𝜃)(2) = − sin 𝜃 + cos 2𝜃
𝑑𝜃 2
Example 2.31
𝑟 = 1 + sin 𝜃
Find the rate of change of the 𝑦 coordinate with respect to change in 𝑥.
𝜋
Find the rate of change of the 𝑦 coordinate with respect to change in 𝑥 when 𝜃 = 6 .
𝑑𝑦⁄
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + sin 2𝜃
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥⁄ − sin 𝜃 + cos 2𝜃
𝑑𝜃
𝜋 𝑑𝑦
Substitute 𝜃 = 6
= 30° ⇒ 2𝜃 = 60° in the expression for 𝑑𝑥 :
P a g e 28 | 90
√3 √3
𝑑𝑦 cos 30° + sin 60° + 2 √3
| 𝜋= = 2 =
𝑑𝑥 𝜃= − sin 30° + cos 60° − 1 + 1 0
6
2 2
Since the denominator is zero, the slope is

𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 (𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦)∞
Hence, the function has a vertical tangent line at:

𝜋
𝜃=
6
D. Slopes and Tangents
Example 2.32
𝜋
Determine the equation of the tangent line to the graph 𝑟 = 1 + sin 𝜃 when 𝜃 = 2 .
𝑑𝑦 cos 𝜃 + sin 2𝜃
=
𝑑𝑥 − sin 𝜃 + cos 2𝜃
𝜋
𝑑𝑦 cos 2 + sin 𝜋 0+0 0
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑚 = | 𝜋 = 𝜋 = = =0
𝑑𝑥 𝜃= − sin + cos 𝜋 −1 − 1 −2
2 2
Since the slope is 0,
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝜋
𝑟 = 1 + sin 𝜃 = 1 + sin ( ) = 1 + 1 = 2
2
𝜋
𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 = 2 cos = 2(0) = 0
2
𝜋
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 = 2 sin = 2(1) = 2
2
Since the line passes through 𝑦 = 2, and it is a horizontal line, the equation is:
𝑦=2
Example 2.33
𝜋
Determine the equation of the tangent line to the graph 𝑟 = sin 2𝜃 when 𝜃 = 4 .
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑
= (𝑟 sin 𝜃) = (sin 2𝜃 sin 𝜃) = 2 cos 2𝜃 sin 𝜃 + sin 2𝜃 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑥 𝑑 𝑑
= (𝑟 cos 𝜃) = (sin 2𝜃 cos 𝜃) = 2 cos 2𝜃 cos 𝜃 − sin 2𝜃 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑦⁄
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝜃 = 2 cos 2𝜃 sin 𝜃 + sin 2𝜃 cos 𝜃
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥⁄ 2 cos 2𝜃 cos 𝜃 − sin 2𝜃 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝜃
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 1 1
2 cos 2 sin 4 + sin 2 cos 4 2(0) sin 4 + (1) ( ) (1) ( )
𝑑𝑦 √2 = √2 = −1
| = =
𝑑𝑥 𝜃=𝜋 2 cos 2𝜃 cos 𝜋 − sin 𝜋 sin 𝜋 2(0) cos 𝜋 − (1) ( 1 ) −(1) ( 1 )
4 4 2 4 4 √2 √2
P a g e 29 | 90
𝜋
𝑟 = sin 2𝜃 = sin =1
2
𝜋 1
𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 = (1) cos =
4 √2
𝜋 1
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 = (1) sin =
4 √2
𝑦 − 𝑦0 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )
1 1
𝑦− = −1 (𝑥 − )
√2 √2
𝑦 = −𝑥 + √2
E. Some Further Topics
2.34: General Formula

If 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃, and 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃, such that 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃) then:
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑦 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃
= 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑥 −𝑟 sin 𝜃 + 𝑑𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝜃
Using the product rule since 𝑟 is a function of 𝜃:

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑟
= 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑟
= −𝑟 sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
Combining the above two gives us:

𝑑𝑦⁄ 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝜃 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃
= = 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥⁄ 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝜃 −𝑟 sin 𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃 cos 𝜃
Example 2.35
Why do we need to specify 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃) in the formula:
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑦 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃
= 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑥 −𝑟 sin 𝜃 + 𝑑𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝜃
Because if 𝑟 is not a function of 𝜃 then we cannot differentiate it.
2.6 Polar Coordinates-II: Integration

A. Definition of Polar Integration
2.36: Sector of a Circle

A sector is a part of a circle enclosed by two radii and an arc.
Area of a sector is
P a g e 30 | 90
𝜃𝐷𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 2 1 2
𝜋𝑟 = 𝑟 𝜃
360 2
Where
𝜃 = 𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
➢ Central angle is the angle subtended by the arc at the center of the circle.
2.37: Area under the Curve

The area of the region between the origin and the curve 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃), for 𝜃𝐿 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜃𝑈 is
1 𝛽 2
𝐴 = ∫ 𝑟 𝑑𝜃
2 𝛼
Where
𝛼 = 𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝛽 = 𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Region 𝑂𝑇𝑆 is the area between the origin and the curve
𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃).
It is bounded by the rays 𝜃 = 𝛼 and 𝜃 = 𝛽.
In the case of integration in rectangular coordinates, we
divide the region into rectangles. But rectangles will not
work here. So, we will divide into sectors.
Substitute Radius of each sector 𝑟𝑘 = 𝑓(𝜃𝑘 ), central

1
angle = Δ𝜃𝑘 in 2 𝑟 2 𝜃
1 1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑘 𝑡ℎ 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑟𝑘2 𝛥𝜃𝑘 = [𝑓(𝜃𝑘 )]2 𝛥𝜃𝑘
2 2
The total area of the sectors is:

𝑛 𝑛
1
∑ 𝐴𝑘 = ∑ [𝑓(𝜃𝑘 )]2 𝛥𝜃𝑘
2
𝑘=1 𝑘=1
And this area approximates the region that we want.
As the angle of each part approaches zero and the

number of parts approaches infinity, we get:
𝑛 𝛽
1 1
𝐴 = lim (∑ [𝑓(𝜃𝑘 )]2 𝛥𝜃𝑘 ) = ∫ 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃
2 𝛼 2
𝑘=1
B. Warm Up

Calculate the area of a quarter circle in the first quadrant with center at the origin and radius 𝑅 using polar
integration.
The equation of a circle with radius 𝑅 and center at the origin is:
𝑟 = 𝑅, 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
P a g e 31 | 90
The limits of integration are the points where the circle intersects the 𝑥 and the 𝑦 axis.
𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 𝛼 = 0
𝜋
𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 𝛽 =
2
𝛽1
Substitute the above into ∫𝛼 2 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
1 2 𝑅 2 𝜋2 𝑅 2 𝜋 𝜋𝑅 2
= ∫ 𝑅 2 𝑑𝜃 = [𝜃]0 = ( − 0) =
2 0 2 2 2 4
Example 2.39
Determine the area of an ellipse symmetrical about the origin.
In parametric form, the equation of an ellipse symmetrical about the origin is:
𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑏 sin 𝜃
In rectangular coordinates, the area of the ellipse is four times the area in the first quadrant:
𝑎
= 4 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0
Convert to polar coordinates:

𝜋
𝛼 = 0, 𝛽 =
2
𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑎 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 𝑏 sin 𝜃
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
2 2 2
1 − cos 2𝜃
= 4 ∫(𝑏 sin 𝜃)(−𝑎 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃) = 4𝑎𝑏 ∫ sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 4𝑎𝑏 ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝜃
2
0 0 0
𝜋 𝜋
2 2
= 2𝑎𝑏 ∫ 𝑑𝜃 − ∫ cos 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0 0
[ ]
0
𝜋
= 2𝑎𝑏 [∫ 𝑑𝜃 ] = 2𝑎𝑏[𝜃]0𝜋 = 2𝑎𝑏 ( − 0) = 𝜋𝑎𝑏
2 2
𝜋
2
C. Area of a Polar Region
Example 2.40:
Find the area of the region bounded by 𝑟 = 𝜃 for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋
𝛽 𝜋
1 1 𝜋 1 𝜃3 𝜋3
𝐴 = ∫ 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃 = [ ] =
𝛼 2 2 0 2 3 0 6
P a g e 32 | 90
Example 2.41: Limacon Inner Loop

Find the area of the inner loop in the graph of 𝑟 = 1 + 2 cos 𝜃.
𝑟 = 3: 3 = 1 + 2 cos 𝜃 ⇒ cos 𝜃 = 1 ⇒ 𝜃 ∈ {𝟎, 𝟐𝝅}

𝜋 3𝜋
𝑟 = 1: 1 = 1 + 2 cos 𝜃 ⇒ cos 𝜃 = 0 ⇒ 𝜃 ∈ { , } 𝝅
2 2 𝜃 0 𝟐𝝅 𝝅 𝟒𝝅 𝟑𝝅 𝟐𝝅
1 2𝜋 4𝜋 𝟐 𝟑 𝟑 𝟐
𝑟 = 0: 0 = 1 + 2 cos 𝜃 ⇒ cos 𝜃 = − ⇒ 𝜃 ∈ { , }
2 3 3 𝑟 3 1 0 -1 0 1 3
𝑟 = −1: −1 = 1 + 2 cos 𝜃 ⇒ cos 𝜃 = −1 ⇒ 𝜃 ∈ {𝝅}
The function to be integrated is:

𝑟 2 = (1 + 2 cos 𝜃)2 = 1 + 4 cos 𝜃 + 4 cos2 𝜃
1+cos 2𝜃
Substitute cos2 𝜃 = 2
,
and simplify:
1 + cos 2𝜃
= 1 + 4 cos 𝜃 + 4 ∙ = 3 + 4 cos 𝜃 + 2 cos 2𝜃
2
2𝜋
Substitute 𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 𝛼 = 3
, 𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 𝛽 = 𝜋 in
𝛽 𝛽 𝜋
1 2
𝐴 = 2∫ 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ (3 + 4 cos 𝜃 + 2 cos 2𝜃)𝑑𝜃
𝛼 2 𝛼
2𝜋
3
Integrate, and substitute the limits of integration:

2𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋
= [3𝜃 + 4 sin 𝜃 + sin 2𝜃]𝜋2𝜋 = (3𝜋 + 4 sin 𝜋 + sin 2𝜋) − (3 ∙ + 4 sin + sin )
3 3 3 3
Simplify:
√3 √3
= (3𝜋 + 4 ∙ 0 + 0) − (2𝜋 + 4 ∙ − )
2 2
3√3
= 3𝜋 − (2𝜋 + )
2
3√3
=𝜋−
2
Example 2.42: Limacon Outer Loop

Find the area of the outer loop in the graph of 𝑟 = 1 + 2 cos 𝜃.
D. Area of a Region bounded by two Polar Curves
Example 2.43
Find the area of intersection of the polar curves 𝑟 = cos 𝜃 and 𝑟 = sin 𝜃.
𝜃 𝑟 = sin 𝜃 𝑟 = cos 𝜃
0 0 1
𝜋 1 1
4 √2 √2
P a g e 33 | 90
𝜋 1 0
Note that each of the given curves is a circle that touches the 2
origin. Determine the points on intersection of the two curves:
𝜋
sin 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 ⇒ tan 𝜃 = 1 ⇒ 𝜃 =
4
Prepare a table of values.
𝜋 𝛽1
Substitute 𝛼 = 0, 𝛽 = 4 , 𝑟 = sin 𝜃 ⇒ 𝑟 2 = sin2 𝜃 in ∫𝛼 2 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
41
= 2∫ sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0 2
1−cos 2𝜃
Use a trigonometric substitution. Substitute sin2 𝜃 = 2
:
𝜋 𝜋
4 1 − cos 2𝜃 𝜃 sin 2𝜃 4
=∫ ( ) 𝑑𝜃 = [ − ]
0 2 2 4 0
Substitute the limits of integration:

𝜋 𝜋
sin
4
( − 2 ) − (0 − 0) = 𝜋 − 1
2 4 8 4
E. Arc Length
2.44: Arc Length

The length of the curve 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃) from 𝛼 to 𝛽:
𝛽
𝑑𝑟 2
𝐿 = ∫ √𝑟 2 + ( ) 𝑑𝜃
𝛼 𝑑𝜃
Conditions to be met:
➢ 𝑟(𝜃) must have a continuous derivative for 𝛼 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝛽
P a g e 34 | 90
➢ The point 𝑃(𝑟, 𝜃) traces the curve exactly once as 𝜃 ranges from 𝛼 to 𝛽
Example 2.45
𝜋
A. 𝑟 = 𝑛 cos 𝜃 from 𝜃 = 0 to 𝜃 = 2
B. Plot the curve, determine the shape, and verify your answer from Part A by using a formula from high
school geometry.
𝑑𝑟
Substitute 𝑟 2 = 𝑛2 cos 2 𝜃, = −𝑛 sin 𝜃:
𝑑𝜃
𝜋 𝜋
𝜋
2 2 𝜋𝑛
∫ √𝑛2 cos2 𝜃 + 𝑛2 sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ |𝑛|√1 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑛[𝜃]02 =
0 0 2
𝑛
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 =
2
2𝜋𝑅 𝜋𝑛
𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = = 𝜋𝑅 =
2 2
2.7 Vector Derivatives

A. Paths
2.46: Paths
When a particle moves through space, the points through which the particle passes make up the path.
Example 2.47
If 𝑥 = sin 𝑡 , 𝑦 = cos 𝑡 for 𝑡 ≥ 0, identify
A. the path travelled by the particle.
The path travelled is the unit circle.
2.48: Parametric Representation

The path of a particle over a time interval 𝐼 can be represented parametrically as a
function in three dimensions:
𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡), 𝑧 = ℎ(𝑡), 𝑡∈𝐼
Note that 𝐼 represents a time interval, not the set of integers 𝕀, which is usually represented as ℤ.
P a g e 35 | 90
Example 2.49
A particle travels along the path 𝑥 = sin 𝑡 , 𝑦 = cos 𝑡 , 𝑧 = 𝑡 for 𝑡 ≥ 0 where 𝑡 is in
seconds and 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 are in meters. Find the:
A. shape of the path?
B. length of the path travelled in 1 second?
C. speed of the particle?
Part A
The particle travels along a right circular cylinder of radius 1 (graphed alongside).
Part B
𝑥 = sin 𝑡 , 𝑦 = cos 𝑡 would give a circle in the coordinate plane.
The time taken to complete 1 cycle around the

circle
= 2𝜋
Length of path around the circle

= 2𝜋
Distance in 2D in 1 second
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 1 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 2𝜋
= = =1
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 2𝜋
The 𝑧 component is separate. For every second that passes, the z coordinate increases by 1.
𝑧=𝑡
Length of path travelled in 1 second in the z direction
=1
Total distance travelled in 1 second

𝑚
=1+1=2
𝑠
B. Paths as Vectors
2.50: Scalar Function

A function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑡) assigns a scalar 𝑦 to each valid scalar 𝑡 in its domain.
The functions that you have seen earlier (for example, in introductory Calculus) are scalar functions.
𝑦 = √𝑡
𝑦 = sin 𝑡
2.51: Vector Function

⃗ (𝑡) is a function that assigns for each scalar 𝑡 in its domain a vector 𝒓
A vector function 𝒓 ⃗ (𝑡).
2.52: Paths in Vector Form
P a g e 36 | 90
A path in vector form can be expressed by expressing the vector in component form:
̂
⃗ (𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑡)𝒊̂ + 𝑔(𝑡)𝒋̂ + ℎ(𝑡)𝒌
𝒓
Where
̂ 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦
𝒊̂, 𝒋̂, 𝒌
𝑓(𝑡), 𝑔(𝑡), ℎ(𝑡) 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
2.53: Converting from Parametric to Vector Form

̂
⃗ (𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑡)𝒊̂ + 𝑔(𝑡)𝒋̂ + ℎ(𝑡)𝒌
𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑡), 𝑧 = ℎ(𝑡) ⇔ 𝒓
Example 2.54
A particle travels along the path 𝑥 = sin 𝑡 , 𝑦 = cos 𝑡 , 𝑧 = 𝑡 for 𝑡 ≥ 0 where 𝑡 is in seconds and 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 are in
meters. Write this in vector form.
̂
⃗ (𝑡) = (sin 𝑡)𝒊̂ + (cos 𝑡)𝒋̂ + 𝑡𝒌
𝒓
C. Derivative Basics
2.55: Derivative
⃗ (𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑡)𝒊̂ + 𝑔(𝑡)𝒋̂ + ℎ(𝑡)𝒌
If 𝒓 ̂ then its derivative is:
𝑑𝒓⃗ 𝑟(𝑡 + Δ𝑡) − 𝑟(𝑡) ⃗
𝑑𝒓 𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑔 𝑑ℎ
⃗ ′ (𝑡) =
𝒓 = lim = = 𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ + ̂
𝒌
𝑑𝑡 Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
➢ To differentiate a vector, you can simply differentiate each of its components.

➢ This is what makes component form so useful and important.
2.56: Geometric Interpretation of the Derivative

➢ The derivative will give the vector tangent to the curve/path at the point where the derivative is
calculated.
➢ This is the 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟.
D. Finding Tangent Lines
2.57: Point-Vector Form

⃗ whose terminal point lies on a line, and a vector ⃗𝒃 parallel to the line,
Given a point 𝑃 with position vector 𝒂
the vector form of the equation of the line is:
⃗ =𝒂
𝒓 ⃗ + 𝜆𝒃⃗
P a g e 37 | 90
⃗.
Consider an arbitrary point 𝑄 on the line with position vector 𝒓
⃗
Since 𝒃 is parallel to the line:
𝑷𝑸 ∥ ⃗𝒃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
The two vectors above have the same direction. Hence, one must be a
scalar multiple of the other:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑷𝑸 = 𝜆𝒃 ⃗
Write ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑷𝑸 as a displacement vector:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑷𝑸 = 𝒓 ⃗ −𝒂 ⃗ = 𝜆𝒃⃗
Solve for 𝒓 ⃗:
⃗ =𝒂
𝒓 ⃗ + 𝜆𝒃 ⃗
2.58: Finding Vector Equation

To find vector equation of a line, you need:
⃗ = 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝒓
𝒅𝒓⃗
⃗𝒅 = = 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝒅𝒕
2.8 Vector Integration

A. Indefinite Integration
2.59: Integration of Scalar Functions

The indefinite integral of 𝑟 with respect to 𝑡 is the set of all antiderivatives of 𝑟, denoted by
∫ 𝑟(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑅(𝑡) + 𝐶
2.60: Definition: Vector Integral

⃗ with respect to 𝑡 is the set of all antitiderivatives of 𝒓
The indefinite integral of 𝒓 ⃗ , denoted by
⃗⃗ (𝑡) + ⃗𝑪
⃗ (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑹
∫𝒓
Note that
⃗ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝒓
⃗𝑹
⃗ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
⃗𝑪 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
Each of the above is a 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 quantity except for

𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟
2.61: Integrating Vectors Component-Wise

̂ then its integral is:
⃗ (𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑡)𝒊̂ + 𝑔(𝑡)𝒋̂ + ℎ(𝑡)𝒌
If 𝒓
̂ + ⃗𝑪
⃗ (𝒕) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹(𝑡)𝒊̂ + 𝐺(𝑡)𝒋̂ + 𝐻(𝑡)𝒌
∫𝒓
Where
𝐹(𝑡) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑡)
P a g e 38 | 90
𝐺(𝑡) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑡)

𝐻(𝑡) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑡)
⃗ (𝒕) 𝑑𝑡
∫𝒓
⃗ (𝑡):
Use the definition of 𝒓
̂] 𝑑𝑡
= ∫[𝑓(𝑡)𝒊̂ + 𝑔(𝑡)𝒋̂ + ℎ(𝑡)𝒌
Use the sum property of integration to split the vector:

̂ 𝑑𝑡
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝒊̂ 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑔(𝑡)𝒋̂ 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ ℎ(𝑡)𝒌

̂ + ⃗𝑪
= 𝐹(𝑡)𝒊̂ + 𝐺(𝑡)𝒋̂ + 𝐻(𝑡)𝒌
𝐴 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠.
⃗
∫[𝑓(𝑡), 𝑔(𝑡), ℎ(𝑡)] 𝑑𝑡 = (𝐹(𝑡), 𝐺(𝑡), 𝐻(𝑡)) + 𝑪
B. Definite Integration
2.62: Definite Integration Component Wise
C. Ideal Projectile Motion
2.9 Hyperbolic Function Derivatives

A. Definitions
2.63: Hyperbolic function derivations

𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
sinh 𝑥 =
2
𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
cosh 𝑥 =
2
sinh 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
tanh 𝑥 = =
cosh 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
1
sech 𝑥 =
cosh 𝑥
1
csch 𝑥 =
sinh 𝑥
1
coth 𝑥 =
tanh 𝑥
B. Derivatives
There are no new rules that we need to calculate the derivatives of the hyperbolic functions. They can be
calculated using the rules that we already know for finding derivatives.
2.64: Derivative of 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 𝒙 and 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 𝒙

P a g e 39 | 90
𝑑
(sinh 𝑥) = cosh 𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
(cosh 𝑥) = sinh 𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑑
Using 𝑑𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑑𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥 = −𝑒 −𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − (−)𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
(sinh 𝑥) = ( )= = = cosh 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 2 2
𝑑 𝑑 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
(cosh 𝑥) = ( )= = sinh 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 2
Note the difference with the trigonometric derivatives. The minus sign is missing.
2.65: Derivative of tanh x

𝑑
(tanh 𝑥) = sech2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Using the definition:

𝑑 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
Using the quotient rule:

(𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )(𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 ) − (𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 )(𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 )
(𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )2
(𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )2 − (𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 )2
𝑥
=
(𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )2
Use a change of variable. Let 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝑒 −𝑥 = 𝑏. Then, the numerator becomes:

(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 − (𝑎 − 𝑏)2 = (𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 ) − (𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 ) = 4𝑎𝑏 = 4(𝑒 𝑥 )(𝑒 −𝑥 ) = 4
Hence, the derivative that we want is:

2
4 2
= ( ) = sech2 𝑥
(𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )2 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
2.66: Derivative of csch x

𝑑
(csch 𝑥) = − csch 𝑥 coth 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
2.67: Derivative of sech x

𝑑
(sech 𝑥) = − sech 𝑥 tanh 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
2.68: Derivative of coth x

𝑑
(coth 𝑥) = − csch2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
C. Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
P a g e 40 | 90
2.69: Derivative of 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉−𝟏 𝒙

𝑑 1
(sinh−1 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 √1 + 𝑥 2
𝑦 = sinh−1 𝑥
Apply the function sinh 𝑥 to both sides:
sinh 𝑦 = 𝑥
Differentiate both sides implicitly:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1
cosh 𝑦=1⇒ =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 cosh 𝑦
But now our answer is in terms of y. Whereas we want our answer in terms of 𝑥. For this, we do some
algebraic manipulation based on identities.
Note that:
cosh2 𝑦 = 1 + sinh2 𝑦 ⇒ cosh 𝑦 = √1 + sinh2 𝑦
(where we only need to take the positive square root since cosh 𝑥 ≥ 1)
Substitute cosh 𝑦 = √1 + sinh2 𝑦:

𝑑𝑦 1
=
𝑑𝑥 √1 + sinh2 𝑦
Substitute 𝑦 = sinh−1 𝑥:
𝑑𝑦 1 1
= =
𝑑𝑥 √1 + sinh2 (sinh−1 𝑥) √1 + 𝑥 2
2.70: Derivative of 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉−𝟏 𝒙

𝑑 1
(cosh−1 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 2
√𝑥 − 1
2.71: Derivative of 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉−𝟏 𝒙

𝑑 1
(tanh−1 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝑥2
2.72: Derivative of 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝒉−𝟏 𝒙

𝑑 1
(csch−1 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 |𝑥|√𝑥 2 + 1
2.73: Derivative of 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒉−𝟏 𝒙

𝑑 1
(sech−1 𝑥) = −
𝑑𝑥 𝑥√1 − 𝑥 2
2.74: Derivative of 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒉−𝟏 𝒙

𝑑 1
(coth−1 𝑥) = −
𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝑥2
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3. SEQUENCES AND SERIES

3.1 Finding Maclaurin Series
A. Formula Summary and Resources
Testing a Series
Can you
Easy Tests Other Tests
compare
Comparision
P series Ratio Test
Test
Absolute
Geometric series Convergence
Test
Divergence
Test(DT)
3.1: Important Maclaurin Series

In this section, we will learn the formulas below (and their derivations).
After completing this section, you should have these formulas memorized.
Exponential and Logarithmic

𝑛=∞
𝑥
𝑥2 𝑥𝑛 𝑥𝑛
𝑒 = 1+ 𝑥 + + ⋯+ = ∑
2! 𝑛! 𝑛!
𝑛=0
2 3 4 ∞
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥𝑛
ln(1 + 𝑥) = 𝑥 − + − + ⋯ = ∑(−1)𝑛+1
2 3 4 𝑛
𝑛=1
Trigonometric
∞
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥 2𝑛+1
sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + − ⋯ = ∑(−1)𝑛
3! 5! (2𝑛 + 1)!
𝑛=0
∞
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥 2𝑛
cos 𝑥 = 1 − + − ⋯ = ∑(−1)𝑛
2! 4! (2𝑛)!
𝑛=0
𝑥 3 2𝑥 5 17𝑥 7 𝜋
tan 𝑥 = 𝑥 + + + +⋯ , |𝑥| <
3 15 315 2
Inverse Trigonometric
P a g e 42 | 90
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7 𝑥9
tan−1 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + − + +⋯
3 5 7 9
Video 3.2
Maclaurin and Taylor Series Lecture (UC Irvine)
B. Concept
3.3: Idea
You can construct a polynomial whose derivatives match the derivatives of the function of interest at a
particular point.
Example 3.4
Approximate 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 0 using a fourth-degree polynomial.
Calculate the first four derivative of 𝑒 𝑥 :

𝑦 = 𝑦 ′ = 𝑦 ′′ = 𝑦 ′′′ = 𝑦 ′′′′ = 𝑒 𝑥
Evaluate these four derivatives at 𝑥 = 0:

𝑦(0) = 𝑦 ′ (0) = 𝑦 ′′ (0) = 𝑦 ′′′ (0) = 𝑦 ′′′′ (0) = 𝑒 0 = 1
A fourth-degree polynomial must be of the form:

𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 4 + 𝑏𝑥 3 + 𝑐𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐸
𝑃′(𝑥) = 4𝑎𝑥 3 + 3𝑏𝑥 2 + 2𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑
𝑃′′ (𝑥) = 12𝑎𝑥 2 + 6𝑏𝑥 + 2𝑐
𝑃′′′ (𝑥) = 24𝑎𝑥 + 6𝑏
𝑃′′′′ (𝑥) = 24𝑎𝑥
The polynomial should ideally equal the function of interest:

𝑃(0) = 𝑓(0)
𝐸=1
The derivative of the polynomial should equal the derivative of the function of interest:
𝑃′ (0) = 𝑓′(0)
𝑃′ (0) = 4𝑎(0) + 3𝑏(0) + 2𝑐(0) + 𝑑 = 1 ⇒ 𝑑 = 1
The second derivative of the polynomial should equal the second derivative of the function of interest:
𝑃′ ′(0) = 𝑓′′(0)
1
𝑃′′ (0) = 2𝑐 = 1 ⇒ 𝑐 =
2
The third derivative of the polynomial should equal the third derivative of the function of interest:
𝑃′ ′′(0) = 𝑓′′′(0)
1
𝑃′′′ (0) = 6𝑏 = 1 ⇒ 𝑏 =
6
The fourth derivative of the polynomial should equal the fourth derivative of the function of interest:
1
𝑃′′′′ (0) = 24𝑎 = 1 ⇒ 𝑎 =
24
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𝑥4 𝑥3 𝑥2
𝑃(𝑥) = + + +𝑥+1
24 6 2
3.5: Warning
We are learning some mathematical techniques (which work), but not the conditions on when they work.
Those conditions relate to the theory of infinite series (convergence, radius of convergence), which we will
see later.
➢ Takeaway: You can apply these techniques to other situations, but not blindly.
C. Basics
3.6: Notation for Derivatives

Given a function 𝑓, we introduce some notation to represent its derivatives:
𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝑡𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 = 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝑓 (0)
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝑓 ′ = 𝑓 (1)
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝑓 ′′ = 𝑓 (2)
.
.
.
𝑁 𝑡ℎ 𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝑓 (𝑛)
3.7: Maclaurin Series

The Maclaurin series for a function 𝑓is an infinite series given by:
∞
𝑓 (𝑛) (0) 𝑘 𝑓 (2) (0) 2 𝑓 (2) (0) 3 𝑓 (𝑛) (0) 𝑛
𝑆(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑥 = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 (1) (0)𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑥 +⋯
𝑘! 2! 3! 𝑛!
𝑘=0
The function evaluated at zero matches the Maclaurin series evaluated at zero:
𝑆(0) = 𝑓(0)
The first derivative of the function evaluated at zero matches the first derivative of the Maclaurin series
evaluated at zero:
2𝑓 (2) (0) 3𝑓 (2) (0) 2 𝑛𝑓 (𝑛) (0) 𝑛
𝑆 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓 (1) (0) + 𝑥+ 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑥 +⋯
2! 3! 𝑛!
(1) (2) 𝑓 (2) (0) 2 𝑛𝑓 (𝑛) (0) 𝑛
=𝑓 (0) +𝑓 (0)𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑥 +⋯
2! 𝑛!
𝑆 ′ (0) = 𝑓 (1) (0)
The second derivative of the function evaluated at zero matches the second derivative of the Maclaurin series
evaluated at zero:
2𝑓 (3) (0)
𝑆 ′′(𝑥) = 𝑓 (2) (0) + 𝑥+⋯
2!
= 𝑓 (2) (0) + 𝑓 (3) (0)𝑥 + ⋯
𝑆′′(0) = 𝑓 (2) (0)
3.8: Maclaurin Series

The Maclaurin Series is a special case of the Taylor Series
P a g e 44 | 90
D. Approximation
3.9: Approximation
An important use of a Maclaurin series is to approximate a function which is difficult to calculate directly.
3.10: Maclaurin Polynomial

The 𝑛𝑡ℎ Maclaurin polynomial is obtained by calculating the Maclaurin series upto
𝑥𝑛
Example 3.11
Find the third Maclaurin polynomial for 𝑓(𝑥) = √1 + 𝑥, and use it to approximate √1.8.
Note that:
𝑓(0.8) = √1 + 0.8 = √1.8
Calculate the first three derivatives and evaluate them at 𝑥 = 0:

𝑓(0) = √1 + 0 = √1 = 1
1 1 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = ⇒ 𝑓′(0) = =
2√1 + 𝑥 2√1 + 0 2
1 1 1
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = − ′′
3 ⇒ 𝑓 (0) = − 3 = −4
4(1 + 𝑥)2 4(1 + 0)2
3 3 3
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 5 ⇒𝑓
′′′ (0)
= 5 =8
8(1 + 𝑥)2 8(1 + 0)2
Substitute the above into the formula for the Maclaurin Series with 𝑥 = 0.8
𝑓 ′′ (0) 2 𝑓 ′′′ (0) 3
𝑓(0) + 𝑓 ′ (0)𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥
2! 3!
1 3
1 −4
= 1 + (0.8) + (0.64) + 8 (0.512)
2 2! 6
≈ 1.352
E. 𝒆𝒙
Example 3.12
Show that the Maclaurin series expansion of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 is
∞
𝑥
𝑒 = 1 + 𝑥 + + ⋯+ +⋯= ∑
2! 𝑛! 𝑛!
𝑛=0
∞
𝑓 (𝑛) (0) 𝑘 𝑓 (2) (0) 2 𝑓 (𝑛) (0) 𝑛
∑ 𝑥 = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 (1) (0)𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑥 +⋯
𝑘! 2! 𝑛!
𝑘=0
The derivatives of all orders of 𝑓(𝑥) are

𝑓 (0) (𝑥) = 𝑓 (1) (𝑥) = 𝑓 (2) (𝑥) = 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥
P a g e 45 | 90
Evaluate the derivatives at the value 𝑥 = 0:

𝑓 (0) (0) = 𝑓 (1) (0) = 𝑓 (2) (0) = 𝑓 (𝑛) (0) = 𝑒 0 = 1
Substitute the above into the formula, all the 𝑓 terms become 1, and we get:
∞
𝑥
𝑒 = 1 + 𝑥 + + ⋯+ +⋯= ∑
2! 𝑛! 𝑛!
𝑛=0
3.13: Substitution
You can use the expansion of 𝑒 𝑥 to find the expansion of 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) .
Example 3.14
Find the Maclaurin series expansions below using the formula for 𝑒 𝑥 .
A. 𝑒 2𝑥
B. 𝑒 −𝑥
Part A
∞
2𝑥
(2𝑥)2 (2𝑥)𝑛 (2𝑥)𝑛
𝑒 = 1 + (2𝑥) + + ⋯+ =∑
2! 𝑛! 𝑛!
𝑛=0
Part B
∞
−𝑥
(−𝑥)2 (−𝑥)𝑛 (−𝑥)𝑛
𝑒 = 1 + (−𝑥) + + ⋯+ =∑
2! 𝑛! 𝑛!
𝑛=0
We can write this a little better by getting the minus sign out of the brackets:
∞
−𝑥
𝑥2 𝑥3 (−𝑥)𝑛 𝑥𝑛
𝑒 = 1 −𝑥 + − + ⋯+ = ∑(−1)𝑛+1
2! 3 𝑛! 𝑛
𝑛=1
Example 3.15
Show that the Maclaurin series expansion of ln(1 + 𝑥) is:
∞
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥𝑛
ln(1 + 𝑥) = 𝑥 − + − + ⋯ = ∑(−1)𝑛+1
2 3 4 𝑛
𝑛=1
∞
𝑓 (𝑛) (0) 𝑘 𝑓 (2) (0) 2 𝑓 (𝑛) (0) 𝑛
∑ 𝑥 = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 (1) (0)𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑥 +⋯
𝑘! 2! 𝑛!
𝑘=0
𝑓(0) = ln(1 + 0) = ln 1 = 0
We will need the derivatives of all orders of 𝑓(𝑥).
1 1
𝑓 (1) (𝑥) = ⇒ 𝑓 (1) (0) = =1
1+𝑥 1+0
1 ′ 𝑔′
Using the formula ( ) = −
𝑔 𝑔2
1 1
𝑓 (2) (𝑥) = − 2
⇒ 𝑓 (2) (0) = − = −1
(1 + 𝑥) (1 + 0)2
2(1 + 𝑥) 2 2
𝑓 (3) (𝑥) = 4
= 3
⇒ 𝑓 (3) (0) = = 2 = 2!
(1 + 𝑥) (1 + 𝑥) (1 + 0)3
P a g e 46 | 90
2(3)(1 + 𝑥)2 −6 6
𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = − 6
= 4
⇒ 𝑓 (3) (0) = − = −6 = −3!
(1 + 𝑥) (1 + 𝑥) (1 + 0)4
1 2 2! 3 3! 4
ln(1 + 𝑥) = 0 + 1 ∙ 𝑥 −
∙𝑥 − ∙𝑥 − ∙𝑥 +⋯
2! 3! 4!
∞
= 𝑥 − + − + ⋯ = ∑(−1)𝑛+1
2 3 4 𝑛
𝑛=1
3.16: Maclaurin Series of a Polynomial

The Maclaurin series of a polynomial is the polynomial itself.
Video 3.17
Calculating the Maclaurin series of a polynomial (MIT OCW 18.01 Single Variable Calculus)
3=3
0=2
3=5
F. Trigonometric Functions
Example 3.18
Show that the Maclaurin series expansion of 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 is
∞
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥 2𝑛+1
sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + − ⋯ = ∑(−1)𝑛
3! 5! (2𝑛 + 1)!
𝑛=0
∞
𝑓 (𝑛) (0) 𝑘 𝑓 (2) (0) 2 𝑓 (𝑛) (0) 𝑛
∑ 𝑥 = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 (1) (0)𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑥 +⋯
𝑘! 2! 𝑛!
𝑘=0
Calculate the derivatives of the function 𝑓, and evaluate them at 𝑥 = 0.

𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓(0) = sin 0 = 0
𝑓 (1) (𝑥) = cos 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 (1) (0) = cos 0 = 1
𝑓 (2) (𝑥) = − sin 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 (2) (0) = − sin 0 = −0 = 0
𝑓 (3) (𝑥) = − cos 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 (3) (0) = − cos 0 = −1
𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = sin 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 (4) (0) = sin 0 = 0
𝑓 (5) (𝑥) = cos 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 (5) (0) = cos 0 = 1
Every alternate term is zero, we can simplify and rewrite as follows:

𝑓 (3) (0) 3 𝑓 (5) (0) 3 𝑓 (𝑛) (0) 𝑛
𝑓 (1) (0)𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 …+ 𝑥 +⋯
3! 5! 𝑛!
Substitute 𝑓 (1) (0) = 1, 𝑓 (3) (0) = −1, 𝑓 (5) (0) = 1:

𝑥3 𝑥5
=𝑥− + −⋯
3! 5!
We want to write this in summation notation.
P a g e 47 | 90
➢ The terms alternate between positive and negative. This can be achieved using
(−1)𝑛 ⇒ 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (−1) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑛
➢ We only want the terms that have the odd powers of 𝑥. This can be achieved using the expression
2𝑛 + 1
𝑡ℎ
Which generates the 𝑛 odd number
∞
(−1)𝑛 2𝑛+1
=∑ 𝑥
(2𝑛 + 1)!
𝑛=0
Example 3.19
Determine the exact value of:
∞
𝜋 2𝑛+1
∑(−1)𝑛
(2𝑛 + 1)!
𝑛=0
(−1)𝑛
Substitute 𝑥 = 𝜋 in sin 𝑥 = ∑∞
𝑛=0 (2𝑛+1)! 𝑥
2𝑛+1
:
∞
𝜋 2𝑛+1
sin 𝜋 = ∑(−1)𝑛
(2𝑛 + 1)!
𝑛=0
sin 𝜋 = 0
Example 3.20
Show that the Maclaurin series expansion of 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 is
∞
𝑥2 𝑥4 (−1)𝑛 2𝑛
cos 𝑥 = 1 − + − ⋯ = ∑ 𝑥
2! 4! (2𝑛)!
𝑛=0
Our formula for the Maclaurin Series expansion is:

𝑓 (2) (0) 2
𝑓(0) + 𝑓 (1) (0)𝑥 + 𝑥 +⋯
2!
Calculate the derivatives of the function 𝑓, and evaluate them at 𝑥 = 0.

𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓(0) = cos 0 = 1
𝑓 (𝑥) = − sin 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 (1) (0) = − sin 0 = 0
(1)
𝑓 (2) (𝑥) = − cos 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 (2) (0) = − cos 0 = −1

𝑓 (3) (𝑥) = sin 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 (3) (0) = sin 0 = 0
𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = cos 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 (4) (0) = cos 0 = 1
𝑓 (5) (𝑥) = − sin 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 (5) (0) = − sin 0 = 0
Since we know that every alternate term is zero, we can simplify and rewrite as follows:
𝑓 (2) (0) 2 𝑓 (4) (0) 2
𝑓(0) + 𝑥 ++ 𝑥 +⋯
2! 2!
∞
𝑥2 𝑥4 (−1)𝑛 2𝑛
cos 𝑥 = 1 − + − ⋯ = ∑ 𝑥
2! 4! (2𝑛)!
𝑛=0
3.2 Operations with Maclaurin Series

A. Adding Maclaurin Series
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3.21: Adding Maclaurin Series

You can add/subtract two Maclaurin series term by term if they both converge.
Example 3.22
The hyperbolic function sinh 𝑥 is defined as:
𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = sinh 𝑥 =
2
Use the Maclaurin series for 𝑒 𝑥 and 𝑒 −𝑥 to determine the Maclaurin series for sinh 𝑥.
𝑒𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + + + … + +⋯
⏟ 2! 3! 4! 𝑛!
𝑰𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑰
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 (−𝑥)𝑛
𝑒 −𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 + − + …+ +⋯
⏟ 2! 3! 4! 𝑛!
𝑰𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑰𝑰
Subtracting Identities II from Identity I:

2𝑥 3 2𝑥 2𝑛+1
𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 = 0 + 2𝑥 + 0 + + ⋯ + 0 ∙ 𝑥 2𝑛 + +⋯
3! (2𝑛 + 1)!
Since the zero terms do not change the value, we do not need to write them:
2𝑥 3 2𝑥 2𝑛+1
𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 = 2𝑥 + + ⋯+ +⋯
3! (2𝑛 + 1)!
Divide both sides by 2:

∞
𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑥3 𝑥 2𝑛+1 𝑥 2𝑛+1
= 𝑥 + + ⋯+ +⋯= ∑
2 3! (2𝑛 + 1)! (2𝑛 + 1)!
𝑛=0
We can check convergence by using the ratio test:

𝑎2(𝑛+1)+1
𝑎𝑛+1 [2(𝑛 + 1) + 1]! 𝑎2(𝑛+1)+1 (2𝑛 + 1)! 𝑎3
= = × =
𝑎𝑛 𝑎2𝑛+1 [2(𝑛 + 1) + 1]! 𝑎2𝑛+1 (2𝑛 + 3)(2𝑛 + 1)
(2𝑛 + 1)!
𝑎𝑛+1 𝑎3
lim | | = lim =0
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→∞ (2𝑛 + 3)(2𝑛 + 1)
B. Differentiating Maclaurin Series
3.23: Differentiating Term by Term

Differentiating a Maclaurin series expansion can help us derive new identities.
Example 3.24
The Maclaurin
𝑥3 𝑥5
sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + − ⋯
3! 5!
Differentiate both sides of the above to determine the Maclaurin series expansion for cos 𝑥.
P a g e 49 | 90
∞
3𝑥 2 5𝑥 4 (−1)𝑛 2𝑛
cos 𝑥 = 1 − + − ⋯ = ∑(2𝑛 + 1) 𝑥
3! 5! (2𝑛 + 1)!
𝑛=0
Simplify:
∞
𝑥2 𝑥4 (−1)𝑛 2𝑛
cos 𝑥 = 1 − + − ⋯ = ∑ 𝑥
2! 4! (2𝑛)!
𝑛=0
Example 3.25
A. Find the Maclaurin series for cos 2𝑥
B. Use a trig identity to find the Maclaurin Series for sin2 𝑥
C. Use a trig identity to find the Maclaurin Series for cos 2 𝑥
D. Use the Maclaurin series results from Parts B and C to show that sin2 𝑥 + cos2 𝑥 = 1.
Part A
(2𝑥)2 (2𝑥)4
cos 2𝑥 = 1 − + −⋯
2! 4!
Part B
(2𝑥)2 (2𝑥)4
1 − cos 2𝑥 1 − (1 − 2! + 4! − ⋯ ) 1 (2𝑥)2 (2𝑥)4
sin2 𝑥 = = = [ − − ⋯]
2 2 2 2! 4!
Part C
(2𝑥)2 (2𝑥)4
cos 2𝑥 + 1 (1 − 2! + 4! − ⋯ ) + 1 1 (2𝑥)2 (2𝑥)4
cos2 𝑥 = = = 1 + [− + − ⋯]
2 2 2 2! 4!
Part D
1 (2𝑥)2 (2𝑥)4 1 (2𝑥)2 (2𝑥)4
sin2 𝑥 + cos2 𝑥 = 1 + [− + − ⋯]+ [ − −⋯] = 1
2 2! 4! 2 2! 4!
3.26: Odd and Even Functions

➢ An even function is a function where 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(−𝑥). The graph of an even function remains unchanged
if you reflect it across the 𝑦 −axis.
➢ An odd function is a function where −𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(−𝑥). The graph of an odd function remains unchanged
if you reflect it across the origin.
Example 3.27
A. Show that cos 𝑥 is an even function.
B. Show that sin 𝑥 is an odd function.
cos(−𝜃) = cos 𝜃 ⇒ cos 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

sin(−𝜃) = − sin 𝜃 ⇒ sin 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
3.28: Polynomials as Odd and Even Functions

➢ A polynomial with only odd powers is an odd function.
➢ A polynomial with only even powers is an even function.
Polynomial with Odd Powers
P a g e 50 | 90
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 2𝑛+1 + 𝑥 2𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑥 1 , 𝑛 ∈ ℕ

𝑃(−𝑥) = (−𝑥)2𝑛+1 + (−𝑥)2𝑛−1 + ⋯ + (−𝑥)1 = −(𝑥 2𝑛+1 + 𝑥 2𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑥 1 ) = −𝑃(𝑥)
Polynomial with Even Powers

𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 2𝑛 + 𝑥 2𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑥 0 , 𝑛 ∈ ℕ
𝑃(−𝑥) = (−𝑥)2𝑛 + (−𝑥)2𝑛−2 + ⋯ + (−𝑥)0 = 𝑥 2𝑛 + 𝑥 2𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑥 0 = 𝑃(𝑥)
Example 3.29
Show that
𝑥 3 2𝑥 5 17𝑥 7 𝜋
tan 𝑥 = 𝑥 + + + +⋯ , |𝑥| <
3 15 315 2
Using the Maclaurin Series Expansion:
Video 3.30
Show that
𝑥 3 2𝑥 5 17𝑥 7
tan 𝑥 = 𝑥 + + + +⋯
3 15 315
sin 𝑥
Using polynomial long division on , by expanding each out as a series and
cos 𝑥
C. Geometric Series
Look at some expansions using the geometric series.
Example 3.31
Expand each of the below as a geometric series:
1
A. 1+𝑥
1
B. 1+𝑥 2
1 1
= = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 − ⋯ , |𝑥| < 1
1 + 𝑥 1 − (−𝑥)
1 1
2
= = 1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥4 − 𝑥6 + 𝑥8 + ⋯
1+𝑥 1 − (−𝑥 2 )
Example 3.32
Find the Maclaurin series of
1
(1 + 𝑥)2
We know that:
1
= 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 − ⋯ , |𝑥| < 1
1+𝑥
Differentiate both sides of the above:

1
− = −1 + 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 2 +
(1 + 𝑥)2
1
= 1 − 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 − ⋯
(1 + 𝑥)2
P a g e 51 | 90
D. Integration
3.33: Integration
We can integrate a Maclaurin series term by term to get a Maclaurin series for a different expression.
Example 3.34
Show that the Maclaurin series for tan−1 𝑥 is:
∞
1 3 1 5 1 7 1 9 𝑛
𝑥 2𝑛+1
𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯ = ∑(−1)
3 5 7 9 2𝑛 + 1
𝑛=0
Differentiate both sides of 𝑓(𝑥) = tan−1 𝑥:

1 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2
= 2)
1+𝑥 1− (−𝑥
Expand the RHS as a geometric series with 𝑟 = −𝑥 2 :

1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = = 1 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥4 − 𝑥6 + 𝑥8 + ⋯
1 − (−𝑥 2 )
Integrate both sides. Since 𝑓(0) = 0 ⇒ 𝐶 = 0 (where 𝐶 is the constant of integration):

∞
−1
1 3 1 5 1 7 1 9 𝑛
𝑥 2𝑛+1
𝑓(𝑥) = tan 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯ = ∑(−1)
3 5 7 9 2𝑛 + 1
𝑛=0
Example 3.35
Find the series expansion of ln(cos 𝑥)
Example 3.36
Determine the Maclaurin series for:
1 1+𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = ln ( )
2 1−𝑥
𝑎
Use the quotient rule log ( ) = log 𝑎 − log 𝑏:
𝑏
1
𝑓 = [ln(1 + 𝑥) − ln(1 − 𝑥)]
2
Use the chain rule to differentiate. Then, expand as a geometric series:

1 1 1 1 2 1
𝑓′ = [ + ]= [ 2 ]= = 1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥4 + ⋯
2 1+𝑥 1−𝑥 2 1−𝑥 1 − 𝑥2
Integrate:
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥 2𝑛+1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + + + ⋯+ +⋯
3 5 2𝑛 + 1
Where the constant of integration is zero since:

1 1+0 1 1
𝐶 = 𝑓(0) = ln ( ) = ln(1) = ∙ 0 = 0
2 1−0 2 2
P a g e 52 | 90
Example 3.37
1
𝑓(𝑥) =
(1 − 2𝑥)(1 − 3𝑥)
Method I: Addition
Split using partial fraction decomposition:
1 −2 3
= +
(1 − 2𝑥)(1 − 3𝑥) 1 − 2𝑥 1 − 3𝑥
𝑎
Using the formula for a geometric series: 1−𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + ⋯
−2
𝑎 = −2, 𝑟 = 2𝑥: 𝐴 = = (−2) + (−2)(2𝑥) + (−2)(2𝑥)2 + (−2)(2𝑥)3 + ⋯
1 − 2𝑥
3
𝑎 = 3, 𝑟 = 3𝑥: 𝐵 = = 3 + 3(3𝑥) + 3(3𝑥)2 + 3(3𝑥)3 + ⋯
1 − 3𝑥
−2
= −2 − 4𝑥 − 8𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 3 + ⋯
1 − 2𝑥
3
= 3 + 9𝑥 + 27𝑥 2 + 81𝑥 3 + ⋯
1 − 3𝑥
𝑇1 = −2 + 3 = 1
𝑇2 = −4𝑥 + 9𝑥 = 5𝑥
𝑇3 = −8𝑥 2 + 27𝑥 2 = 19𝑥 2
𝑇4 = −16𝑥 3 + 81𝑥 3 = 65𝑥 3
1
= 1 + 5𝑥 + 19𝑥 2 + 65𝑥 3 + ⋯ + (3𝑛 − 2𝑛 )𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯
(1 − 2𝑥)(1 − 3𝑥)
Method I: Multiplication
1 1
( )( ) = (1 + 2𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 3 … )(1 + 3𝑥 + 9𝑥 2 + 27𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
1 − 2𝑥 1 − 3𝑥
=1 + 3𝑥 + 9𝑥 2 + 27𝑥 3 + ⋯
+2𝑥 + 6𝑥 2 + 18𝑥 3 + ⋯
+4𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 3 + ⋯
+8𝑥 3 + ⋯
= 1 + 5𝑥 + 19𝑥 2 + 65𝑥 3 + ⋯
E. Approximation
Example 3.38
1 2
Approximate ∫0 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 using a Maclaurin series to three decimal places.
𝑥2 𝑥𝑛
𝑒𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + + ⋯+ +⋯
2! 𝑛!
P a g e 53 | 90
2 (−𝑥 2 )2 (−𝑥 2 )3 (−𝑥 2 )4 (−𝑥 2 )5

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥 = 1 + (−𝑥 2 ) + + + + +⋯
2! 3! 4! 5!
𝑥 4 𝑥 6 𝑥 8 𝑥 10
= 1 − 𝑥2 + − + − +⋯
2 3! 4! 5!
2 𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7 𝑥9 𝑥 11
𝐹(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 − + − + −
3 5 ∙ 2! 7 ∙ 3! 9 ∙ 4! 11 ∙ 5!
We need accuracy to three decimal places.

Since we will round off at the fourth decimal place
Hence, the error must be
𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 0.0005
1
2
∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(1) − 𝐹(0) ≈ 0.7467 − 0
0
1 1 1 1 1
𝐹(1) = 1 − + − + − ≈ 0.7467
3 10 42 216 1320
𝐹(0) = 0
Example 3.39
𝑥2
1
Approximate ∫0 𝑒 − 2 𝑑𝑥 using a Maclaurin series to three decimal places.
𝑥2 𝑥𝑛
𝑒𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + + ⋯+ +⋯
2! 𝑛!
2 3 4 5
𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑥2
𝑥2 𝑥 (− 2 ) 2 (− 2 ) (− 2 ) (− 2 )
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 − 2 = 1 + (− ) + + + + +⋯
2 2! 3! 4! 5!
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6 𝑥8 𝑥 10
=1− + 2− 3 + 4 − 5 +⋯
2 2 2 ∙ 3! 2 ∙ 4! 2 ∙ 5!
−𝑥 2
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7 𝑥9 𝑥 11
𝐹(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 − + − + −
2 ∙ 3 5 ∙ 22 ∙ 2! 7 ∙ 23 ∙ 3! 9 ∙ 24 ∙ 4! 11 ∙ 25 ∙ 5!
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7 1
=𝑥− + − +
6 40 336 3456
Substitute 𝑥 = 1 and evaluate the first four terms:

1 1 1
𝐹(1) = 1 − + − ≈ 0.8553
6 40 336
The maximum error is:

1
𝐹𝑖𝑓𝑡ℎ 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 = ≈ 0.0002
3456
Hence, the range is:

(0.8553,0.8553 + 0.0002) = (0.8553,0.8555)
Since the answer to three decimal places is different at the lower and upper end of the range, we add one
more term:
P a g e 54 | 90
1 1 1 1
𝐹(1) = 1 − + − + ≈ 0.8556
6 40 336 3456
The maximum error is now:

1 1
5
= ≈ 2.36 × 10−5
11 ∙ 2 ∙ 5! 42240
And hence the answer will not change even at the maximum range after rounding.
3.3 Taylor Series/Convergence

A. Taylor Series
A Taylor series is a generalization of a Maclaurin series. A Maclaurin series is always centered at 0, but this
need not always be the case.
3.40: Taylor Series

If a function 𝑓(𝑥) has derivatives of all orders in an open interval 𝐼 containing 𝑎, then the Talyor series of 𝑓(𝑥)
is given by:
𝑘=∞
(1) 𝑓 (2) (𝑎) 𝑓 (𝑘) (𝑎)
𝑇(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓 (𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + ⋯ = ∑ (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑘
2! 𝑘!
𝑘=0
➢ The Taylor series is centered at 𝑎.

➢ This means that the approximation is very good at 𝑎. It may or may not become worse as we move
away from 𝑎.
3.41: Taylor Series versus Function Derivatives

The derivatives of a Talyor series are equal to the derivatives of the function itself at
𝑥=𝑎
Evaluate the Taylor series at 𝑥 = 𝑎, and we get the original function value:
𝑇(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑎)
Differentiate 𝑇(𝑥) once:

′ (𝑥) (1) 2𝑓 (2) (𝑎)
𝑇 =𝑓 (𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎) + ⋯
2!
(1)
Evaluate 𝑇 (𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑎:
𝑇 ′ (𝑎) = 𝑓 (1) (𝑎)
Differentiate 𝑇 (2) (𝑥) twice:

𝑇 ′′ (𝑥) = 𝑓 (2) (𝑎) + ⋯
Evaluate 𝑇 (2) (𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑎:
𝑇 ′′ (𝑎) = 𝑓 (2) (𝑎)
This process can be continued, and at every derivative we will get the same result.
Example 3.42
Show that the Taylor series at 𝑎 = 0 is the Maclaurin series:
P a g e 55 | 90
Substitute 𝑎 = 0 in the Taylor series

∞
𝑓 (𝑛) (0) 𝑘 𝑓 (2) (0) 2 𝑓 (𝑛) (0) 𝑛
𝑆(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑥 = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 (1) (0)𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯+ 𝑥 +⋯
𝑘! 2! 𝑛!
𝑘=0
Example 3.43
Find an equation for the fourth-degree polynomial 𝑝(𝑥) that has the following properties:
1 1 3 15
𝑝(1) = 1, 𝑝(1) (1) = , 𝑝(2) (1) = − , 𝑝(3) (1) = , 𝑝(4) (1) = −
2 4 8 16
Verify by differentiation and evaluation that it does have those derivatives.
Finding the Polynomial

The formula for the Taylor series is:
𝑓 (2) (𝑎)
𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓 (1) (𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + ⋯
2!
Substitute 𝑎 = 1:
𝑓 (2) (1)
𝑓(1) + 𝑓 (1) (1)(𝑥 − 1) + (𝑥 − 1)2 + ⋯
2!
Substitute the given values in the fourth degree Taylor Polynomials:

1 3 15
1
𝑝(𝑥) = 1 + (𝑥 − 1) − (𝑥 − 1) + (𝑥 − 1) − 16 (𝑥 − 1)4
4 2 8 3
2 2 6 24
Verification
3 15
1 1
𝑝′(𝑥) = − (𝑥 − 1) + (𝑥 − 1)2 − 16 (𝑥 − 1)3
8
2 4 2 6
15
1 3
𝑝′′(𝑥) = − + (𝑥 − 1) − 16 (𝑥 − 1)2
4 8 2
3 15
𝑝′′′ (𝑥) = − (𝑥 − 1)
8 16
(4) 15
𝑝 (𝑥) = −
16
Example 3.44
Find the fourth degree Taylor polynomial for 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 at 𝑥 = 1.
Calculate the first four derivatives and evaluate them:

𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓(1) = 1
1 1 1
𝑓 (1) (𝑥) = 𝑥 −2 ⇒ 𝑓 (1) (1) =
2 2
(2) 1 −3 (2) 1
𝑓 (𝑥) = − 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑓 (1) = −
4 4
3 −
5 3
𝑓 (3) (𝑥) = − 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑓 (3) (1) = −
8 8
(4) 15 −7 (4) 15
𝑓 (𝑥) = − 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑓 (1) = −
16 16
P a g e 56 | 90
Substitute the above values into the formula for the Taylor series:
1 3 15
1
𝑝(𝑥) = 1 + (𝑥 − 1) − (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑥 − 1)3 − 16 (𝑥 − 1)4
4 8
2 2 6 24
Example 3.45
Find the third-degree Taylor polynomial for 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 1.
𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓(1) = ln 1 = 0
𝑓 (1) (𝑥) = 𝑥 −1 ⇒ 𝑓 (1) (1) = 1
𝑓 (𝑥) = −𝑥 −2 ⇒ 𝑓 (2) (1) = −1
(2)
𝑓 (3) (𝑥) = 2𝑥 −3 ⇒ 𝑓 (3) (1) = 2

𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = −6𝑥 −4 ⇒ 𝑓 (4) (1) = −6
𝑘=∞
𝑓 𝑘 (1) 𝑓 (2) (1)
𝑇𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = ∑ (𝑥 − 1)𝑘 = 𝑓(1) + 𝑓 (1) (𝑎)(𝑥 − 1) + (𝑥 − 1)2 + ⋯
𝑘! 2!
𝑘=0
−1 1
= 0 + 1(𝑥 − 1) + (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑥 − 1)3 + ⋯
2 3
Example 3.46
Taylor series for ln 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 1
𝑓 (2) (𝑎)
𝑇(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓 (1) (𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + ⋯
2!
𝑓(1) = ln(1) = 0
1 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = ⇒ 𝑓 ′ (1) = = 1
𝑥 1
′′ (𝑥)
1 ′′ (1)
1
𝑓 =− 2⇒𝑓 = − = −1
𝑥 1
2 2
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 3 ⇒ 𝑓 ′′′ (1) = = 2
𝑥 1
−1 2
𝑇(𝑥) = 0 + 1(𝑥 − 1) + (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑥 − 1)3 + ⋯
2! 3!
(𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 − 1)3
(𝑥
ln 𝑥 = − 1) − + −⋯
2 3
Video 3.47
Find the Taylor series for ln 𝑥 at x=2.
B. Lagrange Remainder Formula
3.48: Taylor Series

We can compare a Taylor series to a finite Taylor polynomial by adding a 𝑅𝑛 (𝑏) to take care of the missing
terms:
P a g e 57 | 90
𝑇(𝑏) = 𝑇𝑛 (𝑏) + 𝑅𝑛 (𝑏)
Where
𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
The Taylor series is given by the infinite series:

𝑓 (2) (𝑎) 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑎)
𝑇(𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓 (1) (𝑎)(𝑏 − 𝑎) + (𝑏 − 𝑎)2 + ⋯ + (𝑏 − 𝑎)𝑛 + ⋯
2! 𝑛!
If we consider only 𝑛 terms of the series, we get the 𝑛𝑡ℎ Taylor polynomial:
𝑓 (2) (𝑎) 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑎)
𝑇𝑛 (𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓 (1) (𝑎)(𝑏 − 𝑎) + (𝑏 − 𝑎)2 + ⋯ + (𝑏 − 𝑎)𝑛
2! 𝑛!
We can connect the 𝑛𝑡ℎ Taylor polynomial and the Taylor series (for a specific function) by putting the value
of the remaining terms in a single remainder term 𝑅𝑛 (𝑥)
𝑇(𝑏) = 𝑇𝑛 (𝑏) + 𝑅𝑛 (𝑏)
3.49: Lagrange Remainder Formula

The Lagrange remainder formula for a 𝑛𝑡ℎ degree Taylor polynomial is based on the (𝑛 + 1)𝑠𝑡 derivative of
the function of interest:
𝑓 𝑛+1 (𝑐)
𝑅𝑛 (𝑏) = (𝑏 − 𝑎)𝑛+1
(𝑛 + 1)!
Where
𝑎<𝑐<𝑏
➢ We know that 𝑐 lies strictly between 𝑎 and 𝑏, but we do not know the value of 𝑐 unless we have some
information on the value of 𝑏.
➢ Hence, we often consider a worst scenario, which is the value of 𝑐 that maximizes 𝑓 𝑛+1 (𝑐), and
consider the remainder must be bounded by the maximum.
Example 3.50
Consider the Taylor series centered at 0, for the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 and used to evaluate 𝑒 4 . For the second
degree and third-degree Taylor polynomials, calculate the
A. value of 𝑐 in Lagrange’s Remainder Formula for 𝑓(𝑥)
B. error when compared to the value of the function
We are working with Maclaurin series since the Taylor series is centered at 𝑎 = 0.
We can write the series as the sum of a Taylor polynomial and a Lagrange remainder term:
𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑇𝑛 (𝑏) + 𝑅𝑛 (𝑏)
Substitute 𝑏 = 4, 𝑛 = 2 and solve for 𝑅𝑛 (4):

⏟𝑛 (4) = 𝑓(4) − 𝑇2 (4)
𝑅
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰
Case I: 𝒏 = 𝟐
Here, we want the second-degree Taylor polynomial:
P a g e 58 | 90
𝑏2 42
𝑇2 (4) = 1 + 𝑏 + =1+4+ = 13
2! 2!
𝑓 𝑛+1 (𝑐) 𝑒𝑐 64𝑒 𝑐 32𝑒 𝑐

𝑅2 (4) = (𝑏)𝑛+1 = ∙ 43 = =
(𝑛 + 1)! 3! 6 3
Substitute the values calculated above in Equation I, and solve the resulting exponential equation:
32𝑒 𝑐 3
= 𝑒 4 − 13 ⇒ 𝑐 = ln [ (𝑒 4 − 13)] ≈ 1.36
3 32
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑒 4 − 13 ≈
Case II: 𝒏 = 𝟑
𝑏2 𝑏3 42 43 71
𝑇3 (4) = 1 + 𝑏 + + = 1+4+ + =
2! 3! 2! 3! 3
𝑓 𝑛+1 (𝑐) 𝑒 𝑐
32𝑒 𝑐
𝑅3 (4) = (𝑏)𝑛+1 = ∙ 44 =
(𝑛 + 1)! 4! 3
Substitute the values calculated above in Equation I:

32𝑒 𝑐 71 3 71
= 𝑒4 − ⇒ 𝑐 = ln [ (𝑒 4 − )] ≈ 1.06
3 3 32 3
71
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑒 4 − ≈
3
C. Convergence Test
3.51: Convergence of Taylor Polynomials

If
𝑅𝑛 (𝑏) → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼
Then we say that
𝑇𝑛 (𝑥) → 𝑓 𝑜𝑛 𝐼 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞
➢ If the 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 as the number of terms becomes large, then the difference
between the function and the Taylor polynomial also tends to zero.
➢ Hence, the Taylor series converges to the function.
Example 3.52
Prove that that the Maclaurin series for 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 converges to 𝑒 𝑥 when 𝑥 = 4.
The Taylor expansion of 𝑒 𝑏 centered at 𝑎 = 0 is:

𝑏2 𝑏𝑛
𝑒𝑏 = 1 + 𝑏 + + ⋯+ +⋯
2! 𝑛!
The Remainder term for the 𝑛𝑡ℎ Taylor polynomial at 𝑥 = 4:

𝑓 𝑛+1 (𝑐) 𝑛+1 𝑒4
𝑅𝑛 (4) = 𝑏 = 4𝑛+1
(𝑛 + 1)! (𝑛 + 1)!
Take the limit as 𝑛 → ∞:
P a g e 59 | 90
𝑒4
lim 4𝑛+1
𝑛→∞ (𝑛 + 1)!
Since 𝑒 𝑐 is a constant, we can move it out of the limit:

4𝑛+1
𝑒 4 lim
𝑛→∞ (𝑛 + 1)!
Expand the numerator and the denominator:

4 ∙ 4 ∙ 4 ∙ 4 ∙ 4 … ∙ 4 (𝑛 + 1 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 )
𝑒 4 lim
𝑛→∞ 1 ∙ 2 ∙ 3 ∙ 4 ∙ … ∙ (𝑛 + 1)
Rearrange:
4∙4∙4∙4 4 4 4 4
= 𝑒 4 lim × × × × …×
𝑛→∞ 1 ∙ 2 ∙ 3 ∙ 4 5 6 7 𝑛+1
Since each term after the first fraction is less than 1 and each term is less than the prior term hence, as 𝑛 → ∞,
the limit → 0:
= 𝑒𝐶 × 0 = 0
D. Determining Maximum Value of Derivative
3.53: Convergence of Taylor Polynomials

If
|𝑓 𝑛+1 (𝑡)| ≤ 𝑀 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎 < 𝑡 < 𝑏
Then
𝑀|𝑏 − 𝑎|𝑛+1
|𝑅𝑛 (𝑏)| ≤
(𝑛 + 1)!
The Lagrange remainder formula has a term for the (𝑛 + 1)𝑠𝑡 derivative, evaluated at 𝑐.
➢ In certain situations, it can be difficult to determine the value of 𝑐, or to determine an exact expression
for the derivative itself.
➢ However, by considering a bound on the value of 𝑓 𝑛+1 (𝑡), we can still establish convergence.
Example 3.54
Show that the Maclaurin series for 𝑠𝑖𝑛 converges to sin 𝑥 for every value of 𝑥.
𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥
𝑓 (1) (𝑥) = cos 𝑥
𝑓 (2) (𝑥) = − sin 𝑥
𝑓 (3) (𝑥) = − cos 𝑥
𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = sin 𝑥
Hence, the derivatives of sin 𝑥 are cyclical with a cyclicity of 4.

𝑀𝑎𝑥(|𝑓 𝑛+1 (𝑡)|) = 𝑀 = 1
𝑀|𝑥 − 𝑎|𝑛+1 (1)|𝑥|𝑛+1 |𝑥|𝑛+1

|𝑅𝑛 (𝑥)| ≤ = =
(𝑛 + 1)! (𝑛 + 1)! (𝑛 + 1)!
P a g e 60 | 90
Take the limit as 𝑛 → ∞

|𝑥|𝑛+1
lim
𝑛→∞ (𝑛 + 1)!
Expand the numerator and the denominator:

𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 … ∙ 𝑥 (𝑛 + 1 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 )
lim
𝑛→∞ 1 ∙ 2 ∙ 3 ∙ 4 ∙ … ∙ (𝑛 + 1)
𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 (𝑥 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 ) 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
= lim × × × × …×
𝑛→∞ 1 ∙ 2 ∙ 3 ∙ 4 ∙ …∙ 𝑥 𝑥+1 𝑥+2 𝑥+3 𝑛+1
Since each term after the first fraction is less than 1 and each term is less than the prior term hence, as 𝑛 → ∞,
the limit → 0:
=0
Example 3.55
Show that the Maclaurin series for cos 𝑥 converges to cos 𝑥 for every value of 𝑥.
𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥
(1)
𝑓 (𝑥) = − sin 𝑥
𝑓 (2) (𝑥) = − cos 𝑥
𝑓 (3) (𝑥) = sin 𝑥
𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = cos 𝑥
Hence, the derivatives of cos 𝑥 are cyclical with a cyclicity of 4.

𝑀𝑎𝑥(|𝑓 𝑛+1 (𝑡)|) = 𝑀 = 1
𝑀|𝑥 − 𝑎|𝑛+1
|𝑅𝑛 (𝑥)| ≤
(𝑛 + 1)!
Which is the same limit as in the previous example.
3.4 Infinite Series

A. Sequences and Series
3.56: Sequences
A sequence is a list of numbers.
𝐹𝑖𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑖 𝑆𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒: 1,1,2,3,5,8, …
3.57: Infinite Series

An infinite series is the sum of an infinite sequence of numbers.
3.58: Partial Sums

The 𝑛𝑡ℎ partial sum of an infinite series is given by the sum of the first 𝑛 terms of the series.
Example 3.59
Determine the first four partial sums, and the 𝑛𝑡ℎ partial sum of the series:
P a g e 61 | 90
1+2+3+4+⋯
𝑆1 = 1
𝑆2 = 1 + 2 = 3
𝑆3 = 1 + 2 + 3 = 6
𝑆4 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
𝑆𝑛 =
2
3.60: Convergence and Divergence

➢ If the sequence of partial sums of a series converges to a limit 𝐿, we say that the series converges, and
that its limit is 𝐿.
➢ If the sequence of partial sums does not converge, we say that the series diverges.
Example 3.61
Does the sequence below converge?
1+1+1+1+1+⋯
The 𝑛𝑡ℎ partial sum of the series

= 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛
The limit of the sequence of partial sums as the number of terms becomes very large is:
lim 𝑆𝑛 = lim 𝑛 = ∞ ⇒ 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝐷𝑁𝐸 ⇒ 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞
Example 3.62
Does the sequence below converge?
1−1+1−1+1−⋯
Sum to 𝑛 terms
1, 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
= 𝑆𝑛 = {
0, 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
Since the above sum alternates between 0 and 1:

lim 𝑆𝑛 = 𝐷𝑁𝐸
𝑛→∞
𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
B. Geometric Series
You might have seen geometric series before. Common questions relate to:
➢ Finding the general term = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
➢ Finding the value of a specific term
➢ Finding the first term and common ratio directly from the series or from given conditions
We will mostly focus here on the sum, and more so on radius of convergence3.
3.63: Finite Geometric Series

The geometric series with 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎 and 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑟 is:
3
To revise geometric series, refer that chapter in the Note on Sequences and Series
P a g e 62 | 90
𝑎, 𝑎𝑟, 𝑎𝑟 2 , … 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 , …
It has sum
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
1−𝑟
𝑆 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
𝑟𝑆 = 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛
𝑟𝑆 − 𝑆 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛 − 𝑎
𝑆(𝑟 − 1) = 𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 − 1)
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑆=
1−𝑟
Example 3.64
Determine the 𝑛𝑡ℎ partial sum of the series below and hence check its convergence or divergence:
1 1
2−1+ − +⋯
2 4
1
This is a geometric series with 𝑎 = 2, 𝑟 = . The 𝑛𝑡ℎ partial sum of the series is:
2
1 𝑛
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛) 2 [1 − (− ) ]
2
=
1−𝑟 1
1 − (− 2)
Since we do know whether 𝑛 is odd or even, we apply a ± sign:

1
2 [1 ± 2𝑛 ] 4 1
= = (1 ± 𝑛 )
3 3 2
2
The limit of the sequence of partial sums as the number of terms becomes very large is:
4 1 4 4
lim 𝑆𝑛 = lim (1 ± 𝑛 ) = (1) =
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 3 2 3 3
3.65: Infinite Geometric Series

A infinite geometric series with 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎 and 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑟 has sum
𝑎
1−𝑟
Where
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒: − 1 < 𝑟 < 1
The 𝑛𝑡ℎ partial sum of an infinite geometric series with 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎, 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑟 is:
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
1−𝑟
As the number of terms becomes very large:

𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
lim 𝑆𝑛 = lim
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 1−𝑟
P a g e 63 | 90
This limit has a finite value if:

−1 < 𝑟 < 1
And does not exist if
𝑟 ≤ −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑟 ≥ 1
Example 3.66
Determine the radius of convergence and the sum for that radius of convergence:
4 8
2 + (𝑥 + 5) + (𝑥 + 5)2 + ⋯
3 9
2
This is a geometric series with 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎 = 2, 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑟 = (𝑥 + 5)
3
The radius of convergence is −1 < 𝑟 < 1:
2 3 3
−1 < (𝑥 + 5) < 1 ⇒ − − 5 < 𝑥 < − 5
3 2 2
It has sum
𝑎 2 13 7
= , − <𝑥<−
2
1 − 𝑟 1 − (𝑥 + 5) 2 2
3
Example 3.67
∞ 𝑛
𝑥−2
∑( )
3
𝑛=0
∞ 𝑛
𝑥−2 𝑥−2 𝑥−2 2
∑( ) =1+( )+( ) +⋯
3 3 3
𝑛=0
𝑥−2
This is a geometric series with 𝑎 = 1, 𝑟 = ( ) and sum:
3
𝑎 1 1 3
= = =
1−𝑟 1−𝑥−2 3−𝑥+2 5−𝑥
3 3
For the series to converge, we must have −1 < 𝑟 < 1:

𝑥−2
−1 < <1
3
−3 < 𝑥 − 2 < 3
−1 < 𝑥 < 5
3.68: Radius of Convergence

Radius of convergence is the interval which results in convergence of the series. If the variable 𝑟 lies
➢ in the interval of convergence, the series converges.
➢ outside the interval of convergence, the series diverges.
3.69: Determining the radius of convergence

Determining the radius of convergence requires solving the inequality
−1 < 𝑟 < 1
P a g e 64 | 90
Example 3.70
∞
∑ cos 𝑛 𝑥 = 1 + cos 𝑥 + cos 2 𝑥 + ⋯ + cos 𝑛 𝑥 + ⋯

𝑛=0
The above is a geometric series with 𝑎 = 1, 𝑟 = cos 𝑥.

−1 < cos 𝑥 < 1
Eliminate all values where

cos 𝑥 = 1 𝑜𝑟 cos 𝑥 = −1 ⇒ {𝑥: 𝑥 = 𝑘𝜋, 𝑘 ∈ ℤ}
It has sum
𝑎 1
= , 𝑥 ≠ 𝑘𝜋, 𝑘 ∈ ℤ
1 − 𝑟 1 − cos 𝑥
Example 3.71
∞
∑(log 𝑎 𝑥)𝑛 = log 𝑎 𝑥 + (log 𝑎 𝑥)2 + ⋯ + (log 𝑎 𝑥)𝑛 + ⋯ , 𝑎 > 1

𝑛=1
The above is a geometric series with 𝑎 = log 𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑟 = log 𝑎 𝑥.

−1 < log 𝑎 𝑥 < 1
ln 𝑥
−1 < <1
ln 𝑎
If 𝑎 > 1 ⇒ ln 𝑎 > 0
1
− ln 𝑎 < ln 𝑥 < ln 𝑎 ⇒ < 𝑥 < 𝑎
𝑎
If 0 < 𝑎 < 1 ⇒ ln 𝑎 < 0

− ln 𝑎 > ln 𝑥 > ln 𝑎
ln 𝑎−1 > ln 𝑥 > ln 𝑎
1
>𝑥>𝑎
𝑎
1
𝑎<𝑥<
𝑎
It has sum
𝑎 log 𝑎 𝑥 1
= , < 𝑥 < 𝑎, 𝑎>1
1 − 𝑟 1 − log 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎
𝑎 log 𝑎 𝑥 1
= , 𝑎<𝑥< , 0<𝑎<1
1 − 𝑟 1 − log 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎
C. Telescoping Series
3.72: Telescoping Series

A telescoping series is one where we can cancel all terms except the first and last terms.
P a g e 65 | 90
3.73: Splitting a Fraction

1 1 1
= −
𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 𝑛 𝑛 + 1
1 1 𝑛+1 𝑛 1
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = − = − = = 𝑅𝐻𝑆
𝑛 𝑛 + 1 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
Example 3.74
1 1 1
+ + + ⋯+
4∙5 5∙6 6∙7
A. Calculate the 𝑛𝑡ℎ partial sum.
B. Determine the convergence or divergence of the series.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
( − )+ ( − )+ ( − ) +⋯+ ( − )+( − )
4 5 5 6 6 7 𝑛+2 𝑛+3 𝑛+3 𝑛+4
The 𝑛𝑡ℎ partial sum of the series is:

1 1
𝑆𝑛 = −
4 𝑛+4
As the number of terms becomes very large:
1 1 1
lim 𝑆𝑛 = lim − =
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 4 𝑛+4 4
D. 𝒏𝒕𝒉 term test for divergence
3.75: Convergence Requirement

If the series ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 converges then
𝑎𝑛 → 0
For a series to be convergent, it is a requirement that as 𝑛 → ∞, the value of the 𝑛𝑡ℎ term tends to zero.
3.76: 𝒏𝒕𝒉 term test for divergence

If lim 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0 then
𝑛→∞
∞
∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑛=1
Note: If the limit does not exist, then also it is not equal to zero
Since the limit as 𝑛 → ∞ of the sequence must tend to zero, if this requirement is not met, then the series must
diverge.
Example 3.77
∞
∑ √𝑛 + 1 − √𝑛
𝑛=1
A. Apply the divergence test to the above series.
B. Use telescoping to determine the 𝑛𝑡ℎ partial sum, and hence test for convergence
C. What is the conclusion from Parts A and B?
P a g e 66 | 90
Part A
Rationalize the numerator of the expression:
√𝑛 + 1 + √𝑛 𝑛+1−𝑛 1
√𝑛 + 1 − √𝑛 × = =
√𝑛 + 1 + √𝑛 √𝑛 + 1 + √𝑛 √𝑛 + 1 + √𝑛
Take the limit:

1
= lim =0
𝑛→∞ √𝑛 + 1 + √𝑛
𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦

𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒
Part B
The 𝑛𝑡ℎ partial sum is:
∞
∑ √𝑛 + 1 − √𝑛 = (√2 − √1) + (√3 − √2) + (√4 − √3) + ⋯ + (√𝑛 + 1 − √𝑛) = √𝑛 + 1 − √1

𝑛=1
Take the limit as 𝑛 → ∞

lim √𝑛 + 1 − √1 = ∞
𝑛→∞
𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
Example 3.78
Apply the divergence test to the harmonic series:
∞
1
∑
𝑛
𝑛=1
1
lim = 0 ⇒ 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑛→∞ 𝑛
Note: The harmonic series diverges
Example 3.79
Apply the divergence test to the series below:
∞
𝑒𝑛
∑
𝑒 𝑛 + 2𝑛
𝑛=1
𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑛 1
lim = lim = lim = 1 ≠ 0 ⇒ 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑛
𝑛→∞ 𝑒 + 2𝑛 𝑛
𝑛→∞ 𝑒 + 2 𝑛→∞ 2
1 + 𝑒𝑛
E. Combining Series
3.80: Combining Series
P a g e 67 | 90
Example 3.81
𝑘=∞
(−1)𝑘+1
∑ (𝑥 − 1)𝑘
𝑘
𝑘=1
Determine the convergence or divergence of the series above when 𝑥 = 0
Substitute 𝑥 = 0:
𝑘=∞
(−1)𝑘+1
∑ (−1)𝑘
𝑘
𝑘=1
𝑘=∞ 𝑛=∞
(−1)2𝑘+1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
∑ = −1 − − − − ⋯ = − (1 + + + + ⋯ ) = − ∑
𝑘 2 3 4 2 3 4 𝑘
𝑘=1 𝑛=1
F. Adding and Deleting Terms
3.82: Adding and Deleting Terms

We can add a finite number of terms, or delete a finite number of terms from a series without altering the
convergence or divergence of the series.
Example 3.83
∞
1
∑
𝑛+4
𝑛=1
Expand the given series gives us:

1 1 1
+ + +⋯
5 6 7
1 1 1
Add 1 + 2 + 3 + 4:
1 1 1 1 1 1
1+ + + + + + +⋯
2 3 4 5 6 7
Which is now the harmonic series, which diverges.
G. Tails
3.84: Tail of a Series
P a g e 68 | 90
The tail of a series is the series obtained by dropping a finite number of terms from the beginning of the
series.
Example 3.85
What is the tail of the harmonic series obtained by dropping the first three terms?
1 1 1
+ + +⋯
4 5 6
3.86: Convergence and Divergence of Tails

A series converges 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 its tails converge.
Example 3.87
∞
1
∑
𝑛+4
𝑛=1
Expanding the given series gives us:

1 1 1
+ + +⋯
5 6 7
And the above is a tail of the harmonic series, which diverges.
Hence, the given series diverges.
3.5 Integral Test

A. Integral Test
3.88: Integral Test

Let 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 be a sequence of positive terms. If 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑓(𝑛), where 𝑓(𝑥) is a continuous, positive, and
decreasing function for all 𝑥 ≥ 𝑁, 𝑁 ∈ ℕ then the:
∞ ∞
𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑛=𝑁 𝑁
Both 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒 or both 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒
Divergence Case
P a g e 69 | 90
Consider rectangles with width 1 and height 𝑎𝑛 to the right of the continuous, positive, decreasing function
𝑓(𝑥). Since the function is decreasing, the area of each rectangle is greater than the area under the curve.
2
𝑎1 > ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)
1
3
𝑎2 > ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)
2
.
.
.
𝑛+1
𝑎𝑛 > ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑛
Add the above inequalities:

2 3 𝑛+1
𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 > ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) + ⋯ + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)
1 2 𝑛
Using integral properties:

𝑛 𝑛+1
∑ 𝑎𝑖 > ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑛=1 1
Hence, if the integral diverges, the series diverges too.
Convergence Case
The convergence is similar, in that we take rectangles of width
1. However, the rectangles are to the instead of to the right.
Hence,
2
𝑎2 < ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)
1
3
𝑎3 < ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)
2
.
.
.
𝑛+1
𝑎𝑛 < ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑛−1
Add the above:
2 3 𝑛
𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 < ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) + ⋯ + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)
1 2 𝑛−1
Add 𝑎1 to both sides of the above:

2 3 𝑛
𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 < 𝑎1 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) + ⋯ + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)
1 2 𝑛−1
Using integral properties:

𝑛 𝑛
∑ 𝑎𝑖 < 𝑎1 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑛=1 1
P a g e 70 | 90
Hence, if the integral converges, the series converges too.
B. Harmonic Series
3.89: Divergence of Harmonic Series

The harmonic series (given below) diverges:
∞
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1+ + + + + + + +⋯= ∑
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 𝑛
𝑛=1
Method I: Comparison
We can do this without the integral test. Successive groups of terms can be added to be greater than half.
Hence, the result can be increased to any value without limit:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1+ + ( + ) +( + + + )+( + + ⋯ + ) + ⋯ ⇒ 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
2 ⏟3 4 ⏟5 6 7 8 ⏟9 10 16
1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 8 1
> + = = > + + + = = > + +⋯+ = =
4 4 4 2 8 8 8 8 8 2 16 16 16 16 2
Method II: Integral Test

Apply the integral test, and check:
𝑡
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = [ln |𝑥|]1𝑡 = ln 𝑡 − ln 1 = ln 𝑡
1 𝑥
Take as the limit as

lim ln 𝑡 = ∞ ⇒ 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑡→∞
C. 𝒑 series
3.90: 𝒑-series
A series of the form below is called a 𝑝 series, where 𝑝 is any real number:
1 1 1
𝑝
+ 𝑝 + ⋯+ 𝑝 + ⋯
1 2 𝑛
The harmonic series is a 𝑝 series with

𝑝=1
Example 3.91
Write out the expanded form of each 𝑝 series. Then determine its convergence or divergence, using the
integral test.
A. 𝑝 = 3
2
B. 𝑝 =
3
Part A
1 1 1
3
+ 3 +⋯+ 3 + ⋯
1 2 𝑛
𝑡 𝑡
1 1 1 1
∫ 3 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 −3 𝑑𝑥 = − [𝑥 −2 ]1𝑡 = − ( 2 − 1)
1 𝑥 1 2 2 𝑡
P a g e 71 | 90
1 1 1
lim = − ( 2 − 1) =
𝑡→∞ 2 𝑡 2
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
Part B
1 1 1
2 + 2 +⋯+ 2 + ⋯
13 23 𝑛3
𝑡
1 𝑡 2 1 𝑡 1
∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 −3 𝑑𝑥 = 3 [𝑥 3 ] = 3 (𝑡 3 − 1)
1 1 1
𝑥3
1
lim 3 (𝑡 3 − 1) = ∞
𝑡→∞
𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
Example 3.92
𝐹𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
A 𝑝 series is ______ a geometric series.
A. Always
B. Never
C. Sometimes
D. None of the above
1 1 1 1
𝑝
+ 𝑝 + 𝑝 + ⋯+ 𝑝 +⋯
1 2 3 𝑛
If the above series is a geometric series, then it must have a common ratio given by
1 1
𝑝 3 𝑝
𝑟=2 =
1 1
1𝑝 2𝑝
𝑝 𝑝
1 2
𝑝
= 𝑝
2 3
1 𝑝 2 𝑝
( ) =( )
2 3
𝑝=0
𝑆𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
Example 3.93
1
lim
𝑡→∞ 𝑡 𝑝−1
Evaluate the above limit when
A. 𝑝 = 0.5
B. 𝑝 = −1
C. 𝑝 = 3
𝑝 = 0.5 ⇒ lim 𝑡1−0.5 = lim 𝑡 0.5 = lim √𝑡

𝑡→∞ 𝑡→∞ 𝑡→∞
1−(−1) 2
𝑝 = −1 ⇒ lim 𝑡 = lim 𝑡
𝑡→∞ 𝑡→∞
P a g e 72 | 90
3.94: 𝒑 series test

1 1 1
+ + ⋯ + +⋯
1𝑝 2𝑝 𝑛𝑝
The series above
➢ Converges when 𝑝 > 1
➢ Diverges when 𝑝 = 1
➢ Diverges when 𝑝 < 1
Use the integral test:

𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
1 1 1 1 1 1
∫ 𝑝 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 −𝑝 𝑑𝑥 = [ 𝑝−1 ] = ( 𝑝−1 − 1) = (1 − 𝑝−1 )
1 𝑥 1 (−𝑝 + 1)(𝑥 ) 1 −𝑝 + 1 𝑡 𝑝−1 𝑡
1 1 1 1
lim (1 − 𝑝−1 ) = lim (1 − 𝑝−1 )
𝑡→∞ 𝑝−1 𝑡 𝑝 − 1 𝑡→∞ 𝑡
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
If 𝑝 > 1
1
lim (1 − )=1
𝑡→∞ 𝑡 𝑝−1
If 𝑝 < 1 ⇒ 𝑝 − 1 < 0 ⇒ 1 − 𝑝 > 0:
1
lim (1 − ) = lim (1 − 𝑡1−𝑝 ) = ∞
𝑡→∞ 𝑡 𝑝−1 𝑡→∞
Example 3.95
Consider the following infinite series. How many of them converge?
∞ ∞ ∞
1 1 1
∑ 17 , ∑ 13 , … , ∑ 23
− −
𝑛=1 𝑛 3 𝑛=1 𝑛 3 𝑛=1 𝑛 3
∞
1 17 13 3 7 11 15 19 23
∑ 𝑝
⇒ 𝑝 ∈ {− , − , … , , , , , }
𝑛 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
𝑛=1
5 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
D. Logarithmic 𝒑 series
3.96: Logarithmic 𝒑 series

The series obtained by dividing the harmonic series by (ln 𝑥)𝑝 is a 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑝 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠
1
𝑥 (ln 𝑥)𝑝
Example 3.97
Determine the convergence or divergence of:
1 1 1
+ + +⋯
2 ln 2 3 ln 3 4 ln 4
𝑡
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥 ln 𝑥
P a g e 73 | 90
1
Substitute 𝑢 = ln 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, and change the limits of integration by taking the logs of the limits:
ln 𝑡
1
∫ 𝑑𝑢 = [ln|𝑢|]ln 𝑡
ln 2 = ln|ln 𝑡| − ln|ln 2|
ln 2 𝑢
As
lim ln|ln 𝑡| − ln|ln 2| = ∞
𝑡→∞
Example 3.98
1 1 1
2
+ 2
+ +⋯
2(ln 2) 3(ln 3) 4(ln 4)2
𝑡
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥(ln 𝑥)2
1
Substitute 𝑢 = ln 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, and change the limits of integration by taking the logs of the limits:
ln 𝑡
1 1 ln 𝑡 1 1
∫ 2
𝑑𝑢 = [− ] =− +
ln 2 𝑢 𝑢 ln 2 ln 𝑡 ln 2
As
1 1 1
lim (− + )=
𝑡→∞ ln 𝑡 ln 2 ln 2
E. Further Examples
Example 3.99
∞
1
∑
𝑛+4
𝑛=1
𝑡
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = [ln|𝑥 + 4|]1𝑡
1 𝑥+4
lim (ln|𝑥 + 4|) = ∞

𝑡→∞
Example 3.100
Check the convergence or divergence of:
∞
1
∑
𝑛=1
𝑛 + √𝑛
Use the integral test and compare with 𝑓(𝑥) which is continuous, positive, and decreasing for 𝑥 > 1:
P a g e 74 | 90
1 1
𝑓(𝑥) = =
𝑥 + √𝑥 √𝑥(√𝑥 + 1)
1
Find the associated indefinite integral. Substitute 𝑢 = √𝑥 + 1 ⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥:
√
1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ 𝑑𝑢 = 2 ln|𝑢| + 𝐶 = 2 ln|√𝑥 + 1| + 𝐶
√𝑥(√𝑥 + 1) 𝑢
By the integral test:

∞
1 ∞
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 2[ln|√𝑥 + 1|]1 = ∞ ⇒ 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
1 √𝑥(√𝑥 + 1)
F. Error Estimation
3.101: Error Estimation
G. Applications
Example 3.102
3.6 Comparison Test

A. Comparison Test Comparision Test
The comparison test let us compare a series whose
convergence or divergence we do not know or find
difficult to determine, with a series whose Limit
p series test Integral Test
Comparision Test
convergence or divergence we do know.
This means that we need

Regular
➢ a series to compare with
➢ a test to apply to that series
The chart alongside shows some basic options for Logarithmic

comparison:
➢ The 𝑝 series / logarithmic 𝑝 test is straightforward to apply. You should also know the proof of the 𝑝
series test, in case a subjective question asks to prove tests that you use.
➢ The integral test was covered in the previous section.
➢ The limit comparison test compares the limits of the 𝑛𝑡ℎ terms of two sequences. You will often need
to use the limit comparison test in conjunction with other tests.
B. Basics
3.103: Comparison Test

If ∑ 𝑎𝑛 , ∑ 𝑏𝑛 and ∑ 𝑐𝑛 are each series with 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 terms. If
𝑎𝑛 ≤ 𝑏𝑛 ≤ 𝑐𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛 > 𝑁, 𝑁 ∈ ℕ
P a g e 75 | 90
➢ To prove convergence, find something that is larger, and prove convergence for that series
𝑐𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠, 𝑏𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
➢ To prove divergence, find something that is smaller, and prove divergence for that series
𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠, 𝑏𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
3.104: Checking for Smaller and Larger

Taking the reciprocal of an inequality with positive expressions on both sides reverses the inequality.
For positive 𝑥 and 𝑦:
1 1
𝑥>𝑦⇒ <
𝑥 𝑦
1 1
3>2⇒ <
3 2
Note this does not for work for 𝑥 and 𝑦 both negative:
1 1
−3 > −2 𝑏𝑢𝑡 < 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒
−3 −2
Example 3.105
1
The integral ∫ ln 𝑥 is not elementary. It has an integral, but that integral cannot be expressed in terms of
known functions. Hence, use the comparison test to determine the convergence or divergence of:
∞
1 1 1 1
+ + ⋯+ +⋯ = ∑
ln 2 ln 3 ln 𝑛 ln 𝑛
𝑛=2
For 𝑥 ≥ 2, compare with

1 1
<
𝑥 ln 𝑥 ln 𝑥
1 1
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 ⇒ 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑥 ln 𝑥 ln 𝑥
Example 3.106
Determine the convergence or divergence of
∞
1
∑
𝑛2 + 3𝑛 + 2
𝑛=1
By the 𝑝 series test with 𝑝 = 2:

∞
1
∑ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑛2
𝑛=1
1 1
Since 2 < :
𝑛 +3𝑛+2 𝑛2
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
Example 3.107
P a g e 76 | 90
∞
1
∑
𝑛=1
𝑛3 + √2

∞
1
𝑛3
𝑛=1
Since
1 1
< ⇒ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑛3 + √2 𝑛3
Example 3.108
∞
𝑛−𝑒
∑
𝑛=1
𝑛4 + √𝜋

∞
1
𝑛3
𝑛=1
Since
𝑒
𝑛−𝑒 11−
= 𝑛 < , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑛4 + √𝜋 3 √𝜋 𝑛3
𝑛 + 𝑛
Example 3.109
∞
1
∑
𝑛=10
√𝑛 − 3
1 1
> 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡
√𝑛 − 3 √𝑛
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
Example 3.110
Check the convergence or divergence of:
∞
1
∑
𝑛=1
𝑛 + √𝑛
For 𝑛 ≥ 1, compare with:

1
𝑛 + √𝑛 < 2𝑛 ⇒ ≥ 2𝑛
𝑛 + √𝑛
∞ ∞
1 1 1
∑ = ∑ → 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 ⇒ 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
2𝑛 2 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
P a g e 77 | 90
By the comparison test:

∞
1
∑ 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑛=1
𝑛 + √𝑛
C. Limit Comparison Test

➢ The limit comparison test requires you to find the ratio of two sequences as the term number tends to
infinity.
➢ This is different from the divergence test, where you find the value of the sequence as the term
number tends to infinity.
3.111: Limit Comparison Test

Consider sequences 𝑎𝑛 > 0 and 𝑏𝑛 > 0 for all 𝑛 ≥ 𝑁 (𝑁 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟). If
𝑎𝑛
lim = 𝑐 > 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝑛→∞ 𝑏𝑛
𝑎𝑛
lim = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∑ 𝑏𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑛→∞ 𝑏𝑛
𝑎𝑛
lim = ∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∑ 𝑏𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑛→∞ 𝑏𝑛
Example 3.112
∞
1
∑
𝑛2 + 3𝑛 + 2
𝑛=1
1 2
𝑛2
2 𝑛 2 1
lim 𝑛 + 3𝑛 + 2 = lim 2 = lim 2 𝑛 = =1>0
𝑛→∞ 1 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 3𝑛 + 2 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 3𝑛 2 1+0+0
𝑛2 + +
𝑛2 𝑛 2 𝑛 2

∞
1
𝑛2
𝑛=1
By the limit comparison test:
∞ ∞
1 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∑ 2 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠, ∑ 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑛 𝑛2 + 3𝑛 + 2
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
Example 3.113
∞
𝑛2 + 1
∑ √ 3
𝑛 +5
𝑛=10
2
√𝑛3 + 1 𝑛2 + 1 𝑛3 + 𝑛 𝑛3 + 𝑛
𝑛 +5
lim = lim √ 3 ∙ √𝑛 = lim √ 3 = √ lim 3 =1
𝑛→∞ 1 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 5 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 5 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 5
√𝑛
P a g e 78 | 90
∞ ∞
1 𝑛2 + 1
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∑ 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠, ∑ √ 3 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
√𝑛 𝑛 +5
𝑛=10 𝑛=10
Example 3.114
∞
1
∑ 4
𝑛=1
3√𝑛 + √𝑛
1
Compare with ∑∞
𝑛=1 , which is a divergent 𝑝 series:
√𝑛
1 √𝑛
4
3 𝑛 + √𝑛 √𝑛 √𝑛 1 1 1
lim √ = lim = lim = lim = lim = > 0 ⇒ 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑛→∞ 1 4
𝑛→∞ 3√𝑛 + √𝑛 𝑛→∞ 3√𝑛 √𝑛 𝑛→∞ 3 + 41
4
𝑛→∞ 1 3
+ 3+ 4
√ 𝑛 √𝑛 √𝑛 √𝑛 √𝑛
D. Comparison using Telescoping
Example 3.115
∞
1 1 1 1
∑ =1+ + + +⋯
𝑛! 1∙2 1∙2∙3 1∙2∙3∙4
𝑛=1
For 𝑛 ≥ 2:
1 1
>
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 𝑛!
1 1 1
Check the convergence of 𝑛(𝑛−1) = 𝑛−1 − 𝑛:
𝑚 𝑚
1 1 1
∑ = ∑[ − ]
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 𝑛−1 𝑛
𝑛=2 𝑛=2
Expanding gives:
1 1 1 1 1
= (1 − ) + ( − ) + ⋯ + ( − )
2 2 3 𝑚−1 𝑚
1 1 1 1 1
= (1 − ) + ( − ) + ⋯ + ( − )
2 2 3 𝑚−1 𝑚
1
=1−
𝑚
1
lim 1 − =1
𝑚→∞ 𝑚
Hence, since
𝑚 ∞
1 1
∑ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠, ∑ 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 𝑛!
𝑛=2 𝑛=2
P a g e 79 | 90
And
∞ ∞
1 1
∑ = 1 + ∑ 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑛! 𝑛!
𝑛=1 𝑛=2
3.7 Absolute Convergence; Ratio Test

A. Absolute Convergence Test
3.116: Absolute Convergence

If a series is absolutely convergent then it is convergent.
3.117: Absolute Convergence

A series ∑ 𝑎𝑛 is absolutely convergent if the corresponding series of absolute values
∑|𝑎𝑛 |
Converges.
Example 3.118
Check the convergence of the series using the absolute convergence test:
1 1 1 1
1− + − + +⋯
2 4 8 16
The corresponding series of absolute values is

1 1 1 1
1+ + + + +⋯
2 4 8 16
1
Which converges since it is a geometric series with 𝑟 = 2 < 1
Hence, the original series converges.
Example 3.119
Check the convergence of the series using the absolute convergence test
cos 1 cos 2 cos 𝑛
3
+ 3 + ⋯+ 3
1 2 𝑛
Use the absolute convergence test to check the corresponding series of absolute values:
cos 𝑛
|𝑎𝑛 | = | 3 |
𝑛
1
Use the comparison test to compare with 3
𝑛
cos 𝑛 1
| 3 | ≤ 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 |cos 𝑛| ≤ 1
𝑛 𝑛
cos 𝑛 1
| 3 | 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 3 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝑝 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡
𝑛 𝑛
Since the series is absolutely convergent, it is convergent.
P a g e 80 | 90
B. Ratio Test
Absolute convergence is the basis of the ratio test, Ratio Test
which is an important test.
3.120: Ratio Test 𝜌<1 𝜌>1 𝜌=1

𝑎𝑛+1 1
lim | | = lim |𝑎𝑛+1 × | = 𝜌
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛
Converges Diverges Inconclusive
For:
𝜌 < 1 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦
𝜌 = 1 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 Apply some
𝜌 > 1 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 other Test
➢ The ratio test compares consecutive terms of a sequence.

➢ If the limit of the absolute value of the ratio of consecutive terms of the sequence as 𝑛 → ∞ is less than
1, then the series converges absolutely (and hence it converges).
Example 3.121
Check the convergence of the series below using the ratio test:
∞
(0.45)𝑛
∑
𝑛
𝑛=1
∞
(1.1)𝑛
∑
𝑛
𝑛=1
1 (0.45)𝑛+1 𝑛 0.45𝑛
lim |𝑎𝑛+1 × | = lim × = lim = 0.45 < 1 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 1 (0.45)𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 1
1 (1.1)𝑛+1 𝑛 1.1𝑛
lim |𝑎𝑛+1 × | = lim × 𝑛
= lim = 1.25 > 1 ⇒ 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 1 (1.1) 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 1
3.122: Recursive Definition of Factorial

𝑛! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … (𝑛 − 𝑘)!
Example 3.123
Check the convergence of the series below:
∞
(𝑛!)3
∑
(3𝑛)!
𝑛=1
Apply the ratio test:

1 [(𝑛 + 1)!]3 (3𝑛)!
|𝑎𝑛+1 × |= ×
𝑎𝑛 (3𝑛 + 3)! (𝑛!)3
Expand using the recursive definition of the factorial:

[(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛!)]3 (3𝑛)!
= ×
(3𝑛 + 3)(3𝑛 + 2)(3𝑛 + 1)(3𝑛)! (𝑛!)3
P a g e 81 | 90
(𝑛 + 1)3
=
(3𝑛 + 3)(3𝑛 + 2)(3𝑛 + 1)
The numerator when expanded is a third-degree polynomial with leading coefficient 1.

The denominator when expanded is a third-degree polynomial with leading coefficient 3 × 3 × 3 = 27.
The limit of the above expression as 𝑛 → ∞ is the ratio of the leading coefficients, which is
1
< 1 ⇒ 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
27
Example 3.124
𝑎𝑛
Given that lim = 𝑝, determine the values of 𝑝 for which the series below converges
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛−1
∞
∑ 𝑎𝑛 2𝑛
𝑛=0
The ratio of consecutive terms of the sequence ∑∞ 𝑛

𝑛=0 2 𝑎𝑛 is:
𝑎𝑛+1 2𝑛+1 𝑎𝑛+1 2𝑎𝑛+1
= =
𝑎𝑛 2𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛
Take the limit as 𝑛 → ∞, and move the 2 outside since it is a constant:

2𝑎𝑛+1 𝑎𝑛+1
lim | | = 2 lim | |
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛
Since 𝑎𝑛+1 and 𝑎𝑛 are consecutive terms, so are 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑎𝑛−1. Since we take the limit as 𝑛 is very large,
subtracting 1 from the term number does not matter. (The term number will not go negative).
𝑎𝑛
= 2 lim | |
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛−1
And the limit is given in the question as 𝑝. Hence:

2𝑎𝑛+1
lim | | = 2|𝑝|
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛
For the series to converge, we must have
2|𝑝| < 1
1
|𝑝| <
2
1 1
− <𝑝<
2 2
Example 3.125
Check the convergence of:
∞
4𝑛+2
∑
ln(𝑛 + 1)
𝑛=1
Apply the ratio test:

1 4𝑛+3 ln 𝑛 + 3 4 ln(𝑛 + 3)
|𝑎𝑛+1 × |= × 𝑛+2 =
𝑎𝑛 ln 𝑛 + 2 4 ln(𝑛 + 2)
Take the limit as 𝑛 → ∞ and apply LH rule:
P a g e 82 | 90
4
4 ln 𝑛 + 3 𝑛 + 3 = 4 lim 𝑛 + 2 = 4 ⇒ 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
lim = 4 lim
𝑛→∞ ln 𝑛 + 2 𝑛→∞ 1 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 3
𝑛+2
3.8 Alternating Series; Conditional Convergence

A. Alternating Series
3.126: Alternating Series

A series which has terms which alternate between positive and negative terms is an alternating series.
Example:
1 1 1
1− + − +⋯
2 4 8
3.127: Alternating Series Test

An alternating series
𝑢1 − 𝑢2 + 𝑢3 − 𝑢4 + ⋯
Converges if:
➢ 𝑢𝑛 > 0
➢ 𝑢𝑛 → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞
➢ 𝑢𝑛 are eventually nonincreasing 𝑢𝑛 ≥ 𝑢𝑛+1
B. Alternating Series Error Bound

The error bound of a series is the absolute value of the difference between the 𝑛𝑡ℎ partial sum and the “value”
of the series.
3.128: Error Bound

𝐿 = 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑠𝑛 = 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑢𝑝𝑡𝑜 𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 = |𝐿 − 𝑠𝑛 |
3.129: Overestimation and Underestimation

𝐿 − 𝑠𝑛 < 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑡𝑛+1 < 0 ⇒ 𝑠𝑛 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝐿
𝐿 − 𝑠𝑛 > 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑡𝑛+1 > 0 ⇒ 𝑠𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝐿
𝑡𝑛+1 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑢𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
Example 3.130
1 1 1
1− + − +⋯
2 4 8
𝑎 1 2
𝐿= = =
1
1 − 𝑟 1 − (− ) 3
2
P a g e 83 | 90
2 1 1 1
𝑠1 = 1 ⇒ 𝐿 − 𝑠1 =
− 1 = − ⇒ 𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑛+1 = − < 0
3 3 3 2
1 1 2 1 1 1 1
𝑠2 = 1 − = ⇒ 𝐿 − 𝑠2 = − = ⇒ 𝑈𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑛+1 = > 0
2 2 3 2 6 6 4
1 1 1 3 2 3 1 1 1
𝑠3 = 1 − + = = ⇒ 𝐿 − 𝑠3 = − = − ⇒ 𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑛+1 = − < 0
2 4 2 4 3 4 12 12 8
Example 3.131
If 𝐿 = ln 2 ≈ 0.69, then calculate the error when the first partial sum is used to estimate the series
1 1 1
1− + − +⋯
2 3 4
𝑠1 = 1
1
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑢𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑠2 = −
2
𝐿 − 𝑠1 = ln 2 − 1 ≈ −0.31
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
1
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − < 0
2
C. Absolute Versus Conditional Convergence
3.132: Conditional Convergence

If a series converges, but does not converge absolutely, then it is conditionally convergent.
Does 𝑎𝑛
converge
Yes. Series No Series

Converges Diverges
Does 𝑎𝑛 Ex: 1+2+3+...

converge?
No.
Yes. Absolutely
Conditionally
convergent
Convergent
1 1 1 1
1− + −⋯ 1− + −⋯
2 4 2 3
Case I:
Using any test, if the series diverges, then you get Case I. For example:
P a g e 84 | 90
1+2+3+4+⋯
Case II:
If the series converges, there are two possibilities. It can be absolutely convergent, or conditionally
convergent. We will see both the cases.
Case II-A: Absolutely convergent

A series absolute terms converge is absolutely convergent. An absolutely convergent series is automatically
convergent.
1 1 1
1− + − +⋯
2 4 8
The absolute values are
1 1 1 1
1 + + + + ⋯ ⇒ 𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟 = ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
2 4 8 2
Case II-B: Conditional Convergence

If the series converges, but the series with absolute values of the terms does not converge, then the series is
conditionally convergent.
1 1 1
𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠: 1 − + − ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡
2 3 4
1 1 1
𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠: 1 + + + ⇒ 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 (𝑆𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒)
2 3 4
Hence, the alternating harmonic series is conditionally convergent.
Example 3.133
∞
cos 𝑛
∑
𝑛(ln 𝑛)2
𝑛=2
Consider the corresponding series with absolute values. The denominator is always positive:
∞ ∞
cos 𝑛 |cos 𝑛|
∑| 2 |=∑
𝑛(ln 𝑛) 𝑛(ln 𝑛)2
𝑛=2 𝑛=2
Since |cos 𝑛| ≤ 1 use the Comparison Test. Compare with:

∞ ∞
|cos 𝑛| 1
∑ ≤ ∑
𝑛(ln 𝑛)2 𝑛(ln 𝑛)2
𝑛=2 𝑛=2
Which is a logarithmic 𝑝 series with

𝑛 = 2 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
∞
1
𝐵𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑝 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 ⇒ ∑ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑛(ln 𝑛)2
𝑛=2
∞
|cos 𝑛|
𝐵𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡: ∑
𝑛(ln 𝑛)2
𝑛=2
∞
cos 𝑛
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∑ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦, 𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
𝑛(ln 𝑛)2
𝑛=2
P a g e 85 | 90
3.9 Radius and Interval of Convergence

A. Radius of Convergence
3.134: Radius of Convergence

The radius of convergence of a power series ∑ 𝑐𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛 is the number 𝑅 such that the series converges for
|𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝑅
➢ The series will diverge when |𝑥 − 𝑎| > 𝑅

➢ The endpoints |𝑥 − 𝑎| ≤ 𝑅 must be checked separately, but this is not required to determine the value
of R.
Example 3.135
𝑎𝑛+1
Given that lim | | = 1, determine the radius of convergence 𝑅 and the value of 𝑎 of the following series:
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛
∞
∑ 𝑎𝑛 (−3)𝑛 𝑥 2𝑛
𝑛=0
𝑎𝑛+1 (−3)𝑛+1 𝑥 2𝑛+2

lim | | = lim |−3𝑥 2 | = 3𝑥 2
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 (−3)𝑛 𝑛→∞
3𝑥 2 < 1
1
𝑥2 <
3
1
|𝑥| <
√3
1
𝑅=
√3
1 1
− <𝑥<
2 2
B. Interval of Convergence
3.136: Endpoint of Radius of Convergence

The endpoints of the radius of convergence must be checked separately
|𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝑅
−𝑅 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝑅
𝑎−𝑅 < 𝑥 < 𝑎+𝑅
3.137: Interval of Convergence

The interval over which a power series ∑ 𝑐𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛 converges is called its interval of convergence. The
interval can be:
𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑛: (𝑎 − 𝑅, 𝑎 + 𝑅)
𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑓 − 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛: [𝑎 − 𝑅, 𝑎 + 𝑅) 𝑜𝑟 (𝑎 − 𝑅, 𝑎 + 𝑅]
𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑: [𝑎 − 𝑅, 𝑎 + 𝑅]
P a g e 86 | 90
Example 3.138
∞
𝑐𝑛
∑
𝑛
𝑛=1
A. Check the convergence of the series above.
B. Show that the series is a geometric series. Determine the common ratio of the series.
C. Use your results from Parts A and B to determine when a geometric series converges.
Part A
1 𝑐 𝑛+1 𝑛 𝑐𝑛
lim |𝑎𝑛+1 × | = lim | × 𝑛 | = lim | | = |𝑐|
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 1 𝑐 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 1
If
|𝑐| > 1 ⇒ 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
|𝑐| < 1 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
When
𝑐 = 1 ⇒ 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒
Hence, we need to use some other test.

Substitute 𝑐 = 1. Gives us the
1 1 1
1 + + + + ⋯ ⇒ 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 ⇒ 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
2 3 4
Part B
𝑐 𝑐2 𝑐3
+ +
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑐
⇒Geometric series with 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = and common ratio = 𝑐
𝑛
It converges when
|𝑐| < 1
Example 3.139: Tan Inverse Series

The Maclaurin series for tan−1 𝑥 is:
1 1 1 1
tan−1 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 5 − 𝑥 7 + 𝑥 9 + ⋯
3 5 7 9
Use the ratio test:

1 𝑥 2𝑛+1 2𝑛 − 1 𝑥 2 (2𝑛 − 1)
|𝑎𝑛+1 × |=| × 2𝑛−1 | = | |
𝑎𝑛 2𝑛 + 1 𝑥 2𝑛 + 1
As 𝑛 → ∞, the above expression tends to:

|𝑥 2 | < 1
𝑥2 < 1
−1 < 𝑥 < 1
Check the endpoints:
P a g e 87 | 90
∞
1 1 1 1
𝑥 = 1 ⇒ 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = 1 − + − + ⋯ = ∑
3 5 7 2𝑛 + 1
𝑛=0
1
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 0 𝑜𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠, 𝑏𝑛 =
2𝑛 + 1
𝑏𝑛 → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞
𝑏𝑛+1 ≤ 𝑏𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡
∞
1 1 1 1
𝑥 = 1 ⇒ 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = −1 + − + + ⋯ = ∑(−1)𝑛+1
3 5 7 2𝑛 + 1
𝑛=0
𝑏𝑛 → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞
𝑏𝑛+1 ≤ 𝑏𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡
Example 3.140
∞
(𝑥 − 3)𝑛
∑(−1)𝑛
2𝑛 + 1
𝑛=0
Use the ratio test:

(𝑥 − 3)𝑛+1
𝑎𝑛+1 (𝑥 − 3)(2𝑛 + 1)
lim | | = lim | 2𝑛 + 3𝑛 | = lim =|𝑥 − 3|
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→∞ (𝑥 − 3) 𝑛→∞ 2𝑛 + 3
2𝑛 + 1
|𝑥 − 3| < 1
−1 < 𝑥 − 3 < 1
2<𝑥<4

∞ ∞
(1)𝑛𝑛
(−1)𝑛
𝑥 = 4: ∑(−1) =∑ = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡
2𝑛 + 1 2𝑛 + 1
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
∞ ∞ ∞
(−1)𝑛 𝑛
(−1)2𝑛 1
𝑥 = 2: ∑(−1) =∑ =∑
2𝑛 + 1 2𝑛 + 1 2𝑛 + 1
𝑛=0 𝑛=0 𝑛=0
1
Use the Integral Test for the above (𝑓(𝑥) = ) is continuous, positive, and decreasing
2𝑥+1
∞ ∞
1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = [ ln|2𝑥 + 1|] ⇒ 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 ⇒ 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
0 2𝑥 + 1 2 0
Example 3.141: Natural Logarithm

Determine the interval of convergence of the Taylor series:
∞
𝑥𝑛 𝑥2 𝑥3
ln(𝑥 + 1) = ∑(−1)𝑛−1 =𝑥− + −
𝑛 2 3
𝑛=1
Use the ratio test:
P a g e 88 | 90
1 𝑥 𝑛+1 𝑛 𝑥𝑛 𝑥
lim |𝑎𝑛+1 × | = lim | × 𝑛 | = lim | | = lim | | = |𝑥|
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 1 𝑥 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 1 𝑛→∞ 1
1+
𝑛
𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠: − 1 < 𝑥 < 1
𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠: 𝑥 < −1 𝑂𝑅 𝑥 > 1
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒: 𝑥 ∈ {−1,1}
Check Endpoints
1 1 1
𝑥 = 1: 1 − + − + ⋯ ⇒ 𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
2 3 4
1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑥 = −1: − 1 − − − + ⋯ ⇒ − (1 + + + + ⋯ ) ⇒ 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 ⇒ 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
2 3 4 2 3 4
Hence, the interval of convergence of the power series is:

−1 < 𝑥 ≤ 1
Example 3.142: Natural Logarithm

Determine the interval of convergence of the Taylor series for ln 𝑥 centered at 𝑥 = 1 given below:
(𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 − 1)3
ln 𝑥 = (𝑥 − 1) − + −⋯
2 3
Use the ratio test:

1 (𝑥 − 1)𝑛+1 𝑛 (𝑥 − 1)𝑛
lim |𝑎𝑛+1 × | = lim | × 𝑛
| = lim | | = |𝑥 − 1|
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1 (𝑥 − 1) 𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1
Convergence requires:
|𝑥 − 1| < 1 ⇒ −1 < 𝑥 − 1 < 1 ⇒ 0 < 𝑥 < 2

1 1 1
𝑥 = 2: 1 − + − + ⋯ ⇒ 𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
2 3 4
1 1 1
𝑥 = 0: −1 − − − + ⋯ ⇒ 𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 ⇒ 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
2 3 4
Hence, the series converges when the above condition is met.
Example 3.143
Check the convergence of the series
1 1+𝑥 𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥 2𝑛+1
ln ( ) = 𝑥 + + + ⋯+ +⋯
2 1−𝑥 3 5 2𝑛 + 1
Use the ratio test:

1 𝑥 2𝑛+3 2𝑛 + 1 𝑥 2 (2𝑛 + 1)
lim |𝑎𝑛+1 × | = lim | × 2𝑛+1 | = lim | | = |𝑥 2 | = 𝑥 2 < 1
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→∞ 2𝑛 + 3 𝑥 𝑛→∞ 2𝑛 + 3
−1 < 𝑥 < 1
∞ ∞
±1 ±𝑑𝑥 1
𝑥 = ±1: 𝑎𝑛 = ⇒ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑒𝑠𝑡: ∫ = ± [ ln|2𝑥 + 1|] ⇒ 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
2𝑛 + 1 1 2𝑥 + 1 2 1
P a g e 89 | 90
C. Special Cases
3.144: Converges Everywhere

𝑅 = ∞: This means that the series converges everywhere
3.145: Converges Only at 𝒙 = 𝒂

𝑅=0
➢ The power series has only one term.

➢ It gives the value of the function at that point.
3.10 Further Topics

146 Examples
P a g e 90 | 90

C04 Calculus Topics

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Calculus

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

2. CALCULUS TOPICS .............................. 20

3. SEQUENCES AND SERIES .................... 42

1.1: Differential Equation

Which can be solved by integrating both sides with respect to 𝑥:

1.3: Order and Degree

1.5: “Polynomial” versus Non-polynomial equations

Part A Differentiate using the chain rule:

1.7: Linear Differential Equation

Differentiate the given solution:

1.10: General Solutions

Differential equations are solved by integration, with an arbitrary constant of integration.

1.11: Number of Constants

Example 1.12: Number of Constants in Solution

1.2 Separable Equations

1.13: Separable Equations

➢ The LHS contains only the derivative of 𝑦.

Example 1.14: Classifying Equations

1.15: Solving Separable Equations

Separate the variables:

Integrate both sides with respect to 𝑥:

Separate the variables:

1.17: Constant of Integration

However, the two constants can be replaced by a single constant.

Separate the variables:

Which is the equation of a circle.

Separate the variables:

Take the cos inverse on both sides:

Separate the variables:

1.24: Verifying Solutions

Part A To verify the solution, differentiate both sides of

B. Initial Value Problems

1.28: Particular Solutions

Separate the variables, and integrate:

Substitute (𝑥, 𝑦) = (1,0)

Solve Equation I for 𝑦, and substitute 𝐶 = −26:

Separate the variables:

Substitute (𝑥, 𝑦) = (1,0) in the equation:

Substitute 𝑥 = 0.7 in the above equation:

Find the General Solution

ln|𝑥 + 1| + ln|𝑒 𝑦 − 2| = −𝐶1

Find the General Solution

1.3 Slope Fields

1.40: Slope Field

1.41: Single Variable Function

1.42: Vector Function

Rather than attempting this numerically, we integrate the differential equation

1.4 Euler’s Method

1.47: Euler’s Method

𝑓(0.1) = 𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + 𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )𝑑𝑥 = 3 + (3 − 2)(0.1) = 3.1

Separate variables and integrate both sides:

Determine the value of C using the initial value condition 𝑓(0) = 3:

The particular solution to the differential equation is:

1.5 Logistic Growth

The birth rate in the population

The net change in the population is

Since the above is the rate of change of population, we can write

Logistic Growth Model

Second Derivative and Interpretations