Vectors

& 3D
Geometry
21 February 2024
Revision: 3916

AZIZ MANVA, PGDM, IIM-L

AZIZMANVA@GMAIL.COM
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.12 Cross Product-II: Component Definition 107
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................. 2 1.13 Cross Product Revision 114
1. VECTORS .................................................. 3 1.14 Triple Products 117

1.1 Basics 3 2. 3D LINES AND PLANES ................... 119

1.2 Properties 8
2.1 Vector Equation of a Line 119
1.3 Addition and Subtraction 19
1.4 Scalar Multiplication 32 2.2 Cartesian Equation of a Line 126
1.5 Polar Form; Resolving Components 48 2.3 Multiple Lines 134
2.4 Planes: Point Form 141
1.6 Projections 60
2.5 Planes: General Form 148
1.7 Dot Product: Angles and Perpendicularity 64
2.6 Planes: Normal Form 155
1.8 Dot Product: Properties 73
2.7 Planes: Intercept Form 161
1.9 Dot Product: Components 83
2.8 Planes, Lines, Points 166
1.10 Dot Product Revision 94
1.11 Cross Product-I: Angle Definition 97

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1. VECTORS
1.1 Basics
A. Introduction

We introduce vectors as geometrical Vector

quantities. However, vectors have many
interpretations:
➢ as a translation from one point to Geometry Algebra Physics Statistics
another (Coordinate Geometry)
➢ as the position of a point (Coordinate Directed Line Pair of Probability
Displacement
Geometry) Segment Numbers Vector
➢ as a pair of numbers (Algebra)
➢ as the displacement of a quantity Position Vector
Coefficients of
Velocity
an equations
(Physics)
➢ as the velocity of an object (Physics)
Translation
➢ as the acceleration of an object Vectcor
Acceleration
(Physics)
➢ as the probabilities of the sample space of an event (Statistics)

➢ Note that we could 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒 vectors to be any one of the above interpretations, and we could still work
with them.
➢ In fact, these would lead to equivalent properties, though we will not show this here.

B. Geometrical Definition
We introduce vectors in terms of coordinate geometry. Later on, we show applications in other areas, including
algebra, geometry, and physics. Vectors have deep connections to all of these areas.

1.1: Definition
A vector is a 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 line segment that has a start point and an
endpoint.
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑇𝑎𝑖𝑙 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )
𝐸𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑇𝑖𝑝 = (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )

Example 1.2
Identify the start points and the endpoints of the vectors drawn
alongside.

(2,1), (3,5)
(5,2), (7,4)
(1,2), (−3, −1)

1.3: Notation
Vectors are often indicated in textbooks using boldface notation.
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = 𝒂
Vectors when written by hand are usually indicated with an arrow on top of the letter:
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = 𝑎⃗

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We will use the notation interchangeably. We might also combine both notations:
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = 𝒂⃗⃗
Variables that you have come across so far in Algebra are scalars.

Example 1.4
Decide whether the following quantities are vectors or scalars (based on the notation):
A. 𝑥
B. 𝒙
C. 𝑥⃗

𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟: 𝐴
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟: 𝐵, 𝐶
C. Translation Vectors

1.5: Vectors as Translation

You can think of a vector as translating a point from its start point to its end point. Hence, given 𝐴 =
(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ):
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )
𝑨𝑩

Example 1.6
The diagram alongside shows a vector with a start end, and an
endpoint. It also shows three different paths from the start point to
the end point.
Do these paths represent three different vectors?

𝑁𝑜.
A vector is the translation from its start point to its endpoint.

Example 1.7
Write each vector in the diagram alongside as a translation vector.

(3 − 2,5 − 1) = (1,4)
(7 − 5,4 − 2) = (2,2)
(−3 − 1, −1 − 2) = (−4, −3)

Example 1.8
A. Jane was visiting a town that had a rectangular grid layout. She
imagined a coordinate system with the town’s central square at the origin. Jane is currently at the town
fountain at (3, −2). She asked for directions to the mayor’s office, and was told she needed to apply a
translation vector of (2, −5) to her current position. Identify the coordinates of the mayor’s office.
B. Write a translation of 3 units in the 𝑥 direction, and 2 units in the 𝑦 direction as a translation vector.
C. Identify the translation in the x direction, and the y direction for the translation vector (𝜋, 𝑒).

Part A
(3,
⏟ −2) + (2,
⏟ −5) = (3 + 2, −2 − 5) = (5,
⏟ −7)
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑀𝑎𝑦𝑜𝑟 ′ 𝑠
𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑂𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒
Part B

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(3,2)
Part C
𝑥 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜋
𝑦 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑒

Example 1.9
Consider the points:
𝐴 = (1,2), 𝐵 = (3,5), 𝐶 = (5,2), 𝐷 = (7,4), 𝐸 = (1,2), 𝐹 = (−3, −1)
Plot the following vectors, and find their values
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
A. 𝑨𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝑪𝑫
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
C. 𝑬𝑭

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (3 − 1,5 − 2) = (2,3)

𝑨𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑫 = (7 − 5,4 − 2) = (2,2)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬𝑭 = (−3 − 1, −1 − 2) = (−4, −3)
D. Position Vector and Components

1.10: Position Vector

➢ A vector that starts from the origin is called a position vector.
➢ It gives the coordinates of a position (along with being a vector)

𝐸𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 − 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡

Example 1.11
Consider the points:
𝐴 = (1,2), 𝐵 = (3,5), 𝐶 = (5,2), 𝐷 = (7,4), 𝐸 = (1,2), 𝐹 = (−3, −1)
Write the following as position vectors.
A. 𝑨𝑩⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
B. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑫
C. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬𝑭

The answers are the same as previously calculated:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (3 − 1,5 − 2) = (2,3)
𝑨𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (7 − 5,4 − 2) = (2,2)
𝑪𝑫
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−3 − 1, −1 − 2) = (−4, −3)
𝑬𝑭

1.12: Components of a Vector

⃗⃗ = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), its components are:
Given a vector 𝒂
𝑥1 = 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑦1 = 𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡

1.13: 𝒊, 𝒋, 𝒌 notation
A vector can be written in 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂, 𝑘̂ notation as

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̂
(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) = 𝑥1 𝒊̂ + 𝑦1 𝒋̂ + 𝑧1 𝒌

E. Direction

1.14: Order is important

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )
𝐴 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) ⇒ 𝑨𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is not equal to the vector 𝑩𝑨
The vector 𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
The two vectors have the same length but opposite directions.

In fact, we can state that

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝑨𝑩
𝑩𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑥1 − 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )

Example 1.15
Consider the points
𝐴 = (1,2), 𝐵 = (3,5), 𝐶 = (5,2), 𝐷 = (7,4), 𝐸 = (1,2), 𝐹 = (−3, −1)
Plot the following vectors, and find their values:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
A. 𝑩𝑨
B. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑫𝑪
C. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑭𝑬

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (1 − 3,2 − 5) = (−2, −3)

𝑩𝑨
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (5 − 7,2 − 4) = (−2, −2)
𝑫𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑭𝑬 = (1 − (−3), 2 − (−1)) = (4,3)

Example 1.16
Consider the points
𝐴 = (1,2), 𝐵 = (3,5)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
A. Are vector 𝑨𝑩, and vector 𝑩𝑨 the same or different?
B. If you plot them, will they look the same? If they look different, what will be the difference?
C. What concept in Euclidean Geometry does this connect to?

Part A
The vectors are different.
Part B
The start point and the end point will be the same, but the arrow will point in exactly opposite directions.
Part C
Ray

1.17: Parallel and Anti Parallel Vectors

➢ Vectors that have the same direction are parallel.
➢ Vectors that have opposite directions are anti-parallel.

F. Algebraic Definition

1.18: Algebraic Definition

An ordered pair of numbers 𝑥 and 𝑦 represent a vector.

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⃗⃗ = (𝑥, 𝑦)
𝒂

1.19: Row and Column Vectors

➢ A row vector is a vector of the form (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )
𝑥1
➢ A column vector is a vector of the form (𝑦 )
1
➢ Both forms are equivalent forms of writing the same vector.

𝑥1
(𝑥
⏟ 1 , 𝑦1 ) = (⏟𝑦 )
1
𝑹𝒐𝒘 𝑽𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒎 𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒏
𝑽𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒎

G. Physical Interpretation
A vector can be interpreted as a directed line segment that represents:
➢ Displacement
➢ Velocity
➢ Acceleration
➢ Force

1.20: Vectors versus Scalars

➢ Vectors have both magnitude and direction.

➢ An example of a vector quantity is force.

➢ To give a complete description of a force, we must give both the magnitude of the force, and the
direction in which it is applied.

1.21: Vectors in Kinematics

➢ Displacement is the straight-line distance between the start point and the end point of an object that is
moving.
⃗⃗
𝑑𝒔
➢ Velocity is the rate of change of displacement with respect to time. 𝒗
⃗⃗ =
𝑑𝑡
⃗⃗
𝑑𝒗
➢ Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. 𝒂
⃗⃗ =
𝑑𝑡

Kinematics is one of the most important applications of vectors. The above definitions are crucial to working in
Kinematics.

Example 1.22
Given position vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑨 = (2, −5), ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑩 = (−3,4), find
A. 𝑩𝑨 and interpret it.
B. 𝑨𝑩 and interpret it.

1.23: Scalar Quantities

➢ Scalars have only magnitude.

Some scalars can never be negative. Examples of such scalars include

➢ Mass
➢ Length
➢ Distance
➢ Age

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1.24: Signed Scalar Quantities

Some scalar quantities can also be negative.

Examples of such scalars include:

➢ Temperature
➢ Bank Balance

Example 1.25
Decide whether the following are vectors or scalars:
A. The bank balance in a savings account
B. The pull exerted by gravity between the moon and object on the moon
C. The distance travelled by an asteroid orbiting the Sun.
D. A plane takes off from a runaway.
E. The wind conditions during a hot air balloon event.
F. The quantity of sand stored in a balloon before it takes off.
G. The temperature of a hot plate used to cook.
H. The distance travelled by a car owner travelling from home to office.

𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠: 𝐵, 𝐷, 𝐸
𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑠: 𝐴, 𝐶, 𝐹, 𝐺, 𝐻

1.26: Displacement Vector

𝑥1
The displacement vector (𝑦 ) moves its input 𝑥1 units in the 𝑥 direction, and 𝑦1 units in the 𝑦 direction.
1

Example 1.27
Rory the dog is pulling a cart. He is currently stationed at (−2,5). Rory applies the displacement vector (2, −5)
of the dog cart. Determine the final position of the dog cart.

(−2,5) + (2, −5) = (−2 + 2,5 − 5) = (0,0)

Example 1.28
Convert the following vectors, if given in row form, into column form, and vice versa.
A. (−2,8)
1
B. ( 2 )
−3

−2
( )
8
1
( , −3)
2
1.2 Properties
A. Magnitude

1.29: Length or Magnitude of a Vector

The length of a vector is the length of the line segment connecting its start point and its end point. It is given by
the distance formula to be:

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⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = |𝑨𝑩
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2
𝐴 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )
𝐵 = (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )

Just as absolute values cannot be negative, similarly, length cannot be negative.

Hence, the symbol for length of a vector is similar to the symbol for absolute value.

Example 1.30
Find the magnitude of the following vectors:
𝐴 = (3,4), 𝐵 = (4,9)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
A. 𝑨𝑩

|𝑨𝑩| = √(4 − 3)2 + (9 − 4)2 = √1 + 25 = √26

Example 1.31: Magnitude

̂, 𝒊 − 6𝒋̂ + 10𝒌
Consider points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 and 𝐷 with position vectors 7𝒊̂ − 4𝒋̂ + 7𝒌 ̂, −𝒊̂ − 3𝒋̂ + 4𝒌
̂ and 5𝒊̂ − 𝒋̂ + 5𝒌
̂,
respectively. Then, 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 is a
A. Square
B. Rhombus
C. Rectangle
D. None of these (JEE Main 2003)

To determine the nature of the quadrilateral, we need the distance between the points.
This will be given to us by the magnitude:

⃗⃗ = (7, −4,7)
𝒂
⃗𝒃⃗ = (1, −6,10)
⃗⃗ = (−1, −3,4)
𝒄
⃗𝒅⃗ = (5, −1,5)

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = √(7 − 1)2 + (−4 + 6)2 + (7 − 10)2 = √36 + 4 + 9 = √49 = 7

|𝑨𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = √(1 + 1)2 + (−6 + 3)2 + (10 − 4)2 = √4 + 9 + 36 = √49 = 7
|𝑩𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = √(−1 − 5)2 + (−3 + 1)2 + (4 − 5)2 = √36 + 4 + 1 = √41
|𝑪𝑫
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = √(5 − 7)2 + (−1 + 4)2 + (5 − 7)2 = √4 + 9 + 4 = √17
|𝑫𝑨

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| ≠ |𝑪𝑫
Since |𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|, opposite sides are not equal:
𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑
𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐷

1.32: Magnitude of a Vector is Invariant under Rotation

If you rotate a vector, you do not change its magnitude or length.
Hence, we say that magnitude is 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑡 under rotation.

Example 1.33
⃗⃗ has components 3𝑝 and 1 with respect to rectangular cartesian system. This system is rotated
A vector 𝒂
⃗⃗ has
through a certain angle about the origin in the counter clockwise sense. If, with respect to new system, 𝒂

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components, 𝑝 + 1 and √10, then the values that 𝑝 can take are: (JEE Main 2021, 18 March, Shift-I)

The magnitude of the vector is the same before and after rotation.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = |𝑶𝑩
|𝑶𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
2 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = |𝑶𝑩
|𝑶𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
2
(3𝑝)2 + 1 = (𝑝 + 1)2 + (√10)
9𝑝2 + 1 = 𝑝2 + 2𝑝 + 1 + 10
8𝑝2 − 2𝑝 − 10 = 0
4𝑝2 − 𝑝 − 5 = 0
(𝑝 + 1)(4𝑝 − 5) = 0
5
𝑝 ∈ {−1, }
4

Example 1.34: Rotation Invariance

̂ is rotated through an angle 𝜃 and doubled in magnitude. It becomes 4𝒊̂ − (4𝑥 − 2)𝒋̂ + 2𝒌
The vector 𝒊̂ + 𝑥𝒋̂ + 3𝒌 ̂.
The values of 𝑥 are: (JEE Main 2002)

The magnitude of the vector is the same before and after rotation.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = |𝑶𝑩
2|𝑶𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
2|(1, 𝑥, 3)| = |(4, −4𝑥 + 2,2)|

Use the definition of magnitude:

2√12 + 𝑥 2 + 32 = √42 + (4𝑥 − 2)2 + 22

Square both sides:

4(10 + 𝑥 2 ) = 20 + 16𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 + 4

Expand:
40 + 4𝑥 2 = 24 + 16𝑥 2 − 16𝑥

Collate all terms on one side:

0 = 12𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 − 16

Divide both sides by 3:

3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 4 = 0

Factor:
(𝑥 − 2)(3𝑥 + 2) = 0

Use the zero-product property:

2
𝑥 ∈ {− , 2}
3

1.35: Magnitude of a Position Vector

The magnitude of a position vector 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = (𝑥, 𝑦) is the length of the line segment connecting the origin to its end
point. It is given by the distance formula to be:
√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

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|𝒂| = √(𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

Example 1.36
Determine the magnitude of the following position vectors:
1 3
⃗⃗ = ( , )
A. 𝒂
2 4

1 2 3 2 1 9 13 √13
|𝑎| = √( ) + ( ) = √ + =√ =
2 4 4 16 16 4

1.37: Zero Vector

➢ A vector with magnitude zero is called the zero vector.
➢ The zero vector does not have direction.

𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝟎

1.38: Changing direction of a vector

If a non-zero vector is rotated, it becomes a different vector.
If the zero vector is rotated, it remains the same.
If a vector remains the same under a rotation which is not 360°, then it is the zero vector.

⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒂 𝑶𝑨 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑩 = ⃗𝟎⃗

Rotate ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑨 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑩 to get
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑪 + 𝑶𝑫 = ⃗𝟎⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

Example 1.39
⃗⃗ does not change after being rotated 𝜃°, 𝜃 ≠ 0. Identify 𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗.

⃗⃗ = ⃗𝟎⃗
𝒂

1.40: Zero Vector

The components of the zero vector are:
(0,0)

Consider a position vector ⃗𝒂⃗ such that

|𝒂
⃗⃗| = 𝟎

Square both sides:

𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 0
By the Trivial Inequality 𝑥 2 ≥ 0, 𝑦 2 ≥ 0:
𝑥=𝑦=0
B. Equality of Vectors

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1.41: Equality of Two Vectors

➢ Two vectors are equal 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 they have the same magnitude, and the same direction.
➢ Equivalently, two vectors are equal 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 their individual components are equal.

Example 1.42
Determine the values of the variables in each case
3 𝑘
A. ( ) + ( ) = 𝟎
𝑗 −4

Think of the second vector as a translation vector. It translates the first vector back to the origin:
3 𝑘 3+𝑘 0
( )+( )= ( )=( )
𝑗 −4 𝑗−4 0

Equating components:
𝑥: 3 + 𝑘 = 0 ⇒ 𝑘 = −3
𝑦: 𝑗 − 4 = 0 ⇒ 𝑗 = 4

1.43: Position is not important

Changing the position of a vector does not change the vector. The
identity of the vector depends only upon its magnitude, and its
direction, not its position.

Example 1.44
Determine which of the following vectors are equal.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (3,2) = (3)

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑪𝑫
𝑨𝑩
2
C. Unit Vectors and Component Form

1.45: Unit Vector

➢ A vector with magnitude 1 is called a unit vector.
➢ (𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) A unit vector is written with a hat on top, instead of an arrow, to
focus on the fact that it is a unit vector.

Example 1.46
In the adjoining diagram, we have a circle with its center at the origin, and a radius
̂ , 𝑶𝑩
of 1 unit. Explain why 𝑶𝑨 ̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑶𝑪̂ are unit vectors.

Each of the vectors mentioned has a magnitude of 1.

Hence, they are unit vectors.

Example 1.47

Checking for Unit Vectors ⃗⃗ = (1,0)

A. 𝒂
Determine whether the following are unit vectors. ⃗⃗ = (1 , 1)
B. 𝒃 2 2

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⃗⃗ = (0,1)
C. 𝒄 1
⃗⃗ = ( , 𝑒)
E. 𝒆
3 √7 2
D. ⃗𝒅⃗ = (4 , 4 ) F. ⃗⃗
2
𝒇 = (𝑓, 3)
Back Calculations ⃗⃗⃗ = (2, 𝑔)
G. 𝒈
Determine the value of the variables such that the
vector is a unit vector.

Checking for Unit Vectors Part F

⃗⃗| = √12 + 0 = 1
|𝒂 ⃗⃗| = 1
|𝒇

1 2 1 2 2 2 2
⃗⃗ √
|𝒃| = ( ) + ( ) = √ ≠ 1 √𝑓 2 + ( ) = 1
2 2 4 3
4
⃗⃗| = √02 + 12 = 1
|𝒄 𝑓2 + = 1
2
9
3 2 9 7 16 4 5
⃗⃗| = √( ) + (√7) = √ +
|𝒅 =√ =1 𝑓2 = 1 − =
4 4 16 16 16 9 9
⃗⃗, ⃗𝒅⃗
⃗⃗, 𝒄
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝒂 5 √5
𝑓 = ±√ = ±
Back Calculations 9 3
Part E Part G
|𝒆
⃗⃗| = 1 |𝒈
⃗⃗⃗| = 1
1 2 √22
+ 𝑔2 = 1
√( ) + 𝑒 2 = 1
2 4 + 𝑔2 = 1
1 𝑔2 = −3
+ 𝑒2 = 1 𝑁𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
4
3 We can also realize that there no solutions since the
𝑒2 = 𝑥 component is greater than 1.
4
3 √3
𝑒 = ±√ = ±
4 2

1.48: Standard Basis

𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝒊̂
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝒋̂
̂
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑧 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝒌

Example 1.49
Write the following vectors in component form using the standard basis.
A. Position vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑨 = (3,4)
B. Position vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑩 = (𝑥, 𝑦)
C. Position vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑩 with a magnitude of 13 units, and which translates its input 5 units in the 𝑥
direction.

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Parts A-B
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑨 = 3𝒊̂ + 4𝒋̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑩 = 𝑥𝒊̂ + 𝑦𝒋̂
Parts C
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 5𝒊̂ + 12𝒋̂
𝑶𝑪

Example 1.50
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗, 𝑪𝑩
The adjacent diagram shows vectors 𝑪𝑫 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑪𝑬
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗. Write these vectors in
component form.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 2
𝑪𝑫 = ( )
2
3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( )
𝑪𝑩
4
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( )−4
𝑪𝑬
3

Example 1.51
1 √3
⃗⃗ has 𝑥 −component with magnitude | 𝒂
Vector 𝒂 ⃗⃗| , and 𝑦-component with magnitude | 𝒂⃗⃗|. Determine what
2 2
kind of triangle is formed by the vector and its components.

The 𝑥 component of the vector has magnitude

𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

The 𝑦 component of the vector has magnitude

√3
𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
2

Draw a diagram that meets these conditions.

The triangle that is formed is a:

30 − 60 − 90 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

D. Slope of a Vector

1.52: Slope of a Vector

The slope of a vector is the slope that the line segment of the vector has, and it is given by:
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑥2 − 𝑥1

The slope of a vector can be used to determine the direction of the vector.

Example 1.53

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Consider the points

𝐴(3,4), 𝐵(6,8), 𝐶(1,4), 𝐷(4,8)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑪𝑫
A. Show that 𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ≠ 𝑫𝑪
B. Show that 𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

Part A
Length:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = √(6 − 3)2 + (8 − 4)2 = √25 = 5
|𝑨𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = √(4 − 1)2 + (8 − 4)2 = √25 = 5
|𝑪𝑫
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = |𝐶𝐷
|𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
Direction/Slope
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑦2 −𝑦1 = 8−4 = 4
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵 𝑥 −𝑥
2 1 6−3 3
𝑦2 − 𝑦1 8 − 4 4
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐷 = = =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 4 − 1 3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑨𝑩 𝑪𝑫
The length and the slope are the same.
The direction is also the same.

Part B
The length and the slope of the two vectors are the same.
But ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑫𝑪 is oriented in 180° from ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑫. Hence, it is going in the opposite
direction.
E. Angle between two vectors

1.54: Angle between two Vectors

The angle between two vectors is the 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 formed when the
vectors are arranged:
➢ Tail to Tail
➢ OR Head-to-Head

⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗ can be denoted (𝒂

➢ The angle between 𝒂 ⃗⃗, ⃗𝒃⃗)

Example 1.55
𝜃 is the angle between two vectors. Find the range of 𝜃.

0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 180°

Example 1.56
Find the angle between the vectors in each case:
A. The position vectors given by (2,0) and (0, −1) on the
coordinate plane.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑶𝑨
B. 𝑶𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑨𝑪
C. 𝑶𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑨𝑪
D. 𝑶𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

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Part A
Draw the vectors, and note that we get a right-angled triangle:
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 = 90°
Part B
The vectors are already arranged tail to tail. Hence, we can directly get the
answer from the diagram:
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑂𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 125°
Part C
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑨 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑨𝑪 are currently arranged tip to tail. To determine the angle
between them, we arrange them tail to tail.
We do this by moving 𝑶𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ to the right until its tip coincides with the tip
of 𝑨𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.

Then, the angle between them

= 180 − 103 = 77°

Part D
Move 𝑶𝑩⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ to the right until its tail coincides with the tail of 𝑨𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
Call the angle between the two vectors

𝑥 = 180 − 55 − 77
Shortcut
If you recognize that the angle between the vectors is the overlap of the two
angles, then you can directly calculate:
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 = 125 + 103 − 180 = 48

F. 𝒏-Dimensional Vectors
So far, the vectors we have been working with have been two dimensional. However, the framework that we
have created generalizes easily to more dimensions.

1.57: Vectors in 𝟑 Dimensions

A vector in three dimensions consists of an ordered triple of numbers:
(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 )

Example 1.58
Write the row vector (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) as a column vector

𝑥1
(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) = ( 𝑦1 )
⏟
𝑅𝑜𝑤 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 ⏟𝑧1
𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

1.59: Vectors in 𝒏 Dimensions

A vector in 𝑛 dimensions consists of 𝑛 ordered numbers:
(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 )

1.60: Magnitude

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⃗⃗ = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ), its magnitude of the vector is by:

Given the position vector 𝒃
⃗⃗| = √𝑥12 + 𝑥22 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛2
|𝒃

The formula for the magnitude of an n dimensional vector is a straightforward generalization of the formula in
two dimensions:
⃗⃗| = √𝑥12 + 𝑥22
⃗⃗ = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) ⇒ |𝒂
𝒂

Example 1.61
Find the distance from the origin of the vector in infinite dimensions given below:
1 1 1 1
( , , ,…, 𝑛 ,…)
√2 2 √8 22

The distance is given by:

2
1 1 2 1 2 1
√( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ⋯ + ( 𝑛 ) + ⋯
√2 2 √8 22
1 1 1 1
√ + + +⋯+ 𝑛 + ⋯
2 4 8 2
1 1
The expression inside the square root is a geometric series with 𝑎 = , 𝑟 = .
2 2

1 1
Substitute 𝑎 = 2 , 𝑟 = 2 in the formula for the sum of a geometric series:
1 1
𝑎 2
= = 2 =1
1−𝑟 1−1 1
2 2
G. Probability Vectors

1.62: Probability Vectors

A vector (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ) is a probability vector if:
0 ≤ 𝑥𝑖 ≤ 1
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 = 1

Consider events 𝑒1 , 𝑒2 , … , 𝑒𝑛 which are mutually exclusive and exhaustive.

Then
0 ≤ 𝑃(𝑒𝑖 ) ≤ 1
𝑒1 + 𝑒2 + ⋯ + 𝑒𝑛 = 1

Example 1.63
A.

Identification 2 2
B. (5 , 7)
State, with reasons, whether the vectors below are
Back Calculations
probability vectors.
1 1 1 Can the vectors given below be probability vectors?
A. ( , , ) If so, find the values of the missing variables.
2 3 6

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1 3 4
C. (4 , 𝑝) E. (5 , 5 , 𝑥)
D. (2, 𝑐)

Part A 2 2 14 10 24
+ = + = ≠1
Consider the first condition. Each component of the 5 7 35 35 35
vector is between 0 and 1. That is: Not a probability vector
1 Part C
0≤ ≤1 1
2 0≤ ≤1
1 4
0≤ ≤1 Hence, the given vector can be a probability vector.
3
1 1 3
0≤ ≤1 +𝑝 =1⇒𝑝=
6 4 4
Consider the second condition. The sum of the Part D
components is: 2>1
1 1 1 3 2 1 Not a probability vector
+ + = + + =1
2 3 6 6 6 6 Part E
Both the conditions are satisfied. Hence, the vector 3 4 7
is a probability vector. + = >1
5 5 5
Part B Not a probability vector

Example 1.64
An urn that has three green balls, two blue balls, four yellow balls and five purple balls.
A. (𝑊𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑝) I draw a single ball from the urn. Represent the sample space of the possibilities using a
probability vector.
B. I draw a ball from the urn, replace it, and then draw another ball from the urn. What is the probability
that the two balls have distinct colors?

Part A

3 2 4 5
⃗⃗ = (𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛, 𝐵𝑙𝑢𝑒, 𝑌𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤, 𝑃𝑢𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑒) =
𝒑 , , ,
⏟ 14
14 ⏟ 14⏟ ⏟
14
𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐵𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑌𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑃𝑢𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑒
( 𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑙 )
Part B
1 − 𝑃(𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑟)
Without using vectors
1 − 𝑃(𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑟)

3 2 2 2 4 2 5 2
=1− ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( )
⏟14 ⏟14 ⏟14 ⏟14
𝑇𝑤𝑜 𝑇𝑤𝑜 𝑇𝑤𝑜 𝑇𝑤𝑜
[𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝐵𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝑌𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝑃𝑢𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑠]
9 4 16 25 54 27 71
=1−[ + + + ]=1− =1− =
196 196 196 196 196 98 98
Vectors

3 2 2 2 4 2 5 2 71
1− |𝒑|2 =1− ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) =
⏟14 ⏟14 ⏟14 ⏟14 98
𝑇𝑤𝑜 𝑇𝑤𝑜 𝑇𝑤𝑜 𝑇𝑤𝑜
[𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝐵𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝑌𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝑃𝑢𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑠]

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1.3 Addition and Subtraction

A. Basics

Example 1.65
1 3 1
Bill walks 2 mile south, then 4 mile east, and finally 2 mile south. How many miles is he, in a direct line, from his
starting point? (AMC 8 2005/7)

Bill has the following movements:

1
➢ 2
mile south(𝒂)
3
➢ 4
mile east(𝒃)
1
➢ 2
mile south(𝒄)

The diagram shows three vectors (one for each movement). Note
that
➢ the starting point of 𝒃 is placed precisely where 𝒂 ends.
➢ the starting point of 𝒄 is placed precisely where 𝒃 ends.
(This approach, which can be done intuitively to get Bill’s movement is exactly the definition of vector addition.)

Using the Pythagorean Theorem, we get:

3 2 9 25 5
√
𝑑 = 1 + ( ) = √1 +
2 =√ =
4 16 16 4

Example 1.66
While walking on a plane surface, a traveler first headed 18 miles north, then 11 miles west, then 6 miles south
and finally 6 miles east. How many miles from the starting point was the traveler after these four legs of the
journey? (MathCounts 1996 Warm-Up 8)

The diagram on the left shows the movements of the traveler.

(5,12, 𝑥) ⇒ 𝑥 = 13

1.67: Orthogonal
An angle of 90° is called orthogonal.

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Example 1.68
Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport is 8 miles southwest of downtown St. Paul and 10 miles southeast of
downtown Minneapolis. Which integer is closest to the number of miles between downtown St. Paul and
downtown Minneapolis? (AMC 10B 2004/8)

Southwest and southeast are orthogonal. Hence, we get a right triangle.

√82 + 102 = √64 + 100 = √164 ≈ √169 = 13

Example 1.69
Point 𝐵 is due east of point 𝐴. Point 𝐶 is due north of point 𝐵. The distance between points 𝐴 and 𝐶 is 10√2, and
∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 = 45∘ . Point 𝐷 is 20 meters due north of point 𝐶. The distance 𝐴𝐷 is between which two integers? (AMC
10B 2012/12)

10√2
𝐴𝐵 = = 10
√2
𝐴𝐷 = √102 + 302 = √1000
31 < 𝐴𝐷 < 32
B. Algebraic Method

1.70: Addition and Subtraction: Algebraic Method

𝑥1 𝑥2
⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = (𝑦1 ) , 𝒃 = (𝑦2 )
Given 𝒂
𝑧1 𝑧2
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑥1 − 𝑥2
𝒂 ⃗⃗ = (𝑦1 + 𝑦2 ) ,
⃗⃗ + 𝒃 ⃗⃗ = (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )
⃗⃗ − 𝒃
𝒂
𝑧1 + 𝑧2 𝑧1 − 𝑧2

➢ When vectors are given in component form, they can be added or subtracted by adding/subtracting
their individual components.
➢ This is one of the most useful properties in applications of vectors.

Example 1.71
1 2
Add the vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑷 = (1, 2) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑸 = (3 , 2) where 𝑂 is the origin.

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2 5
1+
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑷 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑸 = ( 3) = (3)
1 5
+2
2 2

1.72: Addition and Subtraction in Component Form

Given two vectors
⃗𝑿 ̂,
⃗⃗ = 𝑎𝒊̂ + 𝑏𝒋̂ + 𝑐𝒌 ̂
⃗𝒀⃗ = 𝑑𝒊̂ + 𝑒𝒋̂ + 𝑓𝒌
their sum is:
⃗⃗⃗ + 𝒀
𝑿 ̂
⃗⃗ = (𝑎 + 𝑑)𝒊̂ + (𝑏 + 𝑒)𝒋̂ + (𝑐 + 𝑓)𝒌
⃗𝑿 ̂
⃗⃗ − ⃗𝒀⃗ = (𝑎 − 𝑑)𝒊̂ + (𝑏 − 𝑒)𝒋̂ + (𝑐 − 𝑓)𝒌

Example 1.73
Given that 𝒂⃗⃗ = 2𝒊̂ + 3𝒋̂, ⃗𝒃⃗ = 5𝒊̂ − 2𝒋̂ find
A. 𝒂⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗
B. 𝒂⃗⃗ − ⃗𝒃⃗

⃗⃗ = 2𝒊̂ + 3𝒋̂ + 5𝒊̂ − 2𝒋̂ = 7𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂

⃗⃗ + 𝒃
𝒂
⃗⃗ = 2𝒊̂ + 3𝒋̂ − 5𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ = −𝟑𝒊̂ + 5𝒋̂
⃗⃗ − 𝒃
𝒂

1.74: Identity Vector for Addition

⃗⃗ + 𝟎 = 𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗

The zero vector is the identity vector for addition.

1.75: Additive Inverse

⃗⃗ is −𝒂
Additive inverse of 𝒂 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ + (−𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗) = 𝟎

Example 1.76: Vector Equation

⃗⃗:
Solve for 𝒙
⃗⃗ = ⃗𝒃⃗
⃗⃗ + 𝒂
𝒙

𝒙 ⃗⃗ − 𝒂
⃗⃗ = 𝒃 ⃗⃗
C. Geometric Method: Addition

1.77: Geometrical Addition: Triangle Approach

⃗⃗:
⃗⃗ and 𝒃
To add vectors 𝒂
➢ Place the tail of the second vector where the tip of the first vector ends.
➢ The sum of the two vectors is the vector starting from the tail of the first vector, and ending at the tip of
the second vector

This approach is also the triangle approach because it creates a triangle.

Example 1.78
Add the vectors

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⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (2,3) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑶𝑩

𝑶𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (1,4)
Where 𝑂 is the origin.

Method I: Use the tip to tail approach

If you draw the vectors, you will get the diagram on the
left.

To add the vectors, pick any vector and move it to the tip of
the other vector.
Suppose, we choose to move ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 and put it at the tip of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 .
We then get the diagram to the right.

And
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 = (3,7)

Method II: Add the components

We can work out the components of each of the
vectors we want to add up (see the diagram on the
left):
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 = (2,3) ⇒ 2 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 3 𝑈𝑝
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 = (1,4) ⇒ 1 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 4 𝑈𝑝

We can add the components in the right direction,

and the components in the up direction directly:
𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡: 2 + 1 = 3
𝑈𝑝: 3 + 4 = 7

And, hence, the final answer is:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝐵
𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (2 + 1,3 + 4) = (3,7)

Example 1.79: Important

⃗⃗ are two unit vectors such that |𝒂
⃗⃗ and 𝒃
If 𝒂 ⃗⃗| is also a unit vector, then find the angle between 𝒂
⃗⃗ + 𝒃 ⃗⃗. (CBSE
⃗⃗ and 𝒃
2014)

Geometric Method
We get an equilateral triangle, as shown alongside. The angle between
the line segments is 60°, but this is not the angle between the vectors,
because the vectors are arranged 𝑡𝑖𝑝 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙.

To find the angle between the vectors, we move ⃗𝒃⃗ to the right until its tail
⃗⃗.
coincides with the tail of 𝒂

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The vectors are now arranged tail to tail, and the angle is:
180 − 60 = 120°

1.80: Vector Polygon

A polygon can be thought of as a set of vectors.

Example 1.81
Identify the sum of the following vectors in the vector polygon drawn
alongside.

We want to find:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 𝑩𝑪 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑫𝑬 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑫 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑬𝑨

This looks complicated until we realize we can use the tip to tail approach, and we end up exactly where we
began and hence:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑩𝑪
𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑪𝑫
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑫𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑨𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑬𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0

1.82: Sum of a Vector Polygon

The sum of the vectors in a vector polygon is zero.

Example 1.83
Simplify:
A. 𝑨𝑩⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑩𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑪𝑫
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

We do not know the details of the vectors involved. But, using the tip to tail approach (for any diagram that we
draw), we get:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 𝑩𝑪 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑫 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑪 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑫 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑫

Example 1.84
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒
State whether the following statement is true or false. If it is false, correct it.

The converse of the statement “If three vectors can be arranged to form the sides of a triangle, the sum of three
vectors is zero.” is true.

The converse is: “If the sum of three vectors is zero, then the three vectors can be arranged to form the sides of a
triangle.”

This is not true.

Exception I: Zero Vectors
⃗⃗ = ⃗𝒃⃗ = 𝒄
𝒂 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗ = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 𝟎
In the above, the three vectors are all zero, and hence their sum is zero. But they do not form the sides of a
triangle.

Exception I: Collinear Vectors

⃗⃗ = ⃗𝒃⃗, 𝒄
𝒂 ⃗⃗ = −2𝒂 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗ ⇒ 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 𝒂
⃗⃗ + 𝒂
⃗⃗ − 2𝒂
⃗⃗ = 0
Even though the vectors are non-zero, they are collinear, and hence do not form the sides of a triangle.

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We need to incorporate these two exceptions to make the statement true. The corrected version is:
“If the sum of three non-zero, non-collinear vectors is zero, then the three vectors form the sides of a triangle.”

1.85: Vector Addition is Commutative

⃗⃗ = 𝒃
⃗⃗ + 𝒃
𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒂
⃗⃗

Consider parallelogram 𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆:

𝑃𝑄 ∥ 𝑆𝑅, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑺𝑹
𝑃𝑄 = 𝑆𝑅 ⇒ 𝑷𝑸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒂
⃗⃗
𝑆𝑃 ∥ 𝑅𝑄, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑹𝑸
𝑆𝑃 = 𝑅𝑃 ⇒ 𝑺𝑷 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒃

Using the tip to tail approach:

𝐼𝑛 Δ𝑆𝑃𝑄: 𝒃 ⃗⃗ + 𝒂
⃗⃗ = 𝒄⃗⃗
𝐼𝑛 Δ𝑆𝑅𝑄: 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 𝒄
⃗⃗ + 𝒃 ⃗⃗
∴𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 𝒃
⃗⃗ + 𝒃 ⃗⃗ + 𝒂
⃗⃗

Example 1.86
The cube alongside consists of unit vectors.
A. Simplify ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬𝑨 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑫 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑫𝑪 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑩𝑪
B. √|𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑪𝑮
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑮𝑯
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑫𝑯
C. √|𝑨𝑫 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑬𝑭
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑯𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑭𝑮

Part A
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑪𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑫𝑪
𝑬𝑫 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑬𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑪𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑬𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Part B
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑪𝑮
√|𝑨𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑮𝑯| = √|𝑨𝑮 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = √√2 = 4√2
𝑮𝑯| = √|𝑨𝑯
Part C
3 3 3 3 3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
√|𝑨𝑯 𝑬𝑭 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑯𝑬 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑭𝑮| = √|𝑨𝑬 𝑬𝑭 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑭𝑮| = √|𝑨𝑭 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = √√3 = 6√3
𝑭𝑮| = √|𝑨𝑮

Example 1.87
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ can be expressed as sum of three vectors with start and end points on
The vector 𝑫𝑭
the vertices of the cube. Write all the ways in which this can be done. If order of the
vectors does matter, then write all the ways in which it can be done if:
A. All vectors used are unit vectors

Part A
(𝑈𝑝, 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡) = (𝑢, 𝑟, 𝑓)
These can be arranged in:
3×2×1=6

𝑫𝑪
⏟ + 𝑪𝑮
⏟ + 𝑮𝑭
⏟
𝑹𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝑼𝒑

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⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑫𝑪
⏟ + 𝑪𝑩 ⏟+ 𝑩𝑭
⏟
𝑹𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑼𝒑 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅
𝑫𝑨 + 𝑨𝑬 + 𝑬𝑭
𝑫𝑨 + 𝑨𝑩 + 𝑩𝑭
𝑫𝑯 + 𝑯𝑮 + 𝑮𝑭
𝑫𝑯 + 𝑯𝑬 + 𝑬𝑭

1.88: Vector Addition is Associative

⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗) + 𝒄
(𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗ + (𝒃 ⃗⃗)

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒂
𝑷𝑹 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ + 𝒃
𝑸𝑺 = ⃗𝒃⃗ + ⃗𝒄⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑷𝑹
𝑷𝑺 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝒂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑹𝑺 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗) + 𝒄⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑷𝑸
𝑷𝑺 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑸𝑺
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗ + (𝒃 ⃗⃗)
From the above two statements:
(𝒂 ⃗⃗) + 𝒄
⃗⃗ + 𝒃 ⃗⃗ = 𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗ + (𝒃 ⃗⃗)

1.89: Geometrical Addition: Parallelogram Law

The above also establishes the parallelogram law of vector addition.

Example 1.90
Consider pentagon 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐸. Find 𝒙 ⃗⃗ in each case below (answer separately):
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
A. 𝑨𝑩 + 𝑩𝑪 = 𝒙 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝑨𝑩 + 𝑬𝑨 + 𝑫𝑬 = 𝒙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
C. 𝑨𝑩 + 𝑩𝑪 + 𝑪𝑫 + 𝑫𝑬 + 𝒙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ = 0

⃗⃗ = 𝑨𝑩
𝒙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝑪 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = 𝑨𝑩 + 𝑬𝑨 + 𝑫𝑬 = 𝑫𝑩
𝒙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝑪 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑫 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑫𝑬 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬𝑨 = 0 ⇒ 𝒙 ⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬𝑨

D. Geometric Method: Subtraction

1.91: Geometrical Subtraction: Cancellation

Vectors that are equal in magnitude value and opposite in direction add up to zero. In particular
⃗⃗ + (−𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗) = 𝟎

Example 1.92
Simplify:
A. ⃗𝒃⃗ + (−𝒃
⃗⃗)

⃗𝒃⃗ + (−𝒃
⃗⃗) = 𝟎

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Example 1.93
Consider Regular Hexagon 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐸𝐹. Find
A. the sum of the six vectors originating from the center of the hexagon and terminating at the vertices.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑪𝑨
B. 𝑬𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑪𝑫
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

Part A
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑶𝑫
𝑶𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝟎
⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑶𝑬
𝑶𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝟎
⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑶𝑪
𝑶𝑭 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝟎
⃗⃗

Adding the above the sum of the six vectors is:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑶𝑫
𝑶𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑶𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑶𝑬
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑶𝑭
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑶𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝟎 ⃗⃗
Part B
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬𝑪 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑪𝑨 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑫 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬𝑨 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑫 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬𝑨 + 𝑨𝑭 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬𝑭

Example 1.94
Consider regular pentagon 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐸. Find the sum of the five vectors originating from the center of the pentagon
and terminating at the vertices.

Draw regular pentagon 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐸. We want the sum:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑶𝑩
⃗⃗ = 𝑶𝑨
𝒂 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑶𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑶𝑫
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑶𝑬
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

Rotate the vectors so that each vector moves over to its next vertex
counterclockwise.
For example,
𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑨 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑩
𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑶𝑩 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑪
.
.
𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑶𝑬 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑨

The sum is now:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑨 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑩 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑪 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑫 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑬 = 𝒂 ⃗⃗

The sum of the vectors did not change under a rotation which was not 360°. Hence, the vector must be the zero
vector.

1.95: Sum of Vectors to Vertices of Regular Polygon

The sum of the vectors drawn from the center of a regular polygon to the vertices is zero.

Consider a regular polygon with 𝑛 sides.

Let the sum of the vectors be 𝒂 ⃗⃗.
Rotate the vectors so that each vector moves over to its corresponding vertex counterclockwise.
The sum remains 𝒂 ⃗⃗. Since, the sum of the vectors did not change under a rotation which was not 360°. Hence,
the vector must be the zero vector.

1.96: Geometrical Subtraction: Triangle Approach

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Draw a vector triangle such that

𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 𝒄
⃗⃗ + 𝒃 ⃗⃗

Subtract ⃗𝒃⃗ from sides of the above:

⃗⃗ = 𝒄
𝒂 ⃗⃗ − ⃗𝒃⃗
⃗𝒃⃗ = 𝒄
⃗⃗ − 𝒂
⃗⃗

Example 1.97
In the diagram
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝑪 = 𝒂 𝑪𝑨 = ⃗𝒃⃗, 𝑨𝑩
⃗⃗, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒄
⃗⃗, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝑿 = 𝒙 ⃗⃗, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝒀 = 𝒚 ⃗⃗, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝒁 = 𝒛 ⃗⃗
Express the vectors below in terms of the vectors above:
A. 𝒂⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗
B. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑿
C. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝒀
D. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝒁
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
E. 𝑪𝑿
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
F. 𝑿𝑪

Part A
⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ = −𝒄
𝒂 ⃗⃗
Part B
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑨𝑩
𝑨𝑿 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑩𝑿
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒄 ⃗⃗ + 𝒙
⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑨𝑪
𝑨𝑿 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑪𝑿
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝒃 ⃗⃗ + 𝑪𝑿⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑪𝑿 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝒃
Part C
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝒀 = 𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒚
⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝒀 = −𝒄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ + 𝑨𝒀
Part D
𝑪𝒁 ⃗⃗ + 𝒛
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒃 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝒂
𝑪𝒁 ⃗⃗ + 𝒛⃗⃗
Part E
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑿 𝑪𝑩 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝑿 = −𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒙
⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗
𝑪𝑿 = 𝒃 + 𝒄⃗ ⃗⃗ + 𝒙
⃗⃗
Part F
⃗⃗ = 𝑪𝑨
𝒃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = 𝑨𝑪
−𝒃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝑪𝑿
𝑿𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −(−𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒙
⃗⃗) = 𝒂 ⃗⃗ − 𝒙
⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑿𝑨
𝑿𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑨𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑿𝑨 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝒃

Example 1.98
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒖
𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐸𝐹 is a regular hexagon with 𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝑪 = 𝒗 ⃗⃗. Find ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑫, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑫𝑬, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ in terms of 𝒖
𝑬𝑭 and 𝑭𝑨 ⃗⃗ and 𝒗
⃗⃗.

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Each angle of a regular polygon with n sides

180(𝑛 − 2) 180(6 − 2) 180(4)
= = = = 120°
𝑛 6 6

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝒖
𝑬𝑫 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝒗
𝑬𝑭 ⃗⃗

Method I
Draw a triangle
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒖
𝑭𝑨 ⃗⃗ − 𝒗
⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑫 = −𝑭𝑨 = 𝒗 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ − 𝒖
⃗⃗

Method II
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 𝑩𝑪 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑫 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑫
⃗⃗ + 𝒗
𝒖 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ + 𝑪𝑫 = 2𝒗 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑫 = 𝒗 ⃗⃗ − 𝒖 ⃗⃗

Example 1.99
The sum of two unit vectors is itself a unit vector.
A. Find the angle between the vectors.
B. Find the magnitude of the difference of the two vectors.

Part A
̂.
̂ and 𝒃
Let the unit vectors be 𝒂
̂+𝒃
𝒂 ̂ = 𝒄̂
|𝒂 ̂| = |𝒄̂| = 1
̂ | = |𝒃
Draw a diagram, and note that the triangle formed by the three vectors is
equilateral.

Hence, the angle between the sides of the triangle

= 60°
̂ to the right so that its tail
To find the angle between the vectors, we need to arrange them tail to tail. So, move 𝒂
̂
is at the tail of 𝒃.
By angles in a straight line:
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 = 180 − 60 = 120°

Part B
̂ and 𝒃
̂, 𝒃
Note that the triangle formed by 𝒂 ̂−𝒂
̂ is isosceles.
Hence, the angle shown is:
𝟏𝟖𝟎 − 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝟔𝟎
= = 𝟑𝟎°
𝟐 𝟐

Drop a perpendicular from the vertex, to get a 30 − 60 − 90

triangle.

In a 30 − 60 − 90 triangle:

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√3 √3 √3
𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑝 60° = × 𝐻𝑦𝑝 = ×1=
2 2 2
Similarly, the other half is also:
√3
2
Hence, the magnitude of the vector we want is:
√3 √3
+ = √3
2 2

Example 1.100
̂,𝒊̂ + 𝒌
If 𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂,𝒋̂ + 𝒌 ̂ are the position vectors of the vertices of a triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶 taken in order, then ∠𝐴 is equal to
(BITSAT 2018)

Draw a diagram and let 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 be the vertices of the triangle.

The vectors are three-dimensional, but a 2D is still useful for reference
purposes.

Let
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂, 𝑶𝑪
𝑶𝑨 ̂, 𝑶𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒊̂ + 𝒌 ̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒋̂ + 𝒌

Then using vector addition and subtraction:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑶𝑨
𝑪𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑪𝑶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑶𝑨
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑶𝑪 ̂) = 𝒋̂ − 𝒌
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ − (𝒊̂ + 𝒌 ̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 𝑶𝑩 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂) − (𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂) = 𝒌
𝑶𝑨 = (𝒋̂ + 𝒌 ̂ − 𝒊̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝑪 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑪 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑩 = 𝒊̂ − 𝒋̂

Calculate the length of the sides of the triangle by calculating the magnitude of the vectors that make up the
sides of the triangle:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = |𝑩𝑪
|𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑨 = √12 + 12 = √2
Since the sides of the triangle are equal:
Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 ⇒ ∠𝐴 = 60°

Example 1.101
𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
̂, −𝒊̂ + 6𝒋̂ + 6𝒌
If the position vectors of the vertices 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 of a triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶 are 7𝒋̂ + 10𝒌 ̂ and −4𝒊̂ + 9𝒋̂ + 6𝒌
̂
respectively, the triangle is:
A. Equilateral
B. Isosceles
C. Scalene
D. Right Angled
E. Acute Angled
F. Obtuse Angled (BITSAT 2008, Adapted)

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑶𝑩
𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑶𝑨 ̂ ⇒ |𝑨𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝒊̂ − 𝒋̂ − 𝟒𝒌 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = √12 + 12 + 42 = √18
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝑪 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑶𝑪 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑩 = −3𝒊̂ + 𝟑𝒋̂ ⇒ |𝑩𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = √32 + 32 = √18
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑨 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑨 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ⇒ |𝑪𝑨
𝑶𝑪 = 4𝒊̂ − 2𝒋̂ + 4𝒌 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = √42 + 22 + 42 = √36 = 6

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Since
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = |𝑩𝑪
|𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = √18 ⇒ Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑠

Check whether the triangle is right-angled by checking whether is satisfies Pythagoras Theorem
2 𝟐 𝟐
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| + |𝑩𝑪
|𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = 18 + 18 = 36 = |𝑶𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| ⇒ Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑑

𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷
E. Physics Applications

1.102: Resultant Forces

1.103: Free Body Diagrams

Example 1.104
A trolley being dragged along the ground is subjected to a force of 5𝑁 in the upward direction, and 7N in the
negative 𝑥 direction.
A. Draw a diagram showing the trolley, the applied forces, the resultant force
B. Calculate the magnitude of the resultant force.

Magnitude of Resultant
= √72 + 52 = √74𝑁

Example 1.105
Shannon is dragging his luggage when going to vacation in the Bahamas with a force of 12N. The handle of the
luggage is at an angle of 30° to the ground. When, he gets tired, his mother pulls the luggage, with the same
force as Shannon, but at an angle of 60° to the ground (since she is taller).
A. Draw a diagram for the force vectors for Shannon and his mother.
B. Determine the components of each force vector.
C. Who will pull the luggage faster? Shannon or his mother?

Part B
𝑥
𝑺𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒏𝒐𝒏 = (𝑦) = (6√3)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
6
𝑥 6
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑴𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 = (𝑦) = ( )
6√3
Part C
Shannon will pull the luggage faster because the force in the horizontal
direction is greater for him.

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1.106: F
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = Δ𝐸

𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

𝑇𝑀𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝑀𝐸

Example 1.107
𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠
Ignore friction. Shannon drags his ⏟
𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 until it has a speed
⏟ of 10 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 .
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐴 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐵
A. Is there a change in energy for the trolley from State A to State B?
B. What caused it?

Part A
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐴: 𝑇𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑦 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐵: 𝑇𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑦 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Part B
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = Δ𝐸

F. Triangle Inequality

1.108: Triangle Inequality: Geometric Interpretation

|𝒙 ⃗⃗| ≤ |𝒙
⃗⃗ + 𝒚 ⃗⃗| + |𝒚
⃗⃗|

In the 2-dimensional case, the above statement is equal to the statement from geometry:
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠.
We can demonstrate by drawing a vector triangle.
Note that equality is achieved exactly when the two vectors both point in the same direction.

1.109: Triangle Inequality: Algebraic Proof

The magnitude of the sum of two vectors is less than or equal to the sum of the magnitudes of the two vectors.
|𝒙 ⃗⃗| ≤ |𝒙
⃗⃗ + 𝒚 ⃗⃗| + |𝒚
⃗⃗|

Assumptions
Let
⃗⃗ = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ),
𝒙 ⃗⃗ = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , … , 𝑏𝑛 )
𝒚
We can add the two vectors above to get:
⃗⃗ = (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛 )
⃗⃗ + 𝒚
𝒙
Left Hand Side
Using the definition of magnitude, the LHS is:
|𝒙 ⃗⃗| = √(𝑎1 + 𝑏1 )2 + (𝑎2 + 𝑏2 )2 + ⋯ + (𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛 )2
⃗⃗ + 𝒚
Square both sides of the above:
(|𝒙 ⃗⃗|)2 = (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 )2 + (𝑎2 + 𝑏2 )2 + ⋯ + (𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛 )2
⃗⃗ + 𝒚
Expand the RHS to get:
= (𝑎12 + 2𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑏12 ) + (𝑎22 + 2𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑏22 ) + ⋯ + (𝑎𝑛2 + 2𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛2 )

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Rearrange to get:
2 2 2 2
⏟ 1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛2 ) + (𝑏1 + 𝑏2 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛2 ) + (2𝑎1 𝑏1 + 2𝑎2 𝑏2 + ⋯ + 2𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑛 )
= (𝑎
𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝑿
Right Hand Side
The square of the right-hand side is:
⃗⃗|)2 = |𝒙
⃗⃗| + |𝒚
(|𝒙 ⃗⃗|2 + |𝒚
⃗⃗|2 + 2|𝒙
⃗⃗||𝒚
⃗⃗|
Substitute using the definition of magnitude:
2 2 2 2
⏟ 1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛2 ) + (𝑏1 + 𝑏2 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛2 ) + 2√𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛2 √𝑏12 + 𝑏22 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛2
= (𝑎
𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝑿
Bringing it together
Comparing the two above, we see that X is common to both. Hence, we need to show inequality in the remaining
terms. Start with the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality:
(𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑛 )2 ≤ (𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛2 )(𝑏12 + 𝑏22 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛2 )
Take the square root both sides and multiply by 2:
2(𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑛 ) ≤ 2√𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛2 √𝑏12 + 𝑏22 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛2
And the above is exactly what we need.

1.4 Scalar Multiplication

A. Multiplication in Vectors
Consider the following operation with the real numbers 2 and 3:
(2)(3) = 2 ∙ 3 = 2 × 3 = 6
The above four all refer to the same quantity.

However, when we come to vector multiplication, there are different kinds of multiplication.

⃗⃗ → 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜆𝒂
For scalar multiplication, the input is a scalar and a vector, and the output is a vector.

⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ → 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 (𝐷𝑜𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡)

𝒂
For the scalar product, the input is two vectors, and the output is a real number(scalar).

⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗ → 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡(𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡)

𝒂
For the vector product, the input is two vectors, and the output is a vector.

B. Basics

1.110: Algebraic Definition: Scalar Multiplication

𝑥1
⃗⃗ = (𝑦1 ), and a scalar 𝜆, a scalar multiple of the vector is given by:
Given a vector 𝒂
𝑧1
𝑥1 𝜆𝑥1
𝜆𝒂⃗⃗ = 𝜆 (𝑦1 ) = (𝜆𝑦1 )
𝑧1 𝜆𝑧1

Scalar multiplication:
➢ Is achieved by multiplying each component of the vector by 𝜆.
➢ Changes the magnitude of a vector (𝜆 ≠ 1).

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➢ Does not change the direction of the vector.

Example 1.111: Finding Scalar Multiples

1
A. Given that ⃗𝒂⃗ = (2,3,4), and 𝜆 = 5, find 𝜆𝒂

1 2 3 4
𝜆𝒂 = (2,3,4) = ( , , )
5 5 5 5

Example 1.112: Equations

⃗⃗ = (2,3), ⃗𝒃⃗ = (3,4), 𝒄
Find the values of 𝜆 and 𝜇 given that 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = (4,5), 𝜆𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 𝒄
⃗⃗ + 𝜇𝒃 ⃗⃗

𝜆𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 𝒄
⃗⃗ + 𝜇𝒃 ⃗⃗
2 3 4
𝜆( )+𝜇( ) = ( )
3 4 5
2𝜆 3𝜇 4
( )+( ) = ( )
3𝜆 4𝜇 5
2𝜆 + 3𝜇 4
( )=( )
3𝜆 + 4𝜇 5

Since the vectors are equal, their components must be equal:

2𝜆 + 3𝜇 = 4 ⇒ 6𝜆
⏟ + 9𝜇 = 12
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰
3𝜆 + 4𝜇 = 5 ⇒ ⏟
6𝜆 + 8𝜇 = 10
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰

Subtract Equation II from Equation I:

𝜇=2
Substitute 𝜇 = 2 in 2𝜆 + 3𝜇 = 4:
2𝜆 + 3(2) = 4 ⇒ 𝜆 = −1

Example 1.113
The position vectors of point A, B and C are:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (4,7),
𝑶𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−2,3),
𝑶𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (6, −4)
𝑶𝑪
A. Vector 𝒂 is parallel to 𝑶𝑨 and has magnitude twice of 𝑂𝐴. Find the position vector of 𝒂.
B. Find the vector 𝒃 which is parallel to BC and has thrice the magnitude of BC.

Part A
⃗⃗ = 2(𝑶𝑨) = 2(4,7) = (8,14)
𝒂
Part B
6 −2 8
𝑩𝑪 = 𝑶𝑪 − 𝑶𝑩 = ( )−( ) = ( )
−4 3 −7
8 24
𝒃 = 3𝑩𝑪 = 3 ( ) = ( )
−7 −21

1.114: Unit Vector in a Direction1

⃗⃗ is given by
The unit vector in the direction of 𝒂
⃗⃗
𝒂
|𝒂
⃗⃗|

1 Unit Vector is a very important concept, and gets used in many places going forward.

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➢ Multiplying a vector with the reciprocal of its 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ scales the vector, and gives us a unit vector.

Example 1.115
Find the unit vector that is in the same direction as the vector from 𝐴(6,8) to 𝐵(14,23).

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (14 − 6,23 − 8) = (8,15)

𝑨𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = √82 + 152 = 17
|𝑨𝑩

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is:
The unit vector in the direction of 𝑨𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 (8,15) 8 15
= =( , )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
|𝑨𝑩 17 17 17

Example 1.116: Back Calculations

⃗⃗ = (1,2,3), find 𝜆 such that 𝜆𝒂
A. If 𝒂 ⃗⃗ is a unit vector.

⃗⃗| = √12 + 22 + 32 = √1 + 4 + 9 = √14

|𝒂
⃗⃗| = 1
𝜆|𝒂
𝜆√14 = 1
1 √14
𝜆= =
√14 14

Example 1.117
2 7
The position vectors of points X and Y are ( ) and ( ) respectively.
−4 3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|.
A. Find |𝑿𝒀
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)| ∈ ℕ
B. Find the smallest value of 𝜇 > 1 such that |𝜇(𝑿𝒀
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
C. Find the unit vectors parallel and antiparallel to 𝑿𝒀

Part A
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 7 2 5
𝑿𝒀 = ( ) − ( ) = ( )
3 −4 7
|𝑿𝒀| = √52 + 72 = √25 + 49 = √74
Part B
𝜇 = √74
Part C
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is:
Unit vector parallel to 𝑿𝒀
15
( )
√74 7
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is:
Unit vector antiparallel to 𝑿𝒀
1 5
− ( )
√74 7

1.118: Decomposition into Length and Unit Vector

⃗⃗
𝒂
⃗⃗ =
𝒂 |𝒂
⏟⃗⃗|
|𝒂
⏟⃗⃗|
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

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⃗⃗, we know that we can find a unit vector in the direction of 𝒂

Given a vector 𝒂 ⃗⃗ by using the formula:
⃗⃗
𝒂
̂=
𝒂
|𝒂
⃗⃗|
Using the idea above, we can decompose any vector into a product of its length, and its direction:
|𝒂
⃗⃗| ⃗⃗
𝒂
⃗⃗ = 𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗ = |𝒂
⏟⃗⃗|
|𝒂
⃗⃗| 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 |𝒂 ⃗⃗|
⏟
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Example 1.119
Write the following vectors as the product of a scalar indicating its direction, and a unit vector.
A. 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = (5,12)
B. 𝒃 ⃗⃗ = (3,4)
C. 𝒄 ⃗⃗ = (8,15)
D. ⃗𝒅⃗ = (4,5)

Part A
The length of the vector is:
√52 + 122 = √169 = 13 (𝑃𝑦𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡: 5,12,13)
Then:
1 5 12
⃗⃗ = (13) (
𝒂 ) (5,12) = (13)
⏟ ( , )
13 ⏟13 13
𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝑽𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓
Part B
1 3 4
⃗𝒃⃗ = (3,4) = (5) ( ) (3,4) = (5) ( , )
5 5 5
Part C
8 15
⃗⃗ = (17) (
𝒄 , )
17 17
Part D
√42 + 52 4 5
⃗𝒅⃗ = ( ) (4,5) = √41 ( , )
√42 + 52 √41 √41

1.120: Multiplication by a Negative Scalar

Multiplication by a negative scalar reverses the direction of a vector.

By reverses, we mean that the direction changes by 180°

Example 1.121
⃗⃗ makes an angle of 34° with the positive direction of the 𝑥 −axis. Find the angle made by −𝒂
Position vector 𝒂 ⃗⃗
with the positive direction of 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.

C. Parallel Vectors

1.122: Parallel Vectors

Two vectors are parallel or anti-parallel when one vector is a non-zero scalar multiple of the other.

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Example 1.123: Collinearity

Angle between 𝑨𝑩 and 𝑪𝑫

= 0°
Angle between 𝑨𝑩 and 𝑭𝑬
= 180°

Example 1.124
The non-zero vectors 𝒂 ⃗⃗ and 𝒄
⃗⃗, 𝒃 ⃗⃗ are related by 𝒂 ⃗⃗, and 𝒄
⃗⃗ = 8𝒃 ⃗⃗. Then, the angle between 𝒂
⃗⃗ = −7𝒃 ⃗⃗ and 𝒄
⃗⃗ is: (JEE
Main 2008)

⃗⃗, 𝒂
⃗⃗ is a scalar multiple of 𝒃
Since 𝒂 ⃗⃗.
⃗⃗ is parallel to 𝒃
⃗⃗
⃗⃗ 𝑔𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝒃
𝒂

⃗⃗ is a negative scalar multiple of ⃗𝒃⃗, it is anti-parallel to ⃗𝒃⃗.

Since 𝒄
⃗⃗ 𝑔𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑠 ⃗𝒃⃗
𝒄
⃗⃗ 𝑔𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝒂
𝒄 ⃗⃗

⃗⃗ and 𝒄
So, angle between 𝒂 ⃗⃗ is 𝜋.

Example 1.125
If vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒂𝟏 = 𝑥𝒊̂ − 𝒋̂ + 𝒌 ̂ are collinear, then a possible unit vector parallel to the vector
𝒂𝟐 = 𝒊̂ + 𝑦𝒋̂ + 𝑧𝒌
𝑥𝒊̂ + 𝑦𝒋̂ + 𝑧𝒌̂ is:
1
A. (−𝒋̂ + 𝒌̂)
√2
1
B. (𝒊̂ − 𝒋̂)
√2
1
C. (𝒊̂ ̂)
+ 𝒋̂ − 𝒌
√3
1
D. (𝒊̂ ̂) (JEE Main 2021, 26 Feb, Shift-II)
− 𝒋̂ + 𝒌
√3

Since the two vectors are collinear, one must a non-zero scalar multiple of the other. Let
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝟐
𝒂𝟏 = 𝜆𝒂
(𝑥, −1,1) = 𝜆(1, 𝑦, 𝑧)
(𝑥, −1,1) = (𝜆, 𝜆𝑦, 𝜆𝑧)

1 1
Equate components to get 𝑥 = 𝜆, 𝑦 = − 𝜆 , 𝑧 = 𝜆 and substitute in 𝑥𝒊̂ + 𝑦𝒋̂ + 𝑧𝒌̂ to get:
1 1 1
̂ = (𝜆2 𝒊̂ − 𝒋̂ + 𝒌
= 𝜆𝒊̂ + (− ) 𝒋̂ + ( ) 𝒌 ̂)
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆

̂ is:
The magnitude of 𝑥𝒊̂ + 𝑦𝒋̂ + 𝑧𝒌
1 2 1 2 1 1 𝜆4 + 2 1 4
√𝜆2 + (− ) + ( ) = √𝜆2 + + = √ = √𝜆 + 2
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆2 𝜆2 𝜆2 𝜆

̂ is:
A unit vector in the direction of 𝑥𝒊̂ + 𝑦𝒋̂ + 𝑧𝒌

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1 2 ̂) (𝜆2 𝒊̂ − 𝒋̂ + 𝒌
𝒊̂ − 𝒋̂ + 𝒌 ̂)
𝜆 (𝜆 =
1 4 √𝜆4 + 2
+2
𝜆 √𝜆

We do not know the value of the parameter 𝜆. Any non-zero value will work. Try:
̂ 𝒊̂ − 𝒋̂ + 𝒌
𝒊̂ − 𝒋̂ + 𝒌 ̂
𝜆=1⇒ = ⇒ 𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐷
√1 + 2 √3

Example 1.126
A. Let 𝒂 ⃗⃗ and 𝒄
⃗⃗, 𝒃 ⃗⃗ be three non-zero vectors which are pairwise non-collinear. If 𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 3𝒃⃗⃗ is collinear with 𝒄 ⃗⃗
and 𝒃 ⃗⃗ + 2𝒄 ⃗⃗ is collinear with 𝒂 ⃗⃗, then 𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 6𝒄
⃗⃗ + 3𝒃 ⃗⃗ is: (JEE Main 2011)
B. 𝒂 ⃗⃗ and 𝒄
⃗⃗, 𝒃 ⃗⃗ are three non-zero vectors such that no two of these are collinear. If the vector 𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 2𝒃⃗⃗ is
collinear with ⃗𝒄⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗ + 3𝒄 ⃗⃗ is collinear with ⃗𝒂⃗ (𝜆 being some non-zero scalar), then ⃗𝒂⃗ + 2𝒃⃗⃗ + 6𝒄⃗⃗ is: (JEE
Main 2004)

Part A
From the collinearity conditions:
𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 𝜆𝒄
⃗⃗ + 3𝒃 ⃗⃗ ⇒ 𝒂
⃗⏟ ⃗⃗ + 6𝒄
⃗ + 3𝒃 ⃗⃗ = (𝜆 + 6)𝒄
⃗⃗
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰
⃗𝒃⃗ + 2𝒄
⃗⃗ = 𝜇𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 6𝒄
⃗⃗ ⇒ 3𝒃 ⃗⃗ = 3𝜇𝒂
⃗⃗ ⇒ ⏟ ⃗⃗ + 6𝒄
⃗⃗ + 3𝒃
𝒂 ⃗⃗ = (1 + 3𝜇)𝒂
⃗⃗
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰
From Equation I and II:
(𝜆 + 6)𝒄 ⃗⃗ = (1 + 3𝜇)𝒂 ⃗⃗
But the vectors are non-collinear and non-zero. Hence:
𝜆 + 6 = 1 + 3𝜇 = 0
⃗⃗
⃗⃗ + 3𝒃 + 6𝒄
𝒂 ⃗⃗ = (𝜆 + 6)𝒄 ⃗⃗ = 0𝒄 ⃗⃗ = 0
Part B
From the collinearity conditions:
⃗⃗ + 2𝒃
𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 𝜆𝒄 ⃗⃗ ⇒ ⏟⃗⃗ + 2𝒃
𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 6𝒄⃗⃗ = (𝜆 + 6)𝒄⃗⃗
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰
⃗𝒃⃗ + 3𝒄
⃗⃗ = 𝜇𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 6𝒄
⃗⃗ ⇒ 2𝒃 ⃗⃗ = 2𝜇𝒂
⃗⃗ ⇒ ⏟ ⃗⃗ + 6𝒄
⃗⃗ + 2𝒃
𝒂 ⃗⃗ = (1 + 2𝜇)𝒂
⃗⃗
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰
From Equation I and II:
(𝜆 + 6)𝒄 ⃗⃗ = (1 + 2𝜇)𝒂⃗⃗
But the vectors are non-collinear and non-zero. Hence:
𝜆 + 6 = 1 + 2𝜇 = 0
⃗⃗
⃗⃗ + 3𝒃 + 6𝒄
𝒂 ⃗⃗ = (𝜆 + 6)𝒄⃗⃗ = 0𝒄⃗⃗ = 0

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D. Midpoint Formula

Example 1.127
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (3, −2), ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Given that 𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗, where X is the midpoint of BC.
𝑨𝑪 = (−2,4), determine 𝑪𝑿

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝑩𝑿
𝑪𝑿 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑨𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − (𝑩𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗) = − (−𝑨𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑨𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗) = (𝑨𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑨𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
1 3 1 5 5
−2
= [( ) − ( )] = [( )] = ( 2 )
2 −2 4 2 −6
−3

1.128: Midpoint Formula

See the diagram alongside, with the usual notation.
If X is the midpoint of 𝐵𝐴, then:
⃗⃗
⃗⃗ + 𝒃
𝒂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑪𝑿
2

Using Vectors
From the triangle:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑨𝑪
𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑪𝑩 ⃗⃗ + 𝒂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝒃 ⃗⃗ = 𝒂 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ − 𝒃
And since 𝑋 is the midpoint of 𝐴𝐵:
1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑿 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ − ⃗𝒃⃗)
𝑨𝑩 = (𝒂
2 2
Finally, the expression that we want is:
1 1 𝟏 1 1 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗
𝒂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑿 𝑨𝑿 = ⃗𝒃⃗ + (𝒂
𝑪𝑨 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ − ⃗𝒃⃗) = ⃗𝒃⃗ + 𝒂⃗⃗ − ⃗𝒃⃗ = ⃗𝒃⃗ + 𝒂 ⃗⃗ =
2 2 𝟐 2 2 2
Coordinate Geometry
Introduce an origin at 𝐶 = (0,0). Let the position vectors of A and B be:
𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )
By the midpoint formula:
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 1 1 1 1
𝑋=( , ) = (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 ) = [(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) + (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )] = [𝑪𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑪𝑩 ⃗⃗ + 𝒂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗] = [𝒃 ⃗⃗]
2 2 2 2 2 2

Example 1.129: Midpoint

𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
If 𝐶 is the midpoint of 𝐴𝐵 and 𝑃 is any point outside 𝐴𝐵, then:
A. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑷𝑨 + 𝑷𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑷𝑪 = 0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
B. 𝑷𝑨 + 𝑷𝑩 + 2𝑷𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0
C. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑷𝑨 + 𝑷𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑷𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
D. 𝑷𝑨 + 𝑷𝑩 = 2𝑷𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (JEE Main 2005)

Use the midpoint formula in Δ𝐴𝑃𝐵:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑷𝑨 + 𝑷𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑷𝑪 ⇒ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⇒ 𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐷
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 2𝑷𝑪
𝑷𝑨 + 𝑷𝑩
𝟐

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Example 1.130
X is the midpoint of CD in pentagon 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐸. Using the midpoint formula,
write the vectors below in terms of vectors that have start and end points
on consecutive vertices of the pentagon:
A. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑿 (without using ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑫)
B. 𝑬𝑿 (without using ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑪𝑫)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
C. 𝑩𝑿(without using 𝑪𝑫) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝟏
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
D. Simplify (𝑪𝑨 𝑨𝑫)
𝟐

Part A
1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑿 = (𝑨𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑫) = (𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝑪 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑬 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬𝑫)
2 2
Part B
𝟏 𝟏
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬𝑿 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(𝑬𝑪 𝑬𝑫) = (𝑬𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑨𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝑪 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬𝑫)
𝟐 𝟐
Part C
𝟏 𝟏
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝑿 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑩𝑫
(𝑩𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑩𝑨
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗) = (𝑩𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑬 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬𝑫)
𝟐 𝟐
Part D
𝟏 𝟏
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(𝑪𝑨 𝑨𝑫) = (𝑪𝑫 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗) = 𝑪𝑿
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝟐 𝟐

Example 1.131
̂ and 𝑨𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 3𝒊̂ + 4𝒌
If the vectors 𝑨𝑩 ̂ are the sides of a Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶, then the length of the median
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 5𝒊̂ − 2𝒋̂ + 4𝒌
through 𝐴 is: (JEE Main 2003, 2013)

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑨𝑪
𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (3,0,4) + (5, −2,4)
𝑨𝑴 = = =, (4, −1,4)
2 2
|𝑨𝑴| = √42 + (−1)2 + 42 = √33

Example 1.132
Show, using the midpoint formula, that the sum of the medians of a triangle, with the vertices as the start point
for each median, is zero.

Draw Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶, and let

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒄
𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒂
⃗⃗, 𝑩𝑪 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒃
⃗⃗, 𝑪𝑨

Then the medians are:

1 1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑿 = (𝒄 ⃗⃗ − ⃗𝒃⃗) , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝒀 = (𝒂 ⃗⃗ − 𝒄
⃗⃗) , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝒁 = (𝒃 ⃗⃗ − 𝒂
⃗⃗)
⏟ 2 ⏟ 2 ⏟ 2
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰𝑰

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Add Equations I, II and III2:

1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑩𝒀 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑿 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑪𝒁 = (𝒄 ⃗⃗ − ⃗𝒃⃗ + 𝒂 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ − 𝒂
⃗⃗ − 𝒄 ⃗⃗) = (0) = 0
2 2
E. Physics with Scalar Multiplication

1.133: Force

⃗𝑭⃗ = 𝑚𝒂
⃗⃗

Force is a vector quantity given by the product of mass and acceleration where:
➢ Mass is a scalar quantity (with unit, for example, 𝑘𝑔)
𝑚
➢ Acceleration is a vector quantity (with unit, for example, 𝑠2 )

Note the dimensional analysis for the units:

⃗𝑭
⏟⃗ = 𝑚
⏟⏟⃗⃗
𝒂
𝑚 𝑘𝑔 𝑚
𝑘𝑔 2
𝑠 𝑠2
Note the unit of force in the SI system:
𝑚
1 𝑁 = 1 𝑘𝑔
𝑠2
𝑚
1 Newton is equivalent to a force acting on an object with a mass of 1 kg and accelerating it by 1 𝑠2 .

Note certain assumptions:

➢ Unless otherwise specified, assume friction to be zero

Example 1.134
𝑚
A. On a frictionless surface, an object of mass 3 kg is accelerated by 2 𝑠2 . Calculate the force in Newtons.
B. A force of 72 Newtons accelerates an object with an integer number of kg in its mass on a frictionless
surface an integer number of meters per second squared. Calculate the product of the possible values of
the mass of the object.
C. A spaceship with a mass of 107 kg fires a thruster that pushes the spaceship with a force of 72 Newtons.
𝑚
Calculate the acceleration of the spaceship in 𝑠2 . Write your answer in scientific notation.

Part A
⃗⃗ = 𝑚𝒂
𝑭 ⃗⃗ = (3)(2) = 6𝑁
Part B
{1 × 72,2 × 36,3 × 24,4 × 18,6 × 12, 8 × 9}
726 = (23 × 32 )6 = 218 × 312
You can also do this using the formula for product of factors of a number. The product of factors of 72
𝜏(72) 𝜏(23 ×32) (3+1)(2+1)
= 72 2 = 72 2 = 72 2 = 726 = 218 × 312
Part C
72 = 107 × 𝒂
⃗⃗
72 𝑚
⃗⃗ =
𝒂 7
= 72 × 10−7 = 7.2 × 10−6 2
10 𝑠

2 This works because the equations are cyclical. Adding them gives a zero.

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F. Geometry with Scalar Multiplication

Example 1.135
2 3
Relative to an origin 𝑂, the position vectors of points 𝑋 and 𝑌 are given by ( ) and ( ). 𝑋, 𝑌 and 𝑍 lie on a
3 2
straight line such that the length of 𝑿𝒁 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is four times the length of 𝑿𝒀
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗. The sum of the possible values of the
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ can be written as √𝑎 + √𝑏. Find the sum of the digits of 𝑎 + 𝑏.
length of 𝑶𝒁

From the diagram, we see that:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑶𝑿
𝑶𝒁
⏟ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑿𝒁
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰

There are two possible locations for Z, based on which direction we go in,
giving us two cases:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ±4 [(3) − (2)] = ±𝟒 ( 1 ) = ± ( 4 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ±4𝑿𝒀
𝑿𝒁
⏟ 2 3 −1 −4
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰

Substitute Equation II into Equation I:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑶𝑿
𝑶𝒁 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (2) ± ( 4 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ± 4𝑿𝒀
3 −4

Find the value of each case separately:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 6
𝑶𝒁 = ( ) ⇒ |𝑶𝒁| = √62 + (−1)2 = √36 + 1 = √37
−1
𝑂𝑅 𝑶𝒁 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−2) ⇒ |𝑶𝒁| = √(−2)2 + 72 = √4 + 49 = √53
7

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are
The possible values for the length of 𝑶𝒁
{√37, √53}

𝑎 = 37, 𝑏 = 53 ⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 37 + 53 = 90 ⇒ 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑠 = 9

1.136: Distributive Property

⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗) = 𝜆𝒂
𝜆(𝒂 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ + 𝜆𝒃
⃗⃗ − 𝒃
𝜆(𝒂 ⃗⃗) = 𝜆𝒂 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ − 𝜆𝒃

The distributive property works for scalar multiplication.

Example 1.137: Midpoint Theorem

Prove that the line connecting the midpoints of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side, and half of the
third side.

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Draw Δ𝑋𝑌𝑍.
Let 𝑃 be the midpoint of 𝑋𝑌, and 𝑄 be the midpoint of 𝑋𝑍. Then:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑷𝑿
𝒀𝑷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒂
⃗⃗ (𝑠𝑎𝑦), ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑸𝒁
𝑿𝑸 ⃗⃗ (𝑠𝑎𝑦),
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒄
𝑷𝑸 ⃗⃗

Because
𝑌𝑃 = 𝑃𝑋 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑃 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 ⇒ 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
𝑌, 𝑃, 𝑋 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 ⇒ 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Note that:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒄
𝑷𝑸 ⃗⃗ = 𝒂⃗⃗ + 𝒃⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒀𝑿
𝒀𝒁 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑿𝒁
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 2𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 2(𝒂
⃗⃗ + 2𝒃 ⃗⃗) = 2𝒄
⃗⃗ + 𝒃 ⃗⃗
Hence,
𝑌𝑍 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑄
𝑌𝑍 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑃𝑄

Example 1.138
Show, without using the midpoint theorem, that the quadrilateral formed by the midpoints of a convex
quadrilateral, taken in order, is a parallelogram.

Hint: A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if a pair of its opposite sides is parallel and congruent.

Draw convex quadrilateral 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑸𝑹 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑸𝑪 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑪𝑹 = ⃗𝒃⃗ + 𝒄 ⃗⃗
➢ Note that it is a general convex ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑹𝑫
𝑹𝑺 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑫𝑺⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒄 ⃗⃗ + 𝒅⃗
⃗
quadrilateral, with no special properties. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑺𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑨𝑷⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒅 ⃗⃗ + 𝒂
𝑺𝑷 ⃗⃗
➢ Let the midpoints of the sides be 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅, 𝑆,
Since the sum of the vectors in a vector polygon is
as shown.
zero:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑩𝑪
𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑪𝑫⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑫𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝟎⃗⃗
2𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 2𝒃 ⃗⃗ + 2𝒄 ⃗⃗ + 2𝒅 ⃗⃗ = 𝟎 ⃗⃗
Divide both sides by 2:
⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ + 𝒄
𝒂 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒅⃗ = ⃗𝟎⃗
⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ = −(𝒄
𝒂 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒅⃗)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑷𝑸 = −(𝑹𝑺 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑺𝑹
𝑷𝑸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Hence,
Let:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑺𝑹 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑡𝑜 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑷𝑸 ⇒ ⏟ 𝑆𝑅 ≅ 𝑃𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑷𝑩
𝑨𝑷 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒂⃗⃗
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑸𝑪
𝑩𝑸 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒃 𝑆𝑅 ∥ 𝑃𝑄
⏟
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑹𝑫
𝑪𝑹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒄⃗⃗ 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑫𝑨
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒅⃗⃗ From Conclusions I and II:
𝑫𝑺
𝑃𝑄𝑅𝑆 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
Hence,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑷𝑸 = 𝑷𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝑸 = 𝒂 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗

G. Linear Combination: Algebraic

1.139: Linear Combination of Vectors

⃗⃗, we can find a linear combination of the vectors as:
⃗⃗ and 𝒃
Given vectors 𝒂

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𝜆𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 𝒄
⃗⃗ + 𝜇𝒃 ⃗⃗

➢ It is called a linear combination since there are no powers (squares, cubes, etc) involved.

Example 1.140
Find the linear combination of the first two vectors that results in the third vector:
1 2 8
A. 𝒂⃗⃗ = ( ) , ⃗𝒃⃗ = ( ) , 𝒄
⃗⃗ = ( )
3 5 21

Write as a vector equation: 𝜆 + 2𝜇 8

( )=( )
⃗⃗ = 𝒄
⃗⃗ + 𝜇𝒃
𝜆𝒂 ⃗⃗ 3𝜆 + 5𝜇 21
Substitute the known values: Solve the above system of equations:
1 2 8 𝜇 = 3, 𝜆 = 2
𝜆( )+𝜇( ) = ( ) ⃗⃗ = 𝒄
3 5 21 ⃗⃗ + 2𝒃
3𝒂 ⃗⃗
Simplify:

Concept Check 1.141

𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
Patrick attempted to solve an equation of the form 𝜆𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 𝒄
⃗⃗ + 𝜇𝒃 ⃗⃗ to find the values of the constants 𝜆 and 𝜇. He
found that there were no such values. Then, which of the following is a possible explanation for this:
A. ⃗𝒂⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗ have the same magnitude
B. 𝒂⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗ have different magnitudes
C. 𝒂⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗ are parallel
D. 𝒂⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗ are anti-parallel
E. 𝒂⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗ are unit vectors
F. 𝒂⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗ are not unit vectors
G. 𝒄⃗⃗ is a zero vector
H. One of 𝒂 ⃗⃗ is a zero vector
⃗⃗ and 𝒃
I. Patrick made a mistake.

Consider Option G:
𝜆 = 𝜇 = 0 ⇒ 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ⇒ 𝐺 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡

𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐻, 𝐼

1.142: Uniqueness of Linear Combination of Vectors

Linear combination of vectors is unique.

Example 1.143
⃗⃗ = 𝑝𝒂
⃗⃗ + 𝑛𝒃
What can we conclude about the coefficients if 𝑚𝒂 ⃗⃗?
⃗⃗ + 𝑞𝒃

Since the vectors on both sides are equal, the coefficients must also be the same.
𝑚=𝑝
𝑛=𝑞

Example 1.144
⃗⃗⃗ = (𝜆 − 2)𝒂
Let 𝜶 ⃗⃗ and 𝜷
⃗⃗ + 𝒃 ⃗⃗⃗ = (4𝜆 − 2)𝒂 ⃗⃗ be two given vectors where 𝒂
⃗⃗ + 3𝒃 ⃗⃗ are non-collinear. The value
⃗⃗ and 𝒃

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⃗⃗⃗ are collinear is: (JEE Main 2019, 10 Jan, Shift-II)

⃗⃗⃗ and 𝜷
of 𝜆 for which vectors 𝜶

⃗⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗

If the vectors 𝜶 𝜷 are collinear, then one vector must be a non-zero scalar multiple of the other:
⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇𝜷
𝜶

Substitute the values from the question:

⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ = 𝜇[(4𝜆 − 2)𝒂
(𝜆 − 2)𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 3𝑏⃗⃗]

Use the distributive property on the 𝑅𝐻𝑆:

⃗⃗ = 𝜇(4𝜆 − 2)𝒂
⃗⃗ + 𝒃
(𝜆 − 2)𝒂 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ + 3𝜇𝒃

Since the vectors on both sides are equal, the coefficients must also be the same.
1
1 = 3𝜇 ⇒ 𝜇 =
3
𝜆 − 2 = 𝜇(4𝜆 − 2)
1
𝜆 − 2 = (4𝜆 − 2)
3
3𝜆 − 6 = 4𝜆 − 2
𝜆 = −4
H. Linear Combination: Geometric

Example 1.145
Show that the sum of the medians of a triangle, taken with the vertices as the start point, is zero.

Draw Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶, and let

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒄
𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝑪 = 𝒂 𝑪𝑨 = ⃗𝒃⃗
⃗⃗, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Then:
1 1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑿 = 𝒄 ⃗⃗ + 𝒂⃗⃗ , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝒀 = 𝒂 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ , 𝑪𝒁 = ⃗𝒃⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⏟ 2 ⏟ 2 ⏟ 2
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝐼 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝐼𝐼

Add Equations I, II and III:

𝟑 𝟑
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑩𝒀
𝑨𝑿 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑪𝒁⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
(𝒂 ⃗⃗) = (0) = 0
𝟐 𝟐
Where 𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗ + 𝒃 ⃗⃗ is the sum of a vector polygon and is hence zero.

Example 1.146
Show that the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other if and only if the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.

Since this is an 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 statement, we need

to prove it both ways.

Part I: If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each

other, then the quadrilateral is a parallelogram
Draw quadrilateral 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷
𝑩𝑴 = 𝑴𝑫
⏟
If the diagonals bisect each other at point M, then 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟏

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𝑴𝑪 = 𝑨𝑴
⏟ 𝑨𝑪 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 ⇒ ⏟
𝑨𝑴 = 𝜆(𝒂 + 𝒃)
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟐 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰

Add Equations 1 and 2: The sum of vectors in a vector polygon is zero:

𝑩𝑴 + 𝑴𝑪 = 𝑨𝑴 + 𝑴𝑫 𝑨𝑩 + 𝑩𝑴 − 𝑨𝑴 = 0
𝑩𝑪 = 𝑨𝑫
Substitute the values from Equations I and II:
This means that 𝑩𝑪 and 𝑨𝑫 are equal in both 𝒂 + 𝜇(𝒃 − 𝒂) − 𝜆(𝒂 + 𝒃) = 0
magnitude and direction.
If a pair of opposite sides of a quadrilateral is Rearrange:
parallel and congruent, then the quadrilateral is a 𝒂(1 − 𝜇 − 𝜆) + 𝒃(𝜇 − 𝜆) = 0𝒂 + 0𝒃
parallelogram.
Hence, Equate coefficients on both sides:
𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 1−𝜇−𝜆 = 0⇒ ⏟ 𝜇+𝜆 = 1
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰𝑰
Part II: If a quadrilateral is a parallelogram, then its 𝜇−𝜆=0
⏟
diagonals bisect each other 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑽
Draw parallelogram 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 and let: Add Equations III and IV:
𝑨𝑩 = 𝑪𝑫 = 𝒂, 𝑩𝑪 = 𝑨𝑫 = 𝒃 1
2𝜇 = 1 ⇒ 𝜇 = 𝜆 =
2
Using the triangle law of vector addition: Hence,
𝑩𝑫 = 𝒃 − 𝒂 ⇒ ⏟ 𝑩𝑴 = 𝜇(𝒃 − 𝒂) 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑏𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰

Example 1.147
In Δ𝑋𝑌𝑍, lines 𝑍𝑃 and 𝑍𝑄 trisect 𝑋𝑌. The points 𝑌, 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑋 are collinear, in that order. The point of intersection of
𝑍𝑃 with the median 𝑋𝑀 is point A. Find the ratio in which point 𝐴 divides 𝑋𝑀, and also the ratio in which point
𝐴 divides 𝑍𝑃.

Draw a diagram. Let

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒂
𝑌𝑀 ⃗⃗, 𝑌𝑃 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒃

Note that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑴𝑨 must be some fraction of 𝑴𝑿 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒀𝑴 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒀𝑨 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑴𝑨 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒀𝑴 + 𝜆(𝑴𝑿 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)

Substitute:
= 𝒂 + 𝜆(3𝒃 − 𝒂) = 𝒂 + 3𝜆𝒃 − 𝜆𝒂 = 𝒂(1
⏟ − 𝜆) + 3𝜆𝒃
𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰

Similarly, note that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑷𝑨 must be some fraction of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑷𝒁:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒀𝑨 = 𝒀𝑷 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑷𝑨 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝒀𝑷 + 𝜇(𝑷𝒁
Substitute:
𝒃 + 𝜇(2𝒂 − 𝒃) = 𝒃 + 2𝜇𝒂 − 𝜇𝒃 = ⏟ 2𝜇𝒂 + (1 − 𝜇)𝒃
𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰

Use the method of undetermined coefficients.

𝒂(1 − 𝜆) + 3𝜆𝒃 = ⏟
⏟ 2𝜇𝒂 + 𝒃(1 − 𝜇)
𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰 𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰
Equating coefficients for 𝑎:

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1 − 𝜆 = 2𝜇 ⇒ 𝜆 = 1 − 2𝜇 ⇒ 3𝜆 = 3 − 6𝜇
Equating coefficients for 𝑏:
2
3𝜆 = 1 − 𝜇 ⇒ 3 − 6𝜇 = 1 − 𝜇 ⇒ 𝜇 =
5
2 1
𝜆 = 1 − 2𝜇 = 1 − ( ) =
5 5

Example 1.148
A. (𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚) In Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶, point 𝐹
divides side 𝐴𝐶 in the ratio 1:2. Let 𝐸 be
the point of intersection of side 𝐵𝐶 and
𝐴𝐺 where 𝐺 is the midpoint of 𝐵𝐹. The
point 𝐸 divides side 𝐵𝐶 in the ratio ____
(AHSME 1971/26)
B. (𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚) In triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶, point
𝐷 divides side 𝐴𝐶 so that 𝐴𝐷: 𝐷𝐶 = 1: 2. Let 𝐸 be the midpoint of 𝐵𝐷 and let 𝐹 be the point of
intersection of line 𝐵𝐶 and line 𝐴𝐸. Given that the area of △ 𝐴𝐵𝐶 is 360, what is the area of △ 𝐸𝐵𝐹?
(AMC 8 2019/24)

Part A 1: 3
Let Part B
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗𝒂⃗ ⇒ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑭𝑨 𝑪𝑭 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝟐𝒂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝑮 = 𝑮𝑭 = 𝒃 ⃗⃗
Then:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑮𝑭
𝑮𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑭𝑨
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒂 ⃗⃗ ⇒ 𝑬𝑮
⃗⃗ + 𝒃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇(𝒂 ⃗⃗)
⃗⃗ + 𝒃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑩𝑭
𝑩𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 2𝒃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑭𝑪 ⃗⃗ − 2𝒂 ⃗⃗ ⇒ 𝑩𝑬 ⃗⃗ − 2𝒂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜆(2𝒃 ⃗⃗)
Finally:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒃
𝑩𝑮 ⃗⃗
Note that we have the same triangle as in Part A
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑬𝑮
𝑩𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒃⃗⃗ (except for names of vertices).
𝜆(2𝒃 ⃗⃗ − 2𝒂 ⃗⃗) + 𝜇(𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒃 ⃗⃗) = 𝒃⃗⃗ We will use the ratios from Part A:
⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗
𝑎(𝜇 − 2𝜆) + 𝑏(𝜇 + 2𝜆) = 0𝒂 1 1
𝐵𝐹 = 𝐵𝐶, 𝐸𝐹 = 𝐴𝐹
Equating coefficients: 4 3
𝜇 − 2𝜆 = 0 , 𝜇 + 2𝜆 = 1 Using theorems on area of triangles:
⏟ ⏟
1 1
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝐼 𝐴(Δ𝐸𝐵𝐹) = 𝐴(Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶) × ×
Add Equations I and II: ⏟
4 ⏟
3
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓
1 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑠
2𝜇 = 1 ⇒ 𝜇 =
2 Simplify:
1
Substitute 𝜇 = in Equation II: 1 1
2 𝐴(Δ𝐸𝐵𝐹) = 360 × × = 30
1 1 4 3
+ 2𝜆 = 1 ⇒ 𝜆 =
2 4
E divides BC in the ratio

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Example 1.149
In Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶, points 𝐷 and 𝐸 lie on 𝐵𝐶 and 𝐴𝐶, respectively. If 𝐴𝐷 and 𝐵𝐸 intersect at 𝑇
𝐴𝑇 𝐵𝑇 𝐶𝐷
so that 𝐷𝑇 = 3 and 𝐸𝑇 = 4, what is 𝐵𝐷? (AMC 10B 2004/20)

Let:
𝐸𝑇 = ⃗𝒂⃗ ⇒ 𝑇𝐵 = 3𝒂
⃗⃗
𝑇𝐷 = ⃗𝒃⃗ ⇒ 𝐴𝑇 = 3𝒃
⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑫
Let ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇:
𝑫𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇𝑫𝑩
𝑪𝑫 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇(𝑻𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑻𝑫
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗) = 𝜇(4𝒂 ⃗⃗)
⃗⃗ − 𝒃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑬
Let ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜆:
𝑨𝑬
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜆𝑨𝑬
𝑪𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜆(𝑨𝑻
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑻𝑬 ⃗⃗ − 𝒂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗) = 𝜆(3𝒃 ⃗⃗)
Calculate ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬𝑫 in two different ways in Quadrilateral 𝐸𝑇𝐶𝐷:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬𝑫 = 𝒂 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬𝑫 = 𝜆(3𝒃 ⃗⃗ − 𝒂
⃗⃗) + 𝜇(4𝒂⃗⃗ − ⃗𝒃⃗) = 𝒂
⃗⃗(4𝜇 − 𝜆) + ⃗𝒃⃗(−𝜇 + 3𝜆)
Equate coefficients:
4𝜇 − 𝜆 = 1 ⇒ ⏟ 12𝜇 − 3𝜆 = 3 , −𝜇 + 3𝜆 = 1
⏟
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝐼
Add Equations I and II:
4
11𝜇 = 4 ⇒ 𝜇 =
11

I. Centroid

Example 1.150
Centroid of a triangle is 2/3 of the way along the median (from the vertices)

Example 1.151
Centroid of a triangle is the average of the position vectors of the vertices of the triangle.

Pending
J. Section Formula

Example 1.152
Find, using first principles.

1.153: Section Formula

Example 1.154
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1.5 Polar Form; Resolving Components

A. Polar Form
We have seen the algebraic form of a vector where the components are specified:
⃗⃗ = (𝑥, 𝑦) = (3, −2) = 3𝒊̂ − 2𝒋̂
𝒂

We have also seen the geometric form of a vector where the vector is represented as a directed line segment.
There is one more form of a vector, where it is specified using the magnitude and angle.

1.155: Polar Form of a Vector

⃗⃗ with its tail at the origin can be defined in terms of (𝑟, 𝜃) where:
A vector 𝒓
𝑟 = |𝒓⃗⃗| = 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝒓 ⃗⃗
𝜃 = 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝒓 ⃗⃗ 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

➢ If the tail of the vector is at the origin, then the polar form of a vector gives the position of the tip in
polar coordinates. Hence, the two are related.
➢ Angle is considered:
✓ positive in the counterclockwise direction
✓ negative in the clockwise direction

1.156: Converting into component form

⃗⃗ =
𝒓 (𝑟,
⏟ 𝜃) = (𝑟
⏟ cos 𝜃 , 𝑟 sin 𝜃)
𝑷𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒎 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒎

We can determine the magnitude of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗:

𝒓𝒚
𝑟𝑦
sin 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝑟𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑟
𝑟𝑥
cos 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝑟𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝑟

Example 1.157
Plot the vectors given in polar form on the coordinate plane. Write them in component form. State the quadrant
in which the vectors lie.
A. 𝒂⃗⃗ = (2,30°)
B. ⃗𝒃⃗ = (5,45°)
C. 𝒄⃗⃗ = (√3, −60°)
𝜋
D. ⃗𝒅⃗ = (3, )3
𝜋
E. ⃗⃗ = (4, )
𝒂 6
F. ⃗⃗ = (7, − 𝜋)
𝒃 3
9𝜋
G. ⃗⃗ = (2, )
𝒄 4

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⃗⃗ = (√3, 1), 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐼

𝒂
5√2 5√2
⃗𝒃⃗ = ( , ) , 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐼
2 2
√3 3
⃗⃗ = ( , − ) , 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐼𝑉
𝒄
2 2
3 3√3
⃗𝒅⃗ = ( , ) , 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐼
2 2
𝜋
⃗⃗ = (4, ) = (4,30°) = (2√3, 2)
𝒂
6

Example 1.158
Let a vector 𝛼𝒊 + 𝛽𝒋 be obtained by rotating the vector √3𝒊 + 𝒋 by an angle 45° about the origin in counter
clockwise direction in the first quadrant. Then, the area of the triangle having vertices (𝛼, 𝛽), (0, 𝛽) and (0,0) is
equal to: (JEE Main 2021, 16 March, Shift-I)

Let the vector be ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑶𝑨. (First diagram on the left). Note that:
1 2
tan 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝜃 = 30°, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = √(√3) + 12 = √3 + 1 = √4 = 2
|𝑶𝑨
√3

Rotate the vector by 45° counterclockwise (middle diagram) and note that the magnitude remains 2.
The components are
𝛼 = 2 cos 75° , 𝛽 = 2 sin 75°
Draw the required triangle (rightmost diagram), and hence, the area of that triangle=
1 𝛼𝛽 (2 cos 75°)(2 sin 75°)
= ℎ𝑏 = =
2 2 2
Simplify:
= 2 cos 75° sin 75°
Use the double angle identity for sin 𝜃:
1
= sin 150° = sin 30° =
2

1.159: Standard Polar Form of a Vector

⃗⃗ in polar form (𝑟, 𝜃) is said to be in standard form if
A vector 𝒓
0° ≤ 𝜃 < 360° ⇔ ⏟
⏟ 0 ≤ 𝜃 < 2𝜋
𝑫𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒔 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔

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Example 1.160
Write the following position vectors in standard polar form. If the angles are given in radians, convert into
degrees. Also, state the quadrant in which they lie.
A. 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = (2, −30°)
B. 𝒃 ⃗⃗ = (5, −210°)
C. 𝒄 ⃗⃗ = (9,410°)
D. 𝒅 ⃗⃗ = (1, 𝜋)
2
𝜋
⃗⃗ = (10, − )
E. 𝒆 6

⃗⃗ = (2, −30°) = (2,330°)

𝒂
⃗⃗ = (5, −210°) = (5,150°)
𝒃
⃗⃗ = (9,410°) = (9,50°)
𝒄
𝜋
⃗⃗ = (1, ) = (1,90°)
𝒅
2
𝜋
⃗⃗ = (10, − ) = (10, −30°) = (10,330°)
𝒆
6

Example 1.161
A vector has a magnitude of 11, and makes an angle of 30° with the horizontal in the right direction. Determine
the exact value of its horizontal and vertical components.

𝐵𝐶 1 11
sin 30° = ⇒ 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 sin 30° = 𝐵𝐶 × =
𝐴𝐵 2 2
𝐴𝐶 √3 11√3
cos 30° = ⇒ 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 × cos 30° = 11 × =
𝐴𝐵 2 2

11√3 11
( , )
2 2

Example 1.162
𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠
A. Rory the dog is running towards his favorite ball on the beach, at a velocity of 34 at an angle of 𝛼 to
ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
the positive direction of 𝑥 axis. Find his speed in the horizontal and vertical direction.
B. The 𝑥 component of 𝒂 ⃗⃗ is −3. 𝒂
⃗⃗ makes an angle 𝛾 (in the counterclockwise direction) with the positive
direction of the 𝑥 axis. Given that 𝒂⃗⃗ lies in the second quadrant, determine the magnitude of 𝒂 ⃗⃗, and the
vector which is the 𝑦 component of 𝒂 ⃗⃗.
C. Find 𝑥 given that 𝒂⃗⃗ = 𝑥𝒊̂ + 𝟒𝒋̂ (lying in the first quadrant) and 𝒂
⃗⃗ makes an angle 𝛾 (in the clockwise
direction) with the positive direction of the 𝑦 axis.

Part A
𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 34 sin 𝛼
𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 34 cos 𝛼
Part B
3 3 3
cos(180 − 𝛾) = − ⇒ |𝒂⃗⃗| = − =
|𝒂
⃗⃗| cos(180 − 𝛾) cos 𝛾
|𝒚|
tan(180 − 𝛾) = ⇒ |𝒚| = 3 tan 𝛾 ⇒ 𝒚 = 3 tan 𝛾 𝒋̂
−3

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Part C
4
𝑎 cos 𝛾 = 4 ⇒ 𝑎 = = 4 sec 𝛾
cos 𝛾
𝑥
tan 𝛾 = ⇒ 𝑥 = 4 tan 𝛾
4
𝑎 + 𝑥 = 4(sec 𝛾 + tan 𝛾)

Example 1.163: Interpreting Components

A. A military tank in an exercise is going towards its objective. It has a
𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠
velocity of 30 ℎ𝑟
, and a bearing of 100° from true north. Identify whether its 𝑥 component and 𝑦
component will be positive or negative. (Using the default coordinate plane). Overhead view of ground
B. Side view of object in air/on ground
C. Interpretation of positive and negative 𝑥 component
D. Interpretation of positive and negative 𝑦 component

Example 1.164: Concept Check

⃗𝒃⃗ is in the second quadrant. Then:
A. Its horizontal component is positive, and its vertical component is negative.
B. Its horizontal component is negative, and its vertical component is positive.
C. Its horizontal component and vertical component are both negative.
D. Its horizontal component and vertical component are both positive.

𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐵

Example 1.165: Concept Check

𝒙 makes an angle 𝜃 with the positive direction of the 𝑥 axis, in the counterclockwise direction. sin 𝜃 is negative.
What quadrant(s) can the vector be in?

sin 𝜃 is negative in the 3rd and 4th quadrant.

3𝑟𝑑 𝑜𝑟 4𝑡ℎ 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡
B. Converting to Polar Form

1.166: Converting into polar form

𝑦
⃗⃗ =
𝒓 (𝑥,
⏟ 𝑦) = (√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 , tan−1 ( ))
⏟ 𝑥
𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒎 𝑷𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒎

Quadrant III Vector

𝑦 𝑦
> 0 ⇒ 𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) > 0 ⇒ 𝜃 ∈ 𝑄𝐼
𝑥 𝑥
⃗⃗ is in Quadrant III, then you need to add 180° to get the angle in QIII.
But if 𝒓
𝑦
180° + tan−1 ( )
𝑥

Quadrant II Vector
𝑦 𝑦
< 0 ⇒ 𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) < 0 ⇒ 𝜃 ∈ 𝑄𝐼𝑉
𝑥 𝑥
⃗⃗ is in Quadrant II, then you need to add 180° to get the angle in QIII.
But if 𝒓

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𝑦
180° + tan−1 ( )
𝑥

To generalize:
𝑦
➢ For vectors in QI and QIV use tan−1 (𝑥 )
𝑦
➢ For vectors in QII and QIII use 180° + tan−1 ( )
𝑥

Example 1.167
The vectors below are given in component form. Convert into polar form using an exact expression.
A. 𝒂⃗⃗ = (3,4)
B. 𝒃⃗⃗ = (−3, −4)

Part A
⃗⃗| = √x 2 + y 2 = √32 + 42 = 5
|𝒂
4 4
tan 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
3 3
−1
4
⃗⃗ = (5, tan ( ))
𝒂
3
Part B
⃗⃗| has the same magnitude as |𝒂
|𝒃 ⃗⃗|, but it goes in the opposite direction.
|𝒃⃗⃗| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = √32 + 42 = 5

4 4
tan 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝜃 = 180° + tan−1 ( )
3 3
4
⃗⃗ = (5,180° + tan−1 ( ))
𝒃
3

Example 1.168
A vector starts at the origin, and ends at (3,5). Find its
A. 𝑥 component
B. 𝑦 component
C. Magnitude
D. Direction

𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 3 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 5 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = √52 + 32 = √25 + 9 = √34

5
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (tan−1 ) ° 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙
3

C. Addition and Subtraction

We have already seen addition and subtraction in component form. However, vectors in polar form cannot be
added directly. Hence, one method of adding them is convert them to component form, add them, and then
convert back to polar form, if needed.

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1.169: Component Resolution

⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗
⃗⃗ = 𝒂
If 𝒄
𝒄 = (𝑐𝑥 , 𝑐𝑦 ) = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 , 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦 )

Example 1.170
𝜋 𝜋
⃗⃗ = (2, ) ,
𝒂 ⃗⃗ = (3, )
𝒃
6 4
The vectors above are given in polar form. Find each part below. State your answer in polar form. Also state the
quadrant they lie in.
A. 𝒂⃗⃗ + 𝒃⃗⃗
B. ⃗𝒂⃗ − ⃗𝒃⃗

Part A
𝜋
⃗⃗ = (2, ) = (√3
𝒂 ⏟ , 1)
6
𝜋 3√2 3√2
⃗⃗ = (3, ) = (
𝒃 , )
4 2 2
Find the vectors in component form:

3√2 3√2 2√3 + 3√2 2 + 3√2

⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ = (√3
𝒂 ⏟+ ,⏟
1+ )=( , ) = (+𝑣𝑒, +𝑣𝑒) ⇒ 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐼
⏟2 𝑎 ⏟2 2 2
𝑎𝑥 𝑦
𝑏𝑥 𝑏𝑦
Convert to polar form:
2 2
2√3 + 3√2 2 + 3√2
⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗| = √(
|𝒂 ) +( )
2 2
2 + 3√2
−1
𝑦 −1 2 2 + 3√2
𝜃 = tan ( ) = tan ( ) = tan−1 ( )
𝑥 2√3 + 3√2 2√3 + 3√2
2
Part B
Find the vectors in component form:
2√3 − 3√2 2 − 3√2 2(1.7) − 3(1.4) 2 − 3(1.4)
⃗⃗ − ⃗𝒃⃗ = (
𝒂 , )≈( , ) = (−𝑣𝑒, −𝑣𝑒) ⇒ 𝑄 𝐼𝐼𝐼
2 2 2 2
Convert to polar form:
2 2
2√3 − 3√2 2 − 3√2
⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗| = √(
|𝒂 ) +( )
2 2
2 − 3√2
−1
𝑦 −1 2 2 − 3√2
𝜃 = tan ( ) = tan ( ) = tan−1 ( )
𝑥 2√3 − 3√2 2√3 − 3√2
2

(Calculator) Example 1.171

A ship leaves port at a bearing of 30° from true north and travels 30 km. It then travels 50 km at a bearing of
130° from true north. Find the bearing and the distance of the final position from the port.

𝐷 2 = 302 + 502 − 2(30)(50)(cos 80°) =

𝐷=

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Use the sine rule to find the angle:

Type equation here.

(Calculator) Example 1.172

An airplane is flying at a speed of 200 miles/hour at a bearing of 30 degrees from true north (before taking the
wind into account). The wind is 40 miles/hour, at a bearing of 120 degrees from true north. Find the net
velocity vector of the plane, taking into consideration the wind.

𝐷 2 = 2002 + 402 − 2(200)(40)(cos 90°) =

𝐷=
Use the sine rule to find the angle:
Type equation here.

Example 1.173
An airplane takes off from Point A, travels on a circular path with radius 𝑟 around an island, and lands at point
3
B. The length of the path travelled by the plane is 4 𝜋𝑟. Find, using vector methods only, the distance between
point A and point B in terms of 𝑟.

⃗⃗ = 𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝒙 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒂𝒚 = −𝑟𝒊̂ + 𝟎 = −𝑟𝒋̂

√2 √2
⃗𝒃⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝒙 + 𝒃⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝒚 = 𝑟 cos 135° 𝒊̂ + 𝑟 sin 135° 𝒋̂ = 𝑟 (− ) 𝒊̂ + 𝑟 ( ) 𝒋̂
2 2

√2 √2 √2 √2
⃗𝒂⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ = −𝑟𝒊̂ + 𝑟 (− ) 𝒊̂ + 𝑟 ( ) 𝒋̂ = −𝑟 (1 + ) 𝒊̂ + 𝑟 ( ) 𝒋̂
2 2 2 2

Example 1.174
Two forces of 30𝑁 and 40𝑁 act on an object in the 𝑥-direction and the 𝑦-direction, respectively.
A. Find the angle between the two forces
B. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force
C. Find the angle that the resultant makes with the larger force.

Part A
Part B
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = √302 + 402 = 50
𝐵𝐶 40 4
sin 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝜃 = sin−1 = sin−1
𝐴𝐵 50 5
Part B

𝐴𝐶 30 3
sin 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝜃 = sin−1 = sin−1
𝐴𝐵 50 5
D. Finding Angles

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1.175: Law of Sines

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
= =
sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐶

1.176: Law of Cosines

𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2
𝑎2 = ⏟2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 cos 𝐴
𝑏 ⇔ cos 𝐴 =
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑃𝑦𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑠
2𝑏𝑐
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡−𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠
cos 90 = 0

Example 1.177
An airplane takes off from Point A, travels on a circular path with radius 𝑟 around an island, and lands at point
3
B. The length of the path travelled by the plane is 4 𝜋𝑟. Find, using vector methods only, the distance between
point A and point B in terms of 𝑟.

The angle traversed is:

135°
Using the law of cosines, the distance is:
√2
𝐷 2 = 𝑟 2 + 𝑟 2 − 2𝑟 2 cos 135 = 2𝑟 2 (1 − cos 135°) = 2𝑟 2 (1 + )
2

𝐷 = 𝑟√2 + √2

(Calculator) Example 1.178

Consider two vectors with length 54 and 43 respectively, which have an angle of 150° between them. Find the
resultant vector. Give the magnitude of the vector, and the angle that it makes with the first vector.

By Law of Cosines:
|𝑢 + 𝑣|2 = 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 − 2 𝑢𝑣 cos 𝜃
Substituting and taking square roots:
|𝑢 + 𝑣| = √542 + 432 − 2(54)(43)(cos 30) = 27.26

By the Law of Sines:

sin 𝜃 sin 30 sin 30 sin 30
= ⇒ sin 𝜃 = × 43 ⇒ 𝜃 = sin−1 ( × 43) = 52.06
43 27.26 27.26 27.26

E. Physics

1.179: Components of Force and Acceleration

𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑦 , 𝐹𝑧 = 𝑚𝑎𝑧

We know that:
⃗⃗ = 𝑚𝒂
𝑭 ⃗⃗
Write each vector in component form:

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(𝐹𝑥 , 𝐹𝑦 , 𝐹𝑧 ) = 𝑚(𝑎𝑥 , 𝑎𝑦 , 𝑎𝑧 )
Carry out the scalar multiplication:
(𝐹𝑥 , 𝐹𝑦 , 𝐹𝑧 ) = (𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝑚𝑎𝑦 , 𝑚𝑎𝑧 )
If two vectors are equal, then their individual components must be equal.
Equating components gives us the result that we want:
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑦 , 𝐹𝑧 = 𝑚𝑎𝑧

Example 1.180
A. Find the force in each direction given mass and acceleration.

Example 1.181: Systems of Equations

An object of weight 100 Newtons is suspended from two
taut wires attached to hooks in the ceiling to its left and
right. At the point of suspension, the left and right wires
𝜋 𝜋
make angles and with the horizontal. Determine the
6 3
forces acting in the two wires in both polar and
component form.

Consider the 𝑦 component of the force.

Since the object is in equilibrium, the net force is zero:
𝑈𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 + 𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 0
𝑈𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 − 100 = 0
𝑈𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 100
Convert from radians to degrees:
𝜋 𝜋
= 30°, = 60°
6 3
Calculate the components of each vector:
√3𝑎 1
⃗𝒂⃗ = (−𝑎 cos 30° , 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 30°) = (− , 𝑎)
2 2
𝑏
⃗𝒃⃗ = (𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 60°, 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 60°) = ( , √3𝑏 )
2 2
Add the vectors:
𝑏 1
⃗⃗ + 𝒃
𝒂 ⃗⃗ = ( − √3𝑎 , √3𝑏 + 𝑎) = (0,100)
2 2 2 2
Since the two vectors are equal, their individual components are equal.
Equate the components to get:
𝑏 √3𝑎 √3 1
− =0⇒⏟ 𝑏 = √3𝑎 , 𝑏 + 𝑎 = 100
2 2 ⏟2 2
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝐼
Substitute the value of 𝑏 from Equation I:
√3 1 3𝑎 + 𝑎 4𝑎
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = (√3𝑎) + 𝑎 = = = 2𝑎
2 2 2 2
Then, the equation becomes:
2𝑎 = 100 ⇒ 𝑎 = 50
Substitute the above value of 𝑎 into Equation I:
𝑏 = √3𝑎 = 50√3
We can write the vectors in polar form as:

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⃗⃗ = (50,150),
𝒂 ⃗⃗ = (50√3, 60)
𝒃
And we can write the same vectors in component form as:
√3 1
⃗⃗ = (−𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 30°, 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 30°) = (50 ×
𝒂 , 50 × ) = (−25√3, 25)
2 2
1 √3
⃗⃗ = (𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 60°, 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 60°) = (50√3 × , 50√3 × ) = (25√3, 75)
𝒃
2 2

Example 1.182: Systems of Equations

𝜋
Answer the above question if the left wire makes an angle 4 with the horizontal, and all else remains the same.

Convert from radians to degrees:

𝜋 𝜋
= 45°, = 60°
4 3
Calculate the components of each vector:
𝑎 𝑎
⃗⃗ = (−𝑎 cos 45° , 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 45°) = (−
𝒂 , )
√2 √2
𝑏
⃗⃗ = (𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 60°, 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 60°) = ( , √3𝑏 )
𝒃
2 2
Add the vectors:
𝑏 𝑎 √3𝑏 𝑎
⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ = ( −
𝒂 , + ) = (0,100)
2 √2 2 √2
Since the two vectors are equal, their individual
components are equal.
Equate the components to get:
𝑏 𝑎 2 √3 𝑎
− =0⇒𝑏= 𝑎, 𝑏+ = 100
2 √2 ⏟ √2 ⏟2 √2
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝐼
Substitute the value of 𝑏 from Equation I:
√3 2𝑎 𝑎 √3𝑎 𝑎 √3𝑎 + 𝑎 𝑎(1 + √3)
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = ∙ + = + = =
2 √2 √2 √2 √2 √2 √2
Then, the equation becomes:
𝑎(1 + √3)
= 100
√2
And we can solve for 𝑎:
√2 100√2 100√2(1 − √3) 100√2 − 100√6
𝑎 = 100 × = = = = 50√6 − 50√2
1 + √3 1 + √3 −2 −2
Substitute the above value of 𝑎 into Equation I:
2
𝑏= 50√6 − 50√2 = 100√3 − 100
√2
We can write the vectors in polar form as:
⃗⃗ = (50√6 − 50√2, 135),
𝒂 ⃗⃗ = (100√3 − 100,60)
𝒃
And we can write the same vectors in component form as:
1 1
⃗⃗ = (−𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 45°, 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 45°) = ((−50√6 − 50√2)
𝒂 , (50√6 − 50√2) ) = (−50√3 − 50,50√3 − 50√2)
√2 √2

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1
⃗⃗ = (𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 60°, 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 60°) = ((100√3 − 100) , (100√3 − 100) √3) = (50√3 − 50,150 − 50√3)
𝒃
2 2

Example 1.183: Systems of Equations

A weight of mass 𝑛 Newtons is suspended from two taut wires attached to hooks in the ceiling to its left and
right. At the point of suspension, the left and right wires make angles 𝛼 and 𝛽 with the horizontal. Determine
the forces acting in the two wires.

⃗⃗ = (−𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼, 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼)

𝒂
⃗⃗ = (𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽, 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽)
𝒃
⃗⃗ = (0, 𝑛)
⃗⃗ + 𝒃
𝒂
𝑥 components:
𝑎 cos 𝛼
𝑏 cos 𝛽 − 𝑎 cos 𝛼 = 0 ⇒ 𝑏 =
⏟ cos 𝛽
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰
𝑦 components:
𝑎 sin 𝛼 + 𝑏 sin 𝛽 = 𝑛
Substitute the value of 𝑏 from Equation I:
𝑎 cos 𝛼
𝑎 sin 𝛼 + ( ) sin 𝛽 = 𝑛
cos 𝛽
Factor 𝑎 and add the fractions:
sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 + cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽
𝑎[ ]=𝑛
cos 𝛽
Use the identity sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) = sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 + cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽:
sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) 𝑛 cos 𝛽
𝑎[ ]=𝑛⇒𝑎=
cos 𝛽 sin(𝛼 + 𝛽)
Substitute the above value of 𝑎 into Equation I:
cos 𝛼 𝑛 cos 𝛽 cos 𝛼 𝑛 cos 𝛼
𝑏=𝑎 = ( )=
cos 𝛽 sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) cos 𝛽 sin(𝛼 + 𝛽)
We can write the vectors in polar form as:
𝑛 cos 𝛽 𝑛 cos 𝛼
⃗⃗ = (
𝒂 , 180 − 𝛼) , ⃗⃗ = (
𝒃 , 𝛽)
sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) sin(𝛼 + 𝛽)
And we can write the same vectors in component form as:
𝑛 cos 𝛽 cos 𝛼 𝑛 cos 𝛽 sin 𝛼
⃗⃗ = (−𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼, 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼) = (−
𝒂 , )
sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) sin(𝛼 + 𝛽)
𝑛 cos 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 𝑛 cos 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽
⃗𝒃⃗ = (𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽, 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽) = ( , )
sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) sin(𝛼 + 𝛽)

Example 1.184: Kinematics

At time 𝑡, an insect is attempting to outrun a book which has been thrown at it. It runs with a velocity of
𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
𝑣 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒, at an angle of 𝜃 (in clockwise direction) to true North such that 0 < 𝜃 < 90. The book is rectangular,
with a width (𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡) of 9 cm and a length (𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡) of 20 cm, and currently the insect is exactly
below the middle of the book length-wise and width-wise. The book falls straight down, and hits the ground at
time 𝑡 + 2 seconds. Determine the value of 𝑣 such that the insect can escape the book. Ignore the length and
width of the cockroach.

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𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 10 𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑚
𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = = =5
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡 + 2) − 𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑣 cos 𝜃
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒

𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑚
𝑣 cos 𝜃 =5
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
2.54 𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑚
𝑣 cos 𝜃 =5
60 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
300 30000 15000
𝑣= = =
2.54 cos 𝜃 254 cos 𝜃 127 cos 𝜃

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 4.5 𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑚
𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = = = 2.25
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡 + 2) − 𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑣 sin 𝜃
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒

𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑚
𝑣 sin 𝜃 = 2.25
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
2.54 𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑚
𝑣 sin 𝜃 = 2.25
60 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
135
𝑣=
2.54 sin 𝜃

To escape the slipper, the cockroach can escape either horizontally, or vertically. Hence, the final answer is:
15000 135
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 ( , )
127 cos 𝜃 2.54 sin 𝜃

Example 1.185
A man on a wheelchair is being pushed up a hospital ramp by an attendant. The man weighs 70 kg, his
2
wheelchair 15 kg, and the attendant weighs 60 kg. 3 𝑟𝑑 of the way up the ramp, the attendant stops briefly. At
this point, what are the components of the system’s mass parallel and perpendicular to the ramp if the ramp
makes an angle of 20° with the horizontal.
Consider the man, his wheelchair, and the attendant to be a point mass.

Step I: Focus on the Geometry

The ramp makes an angle of 20° with the horizontal. Hence
∠𝐽𝐷𝐼 = 20°
Let the man/wheelchair/attendant be a point mass at F. We
want the components of the system’s mass parallel and
perpendicular to the ramp.
Hence, draw
𝐹𝐻 ∥ 𝐽𝐷, 𝐹𝐻 ⊥ 𝐹𝐺, 𝐹𝐼 ⊥ 𝐺𝐷
∠𝐹𝐼𝐷 = 90° ⇒ ∠𝐼𝐽𝐷 = 70°
By corresponding angles in parallel lines FH and JD:
∠𝐽𝐹𝐻 = ∠𝐼𝐻𝐷 = 70°

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Since 𝐹𝐻 ⊥ 𝐹𝐺
∠𝐺𝐹𝐻 = 90° ⇒ ∠𝐺𝐹𝐼 = 90 − ∠𝐼𝐹𝐻 = 90 − 70 = 20°
Step II: Focus on the Vector
𝑜𝑝𝑝 𝐵𝐶
sin 𝐴 = ⇒ sin 20° = ⇒ 𝐵𝐶 = sin 20 ° × 145 = 45.59 𝑘𝑔
ℎ𝑦𝑝 145
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴𝐵
cos 𝐴 = ⇒ cos 20° = ⇒ 𝐴𝐵 = cos 20 ° × 145 = 136.26 𝑘𝑔
ℎ𝑦𝑝 145

1.6 Projections
A. Introduction
We now look at multiplication in the context of vectors, beginning with the concept of projection of vectors to
introduce the idea.
In terms of multiplication with real numbers, recall that:
3
⏟ ∙4 = 3×4
⏟ = 12
𝐷𝑜𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡

In the context of real numbers, both products are the same.

However, in the context of vectors, the two products are not the same.
B. Scalar Projection
In the previous section, we introduce the idea of components of a vector. We now generalize this idea to
projections.

1.186: Projection along axes

The projection of a vector along the 𝑥-axis gives the component of the vector in the 𝑥 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
The projection of a vector along the 𝑦-axis gives the component of the vector in the 𝑦 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

➢ |𝒓
⃗⃗| = 𝑟
➢ 𝜃 is the angle made by the vector with the positive direction of the
𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
𝑜𝑝𝑝
sin 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝑜𝑝𝑝 = (sin 𝜃)(ℎ𝑦𝑝) = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
ℎ𝑦𝑝
𝑎𝑑𝑗
cos 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝑎𝑑𝑗 = (cos 𝜃)(ℎ𝑦𝑝) = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
ℎ𝑦𝑝

1.187: Length of Projection along a unit vector

̂ is a unit vector, and the angle between the two vectors
If ⃗𝒂⃗ is a vector, 𝒃
is 𝜃, then the length of the projection of 𝒂 ̂ is given by:
⃗⃗ along 𝒃
𝒂 ̂
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 = |𝒂
⃗⃗| cos 𝜃

|𝒂
⏟⃗⃗| ⏟
cos 𝜃 = ⏟
𝑥
𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟
As each term on the left is a scalar, the answer on the right is also a
scalar.

➢ The length of the projection of 𝒂 ⃗⃗ is the length of the blue line in the diagram.
⃗⃗ along 𝒃
➢ Imagine a light shining somewhere to the left of vector 𝒂 ⃗⃗. The projection of vector 𝒂 ̂ is the
⃗⃗ along 𝒃
shadow cast by 𝒂 ̂
⃗⃗ upon 𝒃.

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➢ The projection also gives the component of 𝒂 ̂.

⃗⃗ that is in the direction of 𝒃

Example 1.188
𝟏 𝟏
⃗⃗ = (𝟎, 𝟐) along 𝒚
A. Find the length of the projection of 𝒙 ⃗⃗ = ( , )
√𝟐 √𝟐
𝟏 𝟐
⃗⃗ = (𝟑, 𝟎) along 𝒚
B. Find the length of the projection of 𝒙 ⃗⃗ = ( ,− )
√𝟓 √𝟓

Part A
Note that:
𝜃 = 45°
Hence, the projection is:
1
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒚
𝒙 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = √22 + 02 cos 45° = 2 ×
̂ = |𝒙 = √2
√2
Part B
1
𝑎𝑑𝑗 1
cos 𝜃 = = √5 =
ℎ𝑦𝑝 1 √5
Hence, the projection is:
1 3
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒚
𝒙 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = √32 + 02 ×
̂ = |𝒙 =
√5 √5

1.189: Scaling a vector to get a unit vector

̂ and ⃗𝒃⃗ is not a unit vector, we can scale it to be a unit vector using the formula:
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
If we wish to find 𝒂
⃗𝒃⃗
̂=
𝒃
|𝒃⃗⃗|

Example 1.190
5
⃗⃗ = (1.5, −4)
⃗⃗ = (0, − ) along 𝒚
Find the length of the projection of 𝒙 2

Find the magnitude of:

3 2 9 73 √73
⃗⃗| = √( ) + (−4)2 = √ + 16 = √ =
|𝒚
2 4 4 2
⃗⃗ to be a unit vector:
Scale 𝒚
1 2 3 3 8
𝒛̂ = ⃗⃗ =
𝒚 ( , −4) = ( ,− )
√73 √73 2 √73 √73
2
We can check that the vector we have found is indeed a unit vector:
𝟐
3 8 9 64 73
|𝒛̂| = √( ) + (− )=√ + = √ = √1 = 1
√73 √73 73 73 73
Hence, the projection is:
5 2 8 5 8 20
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒛̂ = |𝒙
𝒙 √ 2
⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = 0 + (− ) ( )= × =
2 √73 2 √73 √73

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1.191: Law of Cosines

𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2
𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 cos 𝐴 ⇔ cos 𝐴 =
2𝑏𝑐

Example 1.192
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = 3, |𝑪𝑨
A. In Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶, if |𝑩𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = 5 and |𝑩𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = 7, then the projection
of the vector 𝑩𝑨⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ on 𝑩𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is equal to: (JEE Main 2021, 20 July, Shift-II)
B. In a triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶, if |𝑩𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = 8, |𝑪𝑨
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = 7 and |𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = 10, then the projection of the vector 𝑨𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ on 𝑨𝑪
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is
equal to: (JEE Main 2021, 18 March, Shift-II)

Part A
72 + 32 − 52 49 + 9 − 25 33 11
cos ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = = = =
2(7)(3) 42 42 14
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ on ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Projection of the vector 𝑩𝑨 𝑩𝑪
11 11
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| cos ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 7 ∙
= |𝑩𝑨 =
14 2
Part B
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ on 𝑨𝑪
Projection of the vector 𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is equal to:
102 + 72 − 82 85
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ cos 𝜃 = 10 (
𝑨𝑩 )=
2(7)(10) 14

1.193: Restating the projection definition

⃗⃗
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
𝒂
= |𝒂
⃗⃗| cos 𝜃
⃗⃗|
|𝒃

⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗
𝒂
𝒂 ̂=
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 |𝒂
=⏟⃗⃗| cos 𝜃
⃗⃗|
|𝒃
C. Vector Projection

1.194: Projection along a unit vector

̂ is a unit vector, and the angle between the two
⃗⃗ is a vector, 𝒃
If 𝒂
vectors is 𝜃, then the projection of 𝒂 ⃗⃗ along 𝒃̂ is given by:
⃗𝒃⃗
(|𝒂
⏟ ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃) ̂
𝒃
⏟ =⏟ (|𝒂
⃗⃗| cos 𝜃)
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 |𝒃
⏟ ⃗⃗|
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Example 1.195
Compare the formula for a vector projection with the formula for the length of the projection, and determine
the relation between the two:
⃗𝒃⃗
(|𝒂
⃗⃗| cos 𝜃) ( ) , |𝒂
⏟⃗⃗| cos 𝜃
⏟ |𝒃⃗⃗| 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

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𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)(𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)

Example 1.196
Find the projection vector for the following projections. Also, find the length of the projection.
A. 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = (3,3)
⃗⃗ = (0,2) along 𝒃
1 √3
B. 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = (−
⃗⃗ = (0, −3) along 𝒃 , )
√7 √7

Part A
Length of the projection
√2
= |𝒂
⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = 2 cos 45° = 2 ( ) = √2
2

⃗⃗| = √32 + 32 = √18 = 3√2

|𝒃
The vector is:
⃗⃗
𝒃 (3,3)
|𝒂
⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 ( ) = √2 = (1,1)
⃗⃗|
|𝒃 3√2

1.197: Negative Projection

Example 1.198
Find the projection vector for the following projections. Also, find the length of the projection.

The ratio of the components of ⃗𝒃⃗ is the same as the ratio of the legs of a 30 − 60 − 90
triangle:
1 √3
− : = −1: √3
√7 √7
We can
√3
𝜃 = 60° + 90° = 150° ⇒ cos 150° = cos(180 − 30) = − cos 30° = −
2
√3 3√3
|𝒂
⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = (3) (− ) = −
2 2
The length of the projection is
3√3 1 √3
𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑜 ⃗𝒃⃗ = (− , )
2 √7 √7
We can now find the unit vector in the direction of the vector that we are taking the projection along:
1 √3
|(−1, √3)| = 2 ⇒ |(− , )| = 1
2 2
The projection vector is:
⃗⃗
𝒃 3√3 1 √3 3√3 9
|𝒂⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 ( ) = − (− , ) = ( ,− )
⃗⃗|
|𝒃 2 2 2 4 4

1.199: Distributive Property

⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗) = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗(𝒂
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗(𝒂 ⃗⃗)
⃗⃗) + 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗(𝒃

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1.7 Dot Product: Angles and Perpendicularity

A. Geometrical Interpretation of Dot Product

1.200: Dot Product

⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ = |𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃
⃗⃗||𝒃

Let
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒃, 𝑨𝑫
𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒂
Projection of 𝒃 upon 𝒂 is:
⃗⃗| cos 𝜃
|𝒃

⃗⃗ as:
⃗⃗ and 𝒃
Then, we define the dot product of the vectors 𝒂
⃗⃗ = |𝒂
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃
⃗⃗||𝒃

Notes:
➢ Scalar multiplication has a vector multiplied with a scalar. The magnitude changes, but the direction is
unchanged.
➢ The dot product (also called scalar product) of two vectors has a scalar output.
➢ Since the output is a scalar, it is also called a scalar product.
➢ The scalar product is in contrast to the cross product which has a vector for an output. We will learn the
cross product later.

Example 1.201
Consider the same diagram as above.
A. What is the domain of cos 𝜃 in this context? What quadrants does it correspond to on the unit circle?
B. What is the range of cos 𝜃 in this context?
C. In which quadrants is cos 𝜃 positive? In which quadrants is it negative?

𝜋
The domain is given by the possible values for 𝜃. Note that 𝜃 can be obtuse( < 𝜃 < 𝜋), but not reflex.
2
0≤𝜃≤𝜋

𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝐼

−1 ≤ cos 𝜃 ≤ 1

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Example 1.202
A. Determine the sign of |𝒂 ⃗⃗|
⃗⃗|, the sign of |𝒃
B. Hence, for non-zero vectors 𝒂 ⃗⃗, what does the sign of 𝒂
⃗⃗ and 𝒃 ⃗⃗ depend on?
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
C. Determine the sign of cos 𝜃

Part A
The magnitude of a vector is the length of the vector, which is always a nonnegative quantity:
|𝒂
⃗⃗| ≥ 0
⃗⃗| ≥ 0
|𝒃
Part B

⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ = |𝒂
𝒂 ⏟ ⏟⃗⃗| cos 𝜃
⃗⃗| |𝒃
+𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ depends on the sign of cos 𝜃
Since the first two terms are positive, the value of 𝒂

Part C

cos 𝜃 > 0 ⇒ 𝜃 ∈ 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐼

𝜋
cos 𝜃 = 0 ⇒ 𝜃 =
2
cos 𝜃 < 0 ⇒ 𝜃 ∈ 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐼𝐼

Example 1.203
⃗⃗, in terms of the magnitude of the vectors, if the angle
⃗⃗ and 𝒃
Find the dot product in each case below between 𝒂
between the two vectors is:
A. zero
𝜋
B.
2
C. 𝜋

|𝒂 ⃗⃗| × 1 = |𝒂
⃗⃗||𝒃 ⃗⃗|
⃗⃗||𝒃
|𝒂 ⃗⃗| × 0 = 0
⃗⃗||𝒃
|𝒂 ⃗⃗| × (−1) = −|𝒂
⃗⃗||𝒃 ⃗⃗|
⃗⃗||𝒃

1.204: Dot Product

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The dot product is:

𝜋
➢ Positive when 0 ≤ 𝜃 < 2
𝜋
➢ Zero when 𝜃 = 2
𝜋
➢ Negative when 2 < 𝜃≤𝜋

B. Work

1.205: Work-Energy Theorem

The net work done by the forces on an object equals the change in its kinetic energy (𝐾𝐸).

➢ If KE increases, work done is positive

✓ For example, when a force applied in the direction of movement of the object increases the
velocity of the object, the work done is positive.
➢ If KE remains the same, work done is zero
✓ If the direction of force is perpendicular to the direction of movement of the object, the work
done is zero.
➢ If KE decreases, work done is negative
✓ For example, when a force is applied opposite to the direction of movement of the object, the
force slows the object down, reducing KE, and doing negative work.

Example 1.206
The moon orbits the Earth. For this question, assume that the orbit is circular. Explain why the work done by
the Earth on the moon is zero:
A. Mathematically
B. Using the concept of KE

Part A: Mathematical Explanation

The tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius at the point of tangency.
Hence, the angle between the force of gravity, and the direction of movement of the moon is always a right
angle.
Hence
cos 𝜃 = cos 90° = 0
Part B: Kinetic Energy
Gravity changes the direction of the moon, but does not change the magnitude of the velocity.
Hence, there is no change in the kinetic energy.
Hence,
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 0

Example 1.207
Decide whether work done is positive, negative, or zero:
A. The net force on an object increases its velocity
B. The net force on an object decreases its velocity
C. The net force on an object does not change its velocity.

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜

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1.208: Work done by Individual Force

The sum total of work done is the work done by each individual force acting on an object
𝑊𝑆 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + ⋯ + 𝑊𝑛

Example 1.209
Decide whether work done is positive, negative, or zero:
A. The force on an object increases its velocity
B. The force on an object decreases its velocity
C. The force on an object does not change its velocity.

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜

1.210: Work
Work done also equals change in energy, not just kinetic energy.

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 + 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

1.211: Work done when lifting an object against gravity

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ

Suppose you move an object ℎ feet higher then where it was. The increase in potential energy of the object
comes from:
➢ The height h the object was moved up. The greater the height, the more the energy.
➢ The mass of the object. The greater the mass, the more the energy
➢ The resistance provided by gravity. Earth has higher gravity, compared to the moon, for instance.

Example 1.212
Work done by gravity in left/right movement

Example 1.213
Resolution into components for dragging a trolley, and then ignoring the vertical component

1.214: Work in 3D
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒔
𝑊=𝑭 ⃗⃗ = 𝐹𝑠 cos 𝜃

➢ We have already seen that a force perpendicular to an object does zero work.
➢ Hence, for a two-dimensional force, we only want the component of the force along the direction of
movement.

Example 1.215
̂ and 3𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ − 𝒌
A particle is acted upon by constant forces 4𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ − 3𝒌 ̂ which displace it from a point 𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ + 3𝒌
̂
̂
to the point 5𝒊̂ + 4𝒋̂ + 𝒌. The work done in standard units by the forces is given by: (JEE Main 2004)

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Calculate:
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = ⃗𝑭⃗ = (4,1, −3) + (3,1, −1) = (7,2, −4)
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝒔 ⃗⃗ = (5,4,1)
⏟ − (1,2,3)
⏟ = (4,2, −2)
𝑬𝒏𝒅 𝑰𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍
𝑷𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕

Then, using the definition of work:

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = ⃗𝑭⃗ ∙ 𝒔
⃗⃗ = (7,2, −4) ∙ (4,2, −2) = 28 + 4 + 8 = 40 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠

C. Dot Product: Angle Definition

1.216: Dot Product

⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗ their dot product is:
Given two vectors, 𝒂
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ = |𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃
⃗⃗||𝒃
Where
𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠

➢ The input for the dot product is two vectors.

➢ The output for the dot product is a scalar.

Example 1.217
Find the dot product for each part below:
A. 𝒂 ⃗⃗ has a length of 5 units. The angle between them is 120°.
⃗⃗ has a length of 3 units, 𝒃
B. 𝒂 ⃗⃗ has a length of 2 units. The angle between them is 45°.
⃗⃗ has a length of 7 units, 𝒃
C. 𝒂 = √3,|𝒃| = 2 and angle between a and b is 60. (CBSE 2011)

1 15
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ = |𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = (3)(5) (− ) = −
⃗⃗||𝒃
2 2
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ = |𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = (7)(2) (√2) = 7√2
⃗⃗||𝒃
2
1
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
𝒂 ⃗⃗ = |𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = (√3)(2) ( ) = √3
⃗⃗||𝒃
2

Example 1.218
The dot product of two vectors is 12. The magnitude of one of the vectors is 6. The magnitude of the other
vector is 3. Then, the angle between the two vectors, in degrees, is between:
A. 0 𝑡𝑜 30
B. 30 𝑡𝑜 60
C. 60 𝑡𝑜 90
D. 90 𝑡𝑜 180
E. 270 𝑡𝑜 360
F. More than one of the above
G. Cannot be determined

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|𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = 12
⃗⃗||𝒃
(6)(3) cos 𝜃 = 12
2
cos 𝜃 = = 0.66 ⇒ 𝐼𝑛 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐼
3
1 √3 1.71
cos 60 = = 0.5, cos 30 = ≈ = 0.855 ⇒ 𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐵
2 2 2

Example 1.219
Find the dot product for each part below:
A. The magnitude of 𝒂 ⃗⃗ is 10, the magnitude of ⃗𝒃⃗ is 7, and the larger angle between them is 225°.
B. 𝒂⃗⃗ = (3,0), ⃗𝒃⃗ = (2,2)
C. 𝒂⃗⃗ = (4,4), ⃗𝒃⃗ = ( )

Part A
𝜃 = 360 − 225 = 135°
√2
cos 135° = cos(180 − 45°) = − cos 45° = −
2
⃗⃗ = |𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = (10)(7) (cos − √2
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
𝒂 ⃗⃗||𝒃 ) = −35√2
2
Part B
√2
𝜃 = 45° ⇒ cos 𝜃 =
2
√2
𝒂 ⃗⃗ = |𝒂
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = 3(2√2)
⃗⃗||𝒃 =6
2

Example 1.220
⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗ are vectors each with a magnitude of 2√2, and ⃗𝒃⃗ − 𝒂
A. 𝒂 ⃗⃗ has a magnitude of 4. Find the dot product
of the two vectors.
B. Find the dot product of vectors 𝒂 ⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗ given that 𝒂
⃗⃗ is a unit vector, ⃗𝒃⃗ has a magnitude of 2 units, and
⃗𝒃⃗ − 𝒂
⃗⃗ has a magnitude of√3.

Part A
Draw a diagram. Note that the difference of the vectors gives the third side of a
triangle (if they form one).
2
(2√2) = 4 × 2 = 8
2√2 × √2 = 4

Since the magnitude of the vectors 𝒂⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗ when multiplied by √2 gives the
magnitude of the third side of the triangle formed by them, the triangle is a 45 −
45 − 90 triangle.

⃗⃗ is 90°:
⃗⃗ and 𝒃
Hence, the angle between 𝒂
𝐷𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 = 0

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Part B
We know that the vectors 𝒂 ⃗⃗, ⃗𝒃⃗, ⃗𝒃⃗ − 𝒂
⃗⃗ form a triangle. The ratios of the
magnitudes are:
1
⃗⃗ − 𝒂
|𝒂|: | 𝒃 ⃗⃗| = 1: √3: 2 = : √3 : 1
⃗⃗|: |𝒃
2 2
But, these are the ratios of a 30 − 60 − 90 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 (see diagram). Hence:
Therefore, the angle between the two vectors is 60°.

Dot product:
1
= |𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = (1)(2) cos 60° = 2 ×
⃗⃗||𝒃 =1
2

Example 1.221
⃗⃗, having the same magnitude such that the angle between
⃗⃗ and 𝒃
Find the magnitude of each of the two vectors 𝒂
9
them is 60, and their scalar product is 2. (CBSE 2018)

⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ = |𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃
⃗⃗||𝒃

9
|𝒂
⃗⃗||𝒂
⃗⃗| cos 60° =
2
1 2 9
|𝒂⃗⃗| =
2 2
⃗⃗|2 = 9
|𝒂
|𝒂
⃗⃗| = 3

Example 1.222
⃗⃗ and 𝒃
Given two vectors 𝒂 ⃗⃗, determine
A. the maximum and the minimum value of their dot product as 𝜃 varies. Answer in terms of 𝒂 ⃗⃗.
⃗⃗, 𝒃
B. the angle 𝜃, if the dot product of the two vectors has the maximum possible value? the minimum
possible value.

Part A
The dot product is given by:
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ = |𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃
⃗⃗||𝒃
We know that:
−1 ≤ cos 𝜃 ≤ 1

The dot product will be maximum when cos 𝜃 = 1:

⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ = |𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = |𝒂
⃗⃗||𝒃 ⃗⃗|
⃗⃗||𝒃

The dot product will be minimum when cos 𝜃 = −1:

⃗⃗ = |𝒂
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = −|𝒂
⃗⃗||𝒃 ⃗⃗|
⃗⃗||𝒃
Part B
Maximum:
cos 𝜃 = 1 ⇒ 𝜃 = 0
Minimum:
cos 𝜃 = −1 ⇒ 𝜃 = 𝜋

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Example 1.223
Determine whether the following is possible. If not possible, explain why.
⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗ are position vectors such that 𝒂
A. 𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ is nonnegative, the tip of 𝒂
⃗⃗ lies in Quadrant II, and the tip of
⃗𝒃⃗ lies in Quadrant IV.

Since ⃗𝒂⃗ lies in Quadrant II, and ⃗𝒃⃗ lies in Quadrant IV

90 < 𝜃 ≤ 180 ⇒ cos 𝜃 < 0 ⇒ 𝐷𝑜𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 < 0 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒

Example 1.224
The dot product of two vectors is 12. The magnitude of one of the vectors is √2. Find the magnitude of the other
vector if the angle between the vectors is 135°.

Method I
The angle between the two vectors is obtuse
𝜃 = 135° ⇒ cos 𝜃 < 0 ⇒ 𝐷𝑜𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 < 0 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
Method II
|𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = 12
⃗⃗||𝒃

⃗⃗| (− √2) = 12
√2|𝒃
2
⃗⃗| = −12
|𝒃
Since magnitude is never negative, there is no such vector.

D. Projection

1.225: Restating the projection definition

⃗⃗ is
⃗⃗ along 𝒃
The projection of 𝒂
⃗⃗
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
𝒂
= |𝒂
⃗⃗| cos 𝜃
⃗⃗|
|𝒃

⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ |𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃
⃗⃗||𝒃
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = = = |𝒂
⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆
⃗⃗|
|𝒃 ⃗⃗|
|𝒃

E. Perpendicularity

1.226: Dot Product of Zero Vector

⃗⃗ is a zero vector.
Suppose 𝒂
⃗⃗ = |𝒂
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = (0)(|𝒃
⃗⃗||𝒃 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃) = 0

Example 1.227
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
If 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 0 and 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 0, then what can be concluded about the vector 𝒃
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗? (CBSE 2011)

⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 0
|𝒂
⃗⃗||𝒂⃗⃗| cos 0 = 0
|𝒂
⃗⃗||𝒂⃗⃗| = 0
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|𝒂
⃗⃗| = 0

⃗⃗| cos 𝜃) = 0
(0)(|𝒃
Nothing can be concluded about ⃗𝒃⃗.

1.228: Dot product of standard basis vectors

̂ = (0,0,1)
Given that 𝒊̂ = (1,0,0), 𝒋̂ = (0,1,0), 𝒌
̂=𝒌
𝒊̂ ∙ 𝒋̂ = 𝒋̂ ∙ 𝒌 ̂ ∙ 𝒊̂ = 𝟎
̂ ∙ 𝒋̂ = 𝒊̂ ∙ 𝒌
𝒋̂ ∙ 𝒊̂ = 𝒌 ̂=𝟎

̂ are the unit vectors in the 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 direction respectively.

Recall that 𝒊̂, 𝒋̂ and 𝒌

𝜋
𝒊̂ ∙ 𝒋̂ = |𝒊̂||𝒋̂| cos 𝜃 = |𝒊̂||𝒋̂| cos ( ) = |𝒊̂||𝒋̂|(0) = 0
2

1.229: Associative Property (with two vectors and a scalar)

⃗⃗) ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ = 𝑘(𝒂
(𝑘𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗) = 𝒂 ⃗⃗)
⃗⃗ ∙ (𝑘𝒃

Example 1.230
⃗⃗ = 5𝒊̂ and ⃗𝒃⃗ = 7𝒋̂ and 𝒄
Given that 𝒂 ̂ , find 𝒂
⃗⃗ = 𝟒𝒌 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ ∙ 𝒄
⃗⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗

⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ ∙ 𝒄
Note that there are three terms in the expression 𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗ and each term requires find the dot
product of two standard basis vectors which are not in the same direction.

For example:
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ = 5𝒊̂ ∙ 7𝒋̂ = 35𝒊̂ ∙ 𝒋̂ = (35)(0) = 0
𝒂

Similarly, the other terms are also zero, and the final answer is:
0+0+0=0

1.231: Perpendicular Vectors

Given two vectors, 𝒂 ⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗ their dot product 𝒂
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ is zero 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 one or more of the three conditions
below holds:
➢ 𝒂⃗⃗ = ⃗𝟎⃗
➢ ⃗𝒃⃗ = ⃗𝟎⃗
➢ 𝒂⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗ are perpendicular to each other

Dot product is given by:

⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ = |𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗||𝒃⃗⃗| cos 𝜃
By the zero-product property, the RHS will be zero when at least one of the terms is zero.
⃗⃗ = 𝟎
𝒂 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = 𝟎
𝒃 ⃗⃗
𝜋
cos 𝜃 = 0 ⇒ 𝜃 = = 90°
2

Example 1.232
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Two vectors have magnitudes 4 and 5 respectively. Their dot product is zero. Find the magnitude of the
A. Difference of the two vectors.
B. Sum of the two vectors

|𝒂 − 𝒃| = √42 + 52 = √41
|𝒂 + 𝒃| = √42 + 52 = √41

1.8 Dot Product: Properties

A. Angle between Vectors

1.233: Angle between Vectors

⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗
𝒂
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ = |𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 ⇔ 𝜃 = cos −1 (
⃗⃗||𝒃 )
|𝒂
⃗⃗||𝒃⃗⃗|

⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ = |𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃
⃗⃗||𝒃
Divide both sides by |𝒂 ⃗⃗|:
⃗⃗||𝒃
⃗𝒂⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗
cos 𝜃 =
|𝒂⃗⃗||𝒃⃗⃗|
Take the cos inverse of both sides:
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗
𝒂
𝜃 = cos−1 ( )
|𝒂
⃗⃗||𝒃⃗⃗|

Example 1.234
9
The dot product of two vectors, both with magnitude 3, is . Find the length of the difference of the two vectors.
2

9 9 1
|𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 =
⃗⃗||𝒃 ⇒ (3)(3) cos 𝜃 = ⇒ cos 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝜃 = 60°
2 2 2

⃗⃗ − ⃗𝒃⃗| is the third side of the triangle, and since the triangle is equilateral,
|𝒂
the
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 3

1.235: Dot product of standard basis vectors with themselves

̂∙𝒌
𝒊̂ ∙ 𝒊̂ = 𝒋̂ ∙ 𝒋̂ = 𝒌 ̂=𝟏

𝒊̂ ∙ 𝒊̂ = |𝒊̂⃗||𝒊̂⃗| cos 0 = (1)(1)(1) = 1

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Example 1.236
Let 𝑉 be the set of standard basis vectors.
A. Write V
B. 𝑊 is the Cartesian product of the set 𝑉 with itself. Write W. Find the cardinality of 𝑊.
C. Find the sum of the dot product of all elements of 𝑊.
D. 𝑋 is the set of elements formed by evaluating the dot product of each pair in 𝑊. Write 𝑋.

Hint: The Cartesian product of two sets is the set of all ordered pairs such that the first element belongs to the
first set, and the second element belongs to the second set.

Part A
̂}
𝑉 = {𝒊̂, 𝒋̂, 𝒌
Part B

̂)(𝒋̂, 𝒊̂)(𝒋̂, 𝒋̂)(𝒋̂, 𝒌

𝑊 = {(𝒊̂, 𝒊̂)(𝒊̂, 𝒋̂)(𝒊̂, 𝒌 ̂)(𝒌
̂, 𝒊̂)(𝒌
̂, 𝒋̂)(𝒌
̂, 𝒌
̂)} ⇒ 𝑛(𝑊) = 9

̂∙𝒌
𝒊̂ ∙ 𝒊̂ = 𝒋̂ ∙ 𝒋̂ = 𝒌 ̂=1
All other elements involve vectors which are perpendicular to each other, and hence their dot product is zero.
Part C
Sum of dot product
= 1+1+1+0+0+0+0+0+0 = 3
Part D
𝑋 = {0,1}

1.237: Dot Product of Vector with Itself

⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗|2
⃗⃗ = |𝒂

𝒂 ⃗⃗ = |𝒂
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂 ⃗⃗||𝒂
⃗⃗| cos 𝜃
But the angle that a vector makes with itself is 𝜃 = 0:
= |𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 0 = |𝒂
⃗⃗||𝒂 ⃗⃗|2
⃗⃗| = |𝒂
⃗⃗||𝒂

Example 1.238
⃗⃗ = (3, −4), find 𝒙
A. Given that 𝒙 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒙
⃗⃗

⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒙
𝒙 ⃗⃗|2 = 32 + (−42 ) = 9 + 16 = 25
⃗⃗ = |𝒙

1.239: Commutative Property

⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ = ⃗𝒃⃗ ∙ 𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗

⃗⃗ = |𝒂
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = |𝒃
⃗⃗||𝒃 ⃗⃗||𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = 𝒃 ⃗⃗

1.240: Dot Product of Three Vectors

𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒄
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗
The dot product of three vectors shown above is not defined.

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⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒄
Let 𝒃 ⃗⃗ = 𝑥:
𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒄
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗ = 𝒂
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑥 = ⃗⃗
⏟
𝒂 ∙ ⏟
𝑥 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟

Example 1.241
You will later learn about the “triple product” of vectors, where three vectors are multiplied. Explain why
̂ is not a valid triple product.
𝒊̂ ∙ 𝒋̂ ∙ 𝒌

̂, the answer will be a scalar, and a scalar cannot be

If you take the dot product of any two vectors from 𝒊̂ ∙ 𝒋̂ ∙ 𝒌
used an input into a dot product.

1.242: Distributive Property

𝒄 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗) = 𝒄
⃗⃗ ∙ (𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗
⃗⃗ + 𝒄

Let the angle between:

⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒂
𝒄 ⃗⃗ = 𝜃1 , 𝒄 ⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒃 ⃗⃗ = 𝜃2 , ⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝒂
𝒄 ⃗⃗) = 𝜃2
⃗⃗ + 𝒃
Start with the right-hand side:
𝑅𝐻𝑆 = 𝒄 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗ + 𝒄 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗
Expand using the definition of the dot product:
|𝒄⃗⃗||𝒂⃗⃗| cos 𝜃1 + |𝒄 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃2
⃗⃗||𝒃
Factor |𝒄
⃗⃗|:
|𝒄⃗⃗|[|𝒂⃗⃗| cos 𝜃1 + |𝒃 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃2 ]
Note that the quantities inside the brackets are projections. Hence, substitute:
|𝒄
⃗⃗| [𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗|𝒂⃗⃗| 𝑢𝑝𝑜𝑛 𝒄⃗⃗ + 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗|𝒃⃗⃗| 𝑢𝑝𝑜𝑛 𝒄⃗⃗ ]

⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗) = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗(𝒂
Use the property that 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗(𝒂 ⃗⃗):
⃗⃗) + 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗(𝒃
|𝒄
⃗⃗| [𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗|𝒂⃗⃗+𝒃⃗⃗| 𝑢𝑝𝑜𝑛 ⃗𝒄⃗ ]
Convert the second term using the definition of projection:
|𝒄
⃗⃗|[|𝒂⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗| cos 𝜃3 ]
But note the above is exactly a dot product, using the definition:
=𝒄 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗) = 𝐿𝐻𝑆
⃗⃗ ∙ (𝒂

Note
➢ We proved this for two dimensional vectors. However, it is true for vectors of any dimension.

Example 1.243
Two vectors are such that the magnitude of their sum is also the magnitude of their difference. What condition
must these vectors meet? Justify.

As per the condition, we know that:

⃗⃗| = |𝒂
⃗⃗ + 𝒃
|𝒂 ⃗⃗|
⃗⃗ − 𝒃
Square both sides:
2 2
⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗| = |𝒂
|𝒂 ⃗⃗ − ⃗𝒃⃗|
Dot product of a vector with itself is the square of its magnitude
⃗⃗) ∙ (𝒂
⃗⃗ + 𝒃
(𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒃⃗⃗) = (𝒂⃗⃗ − 𝒃⃗⃗) ∙ (𝒂 ⃗⃗)
⃗⃗ − 𝒃

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Using the distributive property of vectors:

⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗ + 𝒂 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ = 𝒂⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗ − 𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ − ⃗𝒃⃗ ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗
Cancel common terms on both sides:
⃗⃗ + 𝒃
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂⃗⃗ = −𝒂 ⃗⃗ − 𝒃
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂⃗⃗
Using the commutative property of dot product:
2(𝒂⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗) = −2(𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗)
⃗⃗ = 0
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
𝒂
If dot product is zero, then the vectors are perpendicular
⃗⃗ ⊥ ⃗𝒃⃗
𝒂

1.244: Binomial Product

Example 1.245
⃗⃗ and 𝒂
Let 𝒂 ⃗⃗ be two unit vectors. If the vectors 𝒄 ⃗⃗ = 𝒂 ⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒅⃗ = 5𝒂
⃗⃗ + 2𝒃 ⃗⃗ are perpendicular to each other,
⃗⃗ − 4𝒃
then the angle between 𝒂 ⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗ (in radians) is: (JEE Main 2014)

⃗⃗) ∙ (5𝒂
⃗⃗ + 2𝒃
(𝒂 ⃗⃗) = 0
⃗⃗ − 4𝒃
2
⃗⃗|2 + 10𝒂
5|𝒂 ⃗⃗ − 𝟒𝒂
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗ − 𝟖|𝒃
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗| = 0
2
⃗⃗|2 + 6𝒂
5|𝒂 ⃗⃗ − 𝟖|𝒃
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗| = 0

2
⃗⃗| = 1:
⃗⃗|2 = |𝒃
Substitute |𝒂
⃗⃗ − 𝟖 = 0
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
5 + 6𝒂
⃗⃗ = 3
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
6𝒂

Use the definition of the dot product:

1
|𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 =
⃗⃗| ∙ |𝒃
2
2
⃗⃗| = 1
⃗⃗|2 = |𝒃
Substitute |𝒂
1 𝜋
cos 𝜃 = ⇒𝜃=
2 3

Example 1.246
If (𝒂 ⃗⃗) is perpendicular to (7𝒂
⃗⃗ + 3𝒃 ⃗⃗) and (𝒂
⃗⃗ − 5𝒃 ⃗⃗) is perpendicular to (7𝒂
⃗⃗ − 4𝒃 ⃗⃗), then the angle between 𝒂
⃗⃗ − 2𝒃 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗
and 𝒃 (in degrees) is: (JEE Main 2021, 25 July, Shift-II)

Use the first perpendicularity condition:

⃗⃗) ∙ (7𝒂
⃗⃗ + 3𝒃
(𝒂 ⃗⃗) = 0
⃗⃗ − 5𝒃
2
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ − 5𝒂
⃗⃗|2 + 21𝒂
7|𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ − 15|𝒃
⃗⃗| = 0
2
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ − 15|𝒃
⃗⃗|2 + 16𝒂
7|𝒂
⏟ ⃗⃗| = 0
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰

Use the second perpendicularity condition:

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⃗⃗) ∙ (7𝒂
⃗⃗ − 4𝒃
(𝒂 ⃗⃗) = 0
⃗⃗ − 2𝒃
2
⃗⃗|2 − 2𝒂
7|𝒂 ⃗⃗ − 28𝒂
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗ + 8|𝒃
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗| = 0
2
2
⏟ ⃗⃗| − 30𝒂
7|𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 8|𝒃
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗| = 0
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰

There are more than two variables here. So, first eliminate the dot product 𝒂 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
Multiply Equation I by 15, and Equation II by 8:
2
105|𝒂 ⃗⃗|2 + 240𝒂 ⃗⃗ − 225|𝒃
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗| = 0
2
⃗⃗|2 − 240𝒂
56|𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 64|𝒃
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗| = 0

Add the two equations above:

2 2
⃗⃗| = 0 ⇒ |𝒂
⃗⃗|2 − 161|𝒃
161|𝒂 ⃗⃗| ⇒ |𝒂
⃗⃗|2 = |𝒃 ⃗⃗|
⃗⃗| = |𝒃

Substitute |𝒂 ⃗⃗| into Equation I:

⃗⃗| = |𝒃
⃗⃗|2 + 16𝒂
7|𝒂 ⃗⃗ − 15|𝒂
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗|2 = 0 ⇒ 16𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 8|𝒂
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗|2 ⇒ 2𝒂 ⃗⃗ = |𝒂
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗|2

Use the definition of the dot product:

⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = |𝒂
⃗⃗| ∙ |𝒃
2|𝒂 ⃗⃗|2
Substitute |𝒂 ⃗⃗| into the above:
⃗⃗| = |𝒃
1
⃗⃗| ∙ |𝒂
2|𝒂 ⃗⃗|2 ⇒ 2 cos 𝜃 = 1 ⇒ cos 𝜃 =
⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = |𝒂 ⇒ 𝜃 = 60°
2

B. Square of a Sum

1.247: Square of a Sum

Just as know (𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 , we have a similar property in vectors:
2 2
⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗| = (𝒂
|𝒂 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗) ∙ (𝒂
⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗) = |𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + |𝒃
⃗⃗|2 + 2𝒂 ⃗⃗|

Dot product of a vector with itself is the square of its magnitude. That is 𝒙 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒙 ⃗⃗|2 . Apply the property to the
⃗⃗ = |𝒙
LHS of the above:
2
⃗⃗ + 𝒃
𝑳𝑯𝑺 = |𝒂 ⃗⃗| = (𝒂 ⃗⃗) ∙ (𝒂
⃗⃗ + 𝒃 ⃗⃗)
⃗⃗ + 𝒃
Using the distributive property of vectors:
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒃
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
⃗⃗ + 𝒃 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
Substitute 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗|2
|𝒂 :
2
⃗⃗|2 + 𝒂
|𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒃
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗ + |𝒃⃗⃗|
Using the commutative property of dot product:
2
⃗⃗|2 + 2𝒂
|𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + |𝒃⃗⃗|

Example 1.248
⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗ are perpendicular vectors, |𝒂
If 𝒂 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗| = 13 and |𝒂 ⃗⃗|. (CBSE 2014, ISC 2019)
⃗⃗| = 5, then find the value of |𝒃

⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗| = 13:
Square both sides of |𝒂
2
⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗| = 169
|𝒂

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2 2
⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗| = |𝒂
Use the property that |𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + |𝒃
⃗⃗|2 + 2𝒂 ⃗⃗| :
2
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + |𝒃
⃗⃗|2 + 2𝒂
|𝒂 ⃗⃗| = 169
⃗⃗|2 = 52 = 25, 𝒂
Substitute |𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 0:
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
2
⃗⃗| = 169
25 + |𝒃
2
⃗⃗| = 144
|𝒃
⃗⃗| = 12
|𝒃

Example 1.249
⃗⃗ are two unit vectors such that |𝒂
⃗⃗ and 𝒃
If 𝒂 ⃗⃗| is also a unit vector, then find the angle between 𝒂
⃗⃗ + 𝒃 ⃗⃗. (CBSE
⃗⃗ and 𝒃
2014)

Geometric Method
We get an equilateral triangle, as shown alongside.
To find the angle between the vectors, we arrange the vectors tail to tail,
getting an angle of
180 − 60 = 120°

Algebraic Method
⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗| = 1:
Square both sides of |𝒂
2
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + |𝒃
⃗⃗|2 + 2𝒂
|𝒂 ⃗⃗| = 1
1 + 2𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + 1 = 1
1
⃗⃗ = −
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
𝒂
2
1
|𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = −
⃗⃗||𝒃
2
1
cos 𝜃 = −
2
𝜃 = 120°

Example 1.250
⃗⃗ are two vectors such that |𝒂
⃗⃗ and 𝒃
If 𝒂 ⃗⃗| = |𝒂
⃗⃗ + 𝒃 ⃗⃗|, then prove that vector 2𝒂 ⃗⃗ is perpendicular to vector 𝒃
⃗⃗ + 𝒃 ⃗⃗.
(CBSE 2013)

⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗| = |𝒂
Square both sides of |𝒂 ⃗⃗|:
2
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + |𝒃
⃗⃗|2 + 2𝒂
|𝒂 ⃗⃗| = |𝒂
⃗⃗|2
2
⃗⃗| = ⃗𝒃⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗
⃗⃗|2 from both sides and substitute |𝒃
Subtract |𝒂
2𝒂⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ = 0
⃗𝒃⃗ ∙ (2𝒂 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗) = 0
Since the dot product is zero, the two vectors are perpendicular.

Example 1.251
⃗⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗ + 𝒃
If 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 0, and |𝒂 ⃗⃗| = 6, and |𝒄
⃗⃗| = 5, |𝒃 ⃗⃗| = 9, then find the angle between 𝒂 ⃗⃗. (CBSE 2018)
⃗⃗ and 𝒃

𝒂 ⃗⃗ = −𝒄
⃗⃗ + 𝒃 ⃗⃗

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Square both sides of the above:

⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗) ∙ (𝒂
(𝒂 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗) = (−𝒄
⃗⃗) ∙ (−𝒄
⃗⃗)
Expand:
2
⃗⃗|2 + 2𝒂
|𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃⃗⃗ + |𝒃
⃗⃗| = |𝒄
⃗⃗|2
25 + 2𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + 36 = 81
2𝒂⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ = 20
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ = 10
𝒂
|𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = 10
⃗⃗||𝒃
(5)(6) cos 𝜃 = 10
1
cos 𝜃 =
3
−1
1
𝜃 = cos ( )
3

Example 1.252
If ⃗𝒙⃗ and ⃗𝒚⃗ be two non-zero vectors such that |𝒙
⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒚⃗| = |𝒙
⃗⃗| and 2𝒙
⃗⃗ + 𝜆𝒚
⃗⃗ is perpendicular to ⃗𝒚⃗, then the value of 𝜆
is: (JEE Main 2020, 6 Sep, Shift-II)

Square both sides of |𝒙 ⃗⃗| = |𝒙

⃗⃗ + 𝒚 ⃗⃗|
⃗⃗|2 + 2𝒙
|𝒙 ⃗⃗ + |𝒚
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒚 ⃗⃗|2 = |𝒙
⃗⃗|2
⃗⃗ + |𝒚
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒚
2𝒙
⏟ ⃗⃗|2 = 0
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰

Use the perpendicularity condition:

(2𝒙⃗⃗ + 𝜆𝒚⃗⃗) ∙ (𝒚
⃗⃗) = 0
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒚
2𝒙
⏟ ⃗⃗ + 𝜆|𝒚⃗⃗|2 = 0
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰

Equate the LHS of Equations I and II:

⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒚
2𝒙 ⃗⃗|2 = 2𝒙
⃗⃗ + |𝒚 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒚 ⃗⃗|2
⃗⃗ + 𝜆|𝒚
|𝒚 2
⃗⃗| = 𝜆|𝒚⃗⃗| 2

1=𝜆

Example 1.253
1
⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗ be two vectors such that |2𝒂
Let 𝒂 ⃗⃗| = |3𝒂
⃗⃗ + 3𝒃 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗| and the angle between 𝒂
⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗ is 60°. If 𝒂⃗⃗ is a unit
8
⃗⃗| is equal to: (JEE Main 2021, 31 Aug, Shift-I)
vector, then |𝒃

⃗⃗| = |3𝒂
⃗⃗ + 3𝒃
|2𝒂 ⃗⃗|
⃗⃗ + 𝒃
Square both sides:
2 2
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + 9|𝒃
⃗⃗|2 + 12𝒂
4|𝒂 ⃗⃗| = 9|𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + |𝒃
⃗⃗|2 + 6𝒂 ⃗⃗|

Collate all terms on the RHS:

2
⃗⃗|2 − 6𝒂
5|𝒂 ⃗⃗ − 𝟖|𝒃
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗| = 0
Note that
1 1
| 𝒂⃗⃗| = 1 ⇒ |𝒂
⃗⃗| = 1 ⇒ |𝒂 ⃗⃗|2 = 64 ⇒ 5|𝒂
⃗⃗| = 8 ⇒ |𝒂 ⃗⃗|2 = 320
8 8

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1
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ = 6|𝒂
6𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = 6 ∙ 8|𝒃
⃗⃗||𝒃 ⃗⃗| cos 60° = 6 ∙ 8|𝒃
⃗⃗| ( ) = 24|𝒃
⃗⃗|
2

Making the above substitutions:

2
⃗⃗| − 𝟖|𝒃
320 − 24|𝒃 ⃗⃗| = 0
2
⃗⃗| + 3|𝒃
|𝒃 ⃗⃗| − 40 = 0
⃗⃗|:
Use a change of variable. Let 𝑦 = |𝒃
𝑦 2 + 3𝑦 − 40 = 0
(𝑦 + 8)(𝑦 − 5) = 0
𝑦 ∈ {−8,5}
Reject the negative value:
⃗⃗| = 5
𝑦 = |𝒃

C. Square of a Difference

1.254: Square of a Difference

Similarly:
2 2
⃗⃗ − ⃗𝒃⃗| = (𝒂
|𝒂 ⃗⃗ − ⃗𝒃⃗) ∙ (𝒂
⃗⃗ − ⃗𝒃⃗) = |𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + |𝒃
⃗⃗|2 − 2𝒂 ⃗⃗|

Dot product of a vector with itself is the square of its magnitude. That is 𝒙 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒙 ⃗⃗|2 . Apply the property to the
⃗⃗ = |𝒙
LHS of the above:
2
⃗⃗ − 𝒃
𝑳𝑯𝑺 = |𝒂 ⃗⃗| = (𝒂 ⃗⃗) ∙ (𝒂
⃗⃗ − 𝒃 ⃗⃗)
⃗⃗ − 𝒃
Using the distributive property of vectors:
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ − ⃗𝒃⃗ ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗ − 𝒂 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗
Cancel common terms on both sides:
2
⃗⃗|2 − 𝒂
|𝒂 ⃗⃗ − 𝒃
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗ + |𝒃⃗⃗|
Using the commutative property of dot product:
2
⃗⃗|2 − 2𝒂
|𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + |𝒃⃗⃗|

Example 1.255
⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗ are unit vectors, then find the angle between 𝒂
If 𝒂 ⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗ given that (√3𝒂
⃗⃗ − ⃗𝒃⃗) is a unit vector.

⃗⃗| = 1
⃗⃗ − 𝒃
|√3𝒂
Square both sides:
⃗⃗| = 1
⃗⃗ − 𝒃
|√3𝒂
2 2
⃗⃗| = |𝒂
⃗⃗ − 𝒃
Use the property that |𝒂 ⃗⃗|2 − 2𝒂 ⃗⃗ + |𝒃
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗| :
2 2
⃗⃗)|2 − (2)(√3𝒂
(√3) |(𝒂 ⃗⃗) + |𝒃
⃗⃗) ∙ (𝒃 ⃗⃗| = 1
Substitute |𝒂 ⃗⃗| = 1:
⃗⃗| = |𝒃
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗) + 1 = 1
3 − (2√3)(𝒂
Isolate the dot product:
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗) = 3
(2√3)(𝒂

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⃗⃗ = √3
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
𝒂
2
⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = √3
|𝒂
⃗⃗||𝒃
2
√3
cos 𝜃 =
2
√3 𝜋
𝜃 = cos−1 =
2 6

Example 1.256
⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗ are unit vectors, then find the maximum and minimum value of 𝒂
If 𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗:
A. Using the angle definition of the dot product
2 2
B. Using the property |𝒂 ⃗⃗ ± ⃗𝒃⃗| = |𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + |𝒃
⃗⃗|2 ± 2𝒂 ⃗⃗|

Part A ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + 1 ≥ 0
1 ± 2𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗ = |𝒂||𝒃| cos 𝜃 = (1)(1)(cos 𝜃) = cos 𝜃
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ±2𝒂⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ ≥ −2
𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 1, 𝑀𝑖𝑛 = −1 Case I:
Part B ⃗⃗ ≥ −2
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
2𝒂
Since the magnitude of a vector is never negative, ⃗⃗ ≥ −1
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
𝒂
we must have:
Case II:
⃗⃗ ± ⃗𝒃⃗| ≥ 0
|𝒂
−2𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ ≥ −2
Square both sides:
2
Divide by −2 both sides and flip the sign of the
⃗⃗ ± ⃗𝒃⃗| ≥ 0
|𝒂 inequality
2 2
⃗⃗ ± ⃗𝒃⃗| = |𝒂
Use the property |𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + |𝒃
⃗⃗|2 ± 2𝒂 ⃗⃗| : ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ ≤ 1
𝒂
2 We get the same answer from Part A and from Part
⃗⃗|2 ± 2𝒂
|𝒂 ⃗⃗ + |𝒃
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗| ≥ 0
B:
2
Substitute |𝒂 ⃗⃗| = 1:
⃗⃗|𝟐 = |𝒃 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ ∈ [−1,1]
𝒂

D. Square of a Difference

1.257: Square of a Difference

⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗) ∙ (𝒂
(𝒂 ⃗⃗ − ⃗𝒃⃗) = |𝒂|2 − |𝒃|2

Example 1.258
Find |𝒙 ̂ , (𝒙
⃗⃗| if for a unit vector 𝒂 ⃗⃗) ∙ (𝒙
⃗⃗ − 𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒂
⃗⃗) = 15. (CBSE 2013)

⃗⃗|2 − |𝒂
|𝒙 ⃗⃗|2 = 15
⃗⃗|2 − 1 = 15
|𝒙
⃗⃗|2 = 16
|𝒙
|𝒙
⃗⃗| = 4

Example 1.259
⃗⃗ and 𝑩
Two vectors 𝑨 ⃗⃗ + 𝑩
⃗⃗⃗ are such that |𝑨 ⃗⃗ − 𝑩
⃗⃗⃗| = |𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗|. The angle between the two vectors will be (BITSAT 2011)

Square both sides

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2 2
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + | ⃗𝒃⃗| = | 𝒂
⃗⃗|2 + 2𝒂
|𝒂 ⃗⃗|2 − 2𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + | ⃗𝒃⃗|
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
2𝒂 ⃗⃗ = − 2𝒂 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
4𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 0
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
⃗⃗ = 0
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
𝒂
⃗⃗ ⊥ 𝒃
𝒂 ⃗⃗
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 = 90°

Example 1.260
2 2
Let 𝒂 ⃗⃗ and 𝒄
⃗⃗, 𝒃 ⃗⃗ be three unit vectors such that |𝒂 ⃗⃗| + |𝒂
⃗⃗ − 𝒃 ⃗⃗|2 = 8. Then |𝒂
⃗⃗ − 𝒄 ⃗⃗| + |𝒂
⃗⃗ + 2𝒃 ⃗⃗|2 is equal to
⃗⃗ + 2𝒄
(JEE Main, 2020, 2 Sep, Shift-I)

2
⃗⃗| + |𝒂
⃗⃗ − 𝒃
Expand |𝒂 ⃗⃗|2 = 8 to get:
⃗⃗ − 𝒄
2
⃗⃗|2 − 2𝒂
|𝒂 ⃗⃗ + |𝒃
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗| + |𝒂
⃗⃗|2 − 2𝒂 ⃗⃗|2 = 8
⃗⃗ + |𝒄
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒄
2
Substitute |𝒂 ⃗⃗| = |𝒄
⃗⃗|2 = |𝒃 ⃗⃗|2 = 1:
−2𝒂 ⃗⃗ − 2𝒂
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒄
⃗⃗ = 4
𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒂
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒄
⃗⃗ = −2

2
⃗⃗| + |𝒂
⃗⃗ + 2𝒃
Expand |𝒂 ⃗⃗|2 to get:
⃗⃗ + 2𝒄
2
|𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + 4|𝒃
⃗⃗|2 + 4𝒂 ⃗⃗| + |𝒂
⃗⃗|2 + 4𝒂
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒄 ⃗⃗|2
⃗⃗ + 4|𝒄
2
Substitute |𝒂 ⃗⃗| = |𝒄
⃗⃗|2 = |𝒃 ⃗⃗|2 = 1:
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + 4𝒂
10 + 4(𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒄
⃗⃗)
Substitute 𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒂
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒄
⃗⃗ = −2:
10 + 4(−2) = 10 − 8 = 2

E. Square of Three Terms

1.261: Square of a sum of three terms

2 2
⃗⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗ + 𝒃
|𝒂 ⃗⃗| = (𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗ + 𝒃 ⃗⃗) ∙ (𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗ + 𝒃 ⃗⃗| + |𝒄
⃗⃗|2 + |𝒃
⃗⃗) = |𝒂 ⃗⃗|2 + 2(𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒃
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒄
⃗⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗)

Applying the property (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 + 2(𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑎) to the LHS of the given property
immediately gives us the RHS.

Example 1.262
If ⃗𝒂⃗, ⃗𝒃⃗, ⃗𝒄⃗ are three unit vectors such that ⃗𝒂⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ + ⃗𝒄⃗ = ⃗𝟎⃗, where ⃗𝟎⃗ is the null vector, then ⃗𝒂⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒄⃗ + ⃗𝒄⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒂⃗ is
(BITSAT 2013)

⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ + 𝒄
𝒂 ⃗⃗ = ⃗𝟎⃗
Square both sides:
2
|𝒂 ⃗⃗| + |𝒄
⃗⃗|2 + |𝒃 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ ∙ 𝒄
⃗⃗|2 + 2(𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗) = 0

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2
Substitute |𝒂 ⃗⃗| = |𝒄
⃗⃗|2 = |𝒃 ⃗⃗|2 = 1:
1 + 1 + 1 + 2(𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒃
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒄
⃗⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗) = 0
3
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ ∙ 𝒄
𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗ = −
2
Example 1.263
2 2
⃗⃗, ⃗𝒃⃗, and 𝒄
If 𝒂 ⃗⃗ − ⃗𝒃⃗| + |𝒃
⃗⃗ are unit vectors, then |𝒂 ⃗⃗ − 𝒄
⃗⃗| + |𝒄 ⃗⃗|2 does not exceed (JEE Advanced, 2001-
⃗⃗ − 𝒂
Screening)

Expand the given expression:

2 2
⃗⃗|2 − 2𝒂
|⏟
𝒂 ⃗⃗ + |𝒃
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗| + |𝒃
⏟⃗⃗| − 2𝒃
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒄 ⃗⃗|2 + ⏟
⃗⃗ + |𝒄 ⃗⃗|2 − 2𝒄
|𝒄 ⃗⃗|2
⃗⃗ + |𝒂
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
2
⃗⃗| ⃗⃗−𝒄
2 |𝒄 ⃗⃗|2
⃗⃗−𝒂
⃗⃗−𝒃
|𝒂 |𝒃 ⃗⃗|
Simplify:
2
2 (|𝒂 ⃗⃗| + |𝒄
⃗⃗|2 + |𝒃 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ ∙ 𝒄
⃗⃗|2 ) − 2(𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗)
2
Substitute |𝒂 ⃗⃗| = |𝒄
⃗⃗|2 = |𝒃 ⃗⃗|2 = 1:
6 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ ∙ 𝒄
⏟− 2(𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗)
𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰

⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ + 𝒄
To find the maximum value of the above, square both sides of |𝒂 ⃗⃗| ≥ 0:
2
|𝒂 ⃗⃗| + |𝒄
⃗⃗|2 + |𝒃 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ ∙ 𝒄
⃗⃗|2 + 2(𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗) ≥ 0
2
Substitute |𝒂 ⃗⃗| = |𝒄
⃗⃗|2 = |𝒃 ⃗⃗|2 = 1:
3 + 2(𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒃
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒄
⃗⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗) ≥ 0
Subtract three from both sides:
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ ∙ 𝒄
2(𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒄 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗) ≥ −3
Multiply by −1 both sides and flip the inequality:
−2(𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ ∙ 𝒄
⃗⃗ + 𝒄 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗) ≤ 3
Add six to both sides:
6
⏟− 2(𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃⃗⃗ + 𝒃⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒄
⃗⃗ + 𝒄 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗) ≤ 9
𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰

Since Expression I was what we wanted to find the maximum value of, its maximum value is:
9

1.264: Law of Cosines

We earlier established the law of cosines using trigonometry. We can arrive at the same result using the dot
product.

1.265: Triangle Inequality (Revisited)

1.9 Dot Product: Components

A. Component Definition

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1.266: Component
⃗⃗ = (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ), the dot product of the vectors is given by:
⃗⃗ = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ), 𝒃
Given two vectors 𝒂
𝑥2
⃗⃗ 𝑦
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) ( 2 ) = 𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 𝑦2 + 𝑧1 𝑧2
𝒂
𝑧2

Two-dimensional version
⃗⃗
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
𝒂
Write each vector in component form:
(𝑥1 𝒊̂ + 𝑦1 𝒋̂) ∙ (𝑥2 𝒊̂ + 𝑦2 𝒋̂)
Use the distributive property:
𝑥1 𝑥2 𝒊̂ ∙ 𝒊̂ + 𝑦1 𝑦2 𝒋̂ ∙ 𝒋̂ + 𝑥1 𝑦2 𝒊̂ ∙ 𝒋̂ + 𝑦1 𝑥2 𝒋̂ ∙ 𝒊̂
Substitute 𝑖̂ ∙ 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂ ∙ 𝑗̂ = 1 and 𝑖̂ ∙ 𝑗̂ = 𝑗̂ ∙ 𝑖̂ = 0
𝑥1 𝑥2 (1) + 𝑦1 𝑦2 (1) + 𝑥1 𝑦2 (0) + 𝑦1 𝑥2 (0)
Simplify:
𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 𝑦2

Three-dimensional version
⃗⃗
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
𝒂
Write each vector in component form:
̂) ∙ (𝑥2 𝒊̂ + 𝑦2 𝒋̂ + +𝑧2 𝒌
(𝑥1 𝒊̂ + 𝑦1 𝒋̂ + 𝑧1 𝒌 ̂)
̂∙𝒌
Use the distributive property to get nine terms. Note that we substitute 𝒊̂ ∙ 𝒊̂ = 𝒋̂ ∙ 𝒋̂ = 𝒌 ̂ = 1 and every other
dot product is zero, we are left with
𝑥1 𝑥2 (1) + 𝑦1 𝑦2 (1) + 𝑧1 𝑧2 (1)
Simplify:
𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 𝑦2 + 𝑧1 𝑧2

Example 1.267
1
⃗⃗ given that 𝒂
⃗⃗ and 𝒃
A. Find the dot product of 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = (−3, , −4)
⃗⃗ = (2,5, −2), 𝒃
2

1 5
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ = (2)(−3) + (5) ( ) + (−2)(−4) = −6 + + 8 = 4.5
𝒂
2 2

Example 1.268
The scalar product of the vector 𝒂 ̂ with a unit vector along the sum of the vectors 𝒃 = 2𝒊̂ + 4𝒋̂ − 5𝒌
⃗⃗ = 𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ + 𝒌 ̂
̂ is equal to 1. Find the value of 𝜆 and hence find the unit vector along 𝒃 + 𝒄. (CBSE
and 𝒄 = 𝜆𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ + 3𝒌
2008,2009,2014,2019)

⃗⃗ + 𝒄
Unit vector in the direction of 𝒃 ⃗⃗ is
⃗⃗ + 𝒄
𝒃 ⃗⃗ (2 + 𝜆, 6, −2) (2 + 𝜆, 6, −2)
⃗⃗ =
𝒗 = =
⃗⃗ + 𝒄
|𝒃 ⃗⃗| √(2 + 𝜆)2 + 62 + (−2)2 √(2 + 𝜆)2 + 40

⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒗
As per the given condition, 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 1, which means:
(2 + 𝜆, 6, −2)
(1,1,1) ∙ =1
√(2 + 𝜆)2 + 40
(1,1,1) ∙ (2 + 𝜆, 6, −2) = √(2 + 𝜆)2 + 40
(1)(2 + 𝜆) + (1)(6) + (1)(−2) = √(2 + 𝜆)2 + 40

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(6 + 𝜆) = √(2 + 𝜆)2 + 40
Square both sides:
(6 + 𝜆)2 = (2 + 𝜆)2 + 40
36 + 12𝜆 + 𝜆2 = 4 + 4𝜆 + 𝜆2 + 40
8𝜆 = 8
𝜆=1

(2 + 𝜆, 6, −2) (3,6, −2) (3,6, −2) 3 6 2

⃗⃗ =
𝒗 = = = ( , ,− )
√(2 + 𝜆)2 + 40 √9 + 40 7 7 7 7

Example 1.269
Using the component form of the dot product, prove the
A. The commutative property
B. The distributive property
C. That the dot product of a vector with itself is the square of its magnitude

Part A
⃗⃗ = 𝒃
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = 𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 𝑦2 + 𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 𝑥1 + 𝑦2 𝑦1 + 𝑧2 𝑧1 = 𝒃
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗ = 𝑅𝐻𝑆
Part B
⃗⃗ = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), ⃗𝒃⃗ = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ), 𝒄
Let 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ). Then:
⃗⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗ ∙ (𝒃
𝒂 ⃗⃗) = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) ∙ (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 , 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 )
Expand
= 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑧𝑧1 + 𝑧𝑧2
Rearrange:
=⏟𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑧𝑧1 + ⏟ 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑧𝑧2
⃗⃗
⃗⃗∙𝒃
𝒂 ⃗⃗∙𝒄
𝒂 ⃗⃗
=𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒂
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒄
⃗⃗
Part C
⃗⃗ = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧). Then:
Let 𝒂
⃗⃗ = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) ∙ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = |𝒂
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 𝒂 ⃗⃗|2

⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒙
𝒙 ⃗⃗|2
⃗⃗ = |𝒙

1.270: Perpendicular Vectors

⃗⃗ their dot product 𝒂
⃗⃗ and 𝒃
Given two non-zero vectors, 𝒂 ⃗⃗ is zero 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 they are perpendicular
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃

Example 1.271
⃗⃗ = 2𝒊̂ + 𝜆𝒋 + 𝒌 and 𝒃 = 𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 2𝒌 are perpendicular to each
A. Write the value of 𝜆, so that the vectors 𝒂
other. (CBSE 2008,2013)
B. For what value of 𝜆 are the vectors 𝒊 + 2𝜆𝒋 + 𝒌 and 2𝒊 + 𝒋 − 3𝒌 perpendicular. (CBSE 2011)
C. Find the value of 𝜆, if the vectors 2𝒊 + 𝜆𝒋 + 3𝒌 and 3𝒊 + 2𝒋 − 4𝒌 are perpendicular to each other. (CBSE
2010)

Part A 4 = 2𝜆
(2, 𝜆, 1) ∙ (1, −2,2) = 0 𝜆=2
2 − 2𝜆 + 2 = 0 Part B

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(1,2𝜆, 1) ∙ (2,1, −3) = 0 Part C

2 + 2𝜆 − 3 = 0 (2, 𝜆, 3) ∙ (3,2, −4) = 0
2𝜆 = 1 6 + 2𝜆 − 12 = 0
1 2𝜆 = 6
𝜆=
2 𝜆=3

⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ = |𝒂
Explain why the formula 𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 is not useful in solving the above questions.
⃗⃗||𝒃

⃗𝒂⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ = |𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = 0

⃗⃗||𝒃
|𝒂 ⃗⃗|(0) = 0
⃗⃗||𝒃

We cannot conclude anything about either |𝒂 ⃗⃗|

⃗⃗| or |𝒃

Example 1.272
̂, ⃗𝒃⃗ = 2𝒊̂ + 4𝒋̂ + 𝒌
If the vectors ⃗𝒂⃗ = 𝒊̂ − 𝒋̂ + 2𝒌 ̂, and ⃗𝒄⃗ = 𝜆𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ + 𝜇𝒌
̂ are mutually orthogonal, then (𝜆, 𝜇) is equal
to: (JEE Main 2010)

⃗⃗ = (1, −1,2) ∙ (𝜆, 1, 𝜇) = 𝜆 − 1 + 2𝜇 = 2𝜆 − 2 + 4𝜇

⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒄
0=𝒂
0 = ⃗𝒃⃗ ∙ 𝒄
⃗⃗ = (2,4,1) ∙ (𝜆, 1, 𝜇) = 2𝜆 + 4 + 𝜇

2𝜆 − 2 + 4𝜇 = 0
2𝜆 + 4 + 𝜇 = 0
(𝜆, 𝜇) = (−3,2)

B. Angle between Vectors

1.273: Angle between Vectors

⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗
𝒂
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ = |𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 ⇔ 𝜃 = cos −1 (
⃗⃗||𝒃 )
|𝒂
⃗⃗||𝒃⃗⃗|

Example 1.274
̂ and 𝒃
⃗⃗ = 𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ + 3𝒌
If 𝜃 be the angle between vectors 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 3𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 𝒌, then 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = (BITSAT 2007)

⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗
𝒂 1×1+2×2+3×1 3 + 4 + 3 10 5
cos 𝜃 = = = = =
|𝒂
⃗⃗||𝒃⃗⃗| √1 + 2 + 3 √3 + 2 + 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 √14√14 14 7

Example 1.275
̂ and 𝑩
⃗⃗ = 𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ − 2𝒌
Find the angle between the vectors 𝑨 ̂. (BITSAT 2007)
⃗⃗⃗ = −𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ − 𝒌

⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗
𝒂 −1 + 2 + 2 3 1
𝜃 = cos −1 ( ) = cos −1 ( ) = cos−1 ( ) = cos −1 ( ) = 60°
|𝒂
⃗⃗||𝒃⃗⃗| 2 2 2 2 2
√1 + 1 + 2 √1 + 2 + 1 2 6 2

Example 1.276

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The angle between any two diagonals of a cube can be written in the form tan−1 𝑥. Find the value of 𝑥. (BITSAT
2014, Adapted)
Note: There are two kinds of diagonals of a cube: space diagonals and face diagonals. From the options (which
are removed here), we know that the diagonals referred to are space diagonals, since the angle between two
face diagonals is a right angle.

By similarity, all cubes will have the same angle. Hence, we

consider the cube with side length 1, and bottom left corner
at the origin.

Consider the space diagonals

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑮, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑬𝑩
Write them in terms of unit vectors:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ + 𝒌
𝑶𝑮 ̂, 𝑬𝑩 ̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ − 𝒌

The angle between the two vectors is given by:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑮 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬𝑩 1+1−1 1
cos 𝜃 = = =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗||𝑬𝑩
|𝑶𝑮 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| √3√3 3

We have cos 𝜃, and we need to find tan 𝜃. Draw a reference triangle with
𝑎𝑑𝑗 = 1, ℎ𝑦𝑝 = 3 and find 𝑜𝑝𝑝 = 2√2.

Then, from the reference triangle:

tan 𝜃 = 2√2
𝜃 = tan−1 2√2
𝑥 = 2√2

Example 1.277
̂, 2𝒊̂ + 5𝒋̂, 3𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ − 3𝒌
If 𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ + 𝒌 ̂ and 𝒊̂ − 6𝒋̂ − 𝒌
̂ respectively are the position vectors of point A, B, C and D, then
find:
A. the angle between the straight lines AB and CD.
B. whether 𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑪𝑫
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are collinear or not. (CBSE 2019)

Part A
If the angle between the lines is 𝜃, then:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑪𝑫
𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
cos 𝜃 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗||𝑪𝑫
|𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
Substitute using the definition:
(2 − 1,5 − 1,0 − 1) ∙ (1 − 3, −6 − 2, −1 + 3) (1,4, −1) ∙ (−2, −8,2) −2 − 32 − 2 36
= = = =− = −1
√12 + 42 + (−1)2 √22 + (−8)2 + 22 √18 √72 (3√2)(6√2) 36
Since
cos 𝜃 = −1 ⇒ 𝜃 = cos−1(−1) = 𝜋

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Part B
Since the angle between the lines is 𝜋, they are in
opposite directions.
They are collinear.

Example 1.278
17: A hall has a square floor of dimension 10𝑚 × 10𝑚 (see the figure) and
1
vertical walls. If the ∠𝐺𝑃𝐻 between the diagonals 𝐴𝐺 and 𝐵𝐻 is cos−1 5, then
the height of the hall (in m) is: (JEE Main 2021, 26 Aug, Shift-II)

The dot product of the diagonals ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑨𝑮 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑩𝑯 is:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑮 ∙ 𝑩𝑯 = |𝑨𝑮||𝑩𝑯⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| cos 𝜃

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (10,10, ℎ), 𝑩𝑯

Introduce an origin at 𝐴. Substitute 𝑨𝑮 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (−10,10, ℎ):
1
(10,10, ℎ) ∙ (−10,10, ℎ) = √102 + 102 + ℎ2 √(−10)2 + 102 + ℎ2 cos (𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( ))
5
1
−100 + 100 + ℎ2 = (ℎ2 + 200) ( )
5
5ℎ2 = ℎ2 + 200
4ℎ2 = 200
ℎ2 = 50
ℎ = 5√2

1.279: Sum to Product Identities

𝛼+𝛽 𝛼−𝛽
cos 𝛼 + cos 𝛽 = 2 cos ( ) cos ( )
2 2

Challenge 1.280
2𝜋 4𝜋 𝜋
Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ such that 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 = 1. If 𝑎 cos 𝜃 = 𝑏 cos (𝜃 + 3 ) = 𝑐 cos (𝜃 + 3 ), where 𝜃 = 9 , then the
angle between the vectors 𝑎𝒊̂ + 𝑏𝒋̂ + 𝑐𝒌 ̂, and 𝑏𝒊̂ + 𝑐𝒋̂ + 𝑎𝒌
̂ is: (JEE Main 2020, 3 Sep, Shift-II)

If the angle between the vectors is 𝛼, then:

(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) ∙ (𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑎) 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑎
cos 𝛼 = = = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑎
|(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐)||(𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑎)| √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2
(Where in the last step we used 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 = 1)

Since we have a tripartite equality, use the 𝑘 method. Let:

2𝜋 4𝜋
𝑎 cos 𝜃 = 𝑏 cos (𝜃 + ) = 𝑐 cos (𝜃 + ) = 𝑘
3 3
Find 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 in terms of 𝑘:
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
𝑎= ,𝑏 = ,𝑐 =
cos 𝜃 2𝜋 4𝜋
⏟ cos (𝜃 + 3 ) cos (𝜃 + 3 )
𝑺𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 𝑰

Substitute values from 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝐼 in the angle between the vectors to get:

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𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑎 = ( )( )+( )( )+( )( )
cos 𝜃 cos (𝜃 + 2𝜋) 2𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋 cos 𝜃
cos (𝜃 + 3 ) cos (𝜃 + 3 ) cos (𝜃 + 3 )
3

Add the fractions, and factor 𝑘 2:

4𝜋 2𝜋
cos (𝜃 + 3 ) + cos 𝜃 + cos (𝜃 + 3 )
2
=𝑘 [ ]
2𝜋 4𝜋
cos 𝜃 cos (𝜃 + 3 ) cos (𝜃 + 3 )

Consider only the numerator.

𝛼+𝛽 𝛼−𝛽
Use the sum to product formula cos 𝛼 + cos 𝛽 = 2 cos ( 2 ) cos ( 2 ) in the first and the last term to get:
1 4𝜋 2𝜋 1 4𝜋 2𝜋
= 2 cos ( [(𝜃 + ) + (𝜃 + )]) cos ( [(𝜃 + ) − (𝜃 + )]) + cos 𝜃
2 3 3 2 3 3
Simplify:
𝜋
= 2 cos(𝜃 + 𝜋) cos ( ) + cos 𝜃
3

𝜋 1
Substitute cos ( ) = , cos(𝜃 + 𝜋) = − cos 𝜃
3 2
1
= 2(− cos 𝜃) ( ) + cos 𝜃 = − cos 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 = 0
2

Hence, the expression becomes:

0
cos 𝛼 = 𝑘 2 [ ]
2𝜋 4𝜋
cos 𝜃 cos (𝜃 + 3 ) cos (𝜃 + 3 )
cos 𝛼 = 0
Take the 𝑐𝑜𝑠 inverse of both sides:
𝜋
𝛼=
2

C. Projection

1.281: Restating the projection definition

⃗⃗ is
⃗⃗ along 𝒃
The projection of 𝒂
⃗𝒂⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗
= |𝒂
⃗⃗| cos 𝜃
⃗⃗|
|𝒃

⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ |𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃
⃗⃗||𝒃
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = = = |𝒂
⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆
⃗⃗|
|𝒃 ⃗⃗|
|𝒃

Example 1.282
If |𝒂 ⃗⃗| = 3, and 𝒂
⃗⃗| = 2, |𝒃 ⃗⃗ = 3, find the projection of |𝒃
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 ⃗⃗| on |𝒂
⃗⃗|. (CBSE 2010)
Note: By projection here is meant the length of the projection, not the projection vector.

⃗𝒂⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ 3
=
|𝒂
⃗⃗| 2

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Example 1.283
̂ and ⃗𝒃⃗ = 2𝒊̂ + 6𝒋̂ + 3𝒌
⃗⃗ = 7𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ − 4𝒌
A. If 𝒂 ̂, then find the projection of 𝒂 ⃗⃗ on ⃗𝒃⃗. (CBSE 2013,2015)
B. Write the projection of the vector 𝒂 ̂ on the vector ⃗𝒃⃗ = 𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ + 2𝒌
⃗⃗ = 2𝒊̂ − 𝒋̂ + 𝒌 ̂. (CBSE 2014)
C. Write the projection of (𝒃 ⃗⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗) on 𝒂
⃗⃗, where 𝒂 ̂, ⃗𝒃⃗ = 𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ − 2𝒌
⃗⃗ = 2𝒊̂ − 2𝒋̂ + 𝒌 ̂ and 𝒄⃗⃗ = 2𝒊̂ − 𝒋̂ + 4𝒌 (CBSE
2013)

Part A
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ (7,1, −4) ∙ (2,6,3) 14 + 6 − 12 8
𝒂
= = =
⃗⃗|
|𝒃 √22 + 62 + 32 √49 7
Part B
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ (2, −1,1) ∙ (1,2,2) 2 − 2 + 2 2
𝒂
= = =
⃗⃗|
|𝒃 √12 + 22 + 22 √9 3
Part C
⃗⃗ + 𝒄
(𝒃 ⃗⃗ (3,1,2) ∙ (2, −2,1) 6 − 2 + 2 6
⃗⃗) ∙ 𝒂
= = = =2
|𝒂
⃗⃗| √22 + (−2)2 + 12 √9 3

Example 1.284
̂
⃗⃗ = 𝑎𝒊̂ + 𝑏𝒋̂ + 𝑐𝒌
𝒗
⃗⃗ along
Find the projection of 𝒗
A. 𝒊̂
B. 𝒋̂
C. 𝒌 ̂

Part A
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒊̂ (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) ∙ (1,0,0) 𝑎
𝒗
= = =𝑎
|𝒊̂| 1 1
Part B
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒋̂ (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) ∙ (0,1,0) 𝑏
𝒗
= = =𝑏
|𝒋̂| 1 1
Part C
̂ (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) ∙ (0,0,1) 𝑐
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒌
𝒗
= = =𝑐
̂|
|𝒌 1 1

Example 1.285: Back Calculations

̂ on ⃗𝒃⃗ = 2𝒊̂ + 6𝒋̂ + 3𝒌
⃗⃗ = 𝜆𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ + 4𝒌
A. Find 𝜆 when projection of 𝒂 ̂ is 4 units. (CBSE 2012)
B. Find the number of values of 𝜆 such that the projection of 𝒂 ̂ on ⃗𝒃⃗ = 2𝒊̂ + 𝜆𝒋̂ + 3𝒌
⃗⃗ = 𝜆𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ + 4𝒌 ̂ is 4
units. (CBSE 2012)

Part A
⃗𝒂⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ (𝜆, 1,4) ∙ (2,6,3) 2𝜆 + 6 + 12 2𝜆 + 18
= = = = ⏟4
⃗⃗|
|𝒃 √22 + 62 + 32 √49 7 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛
2𝜆 + 18 = 28
2𝜆 = 10
𝜆=5

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Part B
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ (𝜆, 1,4) ∙ (2, 𝜆, 3) 2𝜆 + 𝜆 + 12
𝒂 3𝜆 + 12
= = = = ⏟4
⃗⃗|
|𝒃 2
√2 + 𝜆 + 32 2 2
√𝜆 + 13 √𝜆2 + 13 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛
3𝜆 + 12 = 4√𝜆2 + 13
9𝜆 + 72𝜆 + 144 = 16(𝜆2 + 13)
2

7𝜆2 − 72𝜆 + 64 = 0

𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 5184 − (4)(7)(64) = 3392 > 0

𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠
2 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝜆

Example 1.286
̂ on the sum of the two vectors 2𝒊̂ + 4𝒋̂ − 5𝒌
18: If the projection of the vector 𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ + 𝒌 ̂ and −𝜆𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ + 3𝒌
̂ is 1,
then 𝜆 is equal to: (JEE Main 2021, 25 July, Shift-II)

⃗⃗ is
⃗⃗ on 𝒃
The projection of 𝒂
⃗⃗
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
𝒂
=1
⃗⃗|
|𝒃

⃗⃗ = (1,2,1) and ⃗𝒃⃗ = (2,4, −5) + (−𝜆, 2,3) = (2 − 𝜆, 6, −2) in the above:
Substitute 𝒂
(1,2,1) ∙ (2 − 𝜆, 6, −2)
=1
|(2 − 𝜆, 6, −2)|

Carry the multiplication using the dot product:

2 − 𝜆 + 12 − 2 = |(2 − 𝜆, 6, −2)|

Use the definition of magnitude on the RHS:

12 − 𝜆 = √(2 − 𝜆)2 + 62 + (−2)2

Square both sides:

(12 − 𝜆)2 = (2 − 𝜆)2 + 62 + (−2)2

Expand:
144 − 24𝜆 + 𝜆2 = 4 − 4𝜆 + 𝜆2 + 36 + 4

Collate all terms on side:

100 = 20𝜆 ⇒ 𝜆 = 5

D. Coplanar Vectors

Example 1.287
⃗⃗ be a vector in the plane containing vectors 𝒂
24: Let 𝒙 ̂ and 𝒃
⃗⃗ = 2𝒊̂ − 𝒋̂ + 𝒌 ⃗⃗ = 𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ − 𝒌
̂. If the vector 𝒙
⃗⃗ is
17√6
̂ ) and its projection on 𝒂
perpendicular to (3𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ − 𝒌 ⃗⃗ is ⃗⃗|2 is equal to: (JEE Main 2021,
, then the value of |𝒙
2
17 March, Shift-II)

Let

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⃗⃗ = λ𝒂
𝒙 ⃗⃗ = λ(2, −1,1) + 𝜇(1,2, −1) = (2𝜆 + 𝜇, −𝜆 + 2𝜇, 𝜆 − 𝜇)
⃗⃗ + 𝜇𝒃

̂)
⃗⃗ is perpendicular to (3𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ − 𝒌
Since the vector 𝒙
̂) = 0
⃗⃗ ∙ (3𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ − 𝒌
𝒙

⃗⃗ = (2𝜆 + 𝜇, −𝜆 + 2𝜇, 𝜆 − 𝜇)
Substitute 𝒙
̂) = 0
(2𝜆 + 𝜇, −𝜆 + 2𝜇, 𝜆 − 𝜇) ∙ (3𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ − 𝒌

Multiply using the dot product:

(6𝜆 + 3𝜇) + (−2𝜆 + 4𝜇) + (𝜇 − 𝜆) = 0
Simplify:
3𝜆 + 8𝜇 = 0
⏟
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰

17√6
⃗⃗ on 𝒂
Projection of 𝒙 ⃗⃗ is :
2
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
𝒙 ⃗⃗ 17√6
=
|𝒂⃗⃗| 2
⃗⃗ = (2𝜆 + 𝜇, −𝜆 + 2𝜇, 𝜆 − 𝜇), 𝒂
Substitute 𝒙 ⃗⃗ = 2𝒊̂ − 𝒋̂ + 𝒌̂
(2𝜆 + 𝜇, −𝜆 + 2𝜇, 𝜆 − 𝜇) ∙ (2, −1,1) 17√6
=
√22 + (−1)2 + 12 2

Multiply using the dot product:

(4𝜆 + 2𝜇) + (𝜆 − 2𝜇) + (𝜆 − 𝜇) 17√6
=
√6 2

Cross multiply, and simplify:

6𝜆
⏟ − 𝜇 = 51
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝐼

Multiply Equation I by II:

6𝜆 + 16𝜇 = 0
⏟
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝐼𝐼

Subtract Equation II from Equation III:

17𝜇 = −51
𝜇 = −3
𝜆=8
Substitute 𝜇 = −3, 𝜆 = 8
⃗⃗ = (2𝜆 + 𝜇, −𝜆 + 2𝜇, 𝜆 − 𝜇) = (13, −14,11)
𝒙

⃗⃗:
Finally, calculate the square of the magnitude of 𝒙
2
⃗⃗| = √132 + (−14)2 + 112 = 486
|𝒙

E. Geometry

Example 1.288
Show that the line drawn from the center of a circle, bisecting the chord, is perpendicular to the chord.

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F. Vector ⊥ to Two Vectors

In the adjoining diagram, if you want a vector perpendicular to the 𝑥 and the 𝑦
axes, you can draw the 𝑧 axis. However, you could also have drawn the z axis
pointing downward, and that would also be perpendicular.
To eliminate the ambiguity, we define the 𝑧 axis in such a way that the positive
direction points upwards.

Example 1.289
A. Write the number of vectors of unit length perpendicular to both the
̂, and ⃗𝒃⃗ = 𝒋̂ + 𝒌
⃗⃗ = 2𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ + 2𝒌
vectors 𝒂 ̂. (CBSE 2016)
B. When will two vectors not have exactly two vectors perpendicular to
them?

Part A
Two vectors
Part B
When these two vectors are parallel.

Example 1.290
⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ and 𝒂
Find the unit vector perpendicular to both of the vectors 𝒂 ⃗⃗ − ⃗𝒃⃗ where 𝒂 ̂ and ⃗𝒃⃗ = 𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ +
⃗⃗ = 𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ + 𝒌
̂. (CBSE 2014)
3𝒌

Let the unit vector that we wish to find be We need a third equation. Since we wish to find a
̂
𝒓̂ = 𝑥𝒊̂ + 𝑦𝒋̂ + 𝑧𝒌 unit vector:
Since 𝒓̂ ⊥ (𝒂 ⃗⃗), we must have
⃗⃗ + 𝒃 𝒓̂ = 1
|𝑥𝒊̂ + 𝑦𝒋̂ + 𝑧𝒌̂| = 1
⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗) = 𝟎
𝒓̂ ∙ (𝒂
(𝑥𝒊̂ + 𝑦𝒋̂ + 𝑧𝒌̂) ∙ (𝟐𝒊̂ + 3𝒋̂ + 4𝒌
̂) = 𝟎 √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 1
Expand using the dot product: ⏟2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 1
𝑥
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑽
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 0
⏟
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰
Substitute the values from Equation II and Equation
III into Equation IV:
Similarly, 𝒓̂ ⊥ (𝒂⃗⃗ − ⃗𝒃⃗), and hence we must have:
𝑧 2 + (−2𝑧)2 + 𝑧 2 = 1
𝒓̂ ∙ (𝒂
⃗⃗ − 𝒃 ⃗⃗) = 𝟎
6𝑧 2 = 1
(𝑥𝒊̂ + 𝑦𝒋̂ + 𝑧𝒌 ̂ ) ∙ (−𝒋̂ − 𝟐𝒌
̂) = 0 1
𝑥=𝑧=±
Expand using the dot product: √6
−𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 0 2
𝑦 = −2𝑧 𝑦 = −2𝑧 = ±
⏟ √6
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰 The vectors that we want are:
Substitute the value of 𝑦 from Equation II into 1 2 1
𝒊̂ − 𝒋̂ + ̂
𝒌
Equation I:
√6 √6 √6
2𝑥 + 3(−2𝑧) + 4𝑧 = 0 1 2 1
2𝑥 − 2𝑧 = 0 − 𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ − ̂
𝒌
√6 √6 √6
𝑥=𝑧
⏟
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰𝑰

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1.10 Dot Product Revision

A. Midpoint

HW 1

Example 1.291
31: A vector 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 𝛼𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ + 𝛽𝒌 ̂ (𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ ℝ) lies in the plane of the vectors 𝒃
⃗⃗ = 𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ and 𝒄 ̂ . If 𝒂
⃗⃗ = 𝒊̂ − 𝒋̂ + 4𝒌 ⃗⃗
bisects the angle between 𝒃 ⃗⃗ and 𝒄⃗⃗, then:
A. 𝑎. 𝒊̂ + 3 = 0
B. 𝑎. 𝑘 + 2 = 0
C. 𝑎. 𝒊̂ + 1 = 0
D. 𝑎. 𝑘 + 4 = 0 (JEE Main 2020, 7 Jan, Shift-I)

Angle Bisector Theorem OR Basic Geometry

B. Projections/Dot Product

Example 1.292
37: Let 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 be a parallelogram such that 𝑨𝑩⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒒
⃗⃗, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑫 = 𝒑 ⃗⃗ and ∠𝐵𝐴𝐷 be an acute angle. If 𝒓
⃗⃗ is the vector that
coincides with the altitude directed from the vertex 𝐵 to the side AD, then 𝒓 ⃗⃗ is given by:
3(𝑝∙𝑞)
A. 𝑟 = 3𝑞 𝑝∙𝑝
𝑝
B. r=-q+(p\bulletq)/(p\bulletp) p
C. r=q-(p\bulletq)/(p\bulletp) p
D. r=-3q+3(p\bulletq)/(p\bulletp) p

C. Square of a Difference

1.293: Maximum of a Trig Expression

Maximum of 𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 is
√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2

Example 1.294
⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗ are unit vectors, then the greatest value of √3|𝒂
29: If 𝒂 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗| + |𝒂
⃗⃗ − ⃗𝒃⃗| is: (JEE Main 2020, 6 Sep, Shift-I)

D. Square of Three Terms

Example 1.295
28: Let the vectors 𝒂 ⃗⃗, 𝒄
⃗⃗, 𝒃 ⃗⃗ be such that |𝒂 ⃗⃗| = 4, and |𝒄
⃗⃗| = 2, |𝒃 ⃗⃗| = 4. If the projection of 𝒃 ⃗⃗ on 𝒂
⃗⃗ is equal to the
projection of ⃗𝒄⃗ on ⃗𝒂⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗ is perpendicular to ⃗𝒄⃗, then the value of |𝒂 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ − ⃗𝒄⃗| is: (JEE Main 2020, 5 Sep, Shift-II)

Example 1.296
41: Let 𝒖 ⃗⃗, 𝒗
⃗⃗, 𝒘
⃗⃗⃗⃗ be such that |𝒖
⃗⃗| = 1, |𝒗
⃗⃗| = 2, |𝒘
⃗⃗⃗⃗| = 3. If the projection 𝒗 ⃗⃗ along 𝒖
⃗⃗ is equal to that of 𝒘
⃗⃗⃗⃗ along 𝒖
⃗⃗ and
⃗⃗, 𝒘
𝒗 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ are perpendicular to each other, then |𝒖 ⃗⃗ − 𝒗 ⃗⃗ + 𝒘
⃗⃗⃗⃗| is equal to: (JEE Main 2004)

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Example 1.297
⃗⃗, ⃗𝒃⃗, 𝒄
42: 𝒂 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗ are three vectors such that 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 0, |𝒂 ⃗⃗| = 2, |𝒄
⃗⃗| = 1, |𝒃 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ ∙ 𝒄
⃗⃗| = 3, then 𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗ is equal to:
(JEE Main 2003)

E. Perpendicularity

HW

Example 1.298
̂, 𝒊̂ − 3𝒋̂ − 5𝒌
⃗⃗, for which the points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 with position vectors 2𝒊̂ − 𝒋̂ + 𝒌
The value(s) of 𝒂 ̂ and 𝑎𝒊̂ − 3𝒋̂ + 𝒌
̂
𝜋
respectively are the vertices of a right-angled triangle with 𝐶 = 2 are: (JEE Main 2006)

Draw a triangle with the points 𝐴, 𝐵 and C.

Since ∠𝐴𝐶𝐵 = 90°:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑩𝑪
𝑨𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0

Use the definition of vector as displacement:

[(𝑎, −3,1) − (2, −1,1)] ∙ [(𝑎, −3,1) − (1, −3, −5)] = 0

Simplify:
(𝑎 − 2, −4,0) ∙ (𝑎 − 1,0, −6) = 0
Use the definition of the dot product:
(𝑎 − 2)(𝑎 − 1) = 0 ⇒ 𝑎 ∈ {1,2}

1.299: Coplanar Vector

A coplanar vector is a linear combination of two non-parallel vectors in that plane.

Example 1.300
Given two vectors are 𝒊̂ − 𝒋̂ and 𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂, the unit vector coplanar with the two vectors and perpendicular to the
first is: (JEE Main 2002)

A vector coplanar to 𝒊̂ − 𝒋̂ and 𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ is:

⃗⃗ = (𝑥, 𝑦)
𝒂

From the perpendicularity condition:

(𝑥, 𝑦) ∙ (1, −1) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦

⃗⃗| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 = √2𝑥 2 = √2𝑥

|𝒂

⃗⃗ is given by:
Hence, the unit vector in the direction of 𝒂
⃗⃗
𝒂 (𝑥, 𝑥) 1 1
= =( , )
|𝒂
⃗⃗| √2𝑥 √2 √2

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HW 2

Example 1.301
35: Let 𝒖⃗⃗ be a vector coplanar with the vectors 𝒂 ̂ and ⃗𝒃⃗ = 𝒋̂ + 𝒌
⃗⃗ = 2𝒊̂ + 3𝒋̂ − 𝒌 ̂. If 𝒖
⃗⃗⃗ is perpendicular to 𝒂
⃗⃗ and 𝒖
⃗⃗ ∙
⃗𝒃⃗ = 24, then |𝒖 2
⃗⃗| is equal to: (JEE Main 2018)

Using the perpendicularity condition:

⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
𝒖 ⃗⃗ = 0

Since 𝒖 ⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗, substitute 𝒖

⃗⃗ is coplanar to 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 𝜆𝒂
⃗⃗ + 𝜇𝒃⃗⃗
(𝜆𝒂⃗⃗ + 𝜇𝒃⃗⃗) ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗ = 0

Using the distributive property:

𝜆|𝒂
⏟ ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗|2 + 𝜇𝒃 ⃗⃗ = 0
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼

Note that
⃗⃗|2 = 22 + 32 + (−1)2 = 4 + 9 + 1 = 14
|𝒂
⃗𝒃⃗ ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗ = (0,1,1) ∙ (2,3, −1) = 0 + 3 − 1 = 2

Substitute the above into Equation I:

14𝜆 + 2𝜇 = 0

Use the
⃗⃗) ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ = 24
⃗⃗ + 𝜇𝒃
(𝜆𝒂
2
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ + 𝜇|𝒃
𝜆𝒂 ⃗⃗| = 24

HW 3

Example 1.302
⃗⃗ = 𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ + √2𝒌
33: Let 𝒂 ̂ ,𝒃
⃗⃗ = 𝑏1 𝒊̂ + 𝑏2 𝒋̂ + √2𝒌
̂ and 𝒄⃗⃗ = 5𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ + √2𝒌̂ be three vectors such that the projection
vector of 𝒃⃗⃗ on 𝒂
⃗⃗ is 𝒂
⃗⃗. If 𝒂
⃗⃗ + 𝒃⃗⃗ is perpendicular to 𝒄⃗⃗, then |𝒄⃗⃗| is equal to: (JEE Main 2019, 9 Jan, Shift-II)

Example 1.303
̂, 𝒃
⃗⃗ = 2𝒊̂ + 𝜆1 𝒋̂ + 3𝒌
34: Let 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 4𝒊̂ + (3 − 𝜆2 )𝒋̂ + 6𝒌
̂ and 𝒄 ̂ be three vectors such that
⃗⃗ = 3𝒊̂ + 6𝒋̂ + (𝜆3 − 1)𝒌
⃗⃗ = 2𝒂
𝒃 ⃗⃗ and 𝒂
⃗⃗ is perpendicular to 𝒄 ⃗⃗. Then a possible value of 𝜆1 , 𝜆2 , 𝜆_3 is:
A. (1,3,1)
B. (1,5,1)
C. (-1/2, 4,0)
D. (1/2,4,-2) (JEE Main 2019, 10 Jan, Shift-I)

F. Applications

Example 1.304
⃗⃗, ⃗𝒃⃗, 𝒄
20: Let 𝒂 ⃗⃗ be three mutually perpendicular vectors of the same magnitude and equally inclined at an angle 𝜃

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⃗⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗ + 𝒃
with the vector 𝒂 ⃗⃗. Then, 36 cos2 𝜃 is equal to: (JEE Main 2021, 20 July, Shift-II)

Example 1.305
21: For 𝑝 > 0, a vector 𝑉2 = 2𝒊̂ + (𝑝 + 1)𝒋̂ is obtained by rotating the vector 𝑣1 = 𝑟𝑡(3𝑝)𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ by an angle 𝜃
𝛼√3−2
about the origin in counter clockwise direction. If tan 𝜃 = 4√3+3
, then the value of 𝛼 is equal to: (JEE Main 2021,
20 July, Shift-II)

G. Section Formula

Example 1.306
32: Let 𝐴(3,0, −1), 𝐵(2,10,6) and 𝐶(1,2,1) be the vertices of a triangle and 𝑀 be the mid-point of 𝐴𝐶. If 𝐺
divides 𝐵𝑀 in the ratio 2: 1, then cos ∠𝐺𝑂𝐴 (𝑂 being the origin) is equal to: (JEE Main 2019, 10 April, Shift-I)

1.11 Cross Product-I: Angle Definition

A. Magnitude of Cross Product
We have looked at the product of a vector with a scalar, which is a vector with the same direction but different
magnitude. We also looked at the dot product, which is the product of two vectors, which has a scalar output.
The last product that we at is the cross product, which is the product of a vector with a vector, and has a vector
perpendicular to the original two vectors for output.

Input Output Example

Scalar Multiple A scalar and a Vector 1
𝒊̂
vector √6
Dot Product Two vectors Scalar
Cross Product Two vectors Vector

1.307: Magnitude of Cross Product

⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗, with angle 𝜃, between them, the magnitude of their cross product is:
Given two vectors 𝒂
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗| = |𝒂
|𝒂 ⃗⃗| sin 𝜃
⃗⃗||𝒃

Example 1.308
2 𝜋
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗| if |𝒂
A. (𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) Find |𝒂 ⃗⃗| = 3, and (𝒂
⃗⃗| = 2, |𝒃 ⃗⃗, ⃗𝒃⃗) = . (AP EAPCET, 17 Sep 2020, Shift-I)
6
⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗ are two vectors such that |𝒂
B. (𝐵𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) If 𝒂 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗| = |𝒂
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗|, then find the angle between 𝒂
⃗⃗
⃗⃗
and 𝒃. (CBSE 2010)

Part A
2 2 𝜋 2 1 2
⃗⃗
⃗⃗ × 𝒃| = (|𝒂
|𝒂 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗||𝒃| sin 𝜃) = (2 ∙ 3 ∙ sin ) = (2 ∙ 3 ∙ ) = 32 = 9
6 2
Part B
𝜋
|𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = |𝒂
⃗⃗||𝒃 ⃗⃗| sin 𝜃 ⇒ cos 𝜃 = sin 𝜃 ⇒ 𝜃 =
⃗⃗||𝒃
4

Example 1.309: Correct the proof

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Identify the first step, in the following “proof” where a mistake is made, or incorrect logic is used, explain the
issue, and fix it.

⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗| is |𝒂
Step I: The magnitude of the cross product |𝒂 ⃗⃗| sin 𝜃. Since both |𝒂
⃗⃗||𝒃 ⃗⃗| are nonnegative, the
⃗⃗| and |𝒃
⃗⃗| is controlled by sin 𝜃.
⃗⃗ × 𝒃
sign of |𝒂
Step II: It is a standard property that −1 ≤ sin 𝑥 ≤ 1
Step III: Multiply −1 ≤ sin 𝜃 ≤ 1 throughout by |𝒂 ⃗⃗| to get −|𝒂
⃗⃗||𝒃 ⃗⃗| ≤ |𝒂
⃗⃗||𝒃 ⃗⃗| sin 𝜃 ≤ |𝒂
⃗⃗||𝒃 ⃗⃗|
⃗⃗||𝒃
Step IV: Substitute |𝒂 ⃗⃗| sin 𝜃 = |𝒂
⃗⃗||𝒃 ⃗⃗| to get −|𝒂
⃗⃗ × 𝒃 ⃗⃗| ≤ |𝒂
⃗⃗||𝒃 ⃗⃗| ≤ |𝒂
⃗⃗ × 𝒃 ⃗⃗|
⃗⃗||𝒃

The mistake is in Step III.

Since the angle between two vectors 𝜃 is always the smaller angle we have
0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋 ⇒ 0 ≤ sin 𝜃 ≤ 1

And multiplying the inequality above with |𝒂 ⃗⃗| sin 𝜃 gives us the correct version
⃗⃗||𝒃
0 ≤ |𝒂 ⃗⃗| sin 𝜃 ≤ |𝒂
⃗⃗||𝒃 ⃗⃗|
⃗⃗||𝒃
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗| = |𝒂
Where we can substitute |𝒂 ⃗⃗| sin 𝜃 to get
⃗⃗||𝒃
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗| ≤ |𝒂
0 ≤ |𝒂
⏟ ⃗⃗|
⃗⃗||𝒃
𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝑽𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏

1.310: Range of Magnitude

⃗⃗| ≤ |𝒂
⃗⃗ × 𝒃
0 ≤ |𝒂 ⃗⃗|
⃗⃗||𝒃

Refer to the previous example to see the proof of this property.

Example 1.311
1 3
A. If |𝒂 ⃗⃗| = , 𝑥 = |𝒂
⃗⃗| = , |𝒃 ⃗⃗|, 𝑀 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥(𝑥), 𝑚 = 𝑀𝑖𝑛(𝑥), then find 𝑀 − 𝛼𝑚, where 𝛼 ∈ ℝ.
⃗⃗ × 𝒃
2 5

1 3
𝑀 − 2𝑚 = ( ) ( ) − 𝛼(0) = 0.3
2 5

MCQ 1.312
𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Let 𝒖 ⃗⃗ be two non-zero vectors. Then the magnitude of the cross product |𝒖
⃗⃗ and 𝒗 ⃗⃗ × 𝒗
⃗⃗|is always: (AP EAPCET, 18
Sep 2020, Shift-I)
A. ≤ |𝒖 ⃗⃗||𝒗
⃗⃗|
B. = |𝒖 ⃗⃗||𝒗
⃗⃗|
C. ≥ |𝒖 ⃗⃗||𝒗
⃗⃗|
D. = 0

⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗| ≤ |𝒂
Using the property 𝟎 ≤ |𝒂 ⃗⃗|
⃗⃗||𝒃
𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡

Example 1.313: Justify the proof

Consider vectors 𝒂 ⃗⃗ such that |𝒂
⃗⃗ and 𝒃 ⃗⃗| > 0
⃗⃗ × 𝒃
Step I: |𝒂 ⃗⃗| sin 𝜃 > 0
⃗⃗||𝒃
Step II: sin 𝜃 > 0

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Step III: 0 < 𝜃 < 𝜋

A. Justify Step I.
B. Justify Step II. Explain why we do not need to reverse the sign of the inequality.
C. Justify Step III. Explain why 𝜃 cannot be in Quadrant III.

Step I: Substitute the definition of the magnitude of the cross product: |𝒂 ⃗⃗| = |𝒂
⃗⃗ × 𝒃 ⃗⃗| sin 𝜃
⃗⃗||𝒃
Step II: Divide both sides |𝒂 ⃗⃗|, and note that |𝒂
⃗⃗||𝒃 ⃗⃗| > 0 since they are both magnitudes and greater than zero.
⃗⃗||𝒃
Step III: sin 𝜃 is positive in the first and second quadrants.

MCQ 1.314: Positive Magnitude of Cross Product

𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
The cross product of two vectors with angle 𝜃 between them is positive. In what range must 𝜃 lie?
A. 0 < 𝜃 < 𝜋
B. 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋
𝜋
C. 0 < 𝜃 < 2
𝜋
D. <𝜃<𝜋
2
𝜋
E. 2
≤𝜃≤𝜋

𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴
Option B is not correct since:
𝜃 = {0, 𝜋} ⇒ sin 𝜃 = 0 ⇒ |𝒂 ⃗⃗| sin 𝜃 = 0 ⇒ 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 = 0 ≠ 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
⃗⃗||𝒃

MCQ 1.315: Negative Magnitude of Cross Product

𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
The cross product of two vectors with angle 𝜃 between them is calculated to be negative. This indicates:
A. That one of the vectors is a zero vector.
B. That both of the vectors are zero vectors.
C. That the calculations were incorrect.
D. The angle between the vectors is acute.
E. The angle between the vectors is obtuse.
F. The angle between the vectors is reflex.

𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶

Example 1.316
What can you conclude about the angle 𝜃 between two non-zero vectors if their cross product is zero?

The angle between the two vectors is zero or 𝜋:

𝜃 ∈ {0, 𝜋}
That is, the vectors are collinear.

1.317: Zero Cross Product

Show that:
A. The cross product of vectors in the same direction or opposite directions is the zero vector.
B. The cross product of a vector with itself is zero.

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Part A
If the two vectors are in the same direction, then the angle between them is zero.
If the two vectors are in opposite directions, then the angle between them is 𝜋.
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗ = |𝒂
𝜃 ∈ {0, 𝜋} ⇒ sin 𝜃 = 0 ⇒ 𝒂 ⃗⃗| sin 𝜃 𝒏
⃗⃗||𝒃 ̂=𝟎
Part B
A vector is parallel to itself. And the angle between two parallel vectors is zero. Hence, the cross product is zero.

Example 1.318
If the cross product of two vectors is zero, what can you conclude about the vectors.

⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗.
Let the vectors be 𝒂
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗ = 0
𝒂
Take the magnitude on both sides:
⃗⃗| = 0
⃗⃗ × 𝒃
|𝒂
Use the definition of magnitude:
|𝒂 ⃗⃗| sin 𝜃 = 0
⃗⃗||𝒃
Use the zero-product property:
|𝒂 ⃗⃗| = 0 𝑂𝑅 sin 𝜃 = 0 ⇒ 𝜃 ∈ {0, 𝜋}
⃗⃗| = 0 𝑂𝑅 |𝒃

1.319: Zero Property for Cross Product

⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗ = 0 ⇒ |𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗| = 0 𝑂𝑅 sin 𝜃 = 0 ⇒ 𝜃 ∈ {0, 𝜋}
⃗⃗| = 0 𝑂𝑅 |𝒃

If the cross product of two vectors is zero, then one of the following holds:
➢ one of the vectors is zero
➢ both of the vectors are zero
➢ the vectors are collinear.

Note: The collinearity condition is equivalent to saying that one vector is a scalar multiple of the other.

1.320: Properties
Show that:
A. The magnitude of the cross product of two perpendicular vectors is the product of their magnitudes.
B. The magnitude of the cross product of two vectors is maximum when the angle between them is a right
angle. (Assume that their lengths are given, and cannot be changed).
Part A
⃗⃗ × 𝒃
|𝒂 ⃗⃗| = |𝒂⃗⃗||𝒃⃗⃗| sin 𝜃
If the two vectors are perpendicular, then the angle between them is a right angle:
𝜋
𝜃 = ⇒ sin 𝜃 = 1
2
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗| = |𝒂
|𝒂 ⃗⃗||𝒃⃗⃗|
Part B
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗| = |𝒂
|𝒂 ⃗⃗||𝒃⃗⃗| sin 𝜃

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The maximum value of the RHS is obtained when

𝜋
sin 𝜃 = 1 ⇒ 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
2

B. Right-Handed Coordinate System

1.321: Right-Handed Co-ordinate System

➢ In a right-handed coordinate system, the Right-Hand

Thumb Rule is applicable.
➢ 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 is the first vector (given by direction of index
finger). 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 is the second vector (given by
direction of middle finger).
➢ Then, the direction of cross product is given by the
thumb of the right hand.

1.322: Properties of Handedness

➢ The order of vectors matters. Interchanging the labels 𝑥 and 𝑦 changes
the handedness.
➢ Reversing the direction of an axis changes the handedness.
➢ Reversing the direction of all three axes also changes the handedness.

Example 1.323

C. Cross Product

1.324: Cross Product

⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗, with angle 𝜃, between them, their cross product is:
Given two vectors 𝒂
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗ = |𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗| sin 𝜃 𝒏
⃗⃗||𝒃 ̂

➢ When taking the angle between vectors, we take the smaller angle when they are arranged tip to tip, or
tail to tail. That is 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋.
➢ 𝒏 ⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗, such that 𝒂
̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to both 𝒂 ⃗⃗, ⃗𝒃⃗ and 𝒏
̂ form a
right-handed coordinate system.

1.325: Cross Product of Unit Vectors

̂,
𝒊̂ × 𝒋̂ = 𝒌 ̂ = 𝒊̂,
𝒋̂ × 𝒌 ̂ × 𝒊̂ = 𝒋̂
𝒌
𝒋̂ × 𝒊̂ = −𝒌 ̂, ̂ × 𝒋̂ = −𝒊̂,
𝒌 ̂ = −𝒋̂
𝒊̂ × 𝒌

Example 1.326
̂ × 𝒋̂) ∙ 𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ ∙ 𝒌
Write the value of (𝒌 ̂ (CBSE 2012)

(−𝒊̂) ∙ 𝒊̂ + 0 = −1 + 0 = −1

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D. Distributive Property

1.327: Distributive Over Addition and Subtraction

𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗ × (𝒃 ⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗ + 𝒂
⃗⃗) = 𝒂 ⃗⃗ × 𝒄
⃗⃗
𝒂 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ × (𝒃 − 𝒄⃗⃗) = 𝒂 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ × 𝒃 − 𝒂 ⃗⃗ × 𝒄
⃗⃗

Example 1.328
A. Write the value of the following 𝒊̂ × (𝒋̂ + 𝒌 ̂) + 𝒋̂ × (𝒌
̂ + 𝒊̂) + 𝒌
̂ × (𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂) (CBSE 2014)
̂ find (𝒓
⃗⃗ = 𝑥𝒊̂ + 𝑦𝒋̂ + 𝑧𝒌
B. If 𝒓 ⃗⃗ × 𝒊̂) ∙ (𝑟⃗ × 𝒋̂) + 𝑥𝑦

Part A
Use the distributive property:
̂) + (𝒋̂ × 𝒌
(𝒊̂ × 𝒋̂ + 𝒊̂ × 𝒌 ̂ + 𝒋̂ × 𝒊̂) + (𝒌
̂ × 𝒊̂ + 𝒌
̂ × 𝒋̂)
Use the cross products of the unit vectors:
= (𝒌̂−𝒌 ̂) + (𝒊̂ − 𝒌̂ ) + (𝒋̂ − 𝒊̂) = 0
Part B
Find the value of each term:
⃗⃗ × 𝒊̂ = (𝑥𝒊̂ + 𝑦𝒋̂ + 𝑧𝒌
𝒓 ̂) × 𝒊̂ = 𝑥(𝒊̂ × 𝒊̂) + 𝑦(𝒋̂ × 𝒊̂) + 𝑧(𝒌̂ × 𝒊̂) = −𝑦𝒌̂ + 𝑧𝒋̂
⃗⃗ × 𝒋̂ = (𝑥𝒊̂ + 𝑦𝒋̂ + 𝑧𝒌
𝒓 ̂) × 𝒋̂ = 𝑥(𝒊̂ × 𝒋̂) + 𝑦(𝒋̂ × 𝒋̂) + 𝑧(𝒌
̂ × 𝒋̂) = 𝑥𝒌
̂ − 𝑧𝒊̂

Combine the above:

(𝒓 ̂ + 𝑧𝒋̂) ∙ (𝑥𝒌
⃗⃗ × 𝒊̂) ∙ (𝑟⃗ × 𝒋̂) = (−𝑦𝒌 ̂ − 𝑧𝒊̂) = −𝑦𝑥 + 𝑦𝑧 ∙ 0 + 𝑧𝑥 ∙ 0 + 𝑧 2 ∙ 0 = −𝑦𝑥

And finally:
(𝒓
⃗⃗ × 𝒊̂) ∙ (𝑟⃗ × 𝒋̂) + 𝑥𝑦 = −𝑦𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦 = 0

MCMC 1.329
𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
⃗⃗ × 𝒒
Which condition ensures that 𝒑 ⃗⃗ = 𝒑
⃗⃗ × 𝒓
⃗⃗ and 𝒑
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒒
⃗⃗ = 𝒑
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒓
⃗⃗:
A. 𝒑⃗⃗ = 𝒓
⃗⃗
B. 𝒒⃗⃗ = 𝒓
⃗⃗
C. 𝒑⃗⃗ = 𝒒
⃗⃗
D. 𝒑⃗⃗ + 𝒒
⃗⃗ = 0
E. 𝒑⃗⃗ = 0 (AP EAPCET, 22 Sep 2020, Shift-II, Adapted)

Cross Product Dot Product

Condition ⃗⃗ × 𝒒
𝒑 ⃗⃗ = 𝒑 ⃗⃗ × 𝒓⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒒
𝒑 ⃗⃗ = 𝒑 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒓
⃗⃗
Collate all terms on one side ⃗⃗ × 𝒒
𝒑 ⃗⃗ − 𝒑⃗⃗ × 𝒓 ⃗⃗ = 0 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒒
𝒑 ⃗⃗ − 𝒑⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒓
⃗⃗ = 0
Use the distributive property ⃗⃗ × (𝒒
𝒑 ⃗⃗ − 𝒓⃗⃗) = 0 ⃗⃗ ∙ (𝒒
𝒑 ⃗⃗ − 𝒓⃗⃗) = 0
Conclusion Either the vectors are collinear, Either the vectors are perpendicular, or
or one of the vectors is zero. one of the vectors is zero.

The vectors cannot be collinear and perpendicular simultaneously. Hence, one of them must be zero. 3
⃗⃗ = 0 ⇒ 𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸
𝒑
⃗⃗ − 𝒓
𝒒 ⃗⃗ = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝒒⃗⃗ = 𝒓
⃗⃗ ⇒ 𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐵
Hence, the final answer is:

3 This question is concept-intensive (distributive property) rather than calculation intensive.

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𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝐵, 𝐸

E. Anti-Commutative Property

1.330: Cross Product is anti-Commutative

⃗⃗ = −𝒃
⃗⃗ × 𝒃
𝒂 ⃗⃗ × 𝒂
⃗⃗

Example 1.331
A. Recall that the Cartesian product of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, is the set of all ordered pairs (𝑎, 𝑏) where 𝑎 is in 𝐴
and 𝑏 is in 𝐵. Find the sum of the cross products of each element of the Cartesian product of the set
⃗⃗, ⃗𝒃⃗, 𝒄
{𝒂 ⃗⃗} with itself.
B. Is the above result applicable to the set of 𝑛 vectors {𝒗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,
𝟏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,
𝒗𝟐 … , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗}.
𝒗𝒏 Explain why or why not.

Part A
(𝒂
⃗⃗ × 𝒂 ⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗) + (𝒄
⃗⃗) + (𝒃 ⃗⃗ × 𝒄⃗⃗) + (𝒂⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗) + (𝒂⃗⃗ × 𝒄⃗⃗) + (𝒃 ⃗⃗ × 𝒄⃗⃗) + (𝒃 ⃗⃗ × 𝒂⃗⃗) + (𝒄
⃗⃗ × 𝒂 ⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗)
⃗⃗) + (𝒄
Note that the first three terms all have the cross product of a vector with itself, and hence the output is zero:
0 + 0 + 0 + (𝒂 ⃗⃗ × 𝒃 ⃗⃗) + (𝒂⃗⃗ × 𝒄 ⃗⃗ × 𝒄
⃗⃗) + (𝒃 ⃗⃗) + (𝒃 ⃗⃗ × 𝒂⃗⃗) + (𝒄 ⃗⃗ × 𝒂
⃗⃗) + (𝒄⃗⃗ × 𝒃⃗⃗)
Use the anti-commutative property in the last three terms:
= (𝒂⃗⃗ × 𝒃⃗⃗) + (𝒂⃗⃗ × 𝒄 ⃗⃗ × 𝒄
⃗⃗) + (𝒃 ⃗⃗) + [−(𝒂 ⃗⃗ × 𝒃 ⃗⃗)] + [−(𝒂 ⃗⃗ × 𝒄⃗⃗)] + [−(𝒃 ⃗⃗ × 𝒄⃗⃗)]
And these all add up to zero:
=0
Part B
Since we are taking the Cartesian product of the set with itself, there are two cases:

Case I: You take the cross product of a vector with itself. This is zero.
⃗⃗),
⃗⃗, 𝒃
Case II: You take the cross product of a vector with a vector that is not itself. In such a case, for every pair (𝒂
⃗⃗, 𝒂
there will be a pair (𝒃 ⃗⃗) whose cross product will be the negative of the first pair.
Hence, the total must equal zero.

F. Scalar Multiplication

1.332: Scalar Multiplication

The cross product is commutative with scalar multiplication. In other words, you can “factor” any scalar out of a
cross product.
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗) = (𝜆𝒂
𝜆(𝒂 ⃗⃗) × ⃗𝒃⃗ = 𝒂 ⃗⃗)
⃗⃗ × (𝜆𝒃

Use the definition (𝒂 ̂) = |𝒂

⃗⃗ × 𝒃 ⃗⃗| sin 𝜃 𝒏
⃗⃗||𝒃 ̂ to expand each term and get:
𝜆(𝒂⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗) = 𝜆|𝒂 ⃗⃗| sin 𝜃 𝒏
⃗⃗||𝒃 ̂
(𝜆𝒂 ⃗⃗ = |𝜆𝒂
⃗⃗) × 𝒃 ⃗⃗| sin 𝜃 𝒏
⃗⃗||𝒃 ̂
⃗𝒂⃗ × (𝜆𝒃⃗⃗) = |𝒂
⃗⃗||𝜆𝒃⃗⃗| sin 𝜃 𝒏
̂

By the properties of scalar multiplication, the second and third terms are equal to the first.

Example 1.333
Find the value of 𝜆:

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(3𝒂 ⃗⃗) = 𝜆(𝒂

⃗⃗) × (2𝒃 ⃗⃗)
⃗⃗ × 𝒃

(3𝒂 ⃗⃗) = 6(𝒂

⃗⃗) × (2𝒃 ⃗⃗) = 𝜆(𝒂
⃗⃗ × 𝒃 ⃗⃗) ⇒ 𝜆 = 6
⃗⃗ × 𝒃

G. Triangles

Example 1.334
If 𝒂 ⃗⃗ and 𝒄
⃗⃗, 𝒃 ⃗⃗ are position vectors of the vertices of Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶, then, in terms of the angles of the triangle (AP EAPCET,
22 Sep 2020, Shift-II, Adapted)
⃗⃗ − 𝒄
|(𝒂 ⃗⃗) × (𝒃 ⃗⃗ − 𝒂
⃗⃗)|
=
⃗⃗ − 𝒂
(𝒃 ⃗⃗) ∙ (𝒄
⃗⃗ − 𝒂
⃗⃗)

Using vector addition and subtraction, the required expression is:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑨𝑩
|𝑪𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
=
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑨𝑪
𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Expand the numerator using the definition of the cross product.
Note that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑨 and 𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are not arranged tail to tail and hence move
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑨 forward so as to arrange the vectors tail to tail. The angle
between them is not 180 − 𝐴, rather than A.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑨𝑩
|𝑪𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = |𝑪𝑨
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗||𝑨𝑩⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| sin(𝜋 − 𝐴)

Expand the denominator using the definition of the dot product:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗||𝑨𝑪
𝑨𝑪 = |𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| cos 𝐴

Combine the two:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗||𝑨𝑩
|𝑪𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| sin(𝜋 − 𝐴)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗||𝑨𝑪
|𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| cos 𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = |𝑨𝑪
Note that |𝑪𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| since the magnitudes are same (even
though the vectors are different). Also, use the property that
sin(𝜋 − 𝜃) = sin 𝜃 and simplify:
sin 𝐴
= = tan 𝐴
cos 𝐴

1.335: Area of Triangle

⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗ for its sides is:
The area of a triangle with 𝒂
1
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗|
|𝒂
2

⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗ for its sides. From trigonometry, we know that the area of the triangle is:
Consider a triangle with 𝒂
1 1
|𝒂 ⃗⃗| sin 𝜃 = |𝒂
⃗⃗||𝒃 ⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗|
2 2

Example 1.336
⃗⃗, 𝒚
Vectors 𝒙 ⃗⃗, and 𝒛
⃗⃗ are the sides of a triangle.
⃗⃗ and 𝒚
A. Determine the magnitude of the cross product of 𝒙 ⃗⃗ if the cross product of 𝒚⃗⃗ and 𝒛
⃗⃗ is 7.
⃗⃗ and 𝒚
B. Determine the magnitude of the cross product of 𝒙 ⃗⃗ if the area of the triangle formed by the
vectors is 7.

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Part A
2 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = |𝒙 ⃗⃗| = |𝒚
⃗⃗ × 𝒚 ⃗⃗ × 𝒛
⃗⃗| = 7
Part B
|𝒙
⃗⃗ × 𝒚
⃗⃗| = 2 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 2 × 7 = 14

MCMC 1.337: Revision (Condition for Triangle)

𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
If three vectors form the sides of a triangle, then:
A. A linear combination of two of them must be a scalar multiple of the third.
B. The sum of the three vectors must be zero.
C. The dot product of two of them must be non-zero.
D. The cross product of two of them must be zero.

The sum of the vectors that make a vector polygon is zero.

𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐵 ⇒ 𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗ + 𝒃 ⃗⃗ = 0

𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡

Example 1.338
⃗⃗, ⃗𝒃⃗, and 𝒄
Given three vectors 𝒂 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗, such that 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 0, show that:
A. 𝒂 ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ × 𝒃 = 𝒃 × 𝒄
⃗⃗ = 𝒄 ⃗⃗ × 𝒂
⃗⃗
B. the magnitude of the cross product of any two of them is the same.

Part A
Setup:
The possible pairs are:
(𝒂 ⃗⃗), (𝒂
⃗⃗ × 𝒃 ⃗⃗ × 𝒄 ⃗⃗ × 𝒄
⃗⃗), (𝒃 ⃗⃗ × 𝒂
⃗⃗), (𝒃 ⃗⃗), (𝒄
⃗⃗ × 𝒂
⃗⃗), (𝒄 ⃗⃗)
⃗⃗ × 𝒃
⃗⃗ × 𝒄
Prove (𝒃 ⃗⃗) = 𝒂 ⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗
⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ + 𝒄
Substitute 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 0 ⇒ 𝒄 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗):
⃗⃗ = −(𝒂
⃗⃗ × 𝒄
𝒃 ⃗⃗ = 𝒃⃗⃗ × [−(𝒂 ⃗⃗)]
⃗⃗ + 𝒃
Move the minus sign outside (scalar multiple property), and distribute the cross product over the addition:
= −𝒃⃗⃗ × [(𝒂
⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗)] = −(𝒃 ⃗⃗ × 𝒂
⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗)
Use the anti-commutative property (first term), and note that the product of a vector with itself is zero (for the
second term):
= −(−𝒂 ⃗⃗ × 𝒃⃗⃗ + 𝟎
⃗⃗) = 𝒂 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ × 𝒃
Prove (𝒄 ⃗⃗ × 𝒂 ⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗
⃗⃗) = 𝒂
We can prove this using similar steps as above:
⃗⃗ × 𝒂
𝒄 ⏟ ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗)] × 𝒂
⃗⃗ = [−(𝒂 ⏟ ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗)] × 𝒂
⃗⃗ = −[(𝒂 ⃗⃗ = −(𝒂 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ × 𝒂
⏟ ⃗⃗ × 𝒂 ⃗⃗) = −(−𝒂
⏟ ⃗⃗ × 𝒂 ⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗) = ⏟
⃗⃗ − 𝒂 ⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗ = 𝒂
0+𝒂 ⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓∥𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠

Part B
By the anti-commutative property:
⃗𝒃⃗ × 𝒂 ⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗)
⃗⃗ = −(𝒂
⃗⃗ × 𝒄
𝒂 ⃗⃗ = −(𝒄
⃗⃗ × 𝒂 ⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗)
⃗⃗) = −(𝒂
⃗⃗ = −(𝒃
⃗⃗ × 𝒃
𝒄 ⃗⃗ × 𝒄
⃗⃗) = −(𝒂
⃗⃗ × 𝒃⃗⃗)

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Hence all six cross products have the same magnitude.

MCMC 1.339:
𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
If the vectors 𝒂 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗, 𝒃, and 𝒄 ⃗⃗ form the sides 𝐵𝐶, 𝐶𝐴 and 𝐴𝐵 respectively of a Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶, then:
A. 𝒂 ⃗⃗ ⃗
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 = 𝒃 ∙ 𝒄⃗ ⃗⃗ = 𝒄 ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ = 0
B. 𝒂⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗ = ⃗𝒃⃗ × 𝒄 ⃗⃗ = 𝒄 ⃗⃗ × 𝒂⃗⃗
C. 𝒂 ⃗⃗ ⃗
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃 = 𝒃 ∙ 𝒄⃗ ⃗⃗ = 𝒄 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂⃗⃗ = 0
D. 𝒂⃗⃗ × 𝒂 ⃗ ⃗
⃗⃗ + 𝒃 × 𝒃 + 𝒄⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗ × 𝒄⃗⃗ = 0
E. 𝒂⃗⃗ × 𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒂 ⃗⃗ × 𝒄 ⃗⃗ + 𝒂 ⃗⃗ × 𝒂⃗⃗ = 0 (JEE Main 2002, Adapted)4

Since the vectors form the sides of the triangle, the sum of the vectors is zero.
⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ + 𝒄
𝒂 ⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗ = ⃗𝒃⃗ × 𝒄
⃗⃗ = 0 ⇒ 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 𝒄
⃗⃗ × 𝒂
⃗⃗ ⇒ 𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴

Since a vector is parallel to itself, the cross product of a vector with itself is zero:
⃗⃗ × 𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒂
⃗⃗ × 𝒄
⃗⃗ + 𝒂
⃗⃗ × 𝒂
⃗⃗ = 0 + 0 + 0 = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐷

Hence, the final answer is:

𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝐴, 𝐷

1.340: Cross Product when sum of three Vectors is zero

⃗⃗, ⃗𝒃⃗, and 𝒄
Given three vectors 𝒂 ⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗, such that 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 0, their cross products when taken in order are equal:
⃗⃗ × 𝒃
𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 𝒃⃗⃗ × 𝒄
⃗⃗ = 𝒄
⃗⃗ × 𝒂
⃗⃗

This is an important property.

Correct the Proof 1.341:

Consider the following “proof” that 𝒂⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ + 𝒄 ⃗⃗ = 0 ⇒ |𝒂 ⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗| = |𝒃 ⃗⃗ × 𝒄⃗⃗| = |𝒄 ⃗⃗ × 𝒂⃗⃗|.
⃗⃗
⃗⃗ + 𝒃 + 𝒄
Step I: 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 0 means that the vectors form the sides of a triangle. Call it Δ𝐴
Step II: From trigonometry, we know that:
1 1 1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 Δ𝐴 = |𝒂 ⃗⃗| sin 𝜃 ⃗⃗ = |𝒃
⃗⃗||𝒃 ⃗⃗||𝒄
⃗⃗| sin 𝜃⃗𝒃⃗𝒄⃗⃗ = |𝒄 ⃗⃗||𝒂
⃗⃗| sin 𝜃𝒄⃗⃗𝒂⃗⃗
2 ⃗
𝒂⃗𝒃 2 2
(where the angles are then angles between the vectors).
Step III: Note that the expressions in Step II are precisely the expressions for the magnitude of the cross
product:
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 Δ𝐴 = |𝒂 ⃗⃗ × 𝒃 ⃗⃗| = |𝒃⃗⃗ × 𝒄 ⃗⃗| = |𝒄 ⃗⃗ × 𝒂⃗⃗|

Is there any flaw in the proof? Is so, correct and complete it.

Fix the Problem with Step II

The trigonometry formula is incorrect. It has:
1
➢ A missing factor of 2
➢ The angle between the vectors is when they are arranged tip to tip or tail to tail. Hence, we need to
write:

4The original question was easier. It was a single correct question (Option D was missing). This is a question directly based
on your knowledge of properties.

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1 1 1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 Δ𝐴 = |𝒂 ⃗⃗| sin(180 − 𝜃 ⃗⃗ ) = |𝒃
⃗⃗||𝒃 ⃗⃗||𝒄
⃗
⃗| sin(180 − 𝜃 ⃗⃗ ) = |𝒄 ⃗⃗| sin(180 − 𝜃𝒄⃗⃗𝒂⃗⃗ )
⃗⃗||𝒂
2 ⃗
𝒂⃗𝒃 2 𝒃𝒄⃗⃗ 2

Use sin(180 − 𝜃) = sin 𝜃:

1 1 1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 Δ𝐴 = |𝒂 ⃗⃗| sin 𝜃 ⃗⃗ = |𝒃
⃗⃗||𝒃 ⃗⃗||𝒄
⃗⃗| sin 𝜃⃗𝒃⃗⃗𝒄⃗ = |𝒄 ⃗⃗||𝒂⃗⃗| sin 𝜃⃗𝒄⃗𝒂⃗⃗ 𝑀
2 ⃗
𝒂⃗𝒃 2 2
Multiply throughout by 2:
2 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 Δ𝐴 = |𝒂 ⃗⃗| sin 𝜃 ⃗⃗ = |𝒃
⃗⃗||𝒃 ⃗⃗||𝒄
⃗⃗| sin 𝜃⃗𝒃⃗𝒄⃗⃗ = |𝒄⃗⃗||𝒂⃗⃗| sin 𝜃𝒄⃗⃗𝒂⃗⃗ 𝑀
⃗⃗𝒃
𝒂
And now we can make the substitution to get:
2 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 Δ𝐴 = |𝒂 ⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗| = |𝒃 ⃗⃗ × 𝒄
⃗⃗| = |𝒄 ⃗⃗ × 𝒂 ⃗⃗|

The proof is correct when the vectors form the sides of a triangle. We need to consider the cases when the
vectors do not form a triangle.

The vectors will not form a triangle if:

➢ One or more of the vectors is zero
➢ The vectors are collinear

Collinear, but non-zero Vectors

We consider sub-cases.
Exactly One Vector is Collinear: Collinearity requires two vectors. So, this is not a meaningful case.
If at least two Vectors are Collinear:
If two vectors are collinear, then ⃗𝒃⃗ = 𝜆𝒂⃗⃗ for some scalar 𝜆.
⃗⃗
⃗⃗ + 𝒃 + 𝒄
Substitute this in 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 0:
1
⃗⃗ + 𝜆𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒄⃗⃗ = 0 ⇒ 𝒂 ⃗⃗(1 + 𝜆) = −𝒄 ⃗⃗ ⇒ 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = − ⃗⃗
𝒄
1+𝜆
Hence, we conclude that all three vectors are collinear. The cross product of collinear vectors is zero. Hence:
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗| = |𝒃
|𝒂 ⃗⃗ × 𝒄⃗⃗| = |𝒄
⃗⃗ × 𝒂 ⃗⃗| = 0
Zero Vectors
We consider sub-cases:
A single vector is zero
⃗⃗ + 𝒃
𝒂 ⃗⃗ + 𝒄
⃗⃗ = 0 ⇒ 𝒃 ⃗⃗ = −𝒄 ⃗⃗
The other vectors must be collinear for their sum to be zero. Hence:
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗| = |𝒃
|𝒂 ⃗⃗ × 𝒄⃗⃗| = |𝒄
⃗⃗ × 𝒂 ⃗⃗| = 0
At least two vectors are zero
⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗ + 𝒄
𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 0 ⇒ 𝒄 ⃗⃗ = 0
If at least two vectors are zero, the third vector must be zero for their sum to be zero. And the cross product of a
zero vector is zero:
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗| = |𝒃
|𝒂 ⃗⃗ × 𝒄⃗⃗| = |𝒄
⃗⃗ × 𝒂 ⃗⃗| = 0

1.12 Cross Product-II: Component Definition

A. Component Definition
The component definition of the cross product is useful when the input vectors are available in component
form. This definition is in terms of determinants.5

5 You can look up determinants in the note on Determinants and Matrices.

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1.342: Component Definition

̂ and 𝒃
⃗⃗ = 𝑎1 𝒊̂ + 𝑎2 𝒋̂ + 𝑎3 𝒌
If 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 𝑏1 𝒊̂ + 𝑏2 𝒋̂ + 𝑏3 𝒌
̂ then their cross product is:
𝒊̂ 𝒋̂ ̂
𝒌
⃗⃗
⃗⃗ × 𝒃 = |𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 |
𝒂
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3

Expanding the determinant along the first column gives us:

𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎2
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗ = |𝑏 𝑏 | 𝒊̂ − |𝑏 𝑏 | 𝒋̂ + |𝑏 𝑏 | 𝒌
𝒂 ̂
2 3 1 3 1 2
Expanding each determinant gives us:
̂
= (𝑎2 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏2 )𝒊̂ − (𝑎1 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏1 )𝒋̂ + (𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 )𝒌

Example 1.343
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗ if 𝒂
A. Find 𝒂 ̂ and ⃗𝒃⃗ = 3𝒊̂ + 5𝒋̂ − 2𝒌
⃗⃗ = 2𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ + 3𝒌 ̂ (CBSE 2019)
B. Find 𝜆 and 𝜇 if (𝒊̂ + 3𝒋̂ + 9𝒌 ̂) × (3𝒊̂ − 𝜆𝒋̂ + 𝜇𝒌̂) = ⃗𝟎⃗. (CBSE 2016)
C. In Part B, you would have found three equations in two variables. You can find the solution to both the
variables from two equations. Is the step where we check in the third equation useful?

Part A
𝒊̂ 𝒋̂ 𝒌̂
Using the definition, we get 𝒂⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗ = |2 1 3|
3 5 −2
1 3 2 3 2 1 ̂ ̂ = −17𝒊̂ + 13𝒋̂ + 7𝒌
̂
=| | 𝒊̂ − | | 𝒋̂ + | | 𝒌 = (−2 − 15)𝒊̂ − (−4 − 9)𝒋̂ + (10 − 3)𝒌
5 −2 3 −2 3 5
Part B
𝒊̂ 𝒋̂ ̂
𝒌
Expanding the determinant definition of the cross product |1 3 9 | = 𝟎 ⃗⃗:
3 −𝜆 𝜇
̂ = 𝟎𝒊̂ + 0𝒋̂ + 0𝒌
(3𝜇 + 9𝜆)𝒊̂ − (𝜇 − 27)𝒋̂ + (−𝜆 − 9)𝒌 ̂
Comparing coefficients on both sides:
𝜇 27
𝜇 − 27 = 0 ⇒ 𝜇 = 27 ,
⏟ 3𝜇 + 9𝜆 = 0 ⇒ 𝜆 = − = − = −9
⏟ 3 3
𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒋̂
𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒊̂
Check in the third equation:
̂: −𝜆 − 9 = 0 ⇒ 𝜆 = −9
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝒌
Part C
We have two variables and three equations, which means the system is overdetermined. If the values of 𝜇 and 𝜆
that we find from the first two equations do not satisfy the third equation, then
➢ The system of equations is inconsistent
➢ Hence, it has no solutions
➢ Hence, there would be no values of 𝜇 and 𝜆 to be found.
Therefore, it is useful/important to check the third equation.

1.344: Cross product of vectors in the 𝒙𝒚 plane

⃗⃗ = 𝑎1 𝒊̂ + 𝑎2 𝒋̂ and ⃗𝒃⃗ = 𝑏1 𝒊̂ + 𝑏2 𝒋̂ then their cross product is:
If 𝒂
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗ = (𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 )𝒌
𝒂 ̂

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𝒊̂ 𝒋̂ ̂
𝒌 𝒊̂ 𝒋̂ ̂
𝒌
⃗⃗ = |𝑎1
⃗⃗ × 𝒃
𝒂 𝑎2 𝑎3 | = |𝑎1 𝑎2 0|
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 𝑏1 𝑏2 0
The determinant is:
̂
= (𝑎2 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏2 )𝒊̂ − (𝑎1 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 𝑏1 )𝒋̂ + (𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 )𝒌

But since 𝑎3 = 𝑏3 = 0, the first two terms become zero:

̂
= (𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 )𝒌

1.345: Cross product of vectors in a plane

The cross product of two vectors in a plane is perpendicular to the plane.

B. Angle Between Vectors

1.346: Angle Between Vectors

⃗⃗ × 𝒃
|𝒂 ⃗⃗|
sin 𝜃 =
|𝒂 ⃗⃗|
⃗⃗||𝒃

➢ Rearranging the definition of the cross product gives us the property above.

Example 1.347
A. If |𝒂 ⃗⃗| = 7 and 𝒂
⃗⃗| = 2, |𝒃 ⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗ = 3𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ + 6𝒌
̂, find the angle between 𝒂 ⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗. (CBSE 2019)
B. If 𝜃 is the angle between two vectors 𝒊̂ − 2𝒋̂ + 3𝒌 ̂ and 3𝒊̂ − 2𝒋̂ + 𝒌
̂, find sin 𝜃. (CBSE 2018)

Part A
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗| √32 + 22 + 62
|𝒂 √49 7 1 1 𝜋
sin 𝜃 = = = = = ⇒ 𝜃 = sin−1 =
|𝒂 ⃗⃗|
⃗⃗||𝒃 2×7 2×7 2×7 2 2 6
Part B
The cross product of the two vectors is:
𝒊̂ 𝒋̂ 𝒌 ̂
|1 −2 3| = (−2 + 6)𝒊̂ − (1 − 9)𝒋̂ + (−2 + 6)𝒌 ̂ = 4𝒊̂ + 8𝒋̂ + 4𝒌
̂ = 𝟒(𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ + 1𝒌
̂)
3 −2 1
Rearranging the definition of the cross product to solve for sin 𝜃:
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗|
|𝒂 4√12 + 22 + 12 4√6 4√6 2√6
sin 𝜃 = = = = =
|𝒂 ⃗⃗|
⃗⃗||𝒃 √12 + (−2)2 + 32 √32 + (−2)2 + 12 √14√14 14 7

C. Finding Perpendicular Vectors

Given two vectors on a plane, the vectors perpendicular to them can go “up” or “down” respective to the plane. It
is logical that the cross product be used to find these vectors since the output of the cross product is
perpendicular to its two input vectors.
➢ If the length of the vector is determined then we can find two such vectors. For example, the vector may
be a unit vector.
➢ Other conditions can be imposed to uniquely determine the vector. For example, by giving the dot
product of the vector with a third vector.

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1.348: Unit Perpendicular Vector

The unit vector perpendicular to two vectors is given by:
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗
𝒂
̂=±
𝒏
⃗⃗ × 𝒃
|𝒂 ⃗⃗|

Example 1.349
⃗⃗ = 𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ + 𝒌
If 𝒂 ̂, 𝒃 = 2𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ and 𝒄 = 3𝒊̂ − 4𝒋̂ − 5𝒌
̂, then find a unit vector perpendicular to both of the vectors
⃗⃗ − ⃗𝒃⃗) and (𝒄
(𝒂 ⃗⃗ − ⃗𝒃⃗) (CBSE 2015)

⃗⃗ − ⃗𝒃⃗ = 𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ + 𝒌
𝒂 ̂ − (2𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂) = −𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ + 𝒌̂
⃗⃗ − ⃗𝒃⃗ = 3𝒊̂ − 4𝒋̂ − 5𝒌
𝒄 ̂ − (2𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂) = 𝒊̂ − 5𝒋̂ − 5𝒌̂

A vector perpendicular to the above two vectors is given by their cross product:
𝒊̂ 𝒋̂ ̂
𝒌
|−1 1 ̂ = −4𝒋̂ + 4𝒌
1 | = (−5 + 5)𝒊̂ − (5 − 1)𝒋̂ + (5 − 1)𝒌 ̂ = 4(−𝒋̂ + 𝒌
̂)
1 −5 −5

Convert the above vector into a unit vector by dividing it by its magnitude:
̂)
4(−𝒋̂ + 𝒌 ̂
−𝒋̂ + 𝒌 √2 √2 ̂
= =− 𝒋̂ + 𝒌
2
4√(−1) + 1 2 √𝟐 2 2

The question asks for only one vector, but we can find one more vector by taking the negative:
√2 √2 ̂
𝒋̂ − 𝒌
2 2
D. Collinearity

Example 1.350
̂ and 𝒃
⃗⃗ = 𝛼𝒊̂ + 3𝒋̂ − 6𝒌
If 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 2𝒊̂ − 𝒋̂ + 𝛽𝒌
̂, then the values of 𝛼, 𝛽 so that 𝒂 ⃗⃗ may be collinear are: (AP
⃗⃗ and 𝒃
EAPCET, 17 Sep 2020, Shift-I)

Method I: Determinant Condition

𝒊̂ 𝒋̂ ̂
𝒌
⃗⃗
⃗⃗ × 𝒃 = |𝛼 3 −6| = (3𝛽 − 6)𝒊̂ − (𝛼𝛽 + 12)𝒋̂ + (−𝛼 − 6)𝒌
𝒂 ̂=𝟎
2 −1 𝛽
Compare coefficients on both sides:
3𝛽 − 6 = 0 ⇒ 𝛽 = 2, −𝛼 − 6 = 0 ⇒ 𝛼 = −6
Substitute the above into the third equation and check that it works:
𝛼𝛽 + 12 = (2)(−6) + 12 = 0 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡
Method II: Scalar Multiple Condition
Recall that two vectors are collinear 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 one is a scalar multiple of the other.
Compare the 𝒋̂ coefficients on both that 𝒂 ⃗⃗ tells us that
⃗⃗ and 𝒃
3 = (−3)(−1) ⇒ 𝒂 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = (−3)𝒃
Hence:
−6
𝛼 = (−3)2 = −6, 𝛽= =2
−3

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E. Dot Product

1.351: Dot Product

Recall from the previous section that the dot product of two vectors (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) is:
(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) ∙ (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) = 𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 𝑦2 + 𝑧1 𝑧2

Example 1.352
A. Let 𝒂⃗⃗ = 4𝒊̂ + 5𝒋̂ − 𝒌 ̂, 𝒃
⃗⃗ = 𝒊̂ − 4𝒋̂ + 5𝒌
̂ and 𝒄 ̂. Find a vector 𝒅
⃗⃗ = 3𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ − 𝒌 ⃗⃗ which is perpendicular to both
⃗⃗ and 𝒃
𝒄 ⃗⃗ and 𝒅⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗ = 21. (CBSE 2019)
B. If 𝒂 ̂, 𝒃
⃗⃗ = 𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ + 𝒌 ⃗⃗ = 𝒋̂ − 𝒌
̂ then, find a vector 𝒄⃗⃗ such that 𝒂⃗⃗ × 𝒄 ⃗⃗ and 𝒂
⃗⃗ = 𝒃 ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒄
⃗⃗ = 3. (CBSE 2008, 2013)

Part A
⃗⃗ is perpendicular to both 𝒄
⃗⃗ × 𝒃
𝒄 ⃗⃗. Hence, 𝒅
⃗⃗ and 𝒃 ⃗⃗ must be a scalar multiple of the cross product of 𝒄⃗⃗ and 𝒃⃗⃗.
𝒊̂ 𝒋̂ ̂
𝒌
⃗𝒅⃗ = 𝜆(𝒄
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗) = 𝜆 |3 1 −1| = 𝜆[(5 − 4)𝒊̂ − (15 + 1)𝒋̂ + (−12 − 1)𝒌 ̂] = 𝜆(𝒊̂ − 16𝒋̂ − 13𝒌 ̂)
1 −4 5

Substitute ⃗𝒅⃗ = 𝜆(𝒊̂ − 16𝒋̂ − 13𝒌

̂), and 𝒂 ̂ into ⃗𝒅⃗ ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗ = 4𝒊̂ + 5𝒋̂ − 𝒌 ⃗⃗ = 21:
21 1
̂) ∙ (4𝒊̂ + 5𝒋̂ − 𝒌
𝜆(𝒊̂ − 16𝒋̂ − 13𝒌 ̂) = 21 ⇒ 𝜆(4 − 80 + 13) = 21 ⇒ 𝜆 = − =−
63 3
Substitute the value of 𝜆 into 𝒅⃗⃗ = 𝜆(𝒊̂ − 16𝒋̂ − 13𝒌 ̂):
1
⃗𝒅⃗ = − (𝒊̂ − 16𝒋̂ − 13𝒌 ̂)
3
Part B
Cross Product Condition
𝒊̂ 𝒋̂ 𝒌̂
⃗⃗ = 𝑥𝒊̂ + 𝑦𝒋̂ + 𝑧𝒌
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝒄 ̂ ⇒ (𝒂
⃗⃗ × 𝒄 ̂ = 𝒋̂ − 𝒌
⃗⃗) = |1 1 1| = (𝑧 − 𝑦)𝒊̂ − (𝑧 − 𝑥)𝒋̂ + (𝑦 − 𝑥)𝒌 ̂=𝒃
⃗⃗
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
Compare coefficients on both sides:
𝑧−𝑦 = 0 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑦,
⏟ 𝑥−𝑧 =1
⏟ , 𝑦 − 𝑥 = −1
⏟
𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒊̂, 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒋̂, 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰 ̂, 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰𝑰
𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒌
Dot Product Condition
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒄
Substitute values in 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = 3 to get:
̂) ∙ (𝑥𝒊̂ + 𝑦𝒋̂ + 𝑧𝒌
(𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ + 𝒌 ̂) = 3 ⇒ ⏟
𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 =3
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑽
Combining the Conditions
Subtract Equation I from Equation IV to get Equation V, and then add Equations III and V to get Equation VI:
2
𝑥
⏟+ 2𝑦 = 3 ⇒ 3𝑦 ⏟ =2 ⇒𝑧=𝑦=
3
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑽 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑽𝑰
Substitute the value of 𝑦 and 𝑧 in Equations II and III and note that both give the same answer:
2 5 2 5
𝑥 = 1+𝑧 = 1+ = , 𝑥 = 1+𝑦 = 1+ =
⏟ 3 3 ⏟ 3 3
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰𝑰

5 2 2
̂ = 𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ + 𝒌
⃗⃗ = 𝑥𝒊̂ + 𝑦𝒋̂ + 𝑧𝒌
𝒄 ̂
3 3 3

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F. Area of Parallelogram

1.353: Area of Parallelogram

⃗⃗ for its sides is:
⃗⃗ and 𝒃
The area of a parallelogram with 𝒂
⃗⃗|
⃗⃗ × 𝒃
|𝒂

Draw parallelogram 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷. Let

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = |𝒂
|𝑨𝑫 ⃗⃗| = 𝑠1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = |𝒃
⃗⃗| = 𝑠2 , |𝑫𝑪
Draw the height from vertex 𝐴 ⊥ 𝐷𝐶.
In Right Triangle Δ𝐴𝐷𝑃:
ℎ
sin ∠𝐷 = ⇒ ℎ = sin ∠𝐷 × 𝑠2
𝑠2
Area of Parallelogram
= ℎ𝑏 = (sin ∠𝐷 × 𝑠2 ) × 𝑠1 = 𝑠1 𝑠2 sin ∠𝐷 = |𝒂 ⃗⃗| sin ∠𝐷 = |𝒂
⃗⃗||𝒃 ⃗⃗|
⃗⃗ × 𝒃

Example 1.354
̂ and 4𝒋̂ + 2𝒌
Find the area of a parallelogram whose adjacent sides are represented by the vectors 2𝒊̂ − 3𝒌 ̂.
(CBSE 2019)

The cross product of the two vectors is:

𝒊̂ 𝒋̂ 𝒌̂
̂ = 12𝒊̂ − 4𝒋̂ + 8𝒌
|2 0 −3| = (0 + 12)𝒊̂ − (4 + 0)𝒋̂ + (8 − 0)𝒌 ̂
0 4 2
And the magnitude of the cross product is:
√122 + (−4)2 + 82 = √144 + 16 + 64 = √224 = 4√14 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 2

1.355: Area of Parallelogram using Diagonals

The area of a triangle with ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝟏 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝟐 for its sides is:
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝒅 𝒅𝟐 |
2 𝟏

Example 1.356
̂ and 2𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ + 3𝒌
57: The two adjacent sides of a parallelogram are 2𝒊̂ − 4𝒋̂ − 5𝒌 ̂. Find the area of the
parallelogram using its diagonal vectors. (CBSE 2016)

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑪 = 𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑫 = 4𝒊̂ − 2𝒋̂ − 2𝒌 ̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝑫 𝑨𝑫 − 𝑨𝑩 ̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 6𝒋̂ + 8𝒌
The cross product of the two vectors above is:
𝒊̂ 𝒋̂ ̂
𝒌
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑪 × 𝑩𝑫 = |4 −2 −2| = (−16 + 12)𝒊̂ − (32 + 0)𝒋̂ + (24 − 0)𝒌 ̂ = 4(−𝒊̂ − 8𝒋̂ + 6𝒌
̂)
0 6 8

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And the area of the parallelogram is half the magnitude of the cross product of the vectors:
1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑩𝑫
|𝑨𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| = × 4√(−1)2 + (−8)2 + 62 = 2√101 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 2
2 2
G. Area of Triangle

1.357: Area of Triangle

⃗⃗ for its sides is:
⃗⃗ and 𝒃
The area of a triangle with 𝒂
1
⃗⃗|
⃗⃗ × 𝒃
|𝒂
2

➢ Diagonal of a parallelogram divides it into two congruent triangles

➢ We want half of the area of the parallelogram.

Example 1.358
1
Two lines with slopes 2 and 2 intersect at (2,2). What is the area of the triangle enclosed by these two lines and
the line 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 10? (AMC 10A 2019/7)

Find the equations of the lines

Use the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line (𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐) to find the equations of the two lines.
Substitute
(𝑥, 𝑦) = (2,2), 𝑚 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 2 ⇒ 2 = 2𝑥 + 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑐 = −2
1 2
(𝑥, 𝑦) = (2,2), 𝑚 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = ⇒ 2 = + 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑐 = 1
2 2
Hence, the lines are:
𝑥
𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 2, 𝑦 = + 1, 𝑦 = −𝑥 + 10
2
Find the intersections
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: (𝑥, 𝑦) = (2,2)
2𝑥 − 2 = −𝑥 + 10 ⇒ 3𝑥 = 12 ⇒ 𝑥 = 4 ⇒ 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 2 = 6 ⇒ (𝑥, 𝑦) = (4,6)
𝑥 3 𝑥
+ 1 = −𝑥 + 10 ⇒ 𝑥 = 9 ⇒ 𝑥 = 6 ⇒ 𝑦 = + 1 = 4 ⇒ (𝑥, 𝑦) = (6,4)
2 2 2
Find the vectors
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (4 − 2,6 − 2) = (2,4,0)
𝑨𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (6 − 2,4 − 2) = (4,2,0)
𝑨𝑪
Find the cross product
The cross product is given by the expression below. Since row 2 and row 3 have zeroes in the last column, the
𝒊̂ 𝒋̂ 𝒌 ̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑩 × 𝑨𝑪 = |2 4 0 | = (−16 + 12)𝒊̂ − (32 + 0)𝒋̂ + (24 − 0)𝒌 ̂ = 4(−𝒊̂ − 8𝒋̂ + 6𝒌
̂)
4 2 0

H. Torque

1.359: Torque

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Example 1.360

1.13 Cross Product Revision

A. Revision

Example 1.361
44: Let 𝒂 = 𝒊̂ + 5𝒋̂ + 𝛼𝒌̂, 𝒃 = 𝒊̂ + 3𝒋̂ + 𝛽𝒌
̂ and 𝒄 = −𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ − 3𝒌
̂ be three vectors such that |𝒃
⃗⃗ × 𝒄
⃗⃗| = 5√3 and 𝒂
⃗⃗
⃗⃗
is perpendicular to 𝒃. Then, the greatest among the values of |𝒂 2
⃗⃗| is (JEE 2021, 27 Aug, Shift-I)

⃗⃗, we must have:

⃗⃗ ⊥ 𝒃
Since 𝒂
⃗⃗ = 0
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃
𝒂
(1,5, 𝛼) ∙ (1,3, 𝛽) = 0
1 + 15 + 𝛼𝛽 = 0
𝛼𝛽 = −16

𝒊̂ 𝒋̂ ̂
𝒌
⃗𝒃⃗ × 𝒄
⃗⃗ = | 1 3 ̂ (2 + 3) = 𝒊̂(−1)(9 + 2𝛽) + 𝒋̂(3 − 𝛽) + 5𝒌
𝛽 | = 𝒊̂(−9 − 2𝛽) − 𝒋̂(−3 + 𝛽) + 𝒌 ̂
−1 2 −3

⃗⃗ × 𝒄
|𝒃 ⃗⃗| = 5√3
√(9 + 2𝛽) + (3 − 𝛽)2 + 52 = 5√3
2

Square both sides:

81 + 36𝛽 + 4𝛽 2 + 9 − 6𝛽 + 𝛽 2 + 25 = 75
5𝛽 2 + 30𝛽 + 40 = 0
𝛽 2 + 6𝛽 + 8 = 0
(𝛽 + 4)(𝛽 + 2) = 0
𝛽 = {−2, −4}
16 −16 −16
𝛼=− ⇒𝛼={ , } = {4,8}
𝛽 −4 −2

⃗⃗|2 = |(1,5, 𝛼)|2 = 1 + 52 + 𝛼 2 = 1 + 25 + 64 = 90

|𝒂

Example 1.362
⃗⃗ = 2𝒊̂ + 3𝒋̂ + 𝒌
46: Let 𝒑 ̂ and 𝒒
⃗⃗ = 𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ + 𝒌̂ be two vectors. If a vector 𝒓 ̂ is perpendicular to each
⃗⃗ = 𝛼𝒊̂ + 𝛽𝒋̂ + 𝛾𝒌
of the vectors (𝒑⃗⃗ + 𝒒
⃗⃗) and (𝒑
⃗⃗ − 𝒒
⃗⃗) and |𝒓⃗⃗| = √3, then |𝛼| + |𝛽| + |𝛾| is equal to: (JEE Main 2021, 25 July, Shift-I)

⃗⃗ ∙ (𝒑
𝒓 ⃗⃗ + 𝒒
⃗⃗) = 0
(𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾) ∙ (2 + 1,3 + 2,1 + 1) = 0
(𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾) ∙ (3,5,2) = 0
3𝛼 + 5𝛽 + 2𝛾 = 0
⏟
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰

⃗⃗ ∙ (𝒑
𝒓 ⃗⃗ − 𝒒
⃗⃗) = 0
(𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾) ∙ (2 − 1,3 − 2,1 − 1) = 0
(𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾) ∙ (1,1,0) = 0
𝛼+𝛽 =0

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𝛼 = −𝛽
⏟
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰

3(−𝛽) + 5𝛽 + 2𝛾 = 0
2𝛽 + 2𝛾 = 0
𝛾 = −𝛽

|𝒓
⃗⃗| = √3
√𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 + 𝛾 2 = √3
𝛼 2 + 𝛽2 + 𝛾 2 = 3
(−𝛽)2 + 𝛽 2 + (−𝛽)2 = 3
3𝛽 2 = 3
𝛽2 = 1

𝛼 2 = 𝛽2 = 𝛾 2 = 1
|𝛼| + |𝛽| + |𝛾| = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3

Example 1.363
⃗⃗| = 5 and |𝒂
⃗⃗| = 2,|𝒃
47: If |𝒂 ⃗⃗| = 8, then |𝒂
⃗⃗ × 𝒃 ⃗⃗| is equal to: (JEE Main 2021, 25 July, Shift-II)
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒃

⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗| = 8
|𝒂
|𝒂 ⃗⃗| sin 𝜃 = ±8
⃗⃗||𝒃
(2)(5) sin 𝜃 = ±8
8 4
sin 𝜃 = ± =±
10 5
3
cos 𝜃 = ±
5
3
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗ = |𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = (2)(5) (± ) = ±6
⃗⃗||𝒃
5

⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒃⃗| = 6
|𝒂

Example 1.364
⃗⃗ and ⃗𝒃⃗ be two non-zero vectors perpendicular to each other, and |𝒂
48: Let 𝒂 ⃗⃗|. If |𝒂
⃗⃗| = |𝒃 ⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗| = |𝒂
⃗⃗|, then the
angle between (𝒂 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ + 𝒃 + 𝒂 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ × 𝒃) and 𝒂
⃗⃗ is equal to: (JEE Main 2021, 18 March, Shift-II)

|𝒂⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗| = |𝒂
⃗⃗|
|𝒂 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗||𝒃| sin 𝜃 = |𝒂 ⃗⃗|
⃗⃗
|𝒃| sin 90° = 1
⃗⃗| = 1
|𝒃
|𝒂
⃗⃗| = |𝒃⃗⃗| = 1

Without loss of generality, let:

⃗⃗ = 𝒊̂,
𝒂 ⃗𝒃⃗ = 𝒋̂

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⃗⃗ = 𝒂
𝒙 ⃗⃗ + 𝒂
⃗⃗ + 𝒃 ⃗⃗ = 𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ + 𝒊̂ × 𝒋̂ = 𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ + 𝒌
⃗⃗ × 𝒃 ̂
⃗⃗| = √12 + 12 + 12 = √3
|𝒙

𝒙 ⃗⃗ = |𝒙
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂 ⃗⃗||𝒂
⃗⃗| cos 𝜃 = √3 ∙ 1 ∙ cos 𝜃 = √3 cos 𝜃
̂) ∙ (𝒊̂) = √3 cos 𝜃
(𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ + 𝒌
1 = √3 cos 𝜃
1
cos 𝜃 =
√3
1
𝜃 = cos −1 ( )
√3

Example 1.365
Let 𝒂 ̂ and ⃗𝒃⃗ = 7𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ − 6𝒌
⃗⃗ = 2𝒊̂ − 3𝒋̂ + 4𝒌 ̂. If 𝒓
⃗⃗ × 𝒂 ⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗, 𝒓 ∙ (𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ + 𝒌
⃗⃗ = 𝒓 ̂) = −3, then 𝒓 ̂ ) is equal
⃗⃗ ∙ (2𝒊̂ − 3𝒋̂ + 𝒌
to: (JEE Main 2021, 17 March, Shift-I)

⃗⃗ × 𝒂
𝒓 ⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗
⃗⃗ = 𝒓
Collate all terms on the LHS:
⃗⃗ × 𝒂
𝒓 ⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗ = 0
⃗⃗ − 𝒓
Use the distributive property

⃗⃗ − ⃗𝒃⃗) = 0
⃗⃗ × (𝒂
𝒓

The cross product of two vectors is zero when they are parallel. Hence:
⃗⃗ − ⃗𝒃⃗) = 𝜆(−5, −4,10)
⃗⃗ = 𝜆(𝒂
𝒓

𝒓 ∙ (1,2,1) = −3
𝜆(−5, −4,10) ∙ (1,2,1) = −3
𝜆(−5 − 8 + 10) = −3
𝜆(−3) = −3
𝜆=1
⃗⃗ = (−5, −4,10)
𝒓

̂ ) = (−5, −4,10) ∙ (2, −3,1) = −10 + 12 + 10 = 12

⃗⃗ ∙ (2𝒊̂ − 3𝒋̂ + 𝒌
𝒓

Example 1.366
̂ and ⃗𝒃⃗ = 2𝒊̂ − 3𝒋̂ + 5𝒌
⃗⃗ = 𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ − 3𝒌
Let 𝒂 ̂. If 𝒓 ⃗⃗ = ⃗𝒃⃗ × 𝒓
⃗⃗ × 𝒂 ̂) = 3 and 𝒓
⃗⃗, 𝒓 ∙ (𝛼𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ + 𝒌 ̂) = −1,
⃗⃗ ∙ (2𝒊̂ + 5𝒋̂ − 𝛼𝒌
2
𝛼 ∈ ℝ, then the value of 𝛼 + |𝒓 ⃗⃗| is equal to: (JEE Main 2021, 16 March, Shift-II)

𝒓 ⃗⃗ = ⃗𝒃⃗ × 𝒓
⃗⃗ × 𝒂 ⃗⃗
Use the anti-commutative property
⃗⃗ × 𝒂
𝒓 ⃗⃗ = −(𝒓 ⃗⃗ × 𝒃⃗⃗)
⃗⃗ × 𝒂
𝒓 ⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗ = 0
⃗⃗ + 𝒓
Use the distributive property:
⃗⃗ × (𝒂
𝒓 ⃗⃗) = 0
⃗⃗ + 𝒃

⃗⃗ + ⃗𝒃⃗) = 𝜆(3, −1,2)

⃗⃗ = 𝜆(𝒂
𝒓

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̂) = 3
𝒓 ∙ (𝛼𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ + 𝒌
𝜆(3, −1,2) ∙ (𝛼, 2,1) = 3
𝜆(3𝛼 − 2 + 2) = 3
𝛼𝜆 = 1

𝜆(3, −1,2) ∙ (2,5, −𝛼) = −1

𝜆(6 − 5 − 2𝛼) = −1
𝜆 − 2𝛼𝜆 = −1
𝜆 − 2 = −1
𝜆 − 2 = −1
𝜆=1
𝛼=1

⃗⃗|𝟐 = 32 + 12 + 22 = 9 + 1 + 4 = 14
|𝒓
⃗⃗|2 = 1 + 14 = 15
𝛼 + |𝒓

1.14 Triple Products

A. Triple Products

Example 1.367
List the eight possible triple products
Explain which ones which are defined and which ones are not

B. Scalar Triple Product

1.368: Component Definition

̂ and ⃗𝒃⃗ = 𝑏1 𝒊̂ + 𝑏2 𝒋̂ + 𝑏3 𝒌
⃗⃗ = 𝑎1 𝒊̂ + 𝑎2 𝒋̂ + 𝑎3 𝒌
If 𝒂 ̂ then their cross product is:
𝒊̂ 𝒋̂ ̂
𝒌
⃗⃗
⃗⃗ × 𝒃 = |𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 |
𝒂
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3

Expanding the determinant along the first column gives us:

𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎2
⃗⃗ × ⃗𝒃⃗ = |𝑏 𝑏 | 𝒊̂ − |𝑏 𝑏 | 𝒋̂ + |𝑏
𝒂 ̂
𝑏2 | 𝒌
2 3 1 3 1

1.369: Scalar Triple Product

̂
⃗⃗ = 𝑐1 𝒊̂ + 𝑐2 𝒋̂ + 𝑐3 𝒌
If 𝒄
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
⃗⃗ ∙ (𝒂
𝒄 ⃗⃗ 𝑎
⃗⃗ × 𝒃) = | 1 𝑎2 𝑎3 |
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3

𝑎 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎2
̂ ) ∙ (| 2
(𝑐1 𝒊̂ + 𝑐2 𝒋̂ + 𝑐3 𝒌 ̂
𝑏2 𝑏3 | 𝒊̂ − |𝑏1 𝑏3 | 𝒋̂ + |𝑏1 𝑏2 | 𝒌)
𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎2
= |𝑏 𝑏 | 𝑐1 − |𝑏 𝑏 | 𝑐2 + |𝑏 𝑏 | 𝑐3
2 3 1 3 1 2

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𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
𝑎
=| 1 𝑎2 𝑎3 |
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3
C. Vector Triple Product

1.370: Vector Triple Product

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2. 3D LINES AND PLANES

2.1 Vector Equation of a Line
A. Vector Form
There are many shapes in 3D Geometry. We look at one of the simplest(lines), first in Vector form, and then
Cartesian Form.

2.1: Point-Vector Form

Given a point 𝑃 with position vector 𝒂⃗⃗ whose terminal point lies on a line, and a vector ⃗𝒃⃗ parallel to the line, the
vector form of the equation of the line is:
⃗⃗ = 𝒂
𝒓 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ + 𝜆𝒃

⃗⃗.
Consider an arbitrary point 𝑄 on the line with position vector 𝒓
⃗⃗
Since 𝒃 is parallel to the line:
𝑷𝑸 ∥ ⃗𝒃⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
The two vectors above have the same direction. Hence, one must be a
scalar multiple of the other:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑷𝑸 = 𝜆𝒃 ⃗⃗
Write ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑷𝑸 as a displacement vector:
⃗⃗ − 𝒂
𝒓 ⃗⃗ = 𝜆𝒃 ⃗⃗
Solve for 𝒓 ⃗⃗:
⃗⃗ = 𝒂
𝒓 ⃗⃗ + 𝜆𝒃⃗⃗

2.2: The parameter 𝝀

𝜆 is a parameter that can take different values depending on the length of the parallel vector.

➢ As we will see later, on the applications of the vector equation is to take time as a parameter. For
example, in moving objects (or Kinematics).

Example 2.3
A. Find the vector equation of a line which passes through the point (3,4,5) and is parallel to the vector
̂. (CBSE 2019)
2𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ − 3𝒌
B. Write the equation of the straight line through the point (𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾) and parallel to the 𝑧 −axis. (CBSE
2014)

Part A
Substitute 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = (2,2, −3) in 𝒓
⃗⃗ = (3,4,5), 𝒃 ⃗⃗ = 𝒂
⃗⃗ + 𝜆𝒃 ⃗⃗:
⃗⃗ = (3,4,5) + 𝜆(2,2, −3)
𝒓
Part B
Substitute 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = (0,0,1) in 𝒓
⃗⃗ = (𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾), 𝒃 ⃗⃗ = 𝒂⃗⃗ + 𝜆𝒃⃗⃗:
⃗⃗ = (𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾) + 𝜆(0,0,1)
𝒓

2.4: Two Point Form

The two-point form of the vector equation of a line is:
⃗⃗ = 𝒂
𝒓 ⃗⃗ + 𝜆(𝒄
⃗⃗ − 𝒂
⃗⃗)
⃗⃗ and 𝒂
Where 𝒄 ⃗⃗ are position vectors of points on the line

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Example 2.5
The points 𝐴(4,5,10), 𝐵(2,3,4) and 𝐶(1,2, −1) are three vertices of parallelogram 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷. Find the vector
equations of sides 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐵𝐶 and find coordinates of point 𝐷. (CBSE 2010)

Let O be the origin.

⃗⃗ = 𝒂
Substitute in 𝒓 ⃗⃗ + 𝜆(𝒃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝟏 − 𝒂
⃗⃗):
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (4,5,10) + 𝜆[(2,3,4) − (4,5,10)] = (4,5,10) + 𝜆(−2, −2, −6)
𝑨𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (2,3,4) + 𝜆[(1,2, −1) − (2,3,4)] = (2,3,4) + 𝜆(−1, −1, −5)
𝑩𝑪

2.6: Non-uniqueness of the Vector Form of the Equation of a Line

The vector form of the equation of a line is not unique.

Example 2.7
Show from the previous example that
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (4,5,10) + 𝜆1 (1,1,3)
𝑨𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (2,3,4) + 𝜆1 (1,1,5)
𝑩𝑪

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (4,5,10) + 𝜆(−2, −2, −6) = (4,5,10) − 2𝜆(1,1,3) = (4,5,10) + 𝜆1 (1,1,3)

𝑨𝑩
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩𝑪 = (2,3,4) − 𝜆(1,1,5) = (2,3,4) + 𝜆1 (1,1,5)

Example 2.8
Find the equation of:
A. the 𝑧 axis.
B. the 𝑦 axis.
C. the 𝑥 axis.
D. a line parallel to the z axis, and passing through the point (1,2,3).

Part A
The 𝑧 axis includes the origin. Hence, (0,0,0) is a point on the line.
The unit vector 𝒌̂ is parallel to the z axis.
Hence, the equation of the 𝑧 axis is:
⃗⃗ = (0,0,0) + 𝜆(0,0,1) = 𝜆𝒌
𝒓 ̂
Parts B and C
The equations of the other axes are:
⃗⃗ = (0,0,0) + 𝜆(0,1,0) = 𝜆𝒋̂
𝒓
⃗⃗ = (0,0,0) + 𝜆(1,0,0) = 𝜆𝒊̂
𝒓
Part B
(1,2,0) is a point on the line. The unit vector 𝒌 ̂ is parallel to the z axis. The equation of the line is:
⃗⃗ = (1,2,0) + 𝜆(0,0,1) = 𝜆𝒌
𝒓 ̂

In the above example, the equations that have been found are:
⃗⃗ = 𝜆𝒌
𝒓 ̂, ⃗⃗ = 𝜆𝒋̂,
𝒓 ⃗⃗ = 𝜆𝒊̂
𝒓
Is it a good idea to use the same variable (𝒓⃗⃗) for all three equations, or should we have written something like
⃗⃗ = 𝜆𝒌
𝒂 ̂, ⃗𝒃⃗ = 𝜆𝒋̂, ⃗⃗ = 𝜆𝒊̂
𝒄

When we write equations in 2D in Cartesian form, we do not use different variables. For example, two lines

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could be:
𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 3
1
𝑦 = 𝑥+4
2
And both of the equations use the variables 𝑥 and 𝑦. If we wanted to find the intersection of these lines, we
would note that the LHS of each equation is the same, and hence the RHS must also be the same.
1
2𝑥 + 3 = 𝑥 + 4
2

Find the point of intersection of the axes by solving the system of equations:
𝒓 ̂,
⃗⃗ = 𝜆𝒌 ⃗⃗ = 𝜆𝒋̂,
𝒓 ⃗⃗ = 𝜆𝒊̂
𝒓

We know that the point of intersection is the origin (0,0,0). We prove it by solving the system of equations
given.

Note that the LHS of each equation is the same, and hence the RHS must also be the same.
̂ = 𝜆𝒋̂ = 𝜆𝒊̂
𝜆𝒌

̂ is purely in the 𝑧 direction, and no scalar multiple of 𝒌

𝒌 ̂ will change its direction to that of 𝒋̂ (purely in the y
direction) or 𝒊̂ (purely in the y direction).

Hence, the only possible value of 𝜆 is a multiple that has no direction, which means:
𝜆 = 0 ⇒ 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (0,0,0)

Example 2.9: Finding a Point

⃗⃗ = (2,3,4) + 𝜆(1,1,5).
Find the point with 𝑥 coordinate 7 that lies on the line 𝒓

Carry out the scalar multiplication and add the vectors on the RHS of the given equation:
⃗⃗ = (2 + 𝜆, 3 + 𝜆, 4 + 5𝜆)
𝒓

The point that we want has coordinates (7, 𝑦, 𝑧). Equate the x coordinates:
2+𝜆 =7⇒𝜆 =5
Substitute the value of the parameter 𝜆 = 5 to find the value of the y and the z coordinates:
𝑦 =3+𝜆 =3+5=8
𝑧 = 4 + 5𝜆 = 4 + 5(5) = 29

Example 2.10: Checking for a Point

⃗𝒓⃗ = (0,2,3) + 𝜆(2,1, −5)
A. Explain why the point (1,2,3) does not lie on the above line.
B. Find a point that does lie on the above line by changing only one of the 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 coordinates.

Part A
Carry out the scalar multiplication and add the vectors on the RHS of the given equation:
⃗⃗ = (2𝜆, 2 + 2𝜆, 3 − 5𝜆)
𝒓
The point that we are investigating is (1,2,3). Equate the 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 coordinates:
1
2𝜆 = 1 ⇒ 𝜆 =
2
2 + 2𝜆 = 2 ⇒ 𝜆 = 0
3 − 5𝜆 = 3 ⇒ 𝜆 = 0

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Since the value of the parameter is not the same from all three equations, the point does not lie on the line.
Part B
From the y and z coordinates, we get 𝜆 = 0. Find the value of the x coordinate, when 𝜆 = 0:
𝑥 = 2𝜆 = 2(0) = 0
The point that we want is:
(0,2,3)
B. Direction Ratios

2.11: Direction Ratios (𝑫𝑹)

If I have the position vectors of two points on a line, then the equation of a line written in standard vector form
is
⃗𝒓⃗ = ⃗𝒂⃗ + 𝜆(𝒄
⃗⃗ − ⃗𝒂⃗)
its direction ratios are
⃗⃗ = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 , 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
⃗⃗ − 𝒂
𝒄

The direction ratios, as the name says, indicate the ratio of the change in different coordinates:
𝑎: 𝑏: 𝑐 = Δ𝑥: Δ𝑦: Δz = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ): (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ): (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )

Example 2.12
Compare direction ratios with slope for a 2D line.

Δ𝑦
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = = Δ𝑦: Δ𝑥
Δ𝑥
Slope tells you the rate of change in the 𝑦 coordinate with respect to rate of change
of the 𝑥 coordinate.

Direction ratios are like slope, except that they compare 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 coordinates:
Δ𝑥: Δ𝑦: Δz

Example 2.13
Find the direction ratios of the line passing through the points (1,2,3) and
(−3, −2, −1).

Δ𝑥: Δ𝑦: Δz = (−3 − 1, −2 − 2, −1 − 3) = (−4, −4, −4) = −4(1,1,1)

Example 2.14
⃗⃗ = (4,5,10) + 𝜆(1,2,5)
𝒓
A. What are the direction ratios of the line above.
B. Interpret these direction ratios in terms of change in 𝑥 coordinate, change in 𝑦 coordinate, and change
in 𝑧 coordinate.
C. If the 𝑥 coordinate increases by 10, then find the change in the y and the z coordinates.
D. Suppose the point 𝑃 = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) lies on the line above. Find the point with 𝑥 coordinate 2 units greater
than 𝑃 that lies on the line.

Part A
The direction ratios are:
1: 2: 5
Part B

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Δ𝑥: Δ𝑦: Δz = 1: 2: 5
Part C
Δ𝑥: Δ𝑦: Δz = 1: 2: 5 = 10: 20: 50
Δ𝑥 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 10
Δy = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 20
Δz = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 50
Part D
Δ𝑥: Δ𝑦: Δz = 1: 2: 5 = 2: 4: 10
The point that we require is:
𝑄 = (𝑥 + 2, 𝑦 + 4, 𝑧 + 10)
C. Direction Cosines
Angle with positive
direction of
2.15: Direction Angles
𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝛼
If 𝑂 is the origin, then the angles made by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑷 with the positive 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝛽
direction of 𝑥-axis, 𝑦-axis and 𝑧-axis are the direction angles. 𝑧 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝛾

2.16: Direction Cosines

The cosines of the direction angles are the direction cosines:
𝑥
𝑙= = cos 𝛼
|𝒓
⃗⃗|
𝑦
𝑚= = cos 𝛽
|𝒓⃗⃗|
𝑧
𝑛= = cos 𝛾
|𝒓
⃗⃗|

➢ Direction cosines are a way of normalizing the direction

ratios of a line.
➢ Direction cosines are always direction ratios, but direction ratios may or may not be direction cosines.

Example 2.17
A. If a line makes angles 90°,135°, 45° with the 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 axes respectively, find its direction cosines (CBSE
2019)
B. Write the direction cosines as a triplet.

Part A
𝑙 = cos 90° = 0
1
𝑚 = cos 135° = −
√2
1
𝑛 = cos 45° =
√2
Part B
The direction cosines for the line are:
1 1
(𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛) = (0, − , )
√2 √2

Example 2.18
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A. Write the direction cosines of a line as a ratio.

B. Interpret the ratio.

Part A
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
𝑙: 𝑚: 𝑛 = cos 𝛼 : cos 𝛽 : cos 𝛾 = : : = 𝑥: 𝑦: 𝑧
|𝒓
⃗⃗| |𝒓
⃗⃗| |𝒓
⃗⃗|
Part B
This ratio gives the change in 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 for change in the magnitude of the associated vector. In other words,
this is a direction ratio.

Example 2.19
Find direction cosines for the axes.

𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = (cos 0 , cos 90° , cos 90°) = (1,0,0)

𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = (cos 90° , cos 0 , cos 90°) = (0,1,0)
𝑧 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = (cos 90° , cos 90° , cos 0 , ) = (0,0,1)

2.20: Sum of Direction Cosines

The sum of the squares of direction cosines for a line is 1.

𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 2 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2
𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 = ( ) +( ) +( ) = = 2 =1
|𝒓
⃗⃗| |𝒓
⃗⃗| |𝒓
⃗⃗| ⃗⃗|2
|𝒓 𝑥 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2

Example 2.21
A. What are the direction cosines of a line that makes equal angles with the coordinate axes? (CBSE
2008,2009,2011,2019)
B. If a line makes angles 90° and 60° respectively with the positive directions of X and 𝑌 −axes, find the
angle which it makes with the positive direction of 𝑍-axis. (CBSE 2017)
C. If a line makes angles 90°, 60° and 𝜃 with 𝑋, 𝑌 and 𝑍 axes respectively, where 𝜃 is an acute angle, then
find 𝜃. (CBSE 2015)
D. If a line makes angles 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 with the positive direction of coordinate axes, then write the value of
sin2 𝛼 + sin2 𝛽 + sin2 𝛾. (CBSE 2015C)

Part A 3
2 2 2 cos2 𝛾 =
𝑙 +𝑚 +𝑛 =1 4
But the angles are equal, which means their cosines √3
cos 𝛾 = ±
are equal: 2
𝑙=𝑚=𝑛 𝛾 = {30°, 150°}
Hence: Part C
1 Same as Part B, above except that we reject the
3𝑙 2 = 1 ⇒ 𝑙 = ± angle in the second quadrant.
√3
The direction cosines are: 𝜃 = 30°
1 1 1 1 1 1 Part D
{ , , } 𝑂𝑅 {− ,− ,− } sin2 𝛼 + sin2 𝛽 + sin2 𝛾
√3 √3 √3 √3 √3 √3
= (1 − cos 2 𝛼) + (1 − cos 2 𝛽) + (1 − cos2 𝛾)
Part B = 3 − cos 2 𝛼 + cos 2 𝛽 + cos2 𝛾
cos 2 90° + cos2 60° + cos2 𝛾 = 1 =3−1
1 2 =2
02 + ( ) + cos 2 𝛾 = 1
2

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Example 2.22
𝜋 𝜋
̂, then the possible values of 𝜃 are: (JEE
̂ makes angles with 𝒊̂, with 𝒋̂ and 𝜃 ∈ {0, 𝜋} with 𝒌
If a unit vector 𝒂 3 4
Main 2019, 9 April, Shift-II)

𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 = 1
𝜋 𝜋
cos 2 ( ) + cos2 ( ) + cos 2(𝜃) = 1
3 4
1 1
+ + cos 2 (𝜃) = 1
4 2
3 1
cos2 (𝜃) = 1 − =
4 4
1
cos 𝜃 = ±
2
𝜋 2𝜋
𝜃={ , }
3 3

2.23: Converting from Direction Ratios to Direction Cosines

𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 = 𝑙: 𝑚: 𝑛 ⇔ 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑠 = 𝑙𝑋: 𝑚𝑋: 𝑛𝑋
Where 𝑋 is some constant

Δ𝑥 2 Δ𝑦 2 Δz 2
( ) + ( ) + ( ) = 1, 𝑋 = √(Δ𝑥)2 + (Δ𝑦)2 + (Δz)2
𝑋 𝑋 𝑋

Δ𝑥 Δ𝑦 Δ𝑧
, , , 𝑋 = √(Δ𝑥)2 + (Δ𝑦)2 + (Δz)2
𝑋 𝑋 𝑋

Example 2.24
Determine the direction cosines of the line
⃗⃗ = (−2,3,7) + 𝜆(1,2,5)
A. 𝒓
⃗⃗ = (−2,3,7) + 𝜆(3,4,5)
B. 𝒓

Part A
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑠 = Δ𝑥: Δ𝑦: Δz = 1: 2: 5

12 + 22 + 52 = 1 + 4 + 25 = 30
Divide both sides by 30:
12 + 22 + 52 30
= =1
30 30
12 22 52
+ + =1
30 30 30
1 2 2 2 5 2
( ) +( ) +( ) =1
√30 √30 √30
Part B

𝑋 = √32 + 42 + 52 = √50
3 4 5
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 = ( , , )
√50 √50 √50
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MCQ 2.25
𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Consider the vector equation of a line. Changing the point 𝒂 ⃗⃗ to another point on the same line will change the
direction cosines.
⃗⃗ = 𝒂
A. If the vector equation is in point vector form 𝒓 ⃗⃗ + 𝜆𝒃 ⃗⃗
B. If the vector equation is in two point vector form 𝒓⃗⃗ = 𝒂 ⃗⃗ − 𝒂
⃗⃗ + 𝜆(𝒃 ⃗⃗)
C. Both of the above
D. None of the above

Changing to another point on the same line keeps the parallel vector the same, and hence the direction ratios
(and directions cosines) also the same.
𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐷

Example 2.26
𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
Two lines are parallel or the same line, if:
A. Their direction ratios are the same.
B. Their direction cosines are the same.
C. The direction ratios of one line are 𝑥: 𝑦: 𝑧 and the direction ratios of the second line are 𝑎𝑥: 𝑎𝑦: 𝑎𝑧.
D. The direction cosines of one line are a multiple of the direction cosines of the other line.

If two lines have the same direction cosines, they are going in the same direction, and hence they are parallel.
𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐵

If two lines have equal direction ratios, then they point in the same direction. Again, the lines are parallel.
𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴

Simplify the direction ratios of both lines, and then the direction ratios will be equal. Again, they point in the
same direction, and they are parallel.
𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶

2.2 Cartesian Equation of a Line

A. Cartesian Form

2.27: Cartesian Form

The standard form of the equation of a line is given by:
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑧 − 𝑧1
𝜆= = =
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

Substitute the coordinates of the vectors in the point-vector form of the

equation of a line:
𝑥 𝑥1 𝑎 𝑥1 + 𝜆𝑎
⃗⃗ 𝑦
⃗⃗ + 𝜆𝒃 ⇒ (𝑦) = ( 1 ) + 𝜆 (𝑏) = (𝑦1 + 𝜆𝑏)
⃗⃗ = 𝒂
𝒓
𝑧 𝑧1 𝑐 𝑧1 + 𝜆𝑐
Equate the components:
𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝜆𝑎, 𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝜆𝑏, 𝑧 = 𝑧1 + 𝜆𝑐
Solve for 𝜆 in each equation to get:
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑧 − 𝑧1
𝜆= = =
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
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2.28: Components of the Cartesian Form

𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑧 − 𝑧1
= =
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒

Example 2.29
A. (𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚) A line passes through the point with position vector 2𝒊̂ − 𝒋̂ + 4𝒌 ̂ and is in the
̂. Find the equation of the line in Cartesian form. (CBSE 2019)
direction of the vector 𝒊̂ + 𝒋̂ − 2𝒌
𝑥−5 𝑦+4 𝑧−6
B. (𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚) 17: Write the vector equation for the line = = . (CBSE 2011)
3 7 2
C. (𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚)

Part A
Substitute (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) = (2, −1,4), (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) = (1,1 − 2):
𝑥−2 𝑦+1 𝑧−4
= =
1 1 −2
Part B
Substitute (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) = (5, −4,6), (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) = (3,7,2):
𝑥 5 3
⃗⃗ = 𝒂
𝒓 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ + 𝜆𝒃 ⇒ (𝑦) = (−4) + 𝜆 (7)
𝑧 6 2

2.30: Converting to Standard Form

If the equation of a line is not in standard form, we need to convert it to standard form before proceeding to
work with it.

The standard form is

𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑧 − 𝑧1
= =
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
➢ The coefficient of 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 is 1.
➢ The sign of 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 and 𝑧1 is −𝑣𝑒.

Example 2.31
A student attempted the question “Write the equation 3𝑥 = 4𝑦 in such a way that the coefficient of both 𝑥 and 𝑦
is 1”,:
3𝑥 4𝑦
= ⇒𝑥=𝑦
3 4
Is this correct? If it is not correct, explain why and write the corrected version.

We divide the LHS by 3, and the RHS by 4.

But we need to perform equal operations to maintain equality. Hence the above is not correct.

Corrected Version
Divide both sides by 𝐿𝐶𝑀(3,4) = 12
3𝑥 4𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
= ⇒ =
12 12 4 3

Example 2.32

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A student attempted the question “Write the equation 3𝑥 = 4𝑦 = 5𝑧 in such a way that the coefficient of 𝑥, 𝑦
and 𝑧 is 1”:
3𝑥 4𝑦 5𝑧
= = ⇒𝑥=𝑦=𝑧
3 4 5
Is this correct? If it is not correct, explain why and write the corrected version.

Example 2.33
A student attempted the question “Write the equation 3𝑥 = 4𝑦 in such a way that the coefficient of both 𝑥 and 𝑦
is 1”,:
3𝑥 4𝑦
= ⇒𝑥=𝑦
3 4
Is this correct? If it is not correct, explain why and write the corrected version.

Example 2.34
Identify the direction ratios and a point on each line below:
𝑥−3 𝑦+5 2𝑧−1
A. 2
= −4 = 6
3𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦 −2𝑦 𝑧 −𝑧
B. = 1 = 1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

Part A
1 1
𝑥 − 3 𝑦 + 5 2 (2𝑧 − 1) 𝑥 − 3 𝑦 + 5 𝑧 − 2 1
= = ⇒ = = ⇒ (2,
⏟ −4,3) , (3, −5, )
2 −4 1 2 −4 3 ⏟ 2
2×6 Direction Ratios
Point on the Line

Part B

1 1 𝑥 𝑦
(3𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) (− ) (𝑦1 − 2𝑦) −(𝑧1 − 𝑧) 𝑥 − 1 𝑦 − 21 𝑧 − 𝑧1
3 = 2 = = 3 = =
1 1 −𝑐 1 1 −𝑐
×𝑎 − ×𝑏 ×𝑎 − ×𝑏
3 2 3 2

𝑎 𝑏 𝑥1 𝑦1
( , − , −𝑐) , ( , , 𝑧1 )
⏟3 2 ⏟3 2
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑠 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒

Example 2.35
4−𝑥 𝑦 1−𝑧
= =
2 6 3
A. Identify the direction ratios in the above line.
B. Use the direction ratios to find a vector parallel to the line.
C. Use the direction ratios to find all vectors parallel to the line.

𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 2,6,3

𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = (2,6,3)
𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 𝜆(2,6,3), 𝜆 ≠ 0

Is 𝜆 ≠ 0 important in the above

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𝐼𝑓𝜆 = 0 ⇒ 𝜆(2,6,3) = 0(2,6,3) = (0,0,0) ⇒ 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

Since the zero vector has no direction, it cannot be parallel to a line.

Example 2.36: Converting to Vector Form

3−𝑥 𝑦+4 2𝑧−6
If the Cartesian equation of a line is = = , then write the vector equation for the line. (CBSE 2014)
5 7 4

𝑥−3 𝑦+4 𝑧−3

= =
−5 7 2
⃗⃗ = (3, −4,3) + 𝜆(−5,7,2)
𝒓

Example 2.37: Finding a point

𝑥−2 𝑦−3 𝑧−1
The point (3, 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) lies on the line 3
= 1
= 2
. Find 𝑦1 + 𝑧1 :
A. By finding the parameter 𝜆
B. By using the direction ratios

Part A 10 5 10 5 15
(3, , ) ⇒ 𝑦1 + 𝑧1 = + = =5
3 3 3 3 3
𝑥−2 𝑦−3 𝑧−1
Let = = = 𝜆, and solve for 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧:
3 1 2
Part B
𝑥−2
= 𝜆 ⇒ 𝑥 = 3𝜆 + 2, From the given equation, a point on the line is:
3
𝑦−3 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) = (2,3,1)
=𝜆 ⇒𝑦 =𝜆+3 We wish to find the coordinates of another point on
1
𝑧−1 the line:
= 𝜆 ⇒ 𝑧 = 2𝜆 + 1 (𝑥1 = 3, 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 )
2
Substitute 𝑥 = 3, and solve for 𝑥: Δ𝑥 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = 3 − 2 = 1
1
𝑥 = 3𝜆 + 2 ⇒ 3 = 3𝜆 + 2 ⇒ 𝜆 =
3 We can find the point on the line without finding
1
Solve for 𝑦 and substitute 𝜆 = 3: the vector form or the parameter 𝜆.
1 10 1 2
𝑦 =𝜆+3= +3= 𝐷𝑅 = Δ𝑥: Δ𝑦: Δ𝑧 = 3: 1: 2 = 1: :
3 3 3 3
1 2 5
𝑧 = 2𝜆 + 1 = 2 ( ) + 1 = + 1 = 1 10
3 3 3 𝑦1 = 𝑦2 + Δ𝑦 = 3 + =
The point is: 3 3
2 5
𝑧1 = 𝑧2 + Δ𝑧 = 1 + =
3 3

Example 2.38: Finding a point

𝑦
2𝑥−5 3− 4𝑧−2
4
The point (𝑥1 , −4, 𝑧1 ) lies on the line 2
= 3
= 4
.
A. By finding the parameter 𝜆
B. By using the direction ratios

Part B
5 1
𝑥− 𝑧−
2 = 𝑦 − 12 = 2 ⇒ (𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 ) = (5 , 12, 1)
2 2 2
1 −12 1 2 2

Δ𝑦 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 = −4 − 12 = −16

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4 4
𝐷𝑅 = Δ𝑥: Δ𝑦: Δ𝑧 = 1: −12: 1 = : −16:
3 3
4 5 4 15 8 23
𝑥1 = 𝑥2 + = + = + =
3 2 3 6 6 6
4 1 4 3 8 11
𝑧1 = 𝑧2 + = + = + =
3 2 3 6 6 6
23 11 34
𝑥1 + 𝑧1 = + =
6 6 6

Example 2.39
The equation of a line can be written, in point-slope form as 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ). Show that it is equivalent to:
𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑥 − 𝑥1
=
Δ𝑦 Δ𝑥

𝑦 −𝑦
Substitute 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑚 = 𝑥2 −𝑥1 :
2 1
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = ( ) (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Rearrange:
𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑥 − 𝑥1
=
𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Substitute Δ𝑦 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 , Δ𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 :
𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑥 − 𝑥1
=
Δ𝑦 Δ𝑥

2.40: Two Point Form

Given two points (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) that lie on a line, the equation of the line is
given by:
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑧 − 𝑧1
𝜆= = =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑧2 − 𝑧1

➢ The two-point Cartesian form in 3D is a generalization of the two-point form in 2D.

𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑧 − 𝑧1
𝜆= = =
Δ𝑥 Δ𝑦 Δ𝑧

Example 2.41
Find the equation of the line passing through points 𝐴(0,6, −9) and 𝐵(−3, −6,3) in Cartesian Form. (CBSE
2010C, Adapted)

Substitute the given data into the two-point form of the equation of a line:
𝑥−0 𝑦−6 𝑧 − (−9)
𝜆1 = = =
−3 − 0 −6 − 6 3 − (−9)
Simplify:
𝑥 𝑦−6 𝑧+9
𝜆1 = = =
−3 −12 12
Divide throughout by 3, and substitute 𝜆1 = 𝜆:
𝑥−0 𝑦−6 𝑧+9
𝜆= = =
−1 −4 4

Example 2.42

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Find the equation of the 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 axes in Cartesian form.

Equation of 𝒛 axis
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
= =
0 0 1
This does not mean that we are dividing by zero. This is simply a way of communicating that:
Δ𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = 0
Δ𝑦 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 = 0
Equation of 𝒚 axis
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
= =
0 1 0
Equation of 𝒙 axis
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
= =
1 0 0

Example 2.43
The vector (2,6,3) is parallel to a line.
A. If there is a change of 2 units in the 𝑥 direction, identify the change in the 𝑦 and 𝑧 directions,
respectively.

(Δ𝑥, Δ𝑦, Δ𝑧) = (2,6,3)

Change in the 𝑦 direction = Δ𝑦 = 6
Change in the 𝑧 direction = Δ𝑧 = 3

Example 2.44
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
The equation of the z axis is given by 0 = 0 = 1. Interpret the direction ratios in this equation.

(Δ𝑥, Δ𝑦, Δ𝑧) = (0,0,1)

There is no change in 𝑥, (or in 𝑦) for any amount, or any change in 𝑧.

This makes sense, since no matter the z coordinate, the x and y coordinates of the z axis are fixed to be the
origin = (0,0).

B. Direction Cosines

2.45: Converting from Direction Ratios to Direction Cosines

1
(Δ𝑥, Δ𝑦, Δ𝑧), 𝜆 = √(Δ𝑥)2 + (Δ𝑦)2 + (Δ𝑧)2
𝜆

Direction ratios and direction cosines are both vectors in the same direction.
However, directions cosines have magnitude 1, and directions ratios can have any magnitude.

Hence, dividing the direction ratios by the magnitude scales the direction ratio vector to make it a unit vector.

Example 2.46
The equation of a line is 5𝑥 − 3 = 15𝑦 + 7 = 3 − 10𝑧. Write the direction cosines of the line. (CBSE 2015)

Convert the given equation into standard form by making the coefficient of each variable 1. For this, we divide
throughout by 𝐿𝐶𝑀(5,15,3) = 30:

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3 7 3
5 (𝑥 − ) 15 (𝑦 − (− 15)) −10 (𝑧 − 10)
5 = =
30 30 30
Simplify:
3 7 3
𝑥− 𝑦 − (− ) 𝑧 −
5= 15 = 10
6 2 −3
Identify the direction ratios:
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑠 = (Δ𝑥, Δ𝑦, Δ𝑧) = (6,2, −3)

If we think of the direction ratios as a vector, it has magnitude:

√(Δ𝑥)2 + (Δ𝑦)2 + (Δ𝑧)2 = √62 + 22 + (−3)2 = √36 + 4 + 9 = 7

We want a vector in the same direction, but with magnitude 1, and hence, we divide the vector by the
magnitude:
(6,2, −3) 1 6 2 3
= (6,2, −3) = ( , , − )
7 7 7 7 7

Example 2.47
4−𝑥 𝑦 1−𝑧
Find the direction cosines of the line = = . (CBSE 2013)
2 6 3

The given equation is not in standard form. Convert it to standard form:

𝑥−4 𝑦 𝑧−1
= =
−2 6 −3
Identify the direction ratios:
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑠 = (Δ𝑥, Δ𝑦, Δ𝑧) = (−2,6, −3)

If we think of the direction ratios as a vector, it has magnitude:

√(Δ𝑥)2 + (Δ𝑦)2 + (Δ𝑧)2 = √(−2)2 + 62 + (−3)2 = √4 + 36 + 9 = 7

We want a vector in the same direction, but with magnitude 1, and hence, we divide the vector by the
magnitude:
(−2,6, −3) 1 2 6 3
= (−2,6, −3) = (− , , − )
7 7 7 7 7

Example 2.48
Write the direction cosines of the lines joining the points (1,0,0) and (0,1,1). (CBSE 2011)

𝐷𝑅 = (0 − 1,1 − 0,1 − 0) = (−1,1,1)

Magnitude of direction ratio vector
= √(−1)2 + 12 + 12 = √3
Hence, direction cosines
1 1 1 1
= (−1,1,1) = (− , , )
√3 √3 √3 √3

C. Collinearity

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2.49: Collinearity
If 𝑛 points lie on the same line, then they are collinear.

Example 2.50
What is the number of distinct lines that pass through:
A. A point
B. Two points
C. Three Points

𝐴 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡: 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒
𝑇𝑤𝑜 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠: 𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑙𝑦 𝑂𝑛𝑒
𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠: 𝑂𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜

Example 2.51
A. Are two points always collinear?
B. Are three points always collinear?

𝑇𝑤𝑜 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠: 𝑌𝑒𝑠

𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠: 𝑁𝑜

2.52: Checking for Three Collinear Points: Distance Formula

Three points A, B, and C are collinear if
𝑙(𝐴𝐵) + 𝑙(𝐵𝐶) = 𝑙(𝐴𝐶)

We can check the distance between two points (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) using the distance formula:
√(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2

2.53: Checking for Three Collinear Points: Parallel Vectors

If three points are collinear, the vectors joining any of two of them must be parallel. This can be interpreted in a
couple of ways:
➢ Parallel vectors will have equivalent direction ratios.
➢ If two vectors are parallel, one vector will be a scalar multiple of the other.

2.54: Checking for Three Collinear Points: Equation of a Line

To check if three points are collinear, find the equation of the line using any two points, and see if the third point
satisfies the equation of the line.

We can use either the Vector equation or the Cartesian Equation.

2.55: Checking for Three Collinear Points: Dot Product

Consider three points 𝐴, 𝐵 and C.

If three points are collinear, the angle between the vectors formed by taking the points pair-wise will be
𝜃 = {0,180}

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cos 𝜃 = ±1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝑨𝑩||𝑩𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| cos 𝜃
= ±1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗||𝑩𝑪
|𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| ∙ |𝑩𝑪
|𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
= ±1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗||𝑩𝑪
|𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
Take the absolute value on both sides:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗| ∙ |𝑩𝑪
|𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|
| |=1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗||𝑩𝑪
|𝑨𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|

2.56: Checking for Three Collinear Points: Degenerate Triangle

If the area of the triangle formed by the points (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) and (𝑥3 , 𝑦3 , 𝑧3 ) is zero. That is, if:
𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑧1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = |𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧3 | = 0
𝑥3 𝑦3 𝑧3

2.57: Checking for Three Collinear Points: Cross Product

If two vectors are parallel, their cross product is zero.

𝒊̂ 𝒋̂ ̂
𝒌
𝒂 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ × 𝒃 = |𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 |
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3

2.3 Multiple Lines

A. Angle between Lines
In the previous section, we looked at the Vector and Cartesian forms of the equation of a line. In this section, we
look at some applications related to both forms. There are many formulas: be careful not to mix them up.

2.58: Angle between lines: Definition

The angle between two lines is always acute or right.

Angle between OA and OC is the angle between the two lines.

(Note that ∠𝐴𝑂𝐶 is acute.)

Also, note that ∠𝐴𝑂𝐶 and ∠𝐴𝑂𝐵 are supplementary. If you know one,
you know the other.

2.59: Angle between lines: Formula

⃗⏟
Given two lines 𝒓 𝒂𝟏 + 𝜆⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⏟
𝒃𝟏 and 𝒓⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝟐 with angle 𝜃 between
𝒂𝟐 + 𝜇𝒃
𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝟏 𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝟐
them:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟏 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟐
cos 𝜃 = | |
|⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟏 ||⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟐 |

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟏 is a vector parallel to the first line. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟐 is a vector parallel to the second line. The dot product of the vectors

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⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟏 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟐 is given by:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟏 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝟏 ||𝒃
𝒃𝟐 = |𝒃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝟐 | cos 𝜃
Rearranging gives us:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟏 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟐
cos 𝜃 =
|⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟏 ||⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟐 |
However, note that 𝜃 can be acute or obtuse, and if it is obtuse, we wish to find the supplement. In that case, we
want:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟏 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟐
cos(180 − 𝜃) = −
|⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟏 ||⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟐 |
We can combine both the formulas into a single formula by taking the absolute value of the dot product:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟏 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟐
cos 𝜃 = | |
|⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟏 ||⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟐 |

Example 2.60
̂ + 𝜆(3𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ + 6𝒌
⃗⃗ = 2𝒊̂ − 5𝒋̂ + 𝒌
Find the angle between the lines 𝒓 ̂) and 𝒓 ̂ + 𝜇(𝒊̂ + 2𝒋̂ + 2𝒌
⃗⃗ = 7𝒊̂ − 6𝒋̂ − 6𝒌 ̂)
(CBSE 2014, 2008)

Use the formula for the angle between two lines:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟏 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟐 (3,2,6) ∙ (1,2,2) 3 + 4 + 12 19 19
cos 𝜃 = | |=| |= = =
|⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟏 ||⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟐 | √32 + 22 + 62 ∙ √12 + 22 + 22 √9 + 4 + 36 ∙ √1 + 4 + 4 7 ∙ 3 21

Take the cos inverse on both sides:

19
𝜃 = cos −1 ( )
21

Example 2.61
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑧 − 𝑧1 𝑥 − 𝑥2 𝑦 − 𝑦2 𝑧 − 𝑧2 𝑎1 𝑎2 + 𝑏1 𝑏2 + 𝑐1 𝑐2
= = , = = ⇒ cos 𝜃 = | |
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 √𝑎12 + 𝑏12 + 𝑐12 √𝑎22 + 𝑏22 + 𝑐22
Show that given two lines, the angle 𝜃 between the two lines above is given by the above formula. Do you need
to memorize it?

𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑧 − 𝑧1
= = = 𝜆1
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝜆1 𝑎1 , 𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝜆1 𝑏1 , 𝑧 = 𝑧1 + 𝜆1 𝑐1
⃗⃗ = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) + 𝜆1 (𝑎1 , 𝑏1 , 𝑐1 )
𝒓

𝑥 = 𝑥2 + 𝜆2 𝑎2 , 𝑦 = 𝑦2 + 𝜆2 𝑏2 , 𝑧 = 𝑧2 + 𝜆2
⃗⃗ = (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) + 𝜆2 (𝑎2 , 𝑏2 , 𝑐2 )
𝒓

Substitute ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟏 = (𝑎1 , 𝑏1 , 𝑐1 ), ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟐 = (𝑎2 , 𝑏2 , 𝑐2 ) in the formula for the angle between two lines:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟏 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟐 𝑎1 𝑎2 + 𝑏1 𝑏2 + 𝑐1 𝑐2
cos 𝜃 = | |=| |
|⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟏 ||⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟐 | √𝑎12 + 𝑏12 + 𝑐12 √𝑎22 + 𝑏22 + 𝑐22

Example 2.62
4−𝑥 𝑦 1−𝑧
Find the angle between the lines 5𝑥 − 3 = 15𝑦 + 7 = 3 − 10𝑧 and = = .
2 6 3

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Factor out the leading coefficient for each variable:

3 7 10
5 (𝑥 − ) = 15 (𝑦 + ) = −10 (𝑧 − )
5 15 3
Divide throughout by 𝐿𝐶𝑀(5,15, −10) = 30:
3 7 3
5 (𝑥 − ) 15 (𝑦 + ) −10 (𝑧 − 10)
5 = 15 =
30 30 30
3 7 3
𝑥− 𝑦 − (− ) 𝑧 −
5= 15 = 10
6 2 −3
Convert the second line to standard form:
𝑥−4 𝑦 𝑧−1
= =
−2 6 −3
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Substitute 𝒃𝟏 = (6,2, −3), 𝒃𝟐 = (−2,6, −3)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟏 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟐 (6,2, −3) ∙ (−2,6, −3) −12 + 12 + 9 9
cos 𝜃 = =| |=| |=
|⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟏 ||⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟐 | 2 2 2 2
√6 + 2 + (−3) ∙ √(−2) + 6 + (−3) 2 2 √36 + 4 + 9 ∙ √4 + 36 + 9 49
9
𝜃 = cos −1 ( )
49
B. Parallel Lines

2.63: Parallel Lines: Vector Form

Two lines 𝒓 𝒂𝟏 + 𝜆1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒂𝟐 + 𝜆1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟏 and 𝒓 𝒃𝟐 are parallel 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟏 = 𝜇𝒃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝟐

If two lines are parallel, then then have the same direction ratios.
In other words, a vector parallel to the first line is a scalar multiple of a vector parallel to the other line.

Example 2.64
5
⃗⃗ = (3, −4, − ) + 𝜆1 (2, −1,3) parallel to the line 𝒓
A. Is the line 𝒓 ⃗⃗ = (2, −3, −9) + 𝜆2 (4, −2,6).
3
5 231 521
B. If the line ⃗𝒓⃗ = (3, −4, − ) + 𝜆1 (𝑎, 𝑏, ) is parallel to the line ⃗𝒓⃗ = (2, −3, −9) + 𝜆2 (4, −2, ), then
3 439 1001
find 𝑎: 𝑏.
C. Write the vector equation of a line passing through point (1, −1,2) and parallel to the line whose
𝑥+3 4−𝑦 𝑧+8
equation is 3 = 5 = 6 . (CBSE 2013)

Part A
1
(2, −1,3) = (4, −2,6) ⇒ 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 ∥⇒ 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙.
2
Part B
231 521
(Δ𝑥, Δ𝑦, Δ𝑧) = (𝑎, 𝑏, ) = (4, −2, )
439 1001
𝑎: 𝑏 = 4: −2 = 2: −1
Part C
(1, −1,2) + 𝜆1 (3,5,6)
⃗⃗ = ⏟
𝒓 ⏟ = (1, −1,2) + 𝜆(3,5,6)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒂𝟏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟏

2.65: Parallel Lines: Cartesian Form

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𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1 𝑧−𝑧1 𝑥−𝑥2 𝑦−𝑦2 𝑧−𝑧2
Two lines 𝑎1
= 𝑏1
= 𝑐1
and 𝑎2
= 𝑏2
= 𝑐3
are parallel if their direction ratios are equal. That is if:
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑙1 𝑚1 𝑛1
= = 𝑂𝑅 = =
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
⏟ 𝑙⏟2 𝑚2 𝑛2
𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒔 𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔

Example 2.66
𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Line 𝑙1 has direction ratios (1,1,1) and line 𝑙2 has direction ratios (−1, −1, −1).
A. The lines are parallel since the direction ratios are .
B. The lines are not parallel since the direction ratios are different.
C. The lines are parallel since the direction cosines are the same.
D. The lines are not parallel since the direction cosines are not the same.

(−1, −1, −1) = −1(1,1,1)

The direction ratios are equivalent, and hence the direction cosines will be the same.
𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶

Example 2.67
𝑥+5 2𝑦−2 𝑧−4 −10−𝑥 𝑦−1 𝑧−4
A. Are the lines −3
= 4
= −6
and −3 = −2
= 6
parallel?
B. Find the cartesian equation of the line which passes through the point (−2,4, −5) and is parallel to the
𝑥+3 4−𝑦 𝑧+8
line 3 = 5 = 6 . (CBSE 2013)

Part A
Write the first line in standard form:
𝑥+5 𝑦−1 𝑧−4
= = ⇒ 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = (−3,2, −6)
−3 2 −6
Write the second line in standard form:
𝑥 + 10 𝑦 − 1 𝑧 − 4
= = ⇒ 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = (3, −2,6) = −(−3,2, −6)
3 −2 6

And since the direction ratios are equivalent, the lines are parallel.
Part B
𝑥+3 𝑦−4 𝑧+8
= = ⇒∥ 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = (3, −5,6)
3 −5 6

𝑥+2 𝑦−4 𝑧+5

= =
3 −5 6
C. Perpendicular Lines

2.68: Perpendicular Lines: Vector Form

Two lines 𝒓 𝒂𝟏 + 𝜆1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒂𝟐 + 𝜆1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟏 and 𝒓 𝒃𝟐 are perpendicular 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟏 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟐 = 0

2.69: Perpendicular Lines: Vector Form

𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1 𝑧−𝑧1 𝑥−𝑥2 𝑦−𝑦2 𝑧−𝑧2
Two lines 𝑎1
= 𝑏1
= 𝑐1
and 𝑎2
= 𝑏2
= 𝑐3
and are perpendicular 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 the vectors⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟏 =
(𝒂𝟏 , 𝒃𝟏 , 𝒄𝟏 ) and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟐 = (𝒂𝟐 , 𝒃𝟐 , 𝒄𝟐 ) are equal. That is:

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⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟏 ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟐 = 0

Example 2.70
1−𝑥 7𝑦−14 𝑧−3 7−7𝑥 𝑦−5 6−𝑧
Find the value of 𝜆 so that the lines 3
= 𝜆
= 2
and 3𝜆 = 1
= 5
are at right angles. (CBSE 2019)

𝑥−1 𝑦−2 𝑧−3 𝑥−1 𝑦−5 𝑧−6

= = , = =
−3 𝜆 2 3𝜆 1 −5
7 − 7
If the two lines are at right angles, then the dot product of their direction ratios must be zero:
3𝜆 𝜆 9𝜆 𝜆
(−3) (− ) + ( ) (1) + (2)(−5) = 0 ⇒ + = 10 ⇒ 𝜆 = 7
7 7 7 7

2.71: Two Equations in Three Variables

If we have two equations in three variables
𝑥1 𝑎 + 𝑥2 𝑏 + 𝑥3 𝑐 = 0
𝑦1 𝑎 + 𝑦2 𝑏 + 𝑦3 𝑐 = 0
the relation between the variables 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 is given by:
𝑎 −𝑏 𝑐
𝑥2 𝑥3 = 𝑥1 𝑥3 = 𝑥1 𝑥2
|𝑦 𝑦 | |𝑦 𝑦 | |𝑦 𝑦 |
2 3 1 3 1 2

➢ We cannot solve for 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 since there are two equations and three variables.
➢ But we can find the relation between the variables.

Example 2.72: Line perpendicular to two lines

Find the vector and cartesian equations of the line through the point (1,2, −4) and perpendicular to the two
⃗⃗ = (8, −19,10) + 𝜆(3, −16,7) and 𝒓
lines 𝒓 ⃗⃗ = (15,29,5) + 𝜇(3,8, −5). (CBSE 2015)

A line passing through (1,2, −4) will have equation:

⃗⃗ = (1,2, −4) + 𝛾(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐)
𝒓
Since the line is perpendicular to the two given lines, we must have:
(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) ∙ (3, −16,7) = 0 ⇒ 3𝑎 − 16𝑏 + 7𝑐 = 0
(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) ∙ (3,8, −5) = 0 ⇒ 3𝑎 + 8𝑏 − 5𝑐 = 0
The relation between 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 is then:
𝑎 −𝑏 𝑐
= =
−16 7 3 7 3 −16
| | | | | |
8 −5 3 −5 3 8
𝑎 −𝑏 𝑐
= =
(−16)(−5) − (8)(7) (3)(−5) − (3)7 (3)(8) − (−16)(3)
Simplify:
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
= = ⇒ = = ⇒ = =
80 − 56 15 + 21 24 + 48 24 36 72 2 3 6
Let the above equality be equal to the parameter 𝛾:
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
= = = 𝛾 ⇒ 𝑎 = 2𝛾, 𝑏 = 3𝛾, 𝑐 = 6𝛾
2 3 6
Finally, the vector equation that we want is:
⃗⃗ = (1,2, −4) + 𝛾(2,3,6)
𝒓

2.73: Line perpendicular to Two Lines

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A line perpendicular to two lines is parallel to the cross product of the two lines.

Example 2.74
Find the vector and cartesian equations of the line through the point (1,2, −4) and perpendicular to the two
⃗⃗ = (8, −19,10) + 𝜆(3, −16,7) and 𝒓
lines 𝒓 ⃗⃗ = (15,29,5) + 𝜆(3,8, −5)

The line that we want will be parallel to the cross product of the direction ratios of the two given lines.
Hence, we want to find:
𝒊̂ 𝒋̂ ̂
𝒌
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟏 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟐 = (3, −16,7) × (3,8, −5) = |3 −16 7 |
3 8 −5
−16 7 3 7 3 −16 ̂
=| | 𝒊̂ − | | 𝒋̂ + | |𝒌
8 −5 3 −5 3 8
= [(−16)(−5) − (8)(7)]𝒊̂ − [(3)(−5) − (3)7]𝒋̂ + [(3)(8) − (−16)(3)]𝒌 ̂
= (80 − 56)𝒊̂ − (15 + 21)𝒋̂ + (24 + 48)𝒌 ̂
= 24𝒊̂ + 36𝒋̂ + 72𝒌 ̂
= 12(2𝒊̂ + 3𝒋̂ + 6𝒌 ̂)
= 12(2,3,6)

The line passing through (1,2, −4) and with direction vector 12(2,3,6) will have equation:
⃗⃗ = (1,2, −4) + 𝛾(2,3,6)
𝒓
D. Skew and Intersecting Lines

2.75: Skew Lines

Lines which are neither parallel nor intersecting are skew lines.

The minimum number of dimensions needed for skew lines is 3, since Lines on a 2D coordinate plane are either
parallel or intersecting. There is no third possibility.

Example 2.76
⃗⃗ = (1,1, −1) + 𝜆(3, −1,0) and 𝒓
Show that the lines 𝒓 ⃗⃗ = (4,0, −1) + 𝜇(2,0,3) intersect. Also, find their point of
intersection. (CBSE 2014)

⃗⃗ = (1 + 3𝜆, 1 − 𝜆, −1)
𝒓
⃗⃗ = (4 + 2𝜇, 0, −1 + 3𝜇)
𝒓

Equate the 𝑦 coordinates:

1−𝜆 =0⇒𝜆 =1
Equate the z coordinates:
−1 = −1 + 3𝜇 ⇒ 𝜇 = 0
Substitute 𝜆 = 1, 𝜇 = 0 in the x coordinates
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 1 + 3𝜆 = 4, 𝑅𝐻𝑆 = 4 + 2𝜇 = 4 + 2(0) = 0 ⇒ 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑

Substitute 𝜇 = 0 to find the point of intersection:

(4 + 2𝜇, 0, −1 + 3𝜇) = (4,0, −1)

(Continuation) Example 2.77:

1−𝑥 7𝑦−14 𝑧−3 7−7𝑥 𝑦−5 6−𝑧
Find the value of 𝜆 so that the lines 3
= 𝜆
= 2
and 3𝜆 = 1
= 5
are at right angles.

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A. Using the value of 𝜆 that you found check if the lines are intersecting or not. (CBSE 2019)
B. Are these lines parallel? What kind of lines are these?

Part A
Substitute the value of 𝜆 = 7 that we found earlier:
𝑥−1 𝑦−2 𝑧−3 𝑥−1 𝑦−5 𝑧−6
= = = 𝑡, = = =𝑇
−3 1 2 −3 1 −5

Writing them in parametric form:

(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (1 + 3𝑡, 2 + 𝑡, 3 + 2𝑡)
(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (1 + 3𝑇, 5 + 𝑇, 6 − 5𝑇)

1 + 3𝑡 = 1 + 3𝑇 ⇒ 𝑡 = 𝑇
Substituting 𝑡 = 𝑇
2 + 𝑡 = 5 + 𝑡 ⇒ 2 = 5 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠.

Hence, the lines do not intersect.

Part B
(−3,1,2) ≠ (−3,1, −5) ⇒ 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 ⇒ 𝑆𝑘𝑒𝑤 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠

E. Distance between Lines

2.78: Distance between Lines

⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
The shortest distance between the lines 𝒓 𝒂𝟏 + 𝜆𝒃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝟏 and 𝒓 ⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒂𝟐 + 𝜇𝒃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗2 is given by:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝟏 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(𝒃 𝒃𝟐 ) ∙ (𝒂 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝟐 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝒂𝟏
𝑑=| |
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝟏 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝒃 𝒃𝟐 |

Example 2.79
⃗⃗ = (1,1,0) + 𝜆(1, −3,2) and 𝒓
37: Find the shortest distance between the lines whose vector equations are 𝒓 ⃗⃗ =
(4,5,6) + 𝜇(2,3,1). (CBSE 2008, 2014)

2.80: Distance between Parallel Lines

⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
The shortest distance between two parallel lines 𝒓 𝒂𝟏 + 𝜆𝒃 ⃗⃗ and 𝒓 ⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ is given by:
𝒂𝟐 + 𝜇𝒃
⃗𝒃⃗ × (𝒂⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝟐 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝒂𝟏
𝑑=| |
⃗
|𝒃| ⃗

If two lines are parallel, then they have the same direction ratios.

Example 2.81
⃗⃗ = (1,2, −4) + 𝜆(2,3,6) and 𝒓
40: Find the distance between the lines 𝒓 ⃗⃗ = (3,3, −5) + 𝜇(4,6,12). (CBSE 2014)

F. Distance Formula

2.82: Distance Formula

The distance between 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) is
√(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2

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Example 2.83
𝑥+2 𝑦+1 𝑧−3
53: Find the points on the line = = at a distance of 5 units from the point 𝑃(1,3,3). (CBSE 2010)
3 2 2

We want the distance between

𝑄(3𝜆 − 2,2𝜆 − 1,2𝜆 + 3) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃(1,3,3)
Using the distance formula, we get:
√(3𝜆 − 2 − 1)2 + (2𝜆 − 1 − 3)2 + (2𝜆 + 3 − 3)2 = 5
G. Working with Points

2.84: Foot of Perpendicular

2.85: Length of Perpendicular

Example 2.86
51
𝑥 𝑦−2 𝑧−3
Consider the point 𝑃(3, −1,11) and the line 2 = 3 = 4 . Find the:
A. coordinates of foot of perpendicular from P to the line.
B. equation of the perpendicular from P to the line.
C. length of the perpendicular from P to the line.
D. Image of P in the line. (CBSE 2011, Adapted)

2.4 Planes: Point Form

A. Point Form

2.87: Plane
A two-dimensional surface that extends to infinity in all directions is a plane.

➢ For example, the (𝑥, 𝑦) coordinate plane is an example of a plane.

2.88: Normal
In maths, normal is used to indicate perpendicularity.

2.89: Vector Equation of a Plane

If 𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) is a point on a plane, 𝒏
⃗⃗ = (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) is a vector normal to the plane, and 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is a general
point on the plane, then the equation of the plane is:
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒏 𝑷𝟎 𝑷 = 0

The normal vector is perpendicular to any vector that lies on the plane.
The dot product of two perpendicular vectors is zero.

Since we already have one point on the plane, the locus of the plane is the set of all points 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) that satisfy
the equation:
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒏 𝑷𝟎 𝑷 = 0

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Concept Check 2.90

Why does the equation of a plane use a vector perpendicular to the plane, and not one parallel to it?

A vector parallel to the plane will not be in a unique direction. Rotating a

vector while keeping it in the plane is possible.
A vector perpendicular to the plane will have unique direction ratios, and
hence will be unique.

For example, consider the coordinate plane shown alongside.

𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

But the direction ratios for the two are not the same.

Example 2.91
The vector equation of a plane requires a point on the plane, and a vector perpendicular to it. For a given plane,
is this vector unique?

Consider the (𝑥, 𝑦) coordinate plane.

If we extend this to three dimensions (see diagram), the 𝑧 −axis is perpendicular
to the 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes.

A vector that lies on the 𝑧 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 has the form:

(0,0, 𝑧), 𝑧 ∈ ℝ, 𝑧 ≠ 0

Specifically, the unit vector in the direction of the 𝑧 −axis is perpendicular to the
(𝑥, 𝑦) coordinate plane.
̂ = (0,0,1)
𝒌

̂.
And so is any non-zero scalar multiple of 𝒌

Example 2.92
⃗⃗ is perpendicular to a plane. The point 𝐵 lies on the plane. Determine the equation of the plane.
The vector 𝒂

Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be a general point on the plane. Then, the equation of the plane is:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑩𝑷
𝒂

2.93: Direction Ratios

The direction ratios of a vector normal to the plane are the components of a vector normal to the plane:
𝐷𝑅 = (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) = ⃗𝒏⃗ 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ⃗𝒏⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑷𝟎 𝑷 = 0

Concept Check 2.94

In the equation of a plane, why do we use direction ratios of a vector perpendicular to the plane, and not those
of the plane itself?

If we want a vector on the plane, it will have direction ratios which are not unique.
However, a vector perpendicular to the plane has unique direction ratios.

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2.95: Point Form: Cartesian Equation

𝐴(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝐵(𝑦 − 𝑦0 ) + 𝐶(𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) = 0

⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Expand the equation 𝒏 𝑷𝟎 𝑷 = 0:
(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ∙ (𝑥 − 𝑥0 , 𝑦 − 𝑦0 , 𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) = 0
Multiply using the dot product. This gives us the Cartesian Equation:
𝐴(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝐵(𝑦 − 𝑦0 ) + 𝐶(𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) = 0

Concept Check 2.96

𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
The equation of a plane has variables whose nature is:
A. Linear
B. Quadratic
C. Trigonometric
D. Exponential
E. Logarithmic

𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴: 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟
B. Finding the Equation of a Plane

Example 2.97
Find the equation of a plane passing through the point (1,3,7), and with normal vector (7,3,1).

(7,3,1) ∙ (𝑥 − 1, 𝑦 − 3, 𝑧 − 7) = 0

Example 2.98
𝐴𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦
Determine the equation of a plane that meets the conditions below. Is the plane unique.
A. (𝑥, 𝑦) coordinate plane.
B. (𝑥, 𝑧) coordinate plane.
C. (𝑦, 𝑧) coordinate plane.
D. plane parallel to the (𝑥, 𝑦) coordinate plane, and passing through (1,2,3)
E. plane perpendicular to the (𝑥, 𝑦) coordinate plane, and passing through (1,2,3)

Part A
The origin lies on the (𝑥, 𝑦) coordinate plane with coordinates
𝑂(0,0,0)
The direction ratios of the normal vector to the coordinate plane are:
(0,0,1)

Hence, the equation of the plane is:

(0,0,1) ∙ (𝑥 − 0, 𝑦 − 0, 𝑧 − 0) = 0
𝑧=0
Part B
𝑦=0
Part C
𝑥=0
Part D

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𝑧=3
Part E
Two equations that work are:
𝑥=1
𝑦=2

Hence, the plane is not unique.

The planes in parts A-D are unique.

C. Defining a Plane

Example 2.99
What is the number of distinct planes that pass through:
A. A point
B. Two points
C. Three collinear points
D. Three non-collinear points
E. Four points, three of which are collinear
F. Four points, 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑙𝑦 three of which are collinear
G. Four points, no three of which are collinear
H. Four points
I. A line and a point
J. A line and a point not on the line
K. Two coplanar lines
L. Two skew lines

Part A If 4𝑡ℎ point is non-collinear with the other three

Through one point, we have an infinite number of 𝑂𝑛𝑒
planes. Part F
𝐴 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡: 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 This is the second case of Part E.
Part B 𝑂𝑛𝑒
Two points define a line, and an infinite number of Part G
planes will pass through a line. 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑜𝑟 𝑂𝑛𝑒
Part C Part H
Two collinear points define a line, and an infinite 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑜𝑟 𝑂𝑛𝑒
number of planes will pass through a line. Part I
Part D 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑂𝑛𝑒
Three non-collinear points define a plane, and Part J
hence exactly one plane will pass through. 𝑂𝑛𝑒
Part E Part K
Three collinear points will define a line. 𝑂𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒
If 4𝑡ℎ point is collinear with the other three Part L
𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜

Example 2.100
𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Three points define a:
A. Circle
B. Triangle

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C. Line
D. Plane
E. Either {𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐷} or {𝐶}

Note:
➢ Exactly one triangle has its vertices as three non-collinear points and hence three non collinear points
define a triangle.
➢ Exactly one circle passes through three non-collinear points and hence three non collinear points define
a circle.

In general, three non-collinear points define a plane, a triangle and the circle that passes the vertices of the
triangle.

Example 2.101
What is the number of planes that pass through the points:
A.

2.102: Defining a Plane

➢ Through two points (which define a line), infinite number of planes will pass.
➢ Through three or more collinear points (which define a line), infinite number of planes will pass.
➢ Through three non-collinear points, exactly one plane will pass. Hence, three non-collinear points define
a plane.

2.103: Four Points

➢ If you have four non-collinear points, any three of them will define a plane.
➢ The fourth point may or may not lie on the plane determined by the first three points.
➢ Hence, in general four points may or may not be coplanar.

Example 2.104
Find a nonzero vector that is perpendicular to both of the vectors (2,3,2) and (4,9,5). (Phillips Exeter, Math-3,
2021/537)

Let the vector we want be (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧). Dot product of two perpendicular vectors is zero:
(2,3,2)(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 0 ⇒ 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0
(4,9,5)(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 0 ⇒ 4𝑥 + 9𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 0

Note that we have three variables and two equations. Since, the number of equations is less than the number of
variables, the system of equations is 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑, and it may have infinite solutions.

Since the system is underdetermined, we substitute 𝑧 = 1, and solve the resulting system of two equations in
two variables:
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = −2, 4𝑥 + 9𝑦 = −5

Multiply Equation I by 2, and subtract the new equation from Equation II:
1
0 + 3𝑦 = −1 ⇒ 𝑦 = −
3
1
Substitute 𝑦 = − 3:

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1 1
4𝑥 + 6 (− ) = −4 ⇒ 4𝑥 − 2 = −4 ⇒ 4𝑥 = −2 ⇒ 𝑥 = −
3 2
Hence, if 𝑧 = 1, we have determined unique values of 𝑥 and 𝑦. Hence, one vector that meets the conditions is:
1 1
(− , − , 1)
2 3
If we wish to eliminate fractions, we can multiply by 6 to get:
1 1
= 6 (− , − , 1) = (−3, −2,6)
2 3
D. Parallel Planes

2.105: Parallel Planes

Two planes are parallel if they are oriented in the same direction.

This definition should make geometric sense.

Concept Check 2.106

𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
Two planes must be parallel if:
A. the normal vectors have equal direction cosines
B. the normal vectors have equivalent direction ratios
C. the normal vectors have dot product zero
D. the normal vectors have dot product one
E. the normal vectors have cross product zero
F. the normal vectors have a unit vector as the cross product
G. the normal vector of one plane is a scalar multiple of the other

Two planes are parallel when they are oriented in the same direction. We can check this in a few ways.

Normal vectors of the two planes have the same direction cosines. Direction cosines are precise. Hence, they
must be the 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒.
𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡

Normal vectors of the two planes have equivalent direction ratios. We can check this in a couple of ways:
➢ Convert direction ratios to direction cosines and see if they are equal.
𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡
➢ See if the normal vector of one plane is a non-zero. scalar multiple of the other
𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐺 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡
➢ If the cross product is zero, then the vectors are parallel.
𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡

If the dot product is zero, the vectors are perpendicular. If the dot product is 1, the vectors may or not be
parallel.
𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡

Hence, the final answer is:

𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐸, 𝐺

2.107: Parallel Planes: Working Rule

Two planes are parallel if they are oriented in the same direction. So they are parallel if any of the following

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holds:
➢ Normal vectors of the two planes have the same direction cosines.
➢ Normal vectors of the two planes have equivalent direction ratios.
➢ Cross product of the normal vectors is zero.
➢ Normal vector of one plane is a scalar multiple of the other

Example 2.108
Plane 𝑃 is parallel to −4𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 37 and passes through (−2,8,5). Write the Vector and Cartesian
equations of 𝑃 in point form.

Vector Form
The Vector equation of a plane in point form is:
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒏
⏟ 𝑷𝟎 𝑷 = 0
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰
⃗⃗ = (−4,5, −2) and use 𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) = (−2,8,5) and 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) to find:
Note that ⏟
𝒏
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⏟𝟎 𝑷 = (𝑥 + 2, 𝑦 − 8, 𝑧 − 5)
𝑷
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰𝑰

Substitute Equation II and III in Equation I to get the Vector equation in point form:
(−4,5, −2) ∙ (𝑥 + 2, 𝑦 − 8, 𝑧 − 5) = 0

Cartesian Form
To convert to the Cartesian form, expand the LHS using the dot product definition:
−4(𝑥 + 2) + 5(𝑦 − 8) − 2(𝑧 − 5) = 0

2.109: Parallel Planes: Converse

If two planes are parallel:
➢ Normal Vectors have equivalent direction ratios
➢ Normal Vectors have equal direction cosines
➢ Cross product of normal vectors is zero
➢ Normal vector of one plane is a scalar multiple of the other

Example 2.110
The plane 𝑃 passes through the point (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) and is parallel to the plane 𝒓
⃗⃗ ∙ (1,1,1) = 2. Write the Vector and
Cartesian equations of 𝑃 in point form. (CBSE 2014, Adapted)

⃗⃗ ∙ (1,1,1) = 2 is parallel to plane 𝑃. Since the two planes are parallel, the direction ratios of
We have that plane 𝒓
their normal vectors are equivalent. Hence, the direction ratios of the normal vector to plane 𝑃 are:
⃗⃗ = (1,1,1)
𝒏

Vector Form
The Vector equation of a plane in point form is:
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒏
⏟ 𝑷𝟎 𝑷 = 0
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰
⃗⃗ = (1,1,1) and use 𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) = (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) and 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) to find:
Note that ⏟
𝒏
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰

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⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⏟𝟎 𝑷 = (𝑥 − 𝑎, 𝑦 − 𝑏, 𝑧 − 𝑐)
𝑷
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰𝑰

Substitute Equation II and III in Equation I to get the Vector equation in point form:
(1,1,1) ∙ (𝑥 − 𝑎, 𝑦 − 𝑏, 𝑧 − 𝑐) = 0

Cartesian Form
To convert to Cartesian form, expand the LHS using the dot product definition:
(𝑥 − 𝑎) + (𝑦 − 𝑏) + (𝑧 − 𝑐) = 0

2.5 Planes: General Form

A. General Form

2.111: General Form: Cartesian Equation:

𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝐷

Begin with the Cartesian Equation in Point Form:

𝐴(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝐵(𝑦 − 𝑦0 ) + 𝐶(𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) = 0
Open the parentheses
𝐴𝑥 − 𝐴𝑥0 + 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐵𝑦0 + 𝐶𝑧 − 𝐶𝑧0 = 0
Move the constant terms to the RHS to get:
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝐴𝑥0 + 𝐵𝑦0 + 𝐶𝑧0
Use a change of variables. Substitute 𝐷 = 𝐴𝑥0 + 𝐵𝑦0 + 𝐶𝑧0 to get:
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝐷

Example 2.112
Write a Cartesian equation in general form for the plane that contains the point 𝐴 = (4,5, −3) and that is
perpendicular to the line through 𝐵 = (5, −2, −2) and 𝐶 = (7,1,4). (Phillips Exeter, Math-3, 2021/548)

The normal vector is:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑩 = (5 − 7, −2 − 1, −2 − 4) = (−2, −3, −6) = −(2,3,6)
Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be a general point on the plane.
Dot product of normal vector and a vector on the plane is zero:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑪𝑩
⏟ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨𝑷
⏟ =𝟎
𝑵𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝑽𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒏
𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆
−(2,3,6) ∙ (𝑥 − 4, 𝑦 − 5, 𝑧 + 3) = 0
Use the dot product:
(2)(𝑥 − 4) + (3)(𝑦 − 5) + (6)(𝑧 + 3) = 0
Expand:
2𝑥 − 8 + 3𝑦 − 5 + 6𝑧 + 18 = 0
Simplify:
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 5

Example 2.113
𝑥−2 𝑦−1 𝑧+5
Find the value of 𝜆 such that the line 6
= 𝜆
= −4
is perpendicular to the plane 3𝑥 − 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 7. (CBSE
2010)

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The normal vector to the plane 3𝑥 − 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 7 is

(3, −1, −2)

The direction ratios of the given line are:

(6, 𝜆, −4)

Since the line is perpendicular to the plane, its direction ratios are proportional to the normal vector:
2(3, −1, −2) = (6, −2, −4) = (6, 𝜆, −4)

𝜆 = −2

2.114: General Form: Vector Equation

⃗⃗ is a vector normal to the plane, 𝒓
If 𝒏 ⃗⃗ is a point on the plane, and 𝐷 is a scalar, then the general form of the
vector equation of a plane is:
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒓
𝒏 ⃗⃗ = 𝐷

Begin with the Cartesian Equation of a plane in general form:

𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝐷
Convert this into vector form as well:
(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ∙ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐷
⃗⃗ = (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶), 𝒓
Substitute 𝒏 ⃗⃗ = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧):
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒓
𝒏 ⃗⃗ = 𝐷

Example 2.115
(1,2, −3) ∙ (𝑥 − 3, 𝑦 − 7, 𝑧 + 4) = 0
In the equation of the plane above, identify:
A. The direction ratios of a vector normal to the plane.
B. A point on the plane

𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑠 = (1,2, −3)

𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 = 𝑃0 = (3,7, −4)

Example 2.116
Write the vector equation of the line passing through (1,2,3) and perpendicular to the plane ⃗𝒓⃗ ∙ (1,2, −5) + 9 =
0. (CBSE 2015)

The vector equation of a line is:

⃗⃗ = 𝒂
𝒓 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ + 𝜆𝒃
⃗⃗ = (1,2,3), ⃗𝒃⃗ = (1,2, −5) in
Substitute 𝒂
⃗𝒓⃗ = (1,2,3) + 𝜆(1,2, −5)

Example 2.117
Find the equation of the plane passing through the points 𝑃(8,3, −2), 𝑄(−2, −5, −1) and 𝑅(2, −4,3).

Find a normal vector

Let the normal vector to the plane be ⃗𝒏⃗ = (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐). Then ⃗𝒏⃗ must be perpendicular to any vector in the plane.
And hence their dot product must be zero:

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⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ∙ (−10, −8,1) = −10𝑎 − 8𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0

(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) ∙ 𝑷𝑸
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) ∙ (−6, −7,5) = −6𝑎 − 7𝑏 + 5𝑐 = 0
(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) ∙ 𝑷𝑹

There are three equations and two variables. Let 𝑎 = 1 in the above system:
−10 − 8𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0
−6 − 7𝑏 + 5𝑐 = 0
Solving the above system gives us the values 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 and hence the direction ratios of the normal vector:
4 2
(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) = [1, − , − ]
3 3
Find the Constant
4 2
Substitute 𝑃(8,3, −2) and the normal (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) = [1, − , − ] into the equation of a plane to find 𝐷:
3 3
4 2 16
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝐷 ⇒ 1(8) + (− ) (3) − ( ) (−2) = =𝐷
3 3 3
Find the Equation of the Plane
4 2 16
Substitute (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) = [1, − 3 , − 3] and 𝐷 =
into the equation of a plane:
3
4 2 16
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝐷 ⇒ 1𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑧 = ⇒ 3𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 16
3 3 3

A. In the above solution, after finding the equations −10𝑎 − 8𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0 and −6𝑎 − 7𝑏 + 5𝑐 = 0, we
substituted 𝑎 = 1. Why did we choose 1? Can you substitute any other value?
B. In the system of the equations, if you substitute 𝑎 = 0, what values of 𝑏 and 𝑐 do you get? Are they
correct? How do you interpret them?

Part A
There are two parts to this question. The first is, why is the substitution valid.
From an algebraic point of view:
There are three variables and two equations. Hence, you will not be to arrive at a unique solution. Hence, it
makes sense to substitute one variable.

From the geometry point of view:

There will be an infinite number of normal vectors, and two equations in three variables is enough to give us the
direction ratios, but not a unique vector.

The second part is, why choose 𝑎 = 1 as the substitution.

We choose 𝑎 = 1 to make the calculations simple.

Part B
Try making the substitution 𝑎 = 0:
−8𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0 ⇒ 𝑐 = 8𝑏
7
−7𝑏 + 5𝑐 = 0 ⇒ 𝑐 = − 𝑏
5

7
8𝑏 = − 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑏 = 0 ⇒ 𝑐 = 0
5
We get
𝑏=𝑐=0

We are looking for the normal vector. The normal vector gives us the direction ratios. If 𝑎 = 0, then the change
in the 𝑥 −direction is zero, and hence (in this case), the change in the other two directions is also zero.

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The information that we get is correct, but not useful to us for determining the normal vector.

B. Perpendicular Planes

2.118: Perpendicular Planes

Planes are perpendicular when:
➢ The dot product of their normal vectors is zero

For two vectors to be perpendicular their normal vectors must be perpendicular to each other. Hence, checking
their dot product is sufficient.

Example 2.119
Consider plane 𝑃. Is a plane perpendicular to 𝑃 and one point on 𝑃 sufficient to define 𝑃?

Suppose P is perpendicular to the (𝑥, 𝑦) coordinate plane, and it passes through (0,0,0).
However, if you rotate you will get an infinite number of planes.

Example 2.120
Write the equation for a plane perpendicular to −4𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 37, and passing through (−2,8,5).

Find the normal vector

Let the normal vector be (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐). Then we know that:
(−4,5,
⏟ −2) ∙ (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) = 0
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰
Since we have only one equation in three variables, we can substitute any value that we want for the first two,
and find the corresponding value of the third.
Specifically, substitute 𝑎=1, 𝑏=1 in Equation I:
(−4,5, −2) ∙ (1,1, 𝑐) = 0
Expand using the dot product definition and solve for 𝑐:
1
−4 + 5 − 2𝑐 = 0 ⇒ 𝑐 =
2
Find the equation of the plane
The Cartesian equation of a plane in point form is:
𝐴(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝐵(𝑦 − 𝑦0 ) + 𝐶(𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) = 0

Substitute the normal vector:

1
(1,1, ) ∙ (𝑥 + 2, 𝑦 − 8, 𝑧 − 5) = 0
2
(𝑥 + 2) + (𝑦 − 8) + (0.5𝑧 − 2.5) = 0
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 13

Is the answer you have found a unique plane.

No.

Example 2.121
Write the equation for the plane perpendicular to −4𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 37, and passing through (−2,8,5) and
(1,1,1).

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Use the normal vector to find one equation

Let the normal vector be (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐). Then we know that:
(−4,5, −2) ∙ (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) = 0
Substitute 𝑎 = 1 in Equation I:
(−4,5, −2) ∙ (1, 𝑏, 𝑐) = 0
Expand using the dot product definition and solve for 𝑐:
−4 + 5𝑏 − 2𝑐 = 0
⏟
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰

Use a vector that lies on the plane to find another equation

Substitute the normal vector in 𝐴(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝐵(𝑦 − 𝑦0 ) + 𝐶(𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) = 0
(1, 𝑏, 𝑐) ∙ (−2 − 1,8 − 1,5 − 1) = 0
(1, 𝑏, 𝑐) ∙ (−3,7,4) = 0
−3 + 7𝑏 + 4𝑐 = 0
⏟
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰

Solve the system of equations

Multiply Equation I by 2 to get ⏟
−8 + 10𝑏 − 4𝑐 = 0 and add Equations II and III:
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰𝑰
11
−11 + 15𝑏 = 0 ⇒ 𝑏 =
15
11
Substitute 𝑏 = in Equation I:
15
11 9
−4 + 5 ( ) − 2𝑐 = 0 ⇒ −9 − 4𝑐 = 0 ⇒ 𝑐 =
15 4

Find the equation of the plane

11 9
⃗⃗ = (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) = (1,
Hence, substitute 𝒏 , ) , 𝑃0 (1,1,1) in 𝐴(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝐵(𝑦 − 𝑦0 ) + 𝐶(𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) = 0
15 4
11 9
(1, , ) ∙ (𝑥 − 1, 𝑦 − 1, 𝑧 − 1) = 0
15 4

Is the answer you have found a unique plane.

Yes.

C. Intersection of Two Planes

2.122: Intersection of Two Planes

The intersection of two distinct planes is always a line.

Example 2.123
The intersection of two planes is:
A.

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Example 2.124
Find the equation of the line where the plane 2𝑥 − 𝑦 − 4𝑧 = 8 and 4𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 10 intersect.

Substitute 𝑧 = 0, and solve the resulting system of equations in 2 variables:

(3, −2,0)
Substitute 𝑧 = 1, and solve the resulting system of equations in 2 variables:
10 16
( , − , 1)
3 3
Direction Vector:
10 16 1 10
(3 − , −2 + , 0 − 1) = (− , , −1)
3 3 3 3

1 10
Substitute 𝒂 ⃗⃗ = (− ,
⃗⃗ = (3, −2,0), 𝒃 , −1) in the equation of a line:
3 3
1 10 𝜆 10𝜆
⃗⃗ = 𝒂
𝒓 ⃗⃗ = (3, −2,0) + 𝜆 (− , , −1) = (3 − , −2 +
⃗⃗ + 𝜆𝒃 , −𝜆)
3 3 3 3

D. Intersection of Line and Plane

Example 2.125
𝑥−2 𝑦+1 𝑧−12
15: Find the distance between the point (−1, −5, −10) and the point of intersection of the line 3
= 4
= 2
and the plane 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 5. (CBSE 2015)

Example 2.126
Which point on the plane 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 98 is closest to the origin?

The point on the plane closest to any point lies on the line
perpendicular to that point. The vector of coefficients (2,3,6) is
perpendicular to the plane.
∴ Both the origin, and (2,3,6) lie on the line perpendicular to the plane.

The vector equation of a line is

𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑃 + 𝑡𝒗, where P = (0,0,0), 𝐯 = (2,3,6)
𝒓 = (0,0,0) + 𝑡(2,3,6)
𝒓 = 𝑡(2,3,6)
̂
𝑥𝒊 + 𝑦𝒋 + 𝑧𝒌 = 2𝑡𝒊̂ + 3𝑡𝒋̂ + 6𝑡𝒌
Equating coefficients gives us:
𝑥 = 2𝑡, 𝑦 = 3𝑡, 𝑧 = 6𝑡
We find the intersection of the line and the plane. Substituting the
above in the equation of the plane 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 98:
2(2𝑡) + 3(3𝑡) + 6(6𝑡) = 98 ⇒ 49𝑡 = 98 ⇒ 𝑡 = 2
Hence,
𝑥 = 2𝑡 = 4, 𝑦 = 3𝑡 = 6, 𝑧 = 6𝑡 = 12 ⇒ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (4,9,12)
And this is the point on the plane closest to the origin.

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E. Distance of a Point from a Plane

(Calculator) Example 2.127

Find the shortest distance from (−1.2, −12.5,6.1) to the plane 2𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 𝑧 = −8.

The point on the plane closest to any point lies on the line perpendicular to
that point.
The vector of coefficients (2,5, −1) is perpendicular to the plane.
∴ Both (−1.2, −12.5,6.1), and (2,5,-1) lie on the line perpendicular to the
plane.

Substitute P = (−1.2, −12.5,6.1), 𝐯 = (2,5, −1) in the equation of a line:

⃗⃗ = (−1.2, −12.5,6.1) + 𝑡(2,5, −1)
𝒓
(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (−1.2 + 2𝑡, −12.5 + 5𝑡, 6.1 − 𝑡)

Find the intersection of the line and the plane. Substituting the above in the
equation of the plane 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 98:
2(−1.2 + 2𝑡) + 5(−12.5 + 5𝑡) − 1(6.1 − 𝑡) = −8 ⇒ 𝑡 = 2.1
Hence,
(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (−1.2 + 2𝑡, −12.5 + 5𝑡, 6.1 − 𝑡) = (3, −2,4)

Use the distance formula to find the distance between (−1.2, −12.5,6.1) and (3, −2,4)
𝑑 = √(−1.2 − 3)2 + (−12.5 + 2)2 + (6.1 − 4)2 = 11.502

2.128: Distance of a Point from a Plane

The distance of the point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) from the plane 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝐷 is
𝐴𝑥1 + 𝐵𝑦1 + 𝐶𝑧1 − 𝐷
| |
√𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2

The points (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) lie on a line perpendicular to the plane with equation:
(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) + 𝜆(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) = (𝑥1 + 𝜆𝐴, 𝑦1 + 𝜆𝐵, 𝑧1 + 𝜆𝐶)

Substitute the above into 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝐷 to determine the point of intersection of the line and the plane:
𝐴(𝑥1 + 𝜆𝐴) + 𝐵(𝑦1 + 𝜆𝐵) + 𝐶(𝑧1 + 𝜆𝐶) = 𝐷
Move the constants to the other side, and factor 𝜆 on the LHS:
𝜆(𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2 ) = 𝐷 − 𝐴𝑥1 − 𝐵𝑦1 − 𝐶𝑧1
Solve for 𝜆:
𝐷 − 𝐴𝑥1 − 𝐵𝑦1 − 𝐶𝑧1
𝜆=
⏟ 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰

We now want to find the distance between the points for the value of 𝜆 above.
(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥1 + 𝜆𝐴, 𝑦1 + 𝜆𝐵, 𝑧1 + 𝜆𝐶)
By the distance formula, the distance is:
√(𝑥1 − 𝑥1 + 𝜆𝐴)2 + (𝑦1 − 𝑦1 + 𝜆𝐵)2 + (𝑧1 − 𝑧1 + 𝜆𝐶)2
This simplifies to:
√(𝜆𝐴)2 + (𝜆𝐵)2 + (𝜆𝐶)2
Which on expansion gives:

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√𝜆2 (𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2 ) = |𝜆|√(𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2 )

Substitute the value of 𝜆 from Equation I:
𝐷 − 𝐴𝑥1 + 𝐵𝑦1 + 𝐶𝑧1
| | √(𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2 )
𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2
Which simplifies to:
𝐷 − 𝐴𝑥1 − 𝐵𝑦1 − 𝐶𝑧1
| |
√(𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2 )
And using the property that |𝑥| = |−𝑥|, we get the expression
𝐴𝑥1 + 𝐵𝑦1 + 𝐶𝑧1 − 𝐷
| |
√𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2
Which is what we wanted to show.

10

Example 2.129
The formula that we found above is for distance of a point from a plane. We had earlier found a formula for the
distance of a plane from the origin. What is the connection between the two formulas. Justify.

Note that
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 1 =
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 2 =
Substitute the coordinates of the origin (0,0,0) in the formula for the distance of a point from a plane:

And we get the formula that we had earlier.

Hence, Formula 1 is a special case of Formula 2.

2.6 Planes: Normal Form

A. Normal Form

2.130: Revision: Direction Angles and Direction

Cosines
If 𝑂 is the origin, then the angles made by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑶𝑷 with the positive
direction of the axes are the direction angles. The cosines of the
direction angles are the direction cosines:
𝑥
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 𝑙 = = cos 𝛼
|𝒓⃗⃗|
𝑦
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 𝑚 = = cos 𝛽
|𝒓 ⃗⃗|
𝑧
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑧 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 𝑛 = = cos 𝛾
|𝒓⃗⃗|

Sum of squares of direction cosines is one:

𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 = 1

Example 2.131
Convert the direction ratios (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) to direction cosines.

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Divide by the magnitude of the direction ratio vector.

(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶)
(𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) →
⏟
𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2
⏟
𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒔 𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔

2.132: Normal Form: Cartesian Equation:

𝑙𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑛𝑧 = 𝑝

Begin with the Cartesian equation of a plane in general form:

𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝐷
Divide both sides by the magnitude of the direction ratio vector to convert the direction ratios to direction
cosines:
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
𝑥+ 𝑦+ 𝑧=
2 2
√𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 2 2 2
√𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 2 2
√𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶2 2 √𝐴 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2
2

Since each the coefficients on the LHS are direction cosines, use the conventional notation (𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛) for them,
𝐷
and let = 𝑝:
√𝐴2 +𝐵2+𝐶 2
𝑙𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑛𝑧 = 𝑝

Example 2.133
Write the plane 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = 3 in normal form.

Divide both sides by the magnitude of the direction ratio vector = √22 + (−3)2 + 12 = √14:
2 3 𝑧 3
𝑥− 𝑦+ =
√14 √14 √14 √14

2.134: Distance of a Plane from the Origin

The distance of a plane in normal form (𝑙𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑛𝑧 = 𝑝, 𝑝 > 0) from the origin is
𝑝

𝑥
𝑙= = cos 𝛼 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑙 |𝒓
⃗⃗|
|𝒓
⃗⃗|
𝑦
𝑚= = cos 𝛽 ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑚|𝒓 ⃗⃗|
|𝒓
⃗⃗|
𝑧
𝑛= = cos 𝛾 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑛|𝒓 ⃗⃗|
|𝒓
⃗⃗|

The equation of a plane in normal form is:

𝑙𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑛𝑧 = 𝑝
⃗⃗|, 𝑦 = 𝑚|𝒓
Substitute 𝑥 = 𝑙|𝒓 ⃗⃗|, 𝑧 = 𝑛|𝒓
⃗⃗| in the above:
⃗⃗|) + 𝑚(𝑚|𝒓
𝑙(𝑙|𝒓 ⃗⃗|) + 𝑛(𝑛|𝒓 ⃗⃗|) = 𝑝
Multiply:
𝑙 2 |𝒓
⃗⃗| + 𝑚2 |𝒓 ⃗⃗| + 𝑛2 |𝒓
⃗⃗| = 𝑝
Factor |𝒓⃗⃗|:
|𝒓⃗⃗|(𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 ) = 𝑝
Since 𝑙, 𝑚 and 𝑛 are the direction cosines and the sum of their squares is 1, substitute 𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 = 1
|𝒓
⃗⃗| = 𝑝

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⃗⃗ is the vector perpendicular to the plane with tail at the origin and origin and tip at the plane.
And recall that 𝒓
Hence
⃗⃗ = |𝒓
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝒓 ⃗⃗| = 𝑝 = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛

Example 2.135
A. Determine the distance of the plane 𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 7 from the origin.
B. 12: Write the distance of the following plane from the origin: 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 + 1 = 0. (CBSE 2010)
C. Find the length of the perpendicular drawn from the origin to the plane 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 6𝑧 + 21 = 0 from the
origin. (CBSE 2011)

Part A
Divide both sides by the magnitude of the direction ratio vector = √12 + (−4)2 + 22 = √21:
𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 2𝑧 7 7
= ⇒ 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
√21 √21 √21
Part B
2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = −1
Divide both sides by the magnitude of the direction ratio vector = √22 + (−1)2 + 22 = √9 = 3:
2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 1
=−
3 3
Distance is
1 1
|− | =
3 3

Part C
The length of the perpendicular to the plane from the origin is just the distance of the plane from the origin.
−2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 6𝑧 = 21
Divide both sides by the magnitude of the direction ratio vector = √(−2)2 + 32 + (−6)2 = √49 = 7:
−2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 6𝑧
=3
7
Distance from the origin
=3

2.136: Distance of a Plane from the Origin (General Cartesian Form)

The distance of the plane 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝐷 from the origin is
𝐷
√𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2

Begin with the Cartesian equation of a plane in general form:

𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝐷
Divide both sides by the magnitude of the direction ratio vector to convert the direction ratios to direction
cosines:
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
𝑥+ 𝑦+ 𝑧=
√𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2 √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2 √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2 √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2

Since each the coefficients on the LHS are direction cosines, use the conventional notation (𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛) for them, d
𝐷
let = 𝑝:
√𝐴2 +𝐵2 +𝐶 2

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𝐷
𝑙𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑛𝑧 =
√𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2

Since the above is in normal, the distance from the origin is:
𝐷
√𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2

2.137: Normal Form: Vector Equation:

̂∙𝒓
𝒏 ⃗⃗ = 𝑝

Begin with the Cartesian equation of a plane in normal form:

𝑙𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑛𝑧 = 𝑝
Factor and rewrite the LHS as the dot product of two vectors:
(𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛) ∙ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑝
Since 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛 are direction cosines 𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 = 1 , and hence (𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛) is a unit vector.
⃗⃗ = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧).
Let 𝒓
Then, the above equation becomes:
̂∙𝒓
𝒏 ⃗⃗ = 𝑝

Concept Check 2.138

A. What is the difference between the general form, and the normal form of the equation of a plane?
B. How do you convert the equation of a plane from general form to normal form?

Part A
➢ The LHS of the normal form has a unit vector multiplying the vector (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), whereas the general form
has some non-zero multiple of it.
➢ The RHS of the normal form indicates the distance from the origin, but this may not be true in the
general form.
Part B
Divide both sides by the magnitude of the direction ratios.

Example 2.139
A. Find the vector equation of a plane which is a distance of 5 units from the origin, and its normal vector
is (2, −3,6). (CBSE 2016)
B. Write the vector equation of a plane which is at a distance of 5√3 from the origin and the normal to
which is equally inclined to the coordinate axes. (CBSE 2016)

Part A
̂∙𝒓
𝒏 ⃗⃗ = 𝑝
⃗⃗
𝒏
⃗⃗ = 𝑝
∙𝒓
|𝒏
⃗⃗|
(2, −3,6)
⃗⃗ = 5
∙𝒓
√22 + (−3)2 + 62
(2, −3,6) ∙ 𝒓
⃗⃗ = 5√49
(2, −3,6) ∙ 𝒓⃗⃗ = 35
Part B
The direction cosines meet the constraint:
𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 = 1

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Since they are equal:

1 1
3𝑙 2 = 1 ⇒ 𝑙 2 = ⇒𝑙=
3 √3
1
Substitute 𝑙 = 𝑚 = 𝑛 = ̂
in 𝒏 ⃗⃗ = 𝑝:
∙𝒓
√3
1 1 1
( , , ⃗⃗ = 5√3
)∙𝒓
√3 √3 √3
Multiply by √3 on both sides:
(1,1,1) ∙ 𝒓
⃗⃗ = 15

2.140: Distance between Two Parallel Planes: Normal Form

Given two parallel planes in normal form 𝑃1 : 𝑙𝑚 + 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑛𝑧 = 𝑝1 , and 𝑃2 : 𝑙𝑚 + 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑛𝑧 = 𝑝2 , the distance
between them is:
|𝑝1 − 𝑝2 |

Now the distance of 𝑃1 from the origin is |𝑝1 |. And the distance of 𝑃2 from the origin is |𝑝2 |.

Hence, the origin, the closest point of 𝑃1 from the origin, and the closest point of 𝑃2 from the origin lie on a
straight line.

And, hence, the distance between the two planes is:

|𝑝1 − 𝑝2 |

Concept Check 2.141

Does the formula |𝑝1 − 𝑝2 | cover the case where the two planes lie on opposite sides of the origin.

Yes, it does cover that case.

𝑙𝑚 + 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑛𝑧 = 3
𝑙𝑚 + 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑛𝑧 = −5

|3 − (−5)| = 8

Example 2.142
Find the distance between the planes given below:
1 2 2
𝑥− 𝑦+ 𝑧=7
5 √5 5
1 2 2
𝑥− 𝑦 + 𝑧 = −12
5 √5 5

Check the sum of the direction ratios:

1 2 2 2 2 2 1 4 4 4 5 4 1 1
( ) +( ) +( ) = + + = + = + =
5 √5 5 25 5 25 5 25 5 5 5

Since the sum is 1, the equations are already in normal form, and hence the distance between the planes is:
|𝑝1 − 𝑝2 | = |7 − (−12)| = 19

Example 2.143
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝐷1

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𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 𝐷
=
√𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2 √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2

𝑞𝐴𝑥 + 𝑞𝐵𝑦 + 𝑞𝐶𝑧 = 𝐷2

√(𝑞𝐴)2 + (𝑞𝐵)2 + (𝑞𝐶)2 = √𝑞 2 𝐴2 + 𝑞 2 𝐵2 + 𝑞 2 𝐶 2 = √𝑞 2 (𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2 ) = |𝑞|√𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2

𝑞𝐴𝑥 + 𝑞𝐵𝑦 + 𝑞𝐶𝑧 𝐷2

=
|𝑞|√𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶2 |𝑞|√𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2

Hence, if the direction ratios are scaled by a factor of 𝑞, the magnitude of the normal vector is also scaled by 𝑞.

Example 2.144
1 3
The two planes 𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 7𝑧 = 𝑝1 and 𝑥 − 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑝2 are parallel. Let the distance between the planes be
3 5
𝐷. Find 𝐷 + 𝑏 + 𝑐.

The magnitude of the direction ratio vector:

1 2 1 586 √586
√( ) + (−4)2 + 72 = √ + 16 + 49 = √ =
3 9 9 3

Instead of dividing both sides by the magnitude, multiply both sides by the reciprocal of the number above:

3 1
( ) ( 𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 7𝑧)
√586 3 =
3
× 𝑝1
√586 √586
3

1 3 9
𝑎= ⇒𝑎=
3 5 5

9 1 3 36 63 3
( , −4,7) = ( , − , ) = ( , 𝑏, 𝑐)
5 3 5 5 5 5

36 63
𝑏=− ,𝑐 =
5 5

3 36 63
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 𝑝2
5 5 5
√586 9 3√586
Divide both sides by the magnitude of the direction vector 3 × 5 = 5 :
5 3 36 63 5
( ) ( 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧) = × 𝑝2
3√586 5 5 5 3√586

The distance between the planes is:

3𝑝1 5𝑝2
| − |
√586 3√586
Finally, the quantity that we want is:
3𝑝1 5𝑝2 36 63 3𝑝1 5𝑝2 27
𝐷+𝑏+𝑐 =| − |− + =| − |+
√586 3√586 5 5 √586 3√586 5

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11

Example 2.145
1: Find the distance between the planes 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 5 and 5𝑥 − 2.5𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 20. (CBSE 2017)

12

Example 2.146
Find the distance between two parallel planes in general form. Assume variables as necessary.

Two planes are parallel when their normal vectors are oriented in the same direction. Hence, we can write the
planes in general form as:
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝐷1
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝐷2

Converting the above from general form to normal form:

𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 𝐷1
=
√𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2 √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 𝐷2
=
2 2
√𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 2 √𝐴 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2
2

Since the above are now in normal form, the distance between them is:
𝐷1 𝐷2
| − |
2 2
√𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 2 √𝐴 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2
2
Which simplifies to:
𝐷1 − 𝐷2
=| |
√𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2

Do you need to remember the “formula” above?

No. It is better to convert to normal form, and use the simpler formula.

2.7 Planes: Intercept Form

A. Intercept Form

2.147: Intercept Form: Cartesian Equation

If (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) are the 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑧 intercepts respectively of a plane, then it has equation:
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
+ + =1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

Begin with the Cartesian equation of a plane in general form:

𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝐷
⏟
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰

At the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠, we must have 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 0, which when we substitute in the above equation:
𝐷
𝐴𝑥 + 0𝑦 + 0𝑧 = 𝐷 ⇒ 𝐴𝑥 = 𝐷 ⇒ 𝑥 =
𝐴
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Similarly:
𝐷
𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡: 0𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 0𝑧 = 𝐷 ⇒ 𝐵𝑦 = 𝐷 ⇒ 𝑦 =
𝐵
𝐷
𝑧 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡: 0𝑥 + 0𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝐷 ⇒ 𝐶𝑧 = 𝐷 ⇒ 𝑧 =
𝐶

Hence, we say that the intercepts are:

𝐷 𝐷 𝐷
𝑥= ,𝑦 = ,𝑧 =
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶

Now go back to Equation I (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝐷) and divide both sides by D:

𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐶𝑧 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
+ + =1⇒ + + =1
𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝐷 𝐷 𝐷
Use a change of variable. Substitute 𝐴 = 𝑎, 𝐵 = 𝑏, 𝐶 = 𝑐:
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
+ + =1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
Which is the intercept form of the equation of the plane with (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) as the 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑧 intercepts respectively.

Example 2.148
3 2 5
What is the sum of the intercepts that the plane 5 𝑥 + 3 𝑦 − 9 𝑧 = 11 makes with the axes?

3 2 5
𝑥+ 𝑦− 𝑧=1
55 33 99
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
+ 𝑦− 𝑧=1
55 33 99
3 2 5
Sum of the intercepts is:
55 33 99 550 495 594 451
+ − = + − =
3 2 5 30 30 30 30

Example 2.149
Find the sum of the intercepts cut off by the plane 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 5 on the coordinate axes. (CBSE 2015, 2011)

Divide both sides by 5:

2𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
+ − =1
5 5 5
Write the equation in intercept form:
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
+ − =1
5 5 5
2
Sum of intercepts
5 5
= +5−5=
2 2

2.150: Intercept Form: Vector Equation

⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒓
𝒏 ⃗⃗ = 1

Begin with the Cartesian equation of a plane in intercept form:

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𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
+ + =1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
Factor:
1 1 1
( , , ) ∙ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
1 1 1
⃗⃗ = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
⃗⃗ = ( , , ) , 𝒓
Substitute 𝒏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒓
𝒏 ⃗⃗ = 1

Example 2.151
A. Find the vector equation of the plane with intercepts 3, −4 and 2 on 𝑋, 𝑌 and 𝑍 axes. (CBSE 2016)
⃗⃗ ∙ (2,1, −1) − 5 = 0 on the three axes. (CBSE 2015)
B. Write the sum of intercepts cut off by the plane 𝒓
2 3 5 1
⃗⃗ ∙ ( , − , ) − = 0 on the three axes.
C. Find the intercepts cut off by the plane 𝒓 3 5 7 3

Part A The sum is:

1 1 1 5 5
( , , ) ∙ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 1 +5−5=
3 −4 2 2 2
⃗⃗ = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
Substitute 𝒓 Part C
(4, −3,6) ∙ 𝒓 ⃗⃗ = 12 2 3 5 1
⃗⃗ ∙ ( , − , ) =
𝒓
Part B 3 5 7 3
⃗⃗ ∙ (2,1, −1) = 5
𝒓 Multiply by 3 both sides:
2 1 1 9 15
⃗⃗ ∙ ( , , − ) = 1
𝒓 ⃗⃗ ∙ (2, − , ) = 1
𝒓
5 5 5 5 7
The intercepts are then the reciprocals of the The intercepts are then the reciprocals of the
direction ratios: direction ratios:
5 1 5 7
𝑥 = , 𝑦 = 5, 𝑧 = −5 𝑥 = ,𝑦 = − ,𝑧 =
2 2 9 15

B. Revision

2.152: Plane Equations: Summary

➢ ⃗⃗ = 𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) is a point on the plane
𝒓
➢ 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is a general point on the plane
➢ ⃗⃗ = (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) is a vector normal to the plane
𝒏
➢ ̂ is a unit vector in the direction of 𝒏
𝒏 ⃗⃗
➢ (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶) are the direction ratios of the normal to the plane
➢ (𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛) are the direction cosines of the normal to the plane
➢ (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) are the intercepts of the plane on the 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 axes respectively

Form 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Point ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒏 𝑷𝟎 𝑷 = 0 𝐴(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝐵(𝑦 − 𝑦0 ) + 𝐶(𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) = 0
General ⃗𝒏⃗ ∙ ⃗𝒓⃗ = 𝐷 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝐷
Normal ̂∙𝒓
𝒏 ⃗⃗ = 𝑝 𝑙𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑛𝑧 = 𝑝
Intercept ⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒓
𝒏 ⃗⃗ = 1 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
+ + =1
Form 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

Concept Check 2.153

How do you convert the Cartesian Equation:

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A. general form to normal form

B. general form to intercept form
C. Point form to general form
D. Point form to normal form
E. Point form to intercept form
F. Normal form to general form
G. Normal form to intercept form
H. Intercept Form to General Form

Part A
Divide both sides of 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝐷 by the magnitude of the normal vector = √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2 to get:
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
𝑥+ 𝑦+ 𝑧=
√𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2 √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2 √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2 √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 𝐶 2

Part B
Divide both sides of 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 = 𝐷 by 𝐷 to get:
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
𝑥+ 𝑦+ 𝑧=1⇒ + + =1
𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
Part C
Expand the LHS, simplify and send the constant to the RHS

Part D
Convert to general form, and then convert from general form to point form.

Part E
Convert to general form, and then convert from general form to point intercept.

Part F
Multiply on both sides by any non-zero quantity

Part G
𝑙 𝑚 𝑛
Divide both sides of 𝑙𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑛𝑧 = 𝑝 by 𝑝 to get 𝑝 𝑥 + 𝑝
𝑦 +𝑝𝑧 = 1

Part H
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
Multiply sides of 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 1 by 𝑎𝑏𝑐 to get:
𝑏𝑐𝑥 + 𝑎𝑐𝑦 + 𝑎𝑏𝑧 = 1
𝐴 = 𝑏𝑐, 𝐵 = 𝑎𝑐, 𝐶 = 𝑎𝑏

Example 2.154
Plane 𝑃 is parallel to −4𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 37 and passes through (−2,8,5). Write the Vector and Cartesian
equations of 𝑃 in point form, general form, normal form and intercept form.

Point Form
The Vector equation of a plane in point form is:
⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒏
⏟ 𝑷𝟎 𝑷 = 0
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰
⃗ = (−4,5, −2) and use 𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) = (−2,8,5) and 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) to find:
⃗⏟
Note that 𝒏
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰

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⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⏟𝟎 𝑷 = (𝑥 + 2, 𝑦 − 8, 𝑧 − 5)
𝑷
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰𝑰

Substitute Equation II and III in Equation I to get the Vector equation in point form:
(−4,5, −2) ∙ (𝑥 + 2, 𝑦 − 8, 𝑧 − 5) = 0
To convert to the Cartesian form, expand the LHS using the dot product definition:
−4(𝑥 + 2) + 5(𝑦 − 8) − 2(𝑧 − 5) = 0

General Form
To convert to general form, use the distributive property on the LHS:
(−4𝑥 − 8) + (5𝑦 − 40) + (−2𝑧 + 10) = 0
Simplify to get the Cartesian equation in general form:
−4𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 38
Factor to get the vector version:
(−4,5, −2) ∙ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 38

Normal Form
The magnitude of the normal vector is:
√(−4)2 + 52 + (−22 ) = √45 = 3√5
To convert to normal form, divide both sides of the Cartesian equation from above by the magnitude of the
normal vector:
4 5 2 38
− 𝑥+ 𝑦− 𝑧=
3√5 3√5 3√5 3√5
Factor to get the vector form:
4 5 2 38
(− , ,− ) ∙ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) =
3√5 3√5 3√5 3√5
Intercept Form
To convert to intercept form, divide both sides of the Cartesian equation in general form by 38:
4 5 2
− 𝑥+ 𝑦− 𝑧=1
38 38 38
Rearrange in intercept form:
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
+ 𝑦+− =1
19 38 −19
−
2 5
Factor to get the vector version:
1 1 1
( , , ) ∙ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 1
19 38 −19
− 2
5

Example 2.155
The plane 𝑃 passes through the point (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) and is parallel to the plane 𝒓
⃗⃗ ∙ (1,1,1) = 2. Write the Vector and
Cartesian equations of 𝑃 in point form, general form, normal form and intercept form. (CBSE 2014, Adapted)

⃗⃗ ∙ (1,1,1) = 2 is parallel to plane 𝑃. Since the two planes are parallel, the direction ratios of
We have that plane 𝒓
their normal vectors are equivalent. Hence, the direction ratios of the normal vector to plane 𝑃 are:
⃗⃗ = (1,1,1)
𝒏

Point Form
The Vector equation of a plane in point form is:

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⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⏟
𝒏 𝑷𝟎 𝑷 = 0
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰
⃗⃗ = (1,1,1) and use 𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) = (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) and 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) to find:
Note that ⏟
𝒏
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑷𝟎 𝑷 = (𝑥 − 𝑎, 𝑦 − 𝑏, 𝑧 − 𝑐)
⏟
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰𝑰

Substitute Equation II and III in Equation I to get the Vector equation in point form:
(1,1,1) ∙ (𝑥 − 𝑎, 𝑦 − 𝑏, 𝑧 − 𝑐) = 0
To convert to Cartesian form, expand the LHS using the dot product definition:
(𝑥 − 𝑎) + (𝑦 − 𝑏) + (𝑧 − 𝑐) = 0

General Form
To convert to general form, move the constants to the RHS:
𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 =𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
Factor to get the vector version:
(1,1,1) ∙ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐

Normal Form
The magnitude of the normal vector is:
√12 + 12 + 12 = √3
To convert to normal form, divide both sides of the Cartesian equation from above by the magnitude of the
normal vector:
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
+ + =
√3 √3 √3 √3

Factor to get the vector form:

1 1 1 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
( , , ) ∙ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) =
√3 √3 √3 √3
Intercept Form
To convert to intercept form, divide both sides of the Cartesian equation in general form by 38:
𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 =𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
+ + =1
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
Factor to get the vector version:
1 1 1
( , , ) ∙ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 1
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐

2.8 Planes, Lines, Points

A. Angle between Two Planes

13

2.156: Angle between Two Planes

14

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Example 2.157

B. Angle between a Line and a Plane

15

2.158: Angle between a Line and a Planes

16

Example 2.159

C. Coplanarity of Two Lines

Example 2.160
Coplanar lines are lines that are in the same plane. If two lines are not coplanar,
what kind of lines are they? Give one example of such kind of lines.

Lines which are not coplanar are skew.

Example 2.161

(𝐴𝐵, 𝐸𝐻), (𝐴𝐵, 𝐹𝐺), (𝐴𝐵, 𝐷𝐻), (𝐴𝐵, 𝐶𝐺)

Similarly, every edge forms 4 pairs.

The total number of pairs formed is:

12 × 4
= 24
2

(𝐴𝐸, 𝐻𝐺), (𝐴𝐸, 𝐷𝐶),

(𝐵𝐹, 𝐴𝐷), (𝐵𝐹, 𝐸𝐻)

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(𝐸𝐹, 𝐴𝐷), (𝐸𝐹, 𝐵𝐶)

2.162: Coplanarity of Two Lines

⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Two lines 𝒓 ⃗⃗ and 𝒓
𝒂𝟏 + 𝜆1 𝒂 𝒂𝟐 + 𝜆2 ⃗𝒃⃗ are coplanar if:
⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(𝒂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝟏 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝒂𝟐 ∙ (𝒂 ⃗⃗) = 0
⃗⃗ × 𝒃

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒂𝟏 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒂𝟐 are points on the first and second line respectively.
If the two lines are coplanar, then they lie in the same plane, and so does the vector joining them:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒂𝟏 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒂𝟐

Again, if the lines are coplanar, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝒃𝟏 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟐 are vectors in the plane. The cross product ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟏 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒃𝟐 must be
perpendicular to the plane.

And finally, the dot product of a vector perpendicular to the plane with a vector in the plane must be zero:
(𝒂
⏟⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝟏 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝒂𝟐 ∙ ⏟ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝟏 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(𝒃 𝒃𝟐 ) = 0
𝑽𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝑽𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓⊥
𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆

𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
⃗⃗ ∙ (𝒂
𝒄 ⃗⃗ 𝑎
⃗⃗ × 𝒃) = | 1 𝑎2 𝑎3 |
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3

Example 2.163
5−𝑥 𝑦−7 𝑧+3 𝑥−8 2𝑦−8 𝑧−5
Show that the lines −4
= 4
= −5
and 7 = 2
= 3
are coplanar.

𝑥−5 𝑦−7 𝑧+3

= = ⃗⃗ = (5,7, −3) + 𝜆1 (4,4, −5)
⇒𝒓
4 4 −5
𝑥−8 𝑦−4 𝑧−5
= = ⇒𝒓 ⃗⃗ = (8,4,5) + 𝜆2 (7,1,3)
7 1 3

17

Example 2.164
𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑦1 + 𝑐𝑧1 = 𝑝
⏟
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰
𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑦2 + 𝑐𝑧2 = 𝑝
⏟
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰
Subtract Equation II from Equation I:
𝑎(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ) + 𝑏(𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) + 𝑐(𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ) = 0
[𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐] ∙ [𝑥1 − 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 , 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ] = 0

165 Examples

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