UNIT – V

PROCESSOR AND CONTROL UNIT DESIGN

Processorandcontrolunitdesign:Registers–Register transfer logic– interregister transfer,bus

transfer and memory transfer, Arithmetic logic and shift microoperations
–Macrooperations–Processor logic design–Process ororganization-Bus organization
–Processor unit employing a scratch pad memory – Accumulator– Design of ALU – Design of
status register-Design of processor unit with controlvariables–Design of accumulator– Control
logic design – Single flip-flop/state method –Sequence register and decoder method.

REGISTER-TRANSFER LOGIC

• Digital systems are composed of modules that are constructed from digital
components, such as registers, decoders, arithmetic elements, and control logic
• The modules are interconnected with common data and control paths to form
adigital computer system
• The operations executed on data stored in registers are called microoperations
• A microoperation is an elementary operation performed on the information stored in
one or more registers
• Examples are shift, count, clear, and load
• Some of the digital components from before are registers that implement
microoperations
• The internal hardware organization of a digital computer is best defined by specifying
o The set of registers it contains and their functions
o The sequence of microoperations performed on the binary information stored
o The control that initiates the sequence of microoperations
• Use symbols, rather than words, to specify the sequence of microoperations
• The symbolic notation used is called a register transfer language
• A programming language is a procedure for writing symbols to specify a
given computational process
• Define symbols for various types of microoperations and describe associated
hardware that can implement the microoperations

Definition for RTL

A symbolic notation for representing registers, for specifying operations on the contents of
registers, and for specifying control functions. This symbolic notation is called a register-
transferlanguage or computer hardware description language.

• A statement in a register-transfer language consists of a control function and a list of

microoperations.
• The control function specifies the control condition and timing sequence for executing
the listed microoperations.
The microoperations specify the elementary operations to be performed on the information
stored in registers.

The types of microoperations most often used in digital systems

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 1. Interregister-transfer microoperationsdo not change the information content
when thebinary information moves from one register to another.
2. Arithmetic microoperationsperform arithmetic on numbers stored in registers.
3. Logic microoperationsperform operations such as AND and OR on individual
pairs ofbits stored in registers of microoperations
4. Shift microoperationsspecify operations for shift registers.

INTERREGISTER TRANSFER
• The registers in a digital system are designated by capital letters to denote the function
of the register.
• For example, the register that holds an address for the memory unit is usually called
the memory address register and is designated MAR .
• Other designations for registers are A, B, R1, R2, and IR.

Figure 5.1 shows four ways to represent a register in block diagram form.

Fig 5.1 register representation

Basic symbols for register-transfer logic

Symbol Description Examples

Letters (and
numerals) Denotes a register A, MBR, R2

Subscript Denotes a bit of a register A2, Bb

Parentheses ( ) Denotes a portion of a register PC(H), MBR(OP)

Arrow <-- Denotes transfer of information AF-B

Colon : Terminates a control function z' To:

Comma , Separates two microoperations A~B,Be-A

Specifies an address for memory

Square brackets [ ] transfer MBR <-- M[MAR]

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Information or data transfer
Information transfer from one register to another is designated in symbolic form by
means of the replacement operator. The statement:
A←B (statement without control statement)
The above statement denotes the transfer of the contents of register B into register A. It
designates a replacement of the contents of A by the contents of B. By definition, the
contents of the source register B do not change after the transfer.

Statement with control Signal

The condition that determines when the transfer is to occur is called a control function. A
control function is a Boolean function that can be equal to 1 or 0. The control function is
included with the statement as follows:
x' T : A ←B
The control function is terminated with a colon. It symbolizes the requirement that the transfer
operation be executed by the hardware only when the Boolean function x'T, = 1, i.e., when
variable x = 0 and timing variable T, = 1.

Example of Hardware representation

• Every statement written in a register-transfer language implies a hardware

construction for implementing the transfer.
• Figure 5.2 shows the implementation of the statement of A←B .
• The outputs of register B are connected to the inputs of register A, and the
number of lines in this connection is equal to the

Fig5.2 Hardware implementation of the statement

ARITHMETIC, LOGIC, AND SHIFT MICROOPERATIONS

 The interregister-transfer microoperations do not change the information content when
the binary information moves from the source register to the destination register.
 All other microoperations change the information content during the transfer.
 Among all possible operations that can exist in a digital system, there is a basic set
from which all other operations can be obtained.
 In this section, we define a set of basic microoperations, their symbolic notation, and
the digital hardware that implements them.
 Other microoperations with appropriate symbols can be defined if necessary to suit a
particular application.

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Arithmetic Microoperations

• There are four categories of the most common microoperations:

 Register transfer: transfer binary information from one register to another

 Arithmetic: perform arithmetic operations on numeric data stored in registers
 Logic: perform bit manipulation operations on non-numeric data stored in registers
o Shift: perform shift operations on data stored in registers
• The basic arithmetic microoperations are addition, subtraction, increment,
decrement, and shift
• Example of addition: R3 ← R1 +R2
• Subtraction is most often implemented through complementation and addition
• Example of subtraction: R3 ← R1 + R2 + 1 (strikethrough denotes bar on top
– 1’s complement of R2)
• Adding 1 to the 1’s complement produces the 2’s complement
• Adding the contents of R1 to the 2’s complement of R2 is equivalent to subtracting

• Multiply and divide are not included as microoperations

• A microoperation is one that can be executed by one clock pulse
• Multiply (divide) is implemented by a sequence of add and shift microoperations
(subtract and shift)

Logic Microoperations

• Logic operations specify binary operations for strings of bits stored in registers and
treat each bit separately
• Example: the XOR of R1 and R2 is symbolized by
P: R1 ← R1 ⊕ R2
• Example: R1 = 1010 and R2 = 1100
1010 1010 Content of R1
1100 1100 Content of R2
0110 Content of R1 after P = 1

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 •Symbols used for logicalmicrooperations:
OR: ∨
AND: ∧
XOR: ⊕

• The + sign has two different meanings: logical OR and summation

• When + is in a microoperation, then summation
• When + is in a control function, then OR
• Example:
P + Q: R1 ← R2 + R3, R4 ← R5 ∨ R6
• There are 16 different logic operations that can be performed with two binary variables

PROCESSOR ORGANIZATION

• The processor part of a computer CPU is sometimes referred to as the data path of the
CPU because the processor forms the paths for the data transfers between the
registers in the unit.
• The various paths are said to be controlled by means of gates that open the required
path and close all others.
• A processor unit can be designed to fulfill the requirements of a set of data paths for a
specific application.
• In a processor unit, the data paths are formed by means of buses and other common
lines.
• The control gates that formulate the given path are essentially multiplexers and
decoders whose selection lines specify the required path.
• The processing of information is done by one common digital function whose data path
can be specified with a set of common selection variables

Bus Organization
• A bus organization for four processor registers is shown in Fig.5.3.
• Each register is connected to two multiplexers (MUX) to form input buses A and B.
• The selection lines of each multiplexer select one register for the particular bus.
• The A and B buses are applied to a common arithmetic logic unit.
• The function selected in the ALU determines the particular operation that is to be
performed.
• The shift microoperations are implemented in the shifter.
• The result of the microoperation goes through the output bus S into the inputs of all
registers.
• The destination register that receives the information from the output bus is selected
by a decoder.
• When enabled, this decoder activates one of the register load inputs to provide a
transfer path between the data on the S bus and the inputs of the selected destination
register. The output bus S provides the terminals for transferring data to an external
destination. One input of multiplexer A or B can receive data from the outside

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 Fig5.3 Processor registers and ALU connected through common buses

• The control unit that supervises the processor bus system directs the information flow
through the ALU by selecting the various components in the unit. For example, to
perform the microoperation:
R1←R2+ R3

• The control must provide binary selection variables to the following selector inputs:

1. M UX A selector: to place the contents of R 2 onto bus A.

2. MUX B selector: to place the contents of R3 onto bus B.
3. ALU function selector: to provide the arithmetic operation A + B.
4. Shift selector: for direct transfer from the output of the ALU onto output bus S (no

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 shift).

• Decoder destination selector: to transfer the contents of bus S into R 1.

ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT

An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a multi operation, combinational-logic digital function. It can
perform a set of basic arithmetic operations and a set of logic operations: The ALU has a
number of selection lines to select a particular operation in the unit. The selection lines are
decoded within the ALU so that k selection variables can specify up to 2' distinct operations.

DESIGN OF ARITHMETIC CIRCUIT

• The basic component of the arithmetic section of an ALU is a parallel adder.
• A parallel adder is constructed with a number of full-adder circuits connected in cascade
• By controlling the data inputs to the parallel adder, it is possible to obtain different types of
arithmetic operations.
• Figure 5.4 demonstrates the arithmetic operations obtained when one set of inputs to a
parallel adder is controlled externally.
• The number of bits in the parallel adder may be of any value. The input carry Cin goes to
the full-adder circuit in the least significant bit position. The output carry Cout comes from
the full-adder circuit in the most significant bit position.

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 Fig 5.4 arithmetic operation

• From the above Fig 5.5, by changing the B input and Cin we get 8 operaton. So the input
B is applied in four different form by using following circuit

Fig 5.5

The input A is applied directly to the 4-bit parallel adder and the input B is modified. The
resultant arithmetic circuit is shown in Fig 5.6

Fig 5.6 Arithmetic circuit

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DESIGN OF LOGIC CIRCUIT

 The logic microoperations manipulate the bits of the operands separately and treat
each bit as a binary variable.
 The 16 logic operations can be generated in one circuit and selected by means of four
selection lines.
 Since all logic operations can be obtained by means of AND, OR, and NOT
(complement) operations, it may be more convenient to employ a logic circuit with just
these operations.
 For three operations, we need two selection variables.
 But two selection lines can select among four logic operations, so we choose also the
exclusive-OR (XOR) function for the logic circuit to be designed in this and the next
section.
 The simplest and most straightforward way to design a logic circuit is shown in Fig.
5.7. The diagram shows one typical stage designated by subscript i.
 The circuit must be repeated n times for an n-bit logic circuit. The four gates generate

Figure 5.7 one stage of logic circuit (a) Logic diagram (b) Function table

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The four gate generate four logic operations OR, XOR, AND, and NOT. The two selection
variables in the multiplexer select one of the gates for the output. The function table lists the
output logic generated as a function of the two selection variables.

• The logic circuit can be combined with the arithmetic circuit to produce one arithmetic logic
unit.
• Selection variables Sl and So can be made common to both sections provided we use a
third selection variable, S2, to differentiate between the two.
• This configuration is illustrated in Fig 5.7. The outputs of the logic and arithmetic circuits in
each stage go through a multiplexer with selection variable S2.

When S2 = 0, the arithmetic output is elected,

when s2 = 1, the logic output is selected.
 Although the two circuits can be combined in this manner, this is not the best way to
design an ALU.

• A more efficient ALU can be obtained if we investigate the possibility of generating logic
operations in an already available arithmetic circuit. This can be done by inhibiting all input
carries into the full-adder circuits of the parallel adder. Consider the Boolean function that
generates the output sum in a full-adder circuit:
F.=X ⊕ Y ⊕Cin
• The input carry G in each stage can be made to be equal to 0 when a selection
variable s z is equal to 1. The result would be:
F=X ⊕ Y
This expression is valid because of the property of the exclusive-OR operation x ⊕ 0 = x

DESIGN OF ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT

Design steps
1. Design the arithmetic section independent of the logic section.
2. Determine the logic operations obtained from the arithmetic circuit in step 1, assuming
that the input carries to all stages are 0.
3. Modify the arithmetic circuit to obtain the required logic operations.

The third step in the design is not a straightforward procedure and requires a certain amount
of ingenuity on the part of the designer. There is no guarantee that a solution can be found or
that the solution uses the minimum number of gates. The example presented here
demonstrates the type of logical thinking sometimes required in the design of digital systems.

The final ALU is shown in Fig. 5.8 Only the first two stages are drawn, but the diagram
can be easily extended to more stages. The inputs to each full-adder circuit are specified by
the Boolean functions:

X i= Ai+ S2 S1 S0 Bi+ S2 S1 S0 Bi
Yi= S0 Bi+ S1 Bi
Zi= S2Ci
When s2 = 0, the three functions reduce to:

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 X i= Ai
Yi= S0 Bi+ S1 Bi
Zi= C

Figure 5.8Logic diagram of arithmetic logic unit (ALU)

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Fig 5.8 shows the two stage ALU logic circuit and the corresponding function table is shown in
table 3

TABLE 5.3 Function table for the ALU of Fig. 5.8

Selection Function

Output
S2 S1 So Cin
0 0 0 0 F=A Transfer A

0 0 0 1 F=A +1 Increment A

0 0 1 0 F=A +B Addition

0 0 1 1 F=A + B + 1 Add with carry

0 1 0 0 F=A - B - 1 Subtract with borrow

0 1 0 1 F=A - B Subtraction

0 1 1 0 F=A - 1 Decrement A

0 1 1 1 F=A Transfer A

1 0 0 X F=AVB OR

1 0 1 X F = A ⊕B XOR

1 1 0 X F=A ∧ B AND

1 1 1 X F = A Complement A

PROCESSOR UNIT

• A block diagram of a processor unit is shown in Fig. 5.9(a).It consists of seven

registers R 1 through R 7 and a status register.
• The outputs of the seven registers go through two multiplexers to select the inputs to
the ALU.
• Input data from an external source are also selected by the same multiplexers. The
output of the ALU goes through a shifter and then to a set of external output terminals.

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 • The output from the shifter can be transferred to any one of the registers or to an
external destination.
• There are 16 selection variables in the unit, and their function is specified by a control
word in Fig. 5.9 (b). The 16-bit control word, when applied to the selection variables in
the processor, specifies a given microoperation.
• The control word is partitioned into six fields, with each field designated by a letter
name. All fields, except Cin, have a code of three bits.
• Three bits of A select source register for the input to left side of the ALU. The B field is
the same, but it selects the source information for the right input of the ALU.
• The D field selects a destination register.
• The F field, together with the bit in Cin, selects a function for the ALU. The H field
selects the type of shift in the shifter unit

Figure 5.9 Processor unit with control variables

 The functions of all selection variables are specified in Table 4.

 The 3-bit binary code listed in the table specifies the code for each of the five fields A,
B, D, input data, F, and H.
 The register selected by A, B, and D is the one whose decimal number is equivalent to
the binary number in the code.
 When the A or B field is 000, the corresponding multiplexer selects the input data.
When D = 000, no destination register is selected.

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  The three bits in the F field, together with the input carry Cin, provide the 12 operations
of the ALU as specified in Table 4.4. Note that there are two possibilities for F = A. In
one case the carry bit C is cleared, and in the other case it is set to 1

TABLE 5.4 Functions of control variables for the processor of Fig. 5.9

DESIGN OF ACCUMULATOR

• Some processor units distinguish one register from all others and call it an
accumulator register.
• The block diagram of an accumulator that forms a sequential circuit is shown in Fig
5.10.
• The A register and the associated combinational circuit constitutes a sequential circuit.
• The combinational circuit replaces the ALU but cannot be separated from the register,
since it is only the combinational-circuit part of a sequential circuit.
• The A register is referred to as the accumulator register and is sometimes denoted by
the symbol AC. Here, accumulator refers to both the A register and its associated
combinational circuit.
• The external inputs to the accumulator are the data inputs from B and the control
variables that determine the microoperations for the register.
• The next state of register A is a function of its present state and of the external inputs.

Figure 5.10 Block diagram of accumulator

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 • The accumulator is similar to these registers but is more general, since it can perform
data-processing operations.
• An accumulator is a multifunction register that, by itself, can be made to perform all of
the microoperations in a processor unit. The microoperations included in an
accumulator depend on the operations that must be included in the particular
processor.

• Table 5.5 shows the list of microoperation for an accumulator

Control
Microoperation Name
variable

Pi A ←A + B Add

Pz A←0 Clear

P3 A← A Complement
Pa A ←A ∧ B AND

Ps A ←A ∨ B OR

P6 A ←A ⊕B Exclusive-OR

P7 A ← shr A Shift-right

Pa A ←shl A Shift-left

P9 A←A+l Increment

Check for
I f ( A = 0) then (Z = 1) zero

Control unit organization

• The digital system is divided into two parts one is data processing part and control
logic.
• The relationship between the control and the data processor in a digital system is
shown in Fig.5.11
• The data processor part may be a general-purpose processor unit, or it may consist of
individual registers and associated digital functions.

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 • The control initiates all microoperations in the data processor. The control logic that
generates the signals for sequencing the microoperations is a sequential circuit whose
internal states dictate the control functions for the system.
• The digital circuit that acts as the control logic provides a time sequence of signals for
initiating the microoperations in the data-processor part of the system.

Fig5.11 Control and data-processor interaction

Types of control unit

1. Hardwired control unit: A control unit implemented with SSI and MSI devices is said
to be a hard-wired control.
2. Microprogrammed or microprocessor control unit : microprogram control which uses
an LSI device such as a programmable logic array or a read-only memory

Comparison between hardwired and microprogrammed control unit

Sl.No. Hardwired control unit Microprogrammed control unit

1 Implemented using SSI and LSI devices Implemented using LSI such as
programmable devices
2 Speed is high Speed is low as compare to
hardwired control
3 If any alterations or modifications are needed, the No need to rewiring, just modify
circuits must be rewired to fulfill the new the contents of memory
requirements

Four methods of control organization

1. One flip-flop per state method.
2. Sequence register and decoder method.
3. PLA control.
4 Microprogram control

One Flip-Flop per State Method

• This method uses one flip-flop per state in the control sequential circuit.
• Only one flip-flop is set at any particular time; all others are cleared.
• A single bit is made to propagate from one flip-flop to the other under the control of
decision logic.
• In such an array, each flip-flop represents a state and is activated only when the
control bit is transferred to it.
• It uses a maximum number of flip-flops. For example, a sequential circuit with 12
states requires a minimum of four flip-flops because 23< 12 < 24. Yet by this method,

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 the control circuit uses 12 flip-flops, one for each state.
• Fig 5.12 shows the block diagram of one flip-flop per state method
.

External
inputs

Fig5.12 Control logic with one flip-flop per state

• In this figure 5.12 has four flip-flop per state Ti, i = 0, 1, 2, 3.at any given time interval
between two clock pulses, only one flip-flop is equal to 1; all others are equal to 0.
• The transition from the present state to the next is a function of the present T i that is a
1 and certain input conditions.
• The next state is manifested when the previous flip-flop is cleared and a new one is
set. Each of the flip-flop outputs is connected to the data-processing section of the
digital system to initiate certain microoperations.
• The other control outputs shown in the diagram are a function of the T's and external
inputs. These outputs may also initiate microoperations.

The advantage of the one flip-flop per state method is the simplicity with which it can be
designed. This type of controller can be designed by inspection from the state diagram that
describes the control sequence

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Sequence Register and Decoder Method

This method uses a register to sequence the control states. The register is decoded to
provide one output for each state. For n flip-flops in the sequence register, the circuit will
have 2n states and the decoder will have 2n outputs.

Figure 5.13 Control logic with sequence register and decoder

• Figure 5.13 shows the configuration of a four-state sequential control logic.

• The sequence register has two flip-flops and the decoder establishes separate
outputs for each state in the register.
• The transition to the next state in the sequence register is a function of the present
state and the external input conditions.
• Since the outputs of the decoder are available anyway, it is convenient to use them
as present-state variables rather than use the direct flip-flop outputs.
• Other outputs which are a function of the present state and external inputs may
initiate microoperations in addition to the decoder outputs.

PLA Control
The PLA control is essentially similar to the sequence register and decoder method except
that all combinational circuits are implemented with a PLA, including the decoder and the
decision logic. By using a PLA for the combinational circuit, it is possible to reduce the
number of ICs and the number of interconnection wires.

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 Fig 5.14 PLA control logic
• Figure 5.14 shows the configuration of a PLA controller. An external sequence
register establishes the present state of the control circuit.

• The PLA outputs determine which microoperations should be initiated, depending on

ex-ternal input conditions and the present state of the sequence register.
• At the same time, other PLA outputs determine the next state of the sequence
register.
• The sequence register is external to the PLA if the unit implements only
combinational circuits. However, some PLAs are available which include not only
gates, but also flip-flops within the unit. This type of PLA can implement a sequential
circuit by specifying the links that must be connected to the flip-flops in the same
manner that the gate links are specified.

Microprogram Control
• The purpose of the control unit is to initiate a series of sequential steps of
microoperations.
• The control variables at any given time can be represented by a string of 1's and 0's
called a control word. As such, control words can be programmed to initiate the various
components in the system in an organized manner.
• A control unit whose control variables are stored in a memory is called a
microprogrammed control unit. Each control word of memory is called a
microinstruction, and a sequence of microinstructions is called a microprogram.
• Figure 5.15 illustrates the general configuration of the microprogram control unit.
• The control memory is assumed to be a ROM, within which all control information is
permanently stored.
• The control memory address register specifies the control word read from control
memory. It must be realized that a ROM operates as a combinational circuit, with the
address value as the input and the corresponding word as the output.
• The content of the specified word remains on the output wires as long as the address
value remains in the address register. No read signal is needed as in a random-access
memory.
• The word read from control memory represents a microinstruction. The
microinstruction specifies one or more microoperations for the components of the
system.

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 Figure 5.15 Microprogram control logic
• Once these operations are executed, the control unit must determine its next address.
The location of the next microinstruction may be the next one in sequence, or it may
be located somewhere else in the control memory. For this reason, it is necessary to
use some bits of the microinstruction to control the generation of the address for the
next microinstruction. The next address may also be a function of external input
conditions.
• While the microoperations are being executed, the next address is computed in the
next-address generator circuit and then transferred (with the next clock pulse) into the
control address register to read the next microinstruction.

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