MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL EDUCATION

TOPIC: PHYSICAL EDUCATION

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module learners should be able to:

 Discuss the history of Physical Education in Botswana.
 Discuss benefits of studying Physical Education.
 Discuss components of Physical Education.
 Explain how Physical Education can be used for combating HIV/AIDS infection.
 Explain different careers related to the study of Physical Education.
 Differentiate between Physical Education, sport, games, play, leisure and recreational
activities.
 Explain the value of Physical Education to an individual and society.
 Discuss the role technology has in the relationship between physical activities and
overall wellbeing.
 Discuss the use of different ICT applications in Physical Education.

THE DEFINITION OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

What is meant by the term Physical Education?

 It is learning through movement.
 It is a curriculum subject aimed at developing the physical, mental and social wellbeing
of the students.
 It is the art and science of human movement.
 It is an integral part of the education system which contributes to the total development
of an individual through physical activity.
 It is an educational process which is concerned with the total development of the body
through a planned and supervised programme of knowledge and attitude of the human
body.
 It is an educational process that aims to improve human performance through physical
activities.

THE HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN BOTSWANA

Physical Education has been in Botswana education system as early as 1972, with few Batswana
sent abroad to study Physical Education. It was offered as an informal programme in the school
curriculum. The subject was offered as part of extra curricular activities hence it was neither
timetabled nor examinable. In 1990 the Physical Education programme was finally introduced
as a pilot scheme. The Physical Education syllabus for junior secondary schools was proposed
and developed by the Physical Education panel as an integral part of the nine year basic

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education programme. In early 2000 Physical Education was fully implemented in all the junior
schools in Botswana, and in 2004 it piloting of the subject was started in ten senior secondary
schools in Botswana.

THE BENEFITS OF STUDYING PHYSICAL EDUCATION

 You learn about yourself and your abilities.
 You learn and develop skills and knowledge.
 You learn about the value of health and fitness.
 Through physical activity you develop self–confidence.
 It may help to choose a career.
 It helps you appreciate the efforts or talents of others.
 It develops leadership skills in a person.
 Enjoyment is derived from taking part in physical activity.
 It helps in social, physical and mental development.
 It helps to develop teamwork and a sense of fair play.
 It gives you the chance to enjoy yourself.

Why is it important to include Physical Education in the school curriculum?

 It develops students’ physical competence and confidence.
 It promotes physical skill.
 It promotes physical development and knowledge of the body in action.
 It provides opportunities for students to be creative and competitive.
 It provides opportunities for students to face up to different challenges as individuals
and in groups and teams.
 It promotes positive attitudes towards active and healthy lifestyle.
 Students learn how to think in different ways to suit a wide variety of creative,
competitive and challenging situations.
 Students learn how to plan, perform and evaluate actions, ideas and performances to
improve their quality and effectiveness.
 Students discover their aptitudes, abilities and preferences, and make choice about how
to get involved in lifelong physical activity.

COMPONENTS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

 Games are competitive activities between two people or groups of people with strict
outcomes governed by rules. Games can be divided into ballgames and traditional
games. Ballgames can further be sub-divided into (a) invasion / contact games, e.g.
netball, football, basketball, etc (b) fielding / striking games, e.g. softball, hockey,
cricket, etc; and (c) net / wall / racket games, e.g. tennis, squash, table tennis,
badminton, etc.
 Dance is a rhythmic sequence of body movement usually done to music.
 Athletics is a combination of track and field events. Track events are running events
whereas field events are jumps and throws. Examples of track events are 100m, 200m,

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 400m, 800m, 1500m, etc. Javelin, discus, shot put, etc all fall under throws, and high
jump, triple jump, long jump and pole vault fall under jumps.
 Aquatics is also referred to as water sports, e.g. water polo, swimming, diving, angling,
canoeing, surfing, water skiing, boat race, etc.
 Adventure activities are usually dangerous and exciting activities done for fun or
recreation.
 Health and Physical fitness – Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social
wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity whereas physical fitness is
the ability of the body to meet the demands of the environment.
 Leisure and recreation – Leisure is the free time or spare time one has when not
working or sleeping whereas recreation is any activity done during leisure.
 Gymnastics is often a series of movements that develop and show the body’s strength
and ability to move and bend easily.

HOW PHYSICAL EDUCATION CAN BE USED FOR COMBATING HIV INFECTION

 Physical Education teaches life skills. This promotes physical participation which can be
used to mobilize people, especially the youth, for education.
 After acquiring skills during physical education one can choose to participate in a
physical activity of his choice. Participation in physical activities reduces boredom and
therefore one does not have to indulge in sex to reduce boredom.
 Students learn about wise use of leisure and recreation. Chances to engage in sex are
reduced because considerable time is spent on participating in physical activities.
Participating in physical activities is tiring physically, and therefore afterwards one might
feel tired to do anything else.
 Activities done during physical education lessons improve self-confidence/self-esteem,
thus making youth make informed decisions.

How can participation in physical activities be encouraged among AIDS patients?

 By providing equipment and other necessities.
 Reducing entry fees at sports venues for AIDS patients
 Educating patients about the importance of exercise to the immune system
 Educating the public about the disease so that patients are not discriminated against in
public recreational places
 Using role models who are involved in physical activities

CAREERS RELATED TO THE STUDY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

 Teaching deals with instruction or provision of knowledge through physical activity as a
curriculum.
 Coaching involves imparting skills of a particular activity to individuals or a group of
people.
 Sports nutrition deals with diet for athletes, the amount and time to be taken to
maximize performance.

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  Sports medicine is a field concerned with prevention and treatment of sports related
injuries.
 Sports psychology deals with psychological aspects of sports. It handles issues such as
arousal, aggression, motivation, rewards, etc.
 Sports marketing deals with the advertising and selling of sports goods and services.
 Sports journalism deals with dissemination of sports news through media such as radio,
television, newspapers, etc

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PHYSICAL EDUCATION, SPORT, GAMES, PLAY, LEISURE

AND RECREATION
 Physical Education
 It is a subject in the National Curriculum that prepares students for life physically,
mentally and socially.

 Play
 It is a spontaneous and enjoyable physical activity in which there are: no formal rules,
no pressure, no winner, no loser, no set time, no defined playing area and involvement
is just for the fun of it.

 Recreation
 It is a non competitive or voluntary physical activity done for pleasure and enjoyment
during one’s free time, but it is more planned than play, has a winner and a loser and is
not highly organized.

 Games
 Games are contest between two people or between two groups, where one person or
group is the winner. Attributes of games are that they are more organized than
recreation and play, they have an agreed area of play, have a specified time of play,
have a higher level of skill than in play and they have rules that change.

 Sport
 It is a vigorous physical activity which involves competition between individuals or
teams where winning is very important. Satisfaction does not only come from
enjoyment of involvement, but also from winning awards, prizes and even applause
from supporters. Other attributes of sports are that it is more organized than play,
recreation or games, has set rules, has area and time of play, has set position for team
player, has complex physical skills which are applied throughout the set time and it has
an element of serious training and preparation.

 Leisure
 It is the free time or spare time a person has, when not working or sleeping. Factors
which determine what people do during their leisure are their age, interest, social
circumstances, facilities available and where people live.

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THE VALUE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION TO AN INDIVIDUAL, THE SOCIETY AND THE ECONOMY
 An individual
 Presents career opportunities
 Boosts personal fitness through involvement in physical activity
 Reduces the chances of getting sedentary diseases
 Active and increased participation in sporting activity
 It builds self confidence, self control and self esteem.
 There will be less spending on health care by both individuals and the government.
 It develops co-operative individuals.
 People will have greater discipline and respect for others’ abilities.
 There is greater utilization of sports and recreational facilities.

 The economy
 Job creation; generates job opportunities in sport related fields or creates employment
 Less income is spent on health care. Since the government would spend less on health
care, there would be more funding available for other social services, and this will lead
to the growth of the economy.
 It creates a healthier workforce. Therefore, less hours would be lost at work due to
illness. This in turn leads to more productivity because a healthy population is more
productive. Healthy people do not take sick offs.

 The society
 Promotes social interaction through participation through sports
 There is generation of job opportunities in areas related to sports
 People will have more knowledge or awareness about health and fitness.
 It leads to a healthy and productive society and thus people spend less on health.
 It promotes a healthier population. This is so because physical activity makes you fit,
thus making you healthy.

THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES AND OVERALL WELLBEING

What is technology?
Technology is new innovations that have been made to improve performance in sports.
Sporting technologies are also man-made means developed to reach human interests or goals
in or relating to a particular sport. Technology in sports is a technical means by which athletes
attempt to improve their training and competitive surroundings in order to enhance their
overall athletic performance. It is the knowledge and application of using specialized equipment
and the latest modern technologies to perform tasks more efficiently. Examples of sporting
technologies include golf cubs, tennis rackets, pole vault poles, athletic sports gear (clothing
and footwear), advanced computer stimulations and motion capture.

How technology benefits or affects physical activity and wellbeing

There is improved performance, e.g. spikes in athletics, swimsuits, etc
 Athletic health can be maintained and observed, and injuries treated, through the use of
modern sporting technologies such as heart rate monitors, pedometers and body-fat

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 monitors. Through this a greater deepened knowledge of the human body and its
potential has been recognized, allowing athletes to train and compete in sports to a
much older age.
 It has the ability to gather, analyze and integrate information and resources in order to
improve performance, e.g. digital or video camera
 It increases cost of access to physical activities; only those with money can afford
technological gadgets.
 Participant safety at all times has also been made possible through the development of
certain sporting equipment, such as helmets and body protection which are used in
boxing and ice hockey to help prevent injuries.
 Modern sporting technologies have also made competition judging easier and more
accurate, and spectator interest and excitement is enhanced by broadcasting and in-
stadium displays (scoreboards)
 Leads to reduced level of physical activity

How technology is used to enhance athletic performance

A digital or video camera helps in the analysis of performance. It allows the performance to be
accurately recorded. The performance may be reviewed and replayed as many times as
necessary. Enhancements such as freeze frame or frame advancement can be used to look at
specific aspects or phases of the performance. This analysis could then be used to help improve
a performance. This can be done in the following manner:
 Faults in performance can be identified and considered.
 Improvements or alternatives can be considered and tried.
 Future performance can also be filmed, recorded and analysed and compared to the
initial one.
 Actually seeing the performance gives much more accurate knowledge of results.

Sports gear such clothing and footwear should be user-friendly and include valuable properties
such as strength, flexibility, density, thickness, durability, toughness, resistance to moisture and
more importantly cost. Footwear is generally considered more for comfort and injury avoidance
rather than performance enhancement, whereas clothing such as the full body suits used in
swimming are often claimed to rationalize the competitor’s performance times where winning
or losing the race is measured in hundredths of a second.

Sporting equipment such as the composite tennis racket has been created in order to provide
enhanced ball speed, and reduce the potential vibration that can lead to a condition known as
tennis elbow (damage to the small blood capillaries in the muscles and ligaments that surround
elbow joint).

In other sporting equipment such as the golf club, the overall mass of the club has decreased
which is believed to result in a greater achievable distance and possibly a more precise shot.
The bicycle has also undergone modern day advances with the development of specialist

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wheels, pneumatic tyres, brake levers and pedals, which are all aimed at increasing stability and
rigidity of the bicycle.

Prosthetic devices have also been constructed for those athletes with a specific disability.
Examples include the springlite prosthesis device created for those athletes deficient of a lower
limb, which acts with a ‘springboard-like’ effect where with each step as the runner strikes the
track, the device returns energy and permits running gait. The reduced mass of the of the
springlite device compared to that of the earlier wooden prosthesis is firm yet supple for
sprinters, and provides some shock absorbing properties for marathon runners.

Wheelchair devices used in sporting activities have also become more sophisticated, for
example, with sharply slanted back wheels in tennis to allow the player to move swiftly across
the court from side to side.

THE USE OF DIFFERENT ICT APPLICATIONS IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION

What is meant by ICT?
ICT stands for Information and Communication Technology. ICT is the study of technology used
to handle information and aid communication.

ICT devices or gadgets

 CD/DVD, flash memory, video tape, mp3 players, mobile phone, video camera,
microphone, radio, stopwatch, interactive whiteboard.

How ICT applications help improve performance

 Using a CD-ROM with examples of play or technical or theoretical information can
increase knowledge
 Watching a video tape or DVD which is instructional in nature can increase knowledge.
 Accessing the internet to find out information about any aspects can improve
knowledge.
 Interactive whiteboards can be used for presentation, modeling and demonstration and
even to highlighting certain elements including positions in the court.
 Stopwatches can be used to record performance, and for training against time to
improve speed.
 Digital video camera to record performance and analyze it to find mistakes so as to
improve next time.

MODULE 2: HEALTH AND FITNESS

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TOPIC 1: THE CARDIOVASCULAR-RESPIRATORY, SKELETAL AND MUSCULAR SYSTEMS

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the module learners should be able to:

 Discuss functions of the cardiovascular system and skeletal muscle.
 Discuss the functions of the cardiovascular system including transportation of blood,
nutrients and water around the body.
 Discuss the types of muscles as smooth, skeletal and cardiac.
 Discuss types of muscle contractions as isometric, isotonic and isokinetic.
 Explain characteristics of a muscle that enable movement.
 Discuss types of muscle fibres as slow twitch and fast twitch.
 Describe the response of cardiovascular system to an increased level of physical activity.
 Discuss the functions of the skeletal muscle.
 Discuss the anatomy of the synovial/freely movable joints.
 Identify different types of joints.
 Explain factors that can affect movement around a joint.
 Explain types of movements around a joint.
 Identify types of injuries to muscular – skeletal systems.
 Explain how muscular – skeletal injuries can be minimized during participation in
physical activities.
 Explain primary treatment of muscular – skeletal system injuries.
 Discuss the concept of oxygen debt.
 Explain the process of gaseous exchange.
 Define aerobic and anaerobic energy systems.
 Differentiate between aerobic and anaerobic energy systems.
 Explain hypokinetic diseases.

THE HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS

A system is a group of organs working together to perform similar functions. Each organ has a
specific function. For example the heart pumps blood around the body through a network of
arteries, capillaries and veins. Each of these organs makes up a part of a system that is the
cardiovascular system. However, all the systems of the body work together to produce
movement, whether it is movement of a body part or movement of the whole body from one
place to the other.

THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

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The cardiovascular system, sometimes referred to as the circulatory system, comprises of the
heart, blood and blood vessels. In this system blood carrying nutrients and oxygen is pumped
round the body by the heart, and it flows along blood vessels to the working muscles.

The heart is divided into two parts, the left side and the right side. Each part acts as a pump, so
the heart is a double pump. There are two chambers in each side, so all in all the heart consists
of four chambers being two atria and two ventricles. The right part of the heart pumps blood to
the lungs to pick up oxygen. The left pumps this oxygenated blood around the rest of the body.
The large tubes that carry blood away from the heart are called arteries, and the large tubes
that carry blood back into the heart are called veins. Arteries transport blood away from the
heart while veins transport blood into the heart.

The tricuspid valve, mitral/bicuspid valve, pulmonary/semilunar valve and the aortic/semilunar
valve are the four valves that control the blood flow through the heart or the back flow of
blood.

(STUDENTS SHOULD DRAW A SIMPLE PLAN OF THE CIRCULATORY / CARDIOVASCULAR

SYSTEM)

FUNCTIONS OF THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

 Transport
 The blood carries hormones, glucose, water, oxygen or nutrients throughout the body to
the working muscles, or where they are needed most.
 Blood helps with the transport and removal of waste, carbon dioxide and lactic acid
away from the working muscles.

 Controls or regulates body temperature during exercise

 The blood absorbs body heat then carries it to the skin and lungs where it is released.
Veins dilate to cool you down.

 Helps wade off infections and fight diseases

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Diagram of the human heart and its functions

 Aorta: The aorta is the largest artery. It carries oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the
rest of the body.
 Vena Cava: It carries oxygen-poor blood from the body to the heart. Superior vena cava
carries oxygen-poor blood from the upper parts of the body whilst inferior vena cava
carries oxygen-poor blood from the lower parts of the body.
 Pulmonary Artery: It carries blood from the heart to the lungs to pick up oxygen.
 Pulmonary Vein: It carries oxygen-rich blood from the lungs back to the heart.
 Right Atrium: It collects oxygen-poor blood returning from the body and then forces it
through the tricuspid valve and into the right ventricle.
 Left Atrium: It collects oxygen-rich blood returning from the lungs and then forces it
through the mitral/bicuspid valve and into the left ventricle.
 Tricuspid Valve: It controls blood flow from the right atrium into the right ventricle.

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  Aortic Valve (also called semilunar valve): It controls blood flow from the left ventricle
into the aorta.
 Pulmonary Valve (also called semilunar valve): It controls blood flow from the right
ventricle into the pulmonary artery.
 Mitral/Bicuspid Valve: It controls blood flow from the left atrium into the left ventricle.
 Right Ventricle: It collects oxygen-poor blood from the right atrium and then forces it
through the pulmonary valve and into the lungs.
 Left Ventricle: The left ventricle is the largest and strongest chamber of the four
chambers of the heart. The left ventricle’s walls are only about half-inch thick, but they
have enough force to push blood through the aortic valve and into the body.
 Septum: A wall of muscle called the septum separates the left and right atria and the
left and right ventricles.

THE RESPONSE OF THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM TO AN INCREASED LEVEL OF PHYSICAL

ACTIVITY
 Blood flow increases
 This is due to increased capillarization of trained muscles (higher capillary to fibre ratio),
greater opening of existing capillaries in trained muscles, more effective blood
redistribution (blood goes where it is needed), and increased blood volume.

 Decrease in resting heart rate

 Highly trained endurance athletes may have resting heart rates of 30-40 bpm (beats per
minute). Heart rate returns to resting level more quickly after exercise.

 The heart increases in size and strength

 The left ventricle changes the most in response to endurance training. The internal
dimensions of the left ventricle increase due to an increase in ventricular filling.

 Increase in stroke volume

 Endurance training increases stroke volume at rest and during sub maximal and maximal
exercise. (Stroke volume is the volume of blood pumped from the left ventricle of the
heart in one beat). The increased size of the heart allows the left ventricle to stretch
more and fill with blood; increase in heart wall thickness enhances contractility.

 Increase in endurance
 The blood can transport oxygen more efficiently with adaptations that occur in
endurance training. This makes it possible for energy and oxygen to be delivered to the
working muscles to sustain prolonged work.

 Increase in cardiac output

 Cardiac output increases dramatically maximal exertion due to the increase in maximal
stroke volume. (Cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped in one minute from the
heart). Cardiac output decreases slightly or does not change at rest or during sub

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 maximal exercise. Maximal cardiac output ranges from 14 – 20 litres in untrained, 25 –
35 litres in trained and 40+ litres in large endurance athletes.

 Increase in blood volume

 Endurance training, especially intense training, increases blood volume. Blood volume
increases due to primarily an increase in plasma volume. Red blood cell volume
increases, but increase in plasma volume is higher; thus, hematocrit (percentage by
volume of red blood cells in a blood sample) decreases. Blood viscosity decreases, thus
improving circulation and enhancing oxygen delivery.

 Blood pressure decreases

 Endurance training results in reduced blood pressure at the same sub maximal work
rate, but at maximal work rates systolic pressure increases and diastolic pressure
decreases (systolic pressure is the contraction of the heart whereas diastolic pressure is
the relaxation of the heart. A typical normal blood pressure is 120/80 mm Hg or
millimeters of mercury. 120 is systolic and 80 diastolic). Resting blood pressure (both
systolic and diastolic) is lowered with endurance training individuals with borderline or
moderate hypertension.

 Improved oxygen debt tolerance

 Oxygen debt is the amount of oxygen owed to the body in order to recover from
exercise, or it is where the demand for oxygen is more than the supply. Since there is
less oxygen supplied, during training, the body builds up lactic acid which impairs
performance. With proper training the body can put up with this or tolerate it and keep
on going thus the impact of lactic acid on the body is felt less.

Why it is important to monitor and record the pulse rate when exercising or training
A pulse is the arterial palpation of the heartbeat, or it is the contraction of the arteries. It can be
felt in any place that allows for an artery to be compressed against a bone. The pulse rate and
heart rate are identical; one pulse equals one heartbeat.
 The heart rate lets you know how quickly the blood is being pumped around the body.
This is effectively providing the energy to allow the body to exercise.
 There are certain zones or areas which the heart rate can be increased to or worked in.
 The speed of your recovery rate is a general indication of your level of fitness. The
quicker you are able to return your pulse to its resting rate the fitter you are.
 Monitoring the pulse rate can be used as a training indicator to make sure you are
working at the correct levels.
 Varying the pulse rate can be used relative to the principle of overload.
 Safety aspects can be considered to ensure you are not working at too high a level.

Pulse points in the body

 Radial pulse – at the base of the thumb on the inside of the wrist.
 Temporal pulse – just over the temple at the side of the forehead.

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  Carotid pulse – on either side of the neck.
 Femoral pulse – in the groin.
 Popliteal pulse – behind knee.
 Brachial pulse – inside of the elbow.
 Posterior tibial pulse – near the ankle joint.

Why there is an increased blood flow to the skin during exercise

 For cooling the body.
 For sweating.
 To help in heat loss.
 For heat transfer.
 For heat dissipation.
 For thermal balance.

Why more blood flows to the skeletal muscles during exercise

 To transport more oxygen to the working muscles.
 To transport more nutrients to the working muscles.
 To remove carbon dioxide and other waste materials from the working muscles.
 Blood is moved to where it is needed most.
 The heart pumps more blood to the working muscles.

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THE PROCESS OF GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN THE BODY

Gaseous exchange is the process which allows oxygen to be taken in from the air and for it to
be ‘exchanged’ for carbon dioxide. In the lungs, the gases are exchanged between the lungs and
the blood capillaries and in the tissues the gases are exchanged between the cells and the
blood surrounding them. More air is inspired during exercise and so more oxygen can be
transferred to the working muscles through blood. The process of respiratory gaseous exchange
takes place in the alveoli of the lungs through membranes.

The gases move across the membranes by the process of diffusion. Diffusion depends on the
pressure of the gas concerned. The gases move from the region of higher partial pressure to the
region of lower partial pressure. Further, the partial pressure of one gas is independent of the
partial pressure of another gas that is mixed with it. Thus the partial pressure of oxygen and
carbon dioxide are independent of each other. Composition of the air that we breathe in is:
Nitrogen – 78%, Oxygen – 21%, Carbon dioxide – 0.3 -0.4%, Hydrogen – traces, Noble gases –
traces.

AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC ENERGY SYSTEMS

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Movement is caused by muscles contracting which needs energy from food. Food is a mixture
of all nutritional elements like carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, fibre and water.
Muscles use both carbohydrates and fats for energy. Carbohydrates are broken down into
glucose. Some gets stored in the liver as glycogen. It will be released again when the glucose
level the blood falls too low. Some gets stored in the muscles as glycogen. This glycogen is
changed back to glucose during exercise. The rest get carried in the blood to all the other cells
of the body. For muscles to work they need glucose to supply energy. The body’s main energy
source on the cellular level is a substance called Adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP). There are three
sources of Adenosine tri-phosphate:

 ATP-PC System (Phosphogen System) - ATP (Adenosine tri-phosphate) is a complex

chemical compound formed with the energy released from food and stored in all cells,
particularly muscles. Only from the energy released by the breakdown of this compound
can the cells perform work. The breakdown of ATP produces energy and ADP, e.g. ATP =
ADP + Energy. CP (Creatine Phosphate) is a chemical compound stored in muscle, which
when broken down aids in the manufacture of ATP. The combination of ADP and CP
produces ATP. This system is used only for very short durations of up to 10 seconds. The
ATP-CP system neither uses oxygen nor produces lactic acid if oxygen is unavailable and
is thus said to be alactic anaerobic. This is the primary system behind very short,
powerful movements like a golf swing or a 100 m sprint. The creatine phosphate or ATP-
PC system produces instant energy; it works by reforming ATP by breaking down a
chemical compound called creatine phosphate which creates and provides for some
ADP to reform into ATP, e.g. CP + ADP = ATP = ADP + Energy. This is the first energy
pathway that is used by our bodies to resynthesise ATP (Adenosine Tri >O 3). Instead of
oxygen it uses another chemical known as Creatine Phosphate found in the muscle cells.
This is not used for muscle contraction, but is mainly used for resynthesizing ATP and to
maintain a constant supply of energy. These reactions occur very rapidly and only last
up to high intensity (this only lasts for a short period of time).

 Anaerobic System (Lactic Acid System) – LA (Lactic acid) is a fatiguing metabolite of the
lactic acid system resulting from the incomplete breakdown of glucose, or breakdown of
glucose in the absence of oxygen, e.g. GL + ADP = ATP + PYRUVIC ACID (Pyruvic acid =
Lactic acid). Predominates in supplying energy for exercises lasting less than 2 minutes.
It is also known as the Glycolysis System. An example of an activity of the intensity and
duration that this system works under would be a 400 m sprint. The lactic acid or
anaerobic glycolysis system converts glycogen to glucose. Then, with enzymes, glucose
is broken down anaerobically to produce lactic acid; this process creates enough energy
to reform ATP molecules, but due to the detrimental effects of lactic acid build up, this
system cannot be relied on for extended periods

 Aerobic System - O2 means aerobic in which ATP is manufactured from food mainly sugar and
fat. This system produces ATP copiously and is the prime energy source during endurance
activities. This is the long duration energy system. By 5 minutes of exercise the O 2 system
is clearly the dominant system. In a 1 km run, this system is already providing

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 approximately half the energy; in a marathon run it provides 98% or more. Aerobic
means in the presence of, requiring, or utilizing oxygen, e.g. GL + ADP = ATP + PYRUVIC
ACID (Pyruvic acid + Oxygen = Water + Carbon dioxide + Heat). Aerobic breakdown of
pyruvic acid produce energy from ATP. The purpose of this system of producing energy
is to produce 38 molecules of ATP from each molecule of glucose that is used. ATP is
broken down in the body to give ADP and an inorganic phosphate plus energy. This
energy system is used throughout the body, for producing energy for all metabolic
processes, in exercise it is used for sub-maximal exercise such as long distance running.
This system is used to regenerate the ATP that is used for energy in the body. This
energy system is otherwise known as 'aerobic respiration'.

All three energy systems contribute at the start of exercise but the contribution depends
upon the individual, the effort applied or on the rate at which energy is used. Although
all energy systems turn on at the same time the recruitment of an alternative system
occurs when the current energy system is almost depleted. These energy pathways are
time duration restricted. In other words, once a certain time elapses that specific
pathway is no longer used.

Duration Classification Energy Supplied By

1 to 4 seconds Anaerobic ATP (in muscles)

4 to 10 seconds Anaerobic ATP + CP

10 to 45 seconds Anaerobic ATP + CP + Muscle glycogen

45 to 120 seconds Anaerobic, Lactic Muscle glycogen

120 to 240 seconds Aerobic + Anaerobic Muscle glycogen + lactic acid

240 to 600 seconds Aerobic Muscle glycogen + fatty acids

The result of muscle contraction produces ADP which when coupled with CP regenerates ATP.
CP is stored in the muscles. Actively contracting muscles obtain ATP from glucose stored in the
blood stream and the breakdown of glycogen stored in the muscles. Exercise for longer periods
requires the complete oxidation of carbohydrates or free fatty acids (from fats) in the
mitochondria. The carbohydrate store will last approximately 90 minutes and the free fatty
store will last several days.

Sports activities use either one or sometimes all of these energy systems in different phases of
an activity. In team games such as hockey, netball, basketball and football players are moving
for much of the game at constant speeds, and are using aerobic system. Sprints will require a
short burst of intense energy, so using anaerobic system. Longer endurance events like distance

16
walking are aerobic for most of the time, although competitors may use an anaerobic burst at
the end of the race. Explosive events such as throwing or jumping or short sprints are
anaerobic.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC ENERGY SYSTEMS

AEROBIC SYSTEM ANAEROBIC SYSTEM

Recovery from exercise is slow Recovery from exercise is fast
Removal of lactic acid exceeds the Accumulation of lactic acid exceeds the removal
accumulation
Provides energy in low intensity activities, Provides energy in high intensity activities, i.e.
i.e. long duration activities that use more short duration intense activities that use short
stored energy bursts of energy
It produces relatively large amounts of It produces relatively small amounts of energy
energy
Produces energy in the presence of oxygen Produces energy in the absence of oxygen

THE CONCEPT OF OXYGEN DEBT

A number of factors contribute to the development of oxygen debt. For muscles to work well,
they must be oxygenated. Oxygen is also used in the production of ATP, a neurotransmitter
which is critical to muscle function. When the body's supply of oxygen begins to get depleted, it
switches to anaerobic respiration to power the muscles, causing a buildup of lactic acid as a by-
product. Lactic acid can lead to cramps, and the only way to break it down is to oxidize it.
Oxygen debt is where the demand for oxygen is greater than the supply or the amount
available. You breathe in a lot of oxygen but you cannot absorb enough to cope with the level
of activity. If this happens, your body is mainly using the anaerobic energy system and as a
result, lactic acid builds up as an unwanted waste product. Lactic Acid is a by – product of
anaerobic activity, e.g. a 400 metre run.

If enough oxygen is not available, then the lactic acid is produced and it begins to build up in
the muscles. When you feel your muscles burning during high intensity exercise this is caused
by the lactic acid, it stops the muscles working to the best possible standard. You can reduce
the lactic acid build up faster if you perform light exercise after an intense effort, also known as
a cool down. The amount of oxygen owed to the body in order to recover is oxygen debt. An
example of this is:
If you run a hard race like the 400 metres where you start and finish using mainly the anaerobic
systems. Soreness and fatigue sets into the muscles and you need to repay your body with
oxygen after the race in order to recover.

Oxygen debt tolerance: Since there is less oxygen supplied, during training, the body builds up
lactic acid which impairs performance. With proper training the body can put up with this or
tolerate it and keep on going thus the impact of lactic acid on the body is felt less. It is possible
to increase the body’s tolerance to lactic acid build up and oxygen debt by improving fitness.

17
Regular exercise that gradually increases in duration and/or intensity will help to develop and
affect the efficiency of both the circulatory system and the respiratory system. If you can
improve the amount of oxygen that the lungs can deliver to the blood and make your heart
stronger then this will increase your tolerance to lactic acid build up in muscles.

LACTIC ACID AND HOW IT AFFECTS PERFORMANCE

 It reduces the ability to perform at maximum potential.
 It inhibits skilful muscle contraction.
 Can create aches, cramps, pains and cause injury.
Some examples of anaerobic activities and chances for Lactic acid build up are long Jump, high
jump, javelin, shot put and discus, explosive activity. Also it can be seen in game situations, i.e.
sprinting, jumping, and shooting a ball at goal.

HOW THE EFFECTS OF LACTIC ACID ON THE BODY CAN BE MINIMISED

 Take isotonic drinks and always keep hydrated
 Work out at intervals, i.e. Monday, Wednesday, Friday, etc
 Do more intense exercises so that your body can tolerate lactic acid in the blood
 Massage your muscles

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

All the muscles in the body form the muscular system. Muscles are found around the bones and
also form walls of internal organs.
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FUNCTIONS OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
 Heat generation
 They can be used as heaters when shivering. When it is cold the body shivers, and
muscle activation causes ATP (adenosine tri-phosphate) to provide energy for
contraction. The muscle contractions produce no physical work, so chemical energy
released appears as heat.

 Movement generation
 As skeletal muscles contract they pull on to bones to produce movement. Skeletal
muscle moves the skeleton and is responsible for all our voluntary movements, as well
as for the automatic movements required, for example, to stand, to hold up our head,
and to breathe. (Other involuntary functions involve smooth muscle and cardiac
muscle).

 Gives the body shape

 Skeletal muscles give the body its unique appearance and shape.

 Helps in breathing
 Some muscles contract and relax to make breathing possible, e.g. the diaphragm and
inter-costal muscles. When we inhale the diaphragm contracts and the dome of the
diaphragm flattens downward against the viscera, which allows the lungs to expand to
receive fresh air. When we exhale, the diaphragm relaxes upward against the lungs,
helping to expel used air from them.

 Helps in digestion
 Muscles along the inner linings of the digestive tract help digest food when they
contract. Peristalsis, or the wave like contractions that move food along the digestive
tract, is one good example.

 The skeletal muscle functions as store of protein if we should face malnutrition.

 Gives the body support and posture.

TYPES OF MUSCLES IN THE BODY

 Skeletal/Voluntary muscle
 It is a usually voluntary muscle made up of elongated, multinucleated, transversely
striated muscle fibres, having principally bony attachments. This muscle can easily be
seen as a shape under the skin, and there are about 600 examples of it in the body. It is
called skeletal muscle because it is attached to bones, and it is also called voluntary
muscle because it can be controlled. Because it appears to have stripes under a
microscope it is sometimes known as striated (striped) muscle.

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  Smooth/Involuntary muscle
 This type of muscle is found in the bowel, the gut and walls of internal organs. The
reason why it is called involuntary muscle is because there is no direct control of this
muscle as it works automatically. When food is swallowed it travels through the
digestive system by muscular activity which cannot be consciously controlled. It is also
called smooth muscle because it appears smooth under a microscope.

 Cardiac muscle
 Cardiac muscle is also striated in appearance but it differs significantly from other
striated muscle in both its structure and its behaviour. The heart is made up of the
cardiac muscle, and it is a special type of involuntary muscle which contracts regularly
and automatically. Some factors can influence the speed of contraction such as drugs
and stress (exercise included), but the rate cannot be controlled voluntarily. When the
body is excited (or during exercise) adrenaline is produced and this in turn increases the
heart rate.

TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTIONS

A muscle contraction (also known as a muscle twitch or simply twitch) occurs when a muscle
cell (called a muscle fibre) lengthens or shortens or remains the same under tension.
Movement is possible only through repeated contraction of many muscles at the correct time.
Though the term ‘contraction’ implies shortening, when referring to the muscular system, it
means muscle fibres generating tension with the help of motor neurons.

 Isometric contraction
 It is one in which the muscle is activated, but instead of being allowed to lengthen or
shorten, it is held at a constant length or remains the same length. An example of an
isometric contraction would be carrying an object in front of you. The weight of the
object would be pulling downward, but your hands and arms would be opposing the
motion with equal force upwards. Since your arms are neither raising nor lowering, your
biceps will be isometrically contracting. Other examples of isometric contraction are
tug-of-war, wrestling, rugby scrum or pushing against the wall.

 Isokinetic contraction
 An isokinetic muscle contraction is one in which the muscle contracts and shortens at
constant rate of speed. This type of contraction usually requires special, expensive
training equipment that increases the load as it senses that the muscle contraction is
speeding up. The benefit of this type of contraction is that the muscle gains strength
evenly all through the entire range of movement and it is one of the fastest ways to
increase muscle strength. Isokinetic contraction increases blood supply to the skeletal
and cardiac muscle, and therefore it improves muscle strength, endurance and cardiac
fitness. In addition isokinetic exercises (isokinetic exercises are resistance-based
exercises designed to provide a specific level of resistance while maintaining a
consistent speed of limb movement) can be designed to mimic the actual speeds of
sports-specific activities. The major disadvantages of isokinetic exercises are that they

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 can only be performed properly on machines which are usually expensive and the type
of movement that can be performed are rather limited.

 Isotonic contraction
 It is the type of muscle contraction that involves the lengthening and shortening of
muscles during movement. Isotonic contraction falls into two parts, eccentric and
concentric contractions. The lengthening of a muscle is called eccentric contraction
whereas the shortening is concentric contraction. This can be seen in the lowering and
the raising of a barbell, respectively, in a barbell curl.

HYPOKINETIC DISEASES
Today the leading causes of death are HYPOKINETIC diseases (HYPO meaning low and KINETIC
meaning movement). Hypokinetic diseases are conditions that occur from a sedentary lifestyle.
Examples could include obesity, high blood pressure, heart disease, strokes, diabetes,
osteoporosis, cancer, anxiety, depression, arthritis, and low back pain and complications arising
from sedentary behaviour.

Sedentary lifestyle is a medical term used to denote a type of lifestyle with no or irregular
physical activity. A person who lives a sedentary lifestyle is known as a couch potato in pop
culture. It is commonly found in both the developed and developing world and characterized by
sitting, reading, watching television and computer use for much of the day with little or no
vigorous physical exercise. A sedentary lifestyle can contribute to many preventable causes of
death. Hypokinetic diseases spread when we believe myths like “old people can not exercise,”
“exercising is dangerous,” or “I don’t have time to exercise.”

CHARACTERISTICS OF A SKELETAL MUSCLE

 They are attached to bones by tendons.
 They are cylindrical in shape.
 They are striped across.
 They consist of individual fibres.

PROPERTIES OF A MUSCLE THAT ENABLE MOVEMENT

A property is a characteristic trait or peculiarity, especially one serving to define or describe a
muscle. Muscle cells have unique characteristics that enable them to function properly. Here
we are dealing more with functional characteristics as opposed to structural characteristics
which are highlighted above. These are: excitability (they respond to a stimulus), contractility
(they contract when stimulated), extensibility (muscles can also stretch) and elasticity (they are
able to return to their original shape).

TYPES OF MUSCLE FIBRES

How skeletal muscles adapt to a repeated stimulus depends, to a large extent, on the inherent
characteristics of the muscles themselves. Specifically, the types of fibres that make up
individual muscles greatly influence the way athletes will adapt to their training programmes.

21
There is a reason why some athletes can sprint faster and get bigger muscles more easily than
others, and why some athletes are able to run for much longer periods of time without fatigue.

There are basically two types of muscle fibres, which are slow twitch muscle fibres and fast
twitch muscle fibres. Their characteristics are as follows:
 Slow twitch fibres
 They contract slowly, and without much force.
 They have high resistance to fatigue; that is, they do not tire easily.
 They are suited to activities that need endurance. For example jogging, long-distance
running, and standing for long periods.
 They have high capillary density.
 Slow twitch fibres rely more on fat as fuel, as opposed to strictly using carbohydrates or
creatine phosphate.

 Fast twitch fibres

 They contract much faster than slow twitch fibres, and with much more force.
 They tire quickly.
 They are suited to activities that need bursts of strength and power. For example
sprinting and weightlifting.
 They have low capillary density.
 The major type of fuel that fast twitch fibres rely on is creatine phosphate and stored
muscle glycogen (glucose). They will not utilize stored body fat at all due to the fact that
they are only able to continually contract for between one and about 20 seconds.

Every muscle contains a mixture of slow twitch fibres and fast twitch fibres. But the mixture is
different in different muscles (for example your gastrocnemius contains a lot of fast twitch
fibre) and the mixture is different for different people (some distance runners have 80% slow
twitch fibres while some weight lifters have 80% fast twitch). This is all due to the genes we
inherit from our parents.

EXAMPLES OF SKELETAL MUSCLE AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

 Deltoid – raises the arm sideways at the shoulder.
 Biceps – bend the arm at the elbow (elbow flexion).
 Abdominals – pull in the abdomen, and flex the trunk when bending forward.
 Quadriceps – straighten the leg at the knee and keep it straight when you stand (knee
extension).
 Pectorals – raises the arm at the shoulders, and draws it across the chest.
 Latissimus Dorsi – pulls the arm down at the shoulders, and draws it behind the back.
 Trapezius – holds and rotates the shoulders, and moves the head back and sideways.
 Gluteals (Gluteus maximus and Gluteus medius) – pull the leg back at the hip, and raise
it sideways at the hip (Gluteus maximus is the biggest of these muscles).
 Hamstrings – bend the leg at the knee (knee flexion).
 Triceps – straightens the arm at the elbow (elbow extension).

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  Gastrocnemius – straightens the ankle joint.

HOW MUSCULAR-SKELETAL INJURIES CAN BE MINIMISED DURING PARTICIPATION IN

PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES
 Warm up correctly
Many injuries such as sprints and pulled muscles can be avoided by warming up
correctly. Warm up prepares the body for the main activity and helps prevent injuries.
 Cool down correctly
 The cool down helps you prevent stiffness and soreness. That means you are better
prepared for the next event.
 Make sure you are fit for the activity
 If you are feeling ill, weak or in pain, you should not take part in an event.
 Make sure you develop the right techniques
 For example, a poor throwing technique in javelin or discuss will result in an arm injury.
 Play at the right level and age
 Play with people who match your physique and level of skill. It would be dangerous for a
fifteen year old rugby player to play scrum half with a senior team.
 Know the rules for your sport and obey them
 Rules were developed to protect players as well as test skills. In football for example,
you may not slide into tackles with studs up.
 Make sure you are wearing proper attire
 If the sport requires protective gear such as mouth guards or shin guards, make sure you
wear it. The correct foot-wear is especially important. Many injuries are due to poor
foot-wear. If you have long hair tie it back. Do not wear a watch or jewellery that could
catch in equipment or clothing. For sports such as wrestling and netball you must keep
your finger nails short.
 Lift and carry equipment with care.
 Watch out for hazards in the playing area
 For example, broken glass on pitches, wet patches on floors, or rakes left lying in long
jump pits.
 Make sure the equipment is in good repair
 For example, make sure that rugby boots have no loose studs, buoyancy aids have all
their ties in place, and that gymnastics mats are in good condition.

CONDITIONS AND INJURIES TO THE MUSCLES (MUSCULAR SYSTEM) AND THE SKIN
Injuries to the muscular system and skin include strains and cuts. Most injuries to be considered
are concussions, cramps, contusions, cramps, shock and skin infections (blisters and athletes
foot). Primary treatment for most ligament and muscle injury is what is known as the RICE
method. RICE is an acronym which stands for Rest, Ice, Compression and Elevation. These are
the primary actions which should be done to most muscle injuries to help treat them.
 Rest

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  First the injured area should be rested, and movement and pressure should be avoided
until it recovers because continued use of the damaged muscle will cause even more
damage and make recovery time longer.
 Ice
 Placing an ice pack on the injury, particularly during the first 24 to 72 hours of the injury
will help reduce the swelling and may relieve the pain. Cold makes blood vessels
constrict and this reduces bleeding which leads to swelling. Do not use ice cubes or
blocks directly on the skin though as it will cause frostbite.
 Compression
 Bandage the injured part firmly but not tightly using a crepe bandage. Compression
should be done to prevent bleeding and additional damage due to movement of the
injured muscle.
 Elevation
 Lastly, the injured part should be elevated above the heart level when lying down to
ease pressure on the injury. Elevating the injured makes blood flow against gravity and
thus reduce bleeding which leads to swelling.

SIGNS, SYMPTOMS, PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF INJURIES AND CONDITIONS TO THE

MUSCLES AND SKIN

1. STRAIN / MUSCLE PULL

 A strain is a tear to muscle or tendon tissue.

 Cause
 A strain is injury caused by violent overstretching of muscle or tendon, due to overuse,
which weakens the muscle, causing their fibres to be pulled apart and lose the ability to
contract. The severity of injury depends upon the amount of tissue that is damaged. It
may be stretched or even torn.

 Signs and Symptoms

 A sudden sharp pain at the site of the injury.
 Swelling, inflammation, stiffness, and sometimes cramp.
 Difficulty in using the injured part.

 Prevention
 Warm up before practice and competition, and that same philosophy of injury
prevention can be applied to regular daily activities.
 Stretching before work-out.
 Gradually increasing the amount of effort and exertion may help prevent muscle and
joint injury.
 Avoid overuse of the body.
 Make sure you develop the right techniques.

 Treatment
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 Rest, ice, compression, and elevation (RICE) are keys elements in the treatment of both
sprains and strains.
 Depending on the extent of the injury, strains usually take 7 to 14 days to heal by
themselves.
 Certain serious strains must be taken to hospital for surgery.

2. BLISTERS
 A blister is a sore bump on the skin that may be filled with fluid. It is the body’s way of
protecting the skin from further damage. Often these occur on the feet with poor fitting
shoes, but holding a tennis or badminton racket might cause blisters on the hand.

 Cause
 Common causes of blisters include repeated action with friction and burns.
 Frost bite.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Swelling
 Pain and tenderness to touch
 Sore bump on the skin that may be filled with fluid.

 Prevention
 Wear shoes and socks that fit well.
 Wear gloves for activities, such as raking leaves, put a lot of friction on the hands.
 Handle equipment correctly.

 Treatment
Self-care treats most blisters. Medical care may really be needed for a blister when it gets
infected.

 Do not pop a small blister (less than 1 inch). Protect blister from friction. Cover blister
with a loose bandage or a moleskin pad.
 Drain a large and painful blister. Clean around area with antiseptic. Use a sterilize needle
to gently pierce an edge of the blister. Let it drain, if there is no dirt or pus under the
skin flap, pat it down to protect the skin below that blister.
 Wash the area well with soap and water. Put an antibiotic ointment and cover it with a
bandage or gauze tape. Change this daily and keep it clean, if it gets dirty or wet change
more often.

3. MUSCLE STITCH
 This is a small sharp pain on the side, or upper abdomen. You get it during vigorous
exercise.

 Cause

25
 It may be caused by exercising too soon after eating. The blood supply to the diaphragm
is reduced causing a sharp pain in the abdomen.

 Signs and Symptoms

 A sharp pain in the abdomen.
 Cramps can occur in the diaphragm (the sheet of muscle below the chest).

 Prevention
 Increasing the strength of the abdomen through abdominal exercises.
 Delaying exercise by a few hours after a meal.

 Treatment
 Stop exercising for a short time and it will go away.
 Sitting and resting is an effective way of reducing the pain.
 If stitch is more severe, gentle stretching may help.

4. MUSCLE CRAMP
 A muscle cramp is an involuntarily and forcibly contracted muscle that does not relax.

 Cause
 Lack of minerals and salts in the muscles due to dehydration.
 Another cause is when muscles work when chilled (cold).

 Signs and Symptoms

 Soreness and swelling.
 Pain on the affected part.
 Inability to use the affected part.

 Prevention
 Stretch before and after exercise or sports, along with an adequate warm-up and cool-
down, to prevent cramps that are caused by vigorous physical activity.
 Good hydration before, during, and after the activity is important, especially if the
duration exceeds one hour, and replacement of lost electrolytes (especially sodium and
potassium, which are major components of perspiration) can also be helpful.
 Excessive fatigue, especially in warm weather, should be avoided.

 Treatment
 Gently massaging the muscle will often help it to relax, as will applying warmth from a
heating pad or hot soak. If the cramp is associated with fluid loss, as is often the case
with vigorous physical activity, fluid and electrolyte (especially sodium and potassium)
replacement is essential.
 Most cramps can be stopped if the muscle can be stretched slowly and gently. For many
cramps of the feet and legs, this stretching can often be accomplished by standing up
and walking around.

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5. ABRASSIONS / GRAZES
 This is the scraping off of skin from the body due to friction from rough surfaces.

 Cause
 A sliding fall on a rough surface or gavel.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Pain
 Bleeding
 Swelling
 Skin scraped off affected area.

 Prevention
 Avoid playing on slippery surfaces.
 Know the rules of your sport and obey them.
 Be mentally and physically prepared for the activity.

 Treatment
 Clean the wound gently with tepid water.
 If the wound is bleeding a little, just let the blood clot.
 Allow the wound to dry naturally if possible. But if there is danger of infection cover it
with a plaster.

6. BRUISES
 A bruise is a discoloration of the skin caused when enough pressure is placed on the skin
to break the blood vessels underneath.

 Cause
 Bruises are caused by blood leaking from damaged blood vessels under the skin due to
impact.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Pain and tenderness.
 Swelling.
 Skin discoloration.

 Prevention
 Play at the correct level and age.
 Know the rules of your sport and obey them.
 After using throwing implements do not throw them to others.

 Treatment
 The treatment is part of the RICE routine.
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 Apply an icepack or cold compress the bruised area to reduce bleeding.
 For serious bruises, compression with crepe bandage will help.

7. Laceration / Cut
 A laceration (las-e-RAY-shun) is an injury to the skin and the soft tissue underneath it.
Lacerations may happen if you are cut or hit by something. Lacerations can happen
anywhere on the body. The healing time for a laceration depends on where it is on your
body. It may take a laceration longer to heal if it is over a joint, such as your knee or
elbow.

 Cause
 It caused by sharp objects or impact on the skin.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Pain.
 Bleeding, bruising, or swelling.
 You may have numbness (loss of feeling) around the wound.

 Prevention
 Remove all sharp objects from the playing field.
 Avoid too much contact with opponents.

 Treatment
 First work to control the bleeding if your wound is bleeding a lot. You may need your
wound cleaned out with germ-free liquid. This helps to remove dirt and other small
objects, and decreases the chance of infection.
 Apply the RICE treatment.

8. TENNIS AND GOLFER’S ELBOW

 These are muscle injuries in the lower arm (around the outer bony bump or inner bump
on the elbow).

 Cause
 Overuse the muscles in the lower arm, especially in racket sport, golf or fishing.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Inflammation of the affected area.
 Tenderness.
 Pain.

 Prevention
 Avoid overuse of the body.
 Proper physical and mental preparation; that is, warm-up and stretch properly before
physical activity.

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  Treatment
 Apply the RICE treatment. The elbow must be rested until it recovers, which could take
weeks.
 The usual treatment is physiotherapy and injection of a steroid into the muscle (N.B.
steroids help mend muscle tissues).

HEAT RELATED ILLNESSES AND CONDITIONS

1. HYPERTHERMIA (OVERHEATING)
 Hyperthermia means when the body temperature has risen above 39 degrees celsius (or
above normal). Hyperthermia can lead to several conditions as discussed below.

(a) DEHYDRATION
 Dehydration refers to an inadequate amount of fluid in the body. Among athletes who
participate in endurance sports or long workouts, dehydration can occur quickly. In
general, a person is considered dehydrated when they have lost more than 2 percent of
their body weight during exercise.

 Cause
 Dehydration occurs because there is too much water lost, not enough water taken in, or
most often a combination of the two. Water can be lost due to sweat, vomiting,
diarrhea, burns, diabetes, and inability to drink fluids.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Dry mouth,
 The eyes stop making tears,
 Sweating may stop,
 Muscle cramps,
 Nausea and vomiting,
 Heart palpitations, and
 Lightheadedness (especially when standing

 Prevention
 Don’t exercise or schedule activities in hot weather.
 Wear light clothing in hot weather.

 Treatment
 Adequate fluid intake is essential for athletes before, during, and after exercise.
Whether to use sports drinks or just water depends upon your duration and intensity of
exercise.

(b) HEAT EXHAUSTION

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 Heat exhaustion is the body's response to dehydration and an excessive loss of water
and salt through sweat. Heat exhaustion typically occurs after long periods of heat
exposure. Heat exhaustion occurs when the body becomes overwhelmed by heat and
the sweat response stops working properly.

 Cause
 It is caused by several days of exposure to high temperatures and inadequate or
unbalanced replacement of fluids.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Heavy sweating
 Paleness
 Tiredness
 Weakness
 Dizziness
 Headache
 Nausea or vomiting
 Fainting
 The skin may be cool and moist. The victim's pulse rate will be fast and weak, and
breathing will be fast and shallow.

 Prevention
 Don’t exercise or schedule activities in hot weather.
 Wear light clothing in hot weather.

 Treatment
 Lie the casualty down in a cool place, with legs raised.
 Give him/her frequent sips of weak solution of salt in water.
 Call a doctor for further advice.

(c) HEAT STROKE

 Heat stroke is a form of hyperthermia, an abnormally elevated body temperature with
accompanying physical and neurological symptoms. Unlike heat cramps and heat
exhaustion, two forms of hyperthermia that are less severe, heat stroke is a true
medical emergency that can be fatal if not properly and promptly treated.

 Cause
 It is caused by long, vigorous exercise on a hot and humid day. In extreme heat, high
humidity, or vigorous exertion under the sun, the body may not be able to dissipate the
heat and the body temperature rises, sometimes up to 106°F (41.1°C) or higher.
 Another cause of heat stroke is dehydration. A dehydrated person may not be able to
sweat fast enough to dissipate heat, which causes the body temperature to rise.

 Signs and Symptoms

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 high body temperature
 the absence of sweating, with hot red or flushed dry skin
 rapid pulse
 difficulty breathing
 strange behavior
 hallucinations
 confusion
 agitation
 disorientation
 seizure
 coma

 Prevention
 The most important measures to prevent heat strokes are to avoid becoming
dehydrated and to avoid vigorous physical activities in hot and humid weather.
 If you have to perform physical activities in hot weather, drink plenty of fluids (such as
water and sports drinks), but avoid alcohol, caffeine, and tea which may lead to
dehydration.
 Your body will need replenishment of electrolytes (such as sodium) as well as fluids if
you sweat excessively or perform vigorous activity in the sunlight for prolonged periods.
 Take frequent breaks to hydrate yourself. Wear hats and light-colored, lightweight,
loose clothes.

 Treatment
 Lie the casualty down in a cool breezy place. Remove outer clothing and wrap the
casualty in a cold wet sheet. Keep the sheet saturated with cold water and fan it as
much as possible.
 Continue until the casualty has cooled down.
 Call a doctor for further advice.

2. HYPOTHERMIA
 Hypothermia is a condition in which core temperature drops below that required for
normal metabolism and body functions which is defined as 35.0 °C (95.0 °F). If exposed
to cold and the internal mechanisms are unable to replenish the heat that is being lost a
drop in core temperature occurs. Hypothermia is the opposite of hyperthermia which is
present in heat exhaustion and heat stroke.

 Cause
 Hypothermia usually occurs from exposure to low temperatures and is frequently
complicated by alcohol. Any condition which decreases heat production, increases heat
loss, or impairs thermoregulation however may contribute.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Shivering and mental confusion.

31
 Movements are slow and labored, accompanied by a stumbling pace.
 Difficulty speaking, sluggish thinking, and amnesia start to appear; inability to use hands
and stumbling is also usually present.

 Prevention
 Appropriate clothing helps to prevent hypothermia. Synthetic and wool fabrics are
superior to cotton as they provide better insulation when wet and dry. Some synthetic
fabrics, such as polypropylene and polyester, are used in clothing designed to wick
perspiration away from the body, such as liner socks and moisture-wicking
undergarments.

 Treatment
 The first priority is to perform a careful check for breathing and a pulse and initiate
cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) as necessary.
 If the person is unconscious, having severe breathing difficulty, or is pulse-less, call an
ambulance.
 The second priority is re-warming.
 Remove all wet clothes and move the person inside.
 The victim should be given warm fluids if he or she is able to drink, but do not give the
person caffeine or alcohol.
 Cover the person’s body with blankets and aluminum-coated foils, and place the victim
in a sleeping bag. Avoid actively
heating the victim with outside
sources of heat such as radiators or
hot water baths. This may only
decrease the amount of shivering and
slow the rate of core temperature
increase.

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

The skeletal system is made up of all the
bones, ligaments and joints in the body.

TYPES OF JOINTS
Joints are the areas where two bones meet.
Most joints are mobile, allowing the bones
to move. Joints are classified by the degree
of movement they allow and the structure of
the joint. There are three types of joints in
the body, which are as follows:

 FIXED/IMMOVABLE JOINTS
 The bones at an immovable joint
can’t move at all. The interlock is held

32
 close together by tough fibre. There is no joint cavity in the joints, and since they are
held together by fibrous tissue they are also called fibrous joints. Examples are joints
between the plates in the cranium (skull) and at the pelvis (hip) or sacrum.

 SLIGHTLY MOVABLE JOINT

 The bones at a slightly movable joint have a slight movement. The joints are held
together by strong cords or straps called ligaments and joined by cartilage. Cartilage
stops the bones from knocking together, and they act as shock absorbers so the bones
won’t jar when you run or jump. Examples are bones between the vertebrae and also
between the ribs and sternum (breast bone). Because of the cartilage holding the joint
together they are also called cartilaginous joints.
 SYNOVIAL/FREELY MOVABLE JOINTS
 These joints can move quite freely, and can produce a wide range of movement.
Examples are the hip, elbow and knee joints.

EXAMPLES OF SYNOVIAL JOINT

Although synovial joints differ in shape and movement range, they all have similar
characteristics.

 Ball and Socket joint

 It is the most movable joint in the body which is designed to allow a wide range of
movement.
 It is found in joints such as in the shoulder and hip joints, and it allows backward,
forward, sideways, and rotating movements.

 Hinge joint
 The range of movement is limited to one plane such as a door hinge.
 It is found in joints such as in the fingers, knees, elbows, and toes and it allows only
bending and straightening movements.

 Pivot joint
 Part of the bone fits into another ring of bone, as in case of atlas and axis, allowing
rotation of the head.
 It is found in the joints such as the neck and between elbow and ulna, and it allows
limited rotating movements.

 Saddle joint
 This joint allows the thumb to be moved in two directions.
 It is found at the base of the thumb between the metacarpal and carpal.

 Condyloid/Ellipsoidal joint
 The movement is in two planes but not such a full range as in the ball and socket joint.
 It is found in the joints such as the wrist and ankle joints, and it allows all types of
movement except pivotal movements.
33
  Gliding joint/Inter-tarsal joint
 Flat bone surfaces allow side to side and backwards and forwards movements.
 It is found between carpals, tarsals, between the sternum and the clavicle (sterno-
clavicular) and the scapula and the clavicle.

ANATOMY OF THE SYNOVIAL JOINT

A typical synovial joint consist of the following:
 Joint capsule
 An outer sleeve of the joint which holds bones
together and protect the joint.
 Joint cavity
 A small gap between the bones which is filled with
synovial fluid.
 Cartilage
 A type of tissue that covers the surface of a bone at
a joint. Cartilage helps reduce the friction of
movement within a joint, and stops bones knocking
together.
 Synovial membrane
 A tissue called the synovial membrane lines the
joint and seals it into a joint capsule. The synovial
membrane secretes synovial fluid (a clear, sticky fluid) around the joint to lubricate it.
 Ligaments
 Tough, elastic bands of connective tissue that surround the joint to give support and
limit the joint's movement.
 Tendons
 Another type of tough connective tissue on each side of a joint which attach to muscles
that control movement of the joint.
 Synovial fluid
 A clear, sticky fluid secreted by the synovial membrane.

TYPES OF MOVEMENT AROUND THE JOINT

For us to perform activities in sports our body needs movement. Movement mostly takes place
around the joint. Many movements around the joint occur in antagonistic pairs (opposing
pairs). The following are movements that take place around the joint:

 Flexion
 Decreasing the angle of the joint (bend elbow)
 Extension
 Increase the angle of a joint (straighten arm)
 Hyperextension
 Overextending the joint (pull hand back toward ceiling

34
 Plantar flexion
 Bending foot downward (tiptoe)
 Dorsiflexion
 Bending foot upward
 Abduction
 Moving body part away from midline the body
 Adduction
 Moving body part toward midline of the body
 Rotation
 Moving a part around an axis or swivelling of the joint (head turns)
 Circumduction
 Moving a part so that is follows a circular path (move your finger in a circle)
 Supination
 Turning the hand to the palm is up (hold soup)
 Pronation
 Turning the hand to the palm is down
 Eversion
 Turning the foot so the sole faces laterally
 Inversion
 Turning the foot so the sole faces medially
 Protraction
 Moving a part forward (stick out chin)
 Retraction
 Moving a part backward (pull in chin)
 Elevation
 Raising a part (shrug shoulders)
 Depression
 Lower a part (droop shoulders)

FACTORS THAT CAN AFFECT MOVEMENT AROUND A JOINT OR RANGE OF MOTION AROUND
A JOINT
A joint's range of motion is the angle through which a joint moves to the extreme limit of the
motion in a particular direction. Having an optimal range of motion allows you to move freely
without pain or stiffness and perform activities and work without injuries.

 Body type and Body mass

 Maintaining a healthy weight is very beneficial. Extra fat or muscle mass may inhibit a
joint's normal range of motion by physically blocking its path of movement. Excess
weight increases the amount of stress placed on the joints, which can lead to impaired
mobility and flexibility over time.
 For example, a protruding abdomen can limit how high you can flex your hip and pull
your knee to your ribs.
 Injury and Disease

35
  Pain from an injury or disease causes the muscles in the injured site to contract
reflexively to avoid further damage, thus limiting the joint's range of motion. Such
conditions include arthritis, bursitis, bruises, dislocation and sprains. Regular range of
motion can be achieved over time with proper rehabilitation and treatments, such as
corrective exercises, massage, heat therapy and acupuncture.
 Tissue Extensibility (elasticity and flexibility)
 Tissue extensibility refers to the elasticity and flexibility of the muscles and their
surrounding connective tissues. If they are not stretched or moved regularly, they can
become stiff and lack extensibility, which affects how much you can move. In practical
application, before exercise, you should perform warm-up exercises that move your
joints in its full range of motion. For example, before you run, you can do hip swings
front to back, side to side and rotation. This exercise not only elevates your body
temperature to improve tissue extensibility, but also moves the hip joint in all planes to
motion to minimize stiffness and increase neural stimulation.
 Structure of the joint/Joint Articulation
 Joint articulation refers to how the bones, tendons, ligaments and muscles are oriented
in a joint to permit certain range of motions. Some articulations provide only one range
of motion, such as the elbow joint, where it allows only the arm to flex or extend.
Others allow a wide variety of movements, such as the ball-and-socket joint of the
shoulder, where it can flex, abduct, adduct and rotate.
 Age
 As we age, the body is less able to renew and maintain the supportive cartilage
structures surrounding joints and bones. Old people don’t exercise much causing
connective tissues at the joint to stiffen due to lack of movement. Regular exercise and
physical activity are important for healthy joints, but too much exercise can result in
occasional stiffness and soreness in muscles and joints.

INJURIES TO THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

There are different causes of injury to the skeleton some of which might be due to:
 Overuse of the affected part
 Torn ligaments and tendons
 Physical impact due to collision with another player or a fall.

1. FRACTURE
 A fracture is a break or crack in a bone. Since bones contain nerves and blood vessels, a
fracture brings pain and bleeding. There are many types of fractures, but the main
categories are displaced, non-displaced, open, and closed. Displaced and non-displaced
fracture refers to the way the bone breaks. In a displaced fracture, the bone snaps into
two or more parts; if the bone is in many pieces, it is considered comminuted. In a non-
displaced fracture, the bone cracks either part or all of the way through, but does move
and maintains its proper alignment.
 A closed/simple fracture is when the bone breaks but there is no puncture or open
wound in the skin.

36
 An open/compound fracture is one in which the bone breaks through the skin; it may
then recede back into the wound and not be visible through the skin. This is an
important difference from a closed fracture because with an open fracture there is a risk
of a deep bone infection.

Some fracture types are:

 Greenstick fracture: an incomplete fracture in which the bone is bent. This type occurs
most often in children.
 Transverse fracture: a fracture at a right angle to the bone's axis.
 Oblique fracture: a fracture in which the break has a curved or sloped pattern.
 Comminuted fracture: a fracture in which the bone fragments into several pieces.
 An impacted fracture is one whose ends are driven into each other. This is commonly
seen in arm fractures in children and is sometimes known as a buckle fracture. Other
types of fracture are pathologic fracture, caused by a disease that weakens the bones,
and stress fracture, a hairline crack.
 Other types of fracture are pathologic fracture, caused by a disease that weakens the
bones, and stress fracture.

The severity of a fracture depends upon its location and the damage done to the bone and
tissue near it. Serious fractures can have dangerous complications if not treated promptly;
possible complications include damage to blood vessels or nerves and infection of the bone
(osteomyelitis) or surrounding tissue. Recuperation time varies depending on the age and
health of the patient and the type of fracture. A minor fracture in a child may heal within a
few weeks; a serious fracture in an older person may take months to heal.

 Cause of fractures
 Direct blows to the bones and awkward falls.

 Signs and symptoms

 Pain and tenderness
 Swelling and sometimes bleeding
 Bruising develop later
 Grating noise when parts of the cracked bone rub against each other.
 Inability to move the injured part.
 Protruding bone in case of an open fracture.

 Prevention
 Avoid too much contact or playing on slippery surfaces.
 Play at the right age and level.
 Know the rules of your sport and obey them.
 Use correct technique.
 Wear proper attire for the sport.

 Treatment

37
 Support the fractured limb above and below the fracture using towels, cushions or
folded clothing.
 If the fracture is an arm bone, a sling made of towel, bandage or T-shirt can be used for
support, but it should be done with care.
 The casualty should be kept warm and comfortable until medical help arrives.

2. DISLOCATION
 This is where the bone is pulled out of its normal position at a joint.

 Cause
 Violent twisting at the joint. It usually happens at the shoulder, elbow, finger, thumb
and ankle joints.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Severe pain at the joint.
 Joint appears deformed and there is difficulty in moving it.
 Swelling and bruising appear later.

 Prevention
 Know the rules of your sport and abide by them.
 When playing sports, it is important to use all equipment in the manner of which it was
intended.
 Avoid slippery and uneven surfaces.
 Do proper warm up and stretching before the activity.

 Treatment
 Treat as in a fracture.
 Keep the casualty warm and comfortable until medical help arrives.

3. SPRAIN
 A sprain is a stretched or torn ligament.

 Cause
 This injury is usually caused by a sudden overstretching where your ligaments are
generally only stretched out.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Pain and tenderness around the joint.
 Swelling around the joint.
 Bruising follows the swelling.
 Difficulty in moving the affected limb.

 Prevention

38
  You can prevent a sprain injury by using proper safety equipment for your wrist, ankle
and knee.
 Other prevention methods are warming up properly and perform regular stretching
before and after your soccer games.
 Avoid overuse of the joints.

 Treatment
 Apply the RICE treatment.
 If in doubt follow treatment for fracture.

4. TORN KNEE CARTILAGE

 This is a tear of the cartilage.

 Cause
 Violent twist of the knee, a fall or overuse of the knee.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Pain on the side of the knee joint.
 The joint may ‘lock’ and not straighten fully for a time.
 Swelling.

 Prevention
 Warm up and stretch properly before physical activities.
 Avoid overuse of the joint.
 Don’t play on slippery surfaces.

 Treatment
 Immobilize the injured part and apply the RICE treatment.
 Get medical attention.

FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

The skeletal system consists of all the bones of the body, joints and ligaments, and its functions
are:
 It provides shape and/or a framework of the body. It is the framework on which
muscles and other organs of the body attach.
 It supports other organs of the body.
 It provides protection for delicate organs of the body. For example, the skull protects
the brain and the ribs protect the lungs.
 It manufactures blood cells from bone marrow stored in the bones.
 It stores minerals especially calcium.

OTHER CONDITIONS TO THE BODY AND SKIN INFECTIONS

39
In sports, certain conditions can occur, which are not classified as injuries but still need to be
attended to:
1. SHOCK
 Shock is a state in which a suddenly weakened heart isn't able to pump enough blood to
meet the body's needs. The condition is a medical emergency and is fatal if not treated
right away.

 Cause
 A lack of oxygen-rich blood reaching the brain, kidneys, skin, and other parts of the body
causes shock.

 Signs and Symptoms

Some of the typical signs and symptoms of shock usually include at least two or more of the
following:
 Confusion or lack of alertness
 Loss of consciousness
 A sudden and sustained rapid heartbeat
 Sweating
 Pale skin
 A weak pulse
 Rapid breathing
 Decreased or no urine output
 Cool hands and feet
Any of these alone is unlikely to be a sign or symptom of shock.

 Prevention and Treatment

 Since shock occurs after injury when blood is diverted to the injured part, the most
helpful thing you can do for an injured person is to begin treatment for shock. When
shock has not yet developed, the treatment may actually prevent its occurrence; if it has
developed, you may be able to keep it from reaching a critical point. As we have seen,
shock creates a vicious cycle; that is, the worse it is, the worse it becomes. It is
extremely important that you begin treatment at the earliest opportunity.
 It is important to keep the victim as calm as possible because excitement and fright
affects his condition and may even bring on shock.
 Try to prevent the victim from seeing his injuries, and reassure him that he will receive
proper care. Keep unnecessary persons away, as their conversation regarding the
victim's injuries may increase his agitation.
 The best position to use for the prevention or treatment of shock is one that encourages
the flow of blood to the brain. When it is possible to place the injured person on his
back on a bed, cot, or stretcher, you should raise the lower end of the support about 12
inches so his feet are higher than his head.
 Heat is important in the treatment of shock to the extent that the injured person's body
heat must be conserved. Exposure to cold, with resulting loss of body heat, can cause
shock to develop or to become worse.

40
 A person in shock is often thirsty. No particular harm will be done if you allow the victim
to moisten his mouth and lips with cool water. But, in general, there is no need to give
him anything to drink unless you are in a position whereby medical assistance will not
be available for along period of time.

2. CONCUSSION
 A concussion is a brain injury that is caused by a sudden blow to the head or to the
body. The blow shakes the brain inside the skull, which temporarily prevents the brain
from working normally. With concussion, function may be interrupted but there is no
structural damage to the brain. Concussion can happen in football when players collide
trying to head the ball, or due to impact when hit by a ball in softball.

 Cause
 It is caused by direct blow to the head that causes the head to shake. There are many
ways to get a concussion. Some common ways include fights, falls, playground injuries,
car crashes, and bike accidents. Concussions can also happen while participating in
rough or high-speed sports such as football, boxing, hockey, soccer, skiing, or
snowboarding.

 Signs and Symptoms

Symptoms tend not to be objective and may be hard to describe. As well, they may be
delayed for many hours after injury, and sometimes the initial injury may have been
forgotten or discounted. More common are mild confusion and disorientation. Typical
symptoms of concussion include:
 Headache
 Dizziness
 Nausea
 Dazed feeling
 Visual symptoms
 Irritability
 Passing out.
 Not being able to stand or walk; or having coordination and balance problems.
 Not being able to remember what happened after the injury.
 Feeling lightheaded, seeing "stars," having blurry vision, or experiencing ringing in the
ears.

Physical Signs
Since, by definition, concussion does not damage the structure of the brain, the physical
examination should be normal. More subtle findings may include:
 Slow to answer questions or follow directions
 Poor concentration
 Emotional liability (emotional changes or instability)
 Slurred speech
 Personality changes

41
 Prevention
As with most accidents, injury prevention is the first consideration. The following are all
important steps to prevent concussion and severe head injuries:
 Wear protective clothing where necessary. For example wearing helmets while bicycling
and motorcycle riding, or in softball.
 Recreational athletes should use head protection appropriate for their sport.

 Treatment
 Rest and continued observation alone.
 Discontinue sports activity for the day. Time is the ally in concussion treatment since
most symptoms resolve within a week to 10 days.
 Treatment is directed at symptom control for headaches, nausea, dizziness, and
insomnia. Discussion with employers may be needed to alert them to issues of poor
work performance due to difficulty with concentration and comprehension.

3. ATHLETE’S FOOT
 Athlete's foot (also known as ringworm of the foot) is a fungal infection of the skin that
causes scaling, flaking, and itch of affected areas.

 Cause
 It is caused by fungi and is typically transmitted in moist areas where people walk
barefoot, such as showers or bathhouses. Although the condition typically affects the
feet, it can spread to other areas of the body, including the groin.

 Signs and Symptoms

 Athlete's foot causes scaling, flaking, and itching of the affected skin.
 Blisters and cracked skin may also occur, leading to exposed raw tissue, pain, swelling,
and inflammation.
 Secondary bacterial infection can accompany the fungal infection, sometimes requiring
a course of oral antibiotics.

 Prevention
 Good hygiene, therefore, plays an important role in managing an athlete's foot
infection.
 Since fungi thrive in moist environments, keeping feet and footwear as dry as possible,
and avoiding sharing towels, etc., aids prevention of primary infection.

 Treatment
 There are many conventional medications (over-the-counter and prescription) as well as
alternative treatments for fungal skin infections, including athlete's foot. Important with
any treatment plan is the practice of good hygiene.

42
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OXYGEN DEBT, OXYGEN DEFICIT AND EXCESS POST-EXERCISE
OXYGEN CONSUMPTION (EPOC)
When you have a short intense burst of exercise such as sprinting you generate energy for this
anaerobically or without oxygen. When you stop exercising you are still breathing heavily.
This is your body taking in extra oxygen to 'repay' the oxygen debt (So oxygen debt simply
means the amount of oxygen used by the body is more than the amount supplied). Well, that is
the simple solution but there is a little more to it if you want to look a bit deeper.

43
 True, your body has worked anaerobically and will have produced energy without some of the
oxygen it would normally have used performing low intensity exercise such as slow steady
running. The difference between the oxygen the body required and what it actually managed to
take in during the sudden sprint is called oxygen deficit.
When you stop sprinting and start to recover you will actually need more oxygen to recover
than your body would have liked to use had enough been available. This is called Excess Post
Exercise Oxygen Consumption (Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption represents the total
volume of oxygen that is consumed following exercise which enables the body to fully recover,
and return it to its pre-exercise state).

Components of excess post-exercise oxygen consumption

Elevated heart, metabolic and

respiratory rates following
exercise

Restoration of oxy- Excess post-exercise oxygen Increased body

myoglobin link consumption temperature

Oxygen debt

Alactacid debt Lactacid debt

Restoration of muscle phosphagens (ATP Removal of lactic acid

+ PC)
THE ALACTACID DEBT (FAST REPLENISHMENT) AND THE LACTACID DEBT (SLOW
REPLENISHMENT
Typically the oxygen debt consists of two components:
 the alactacid debt or (fast replenishment)
 the lactacid debt or (slow replenishment)

44
THE ALACTACID DEBT (FAST REPLENISHMENT)
The alactacid debt is the first component of the oxygen debt that is replenished. As the name
suggests, it is the volume of oxygen required to restore phosphagens used in the alactic or ATP-
PC energy system – namely phosphocreatine. It takes a fairly short period of time to
resynthesise phosphocreatine: approximately 2-3 minutes, in which time 2-3 litres of oxygen
can be consumed over and above that which is normally consumed at rest and used to provide
the energy for this resynthesis.

This assumes that following a bout of intense work, such as a maximum lift, where the
predominant energy system used is the alactic energy system, the body should be recovered
sufficiently after three minutes of rest to repeat the exercise.

THE LACTACID DEBT (SLOW REPLENISHMENT)

The lactacid debt is the volume of oxygen consumed during recovery used to remove lactic acid
from the muscles, which has accumulated during anaerobic work. Most of the lactic acid is
removed into the blood or oxidized in the mitochondria via the aerobic system with oxygen to
give carbon dioxide and water. Lactic acid is also converted into muscle and liver glycogen,
glucose and protein and some excreted from the body as sweat or urine.

The process of lactic acid removal takes approximately one hour, but this can be accelerated by
undertaking a cool down or some form of exercise recovery, which ensures a rapid and
continuous supply of oxygen to the muscles, which helps in the dispersion of lactic acid.

The oxygen consumed during this phase may also be used to supply the respiratory muscles
and the heart with energy to remain slightly elevated during the recovery period.

A GRAPH EXPRESSING OXYGEN DEBT AND DEFICIT DURING LOW INTENSITY EXERCISE (LIGHT
EXERCISE) AND HIGH INTENSITY EXERCISE (HEAVY EXERCISE)

45
THE KREB’S CYCLE
The Kreb’s cycle is one stage of the aerobic energy system. It is the oxidation of pyruvic acid
into CO2 and water. The initial stages of the aerobic process are similar to those of the lactic

46
acid system, except that the fate of pyruvic acid changes when oxygen becomes available.
Under anaerobic conditions pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid which has a fatiguing effect
upon the muscles. In the presence of oxygen during light or low intensity exercise, however,
pyruvic acid is converted into a compound called acetyl-coenzyme-A, which is combined with
oxaloacetic acid to form citric acid before it enters the Kreb’s cycle.

Under these aerobic conditions, the glucose molecule is broken down further in special
powerhouses or factories existing in the muscle cell, known as mitochondria. These lie adjacent
to the myofibrils and exist throughout the sarcoplasm. Slow twitch fibres possess a greater
number of mitochondria than fast twitch fibres, which enables them to provide a continuous
supply of energy over a long period of time. The total downgrading of one molecule of glycogen
can provide enough energy to resynthesise 38ATP:
 2 during anaerobic glycolysis
 2 during the Kreb’s cycle
 34 during the electron transport system

Because of the vast energy supply gained through aerobic metabolism, this system is mainly
used in the endurance based activities where energy is required over a long period, as well as
supplying the energy required by the body at rest, or while it is recovering from any exercise –
aerobic or anaerobic in nature.

Glycogen 2AT
P

47
 Glucose-6-phosphate

no oxygen available
Pyruvic acid Lactic acid
with oxygen available

Acetyl CoA

Oxaloacetic acid

Citric acid
2
ATP

Kreb’s cycle

H+e-
CO2 H+e-

H+e-
H+e- 1O NADH each
giving 3ATP
gives = 30ATP
2 FADH each
giving 2ATP
gives = 4ATP
H 2O 34AT
P

THE ENERGY CONTINUUM

The energy systems do not simply turn themselves on and off when required. In fact all three
systems are always in operation during exercise and even at rest. What does differ is the

48
relative importance and contribution that each makes to the activity. In the example of a
marathon run, in the first few minutes of a race the athlete will gain energy from the ATP-PC
system and the lactic acid system, until the athlete reaches steady state and the aerobic system
can meet the demands of the exercise. The lactic acid system may also operate when running
up hills or increasing pace towards the end of the run. Each activity can be plotted along an
energy continuum to determine the relative contribution of each energy pathway.

ATP-PC system, Aerobic,

e. g. weight lifting e. g. marathon

ATP Lactic acid

Splitting, pathway,
e. g. weight lifting 200m swim

FUELS USED FOR ATP RESYNTHESIS

 Carbohydrates
 Fats
 Prote

My name is misha Tsayang

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TOPIC 2: DIET AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the chapter learners should be able to:

 Differentiate between health and fitness.
 Describe components of health related fitness.
 Describe components of skill related fitness.
 Explain the importance of maintenance of good health.
 Describe conditions and diseases associated with poor nutrition, alcohol, drug abuse
(substance abuse) and sedentary living.
 Explain the effects of nutrition, alcohol, drugs (including tobacco), HIV/AIDS and the
level of physical activity on long term good health.
 Discuss factors affecting fitness.
 Discuss the long term effects of a physically active lifestyle on the body systems and
therefore on good general health.
 Define physical exercise.
 Discuss principles of training.
 Demonstrate safety precautions in any physical activity.
 Design a health related fitness programme.
 Explain physical fitness components relevant to performance.
 Describe components of training for specific games, track and field events.
 Plan programmes that could be utilized for fitness training in a specific sport or track
and field event.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HEALTH AND FITNESS

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 MODULE 5: ADVENTURE EDUCATION

TOPIC: LEISURE AND RECREATION

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the module learners should be able to:

 Differentiate between leisure and recreation.
 Participate in leisure and recreational activities.
 Explain the benefits of positive use of leisure time.
 Analyse data relating to leisure and recreational activities in a given area.
 Share skills of leisure and recreational activities with others.
 Explain how individuals and communities utilize physical recreational facilities in a given
environment.
 Discuss factors that exclude different groups of people from participating in physical
recreational activities.
 Discuss ways of promoting physical recreation in a selected area.
 Discuss ways of bringing the communities to leisure and recreational centres.
 Discuss ways of protecting the environment and self.
 Maintain an orderly and safe environment when engaged in a variety of activities.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LEISURE AND RECREATION

Leisure means free time or spare time one has when not working or sleeping. It can also be
termed as freedom from occupation, employment or engagement. This is the time in which
one may make voluntary choices. Leisure is the means by which recreation takes place, or it is
the opportunity for recreation to occur. There are two types of leisure; that is active leisure and
passive leisure.
 Active leisure activities involve the exertion of physical or mental energy. This include
low-impact physical activities that include walking and yoga, which expend little energy
and have little contact or competition and high-impact activities such as kick-boxing and
football that consume much energy and are competitive. Some active leisure activities
involve almost no physical activity, but do require a substantial mental effort, such as
playing chess or painting a picture. Active leisure and recreation overlap significantly.

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  Passive leisure activities are those in which a person does not exert any significant
physical or mental energy, such as going to the cinema, watching television, or gambling
on slot machines. Some leisure experts discourage these types of leisure activity, on the
grounds that they do not provide the benefits offered by active leisure activities. For
example, acting in a community drama (an active leisure activity) could build a person's
skills or self-confidence. Nevertheless, passive leisure activities are a good way of
relaxing for many people.

Recreation is what you do during free time, and play is one form of recreation.
 Recreation involves activity of some kind. It may be vigorous activity like playing tennis
or climbing a mountain, or the lesser effort of reading a book or listening to music. It is
action rather than rest.....physical, mental, or emotional action.
 Primary motivation for participating in the recreation activity is for personal enjoyment
and satisfaction.
 Recreation takes place during leisure.....free from obligations.
 Recreation is voluntary....freedom of choice by the participant.
 Recreation has no single form, pattern or setting. It can be planned or spontaneous,
organized or unorganized, involve many or just one, cost millions of dollars or not a
dime, and sponsored or unsponsored.
 Recreation is ALWAYS positive.

THE BENEFITS OF POSITIVE USE OF LEISURE TIME

 Improvements in health
 This improves the physical and mental health. You might take up jogging or swimming
for health reasons. Exercise helps to prevent illness and relieve stress. It helps to
improve shape. You will look and feel better and will probably live longer.
 It helps people live longer
 It helps one to have a balanced and healthy lifestyle.
 Social benefits
 It creates an opportunity for socialization (social wellbeing). This gives you the chance to
meet new people and make new friends. Activities such as skiing and sailing can be very
sociable. Some business people use golf as a good way to entertain their contacts.
 Mental benefits
 It helps relieve stress and boredom, and improves on the individual’s wellness.
 Enjoyment
 You might go sailing or scuba diving or jazz dancing just because you love it, and enjoy it.
 Helps individuals discover their talents.

Examples of recreational facilities

 Parks
 Game reserves
 Community halls
 Stadium

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  Museums
 Cinemas

FACTORS THAT EXCLUDE DIFFERENT GROUPS OF PEOPLE FROM PARTICIPATING IN PHYSICAL

RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES
 Time
 Due to the hectic lifestyles of people nowadays it becomes very difficult for people to
find time for recreational activities. They use the time they have trying to meet their
daily needs. This can also be compounded by long working hours which leave little time
for recreation.
 Education
 The level of education of individuals is important in some recreational activities where
instructions are given in written form, which would be difficult to comprehend for
uneducated individuals.
 Tradition and culture
 Some traditions and culture do not encourage participation in recreational activities by
females. Recreational activities were thought of being for men since they involve
aggression and violence which are characteristics of masculinity.
 Age
 As people grow old they feel shy and embarrassed by their age. They associate
recreational activities with young people who are still active.
 Social and Economic status
 Most recreational activities require money to buy equipment and for entry fees. This
then means those who are not well to do financially are left out of recreational
activities.
 Locality/Environment
 If one lives in a locality where recreation takes place or where there are recreational
activities he/she would develop interest in recreational activities unlike someone who
lives where there is nothing at all. People in towns are involved more in recreational
activities than those who are in rural areas due to availability of facilities, interest and
exposure from media.
 Climate
 If climatic conditions are the right ones people will take part in recreational activities.
One might have a passion for skiing but if the climatic conditions are not snowy that
would be impossible.
 Peer group
 One’s friends might determine what they do during leisure time. If your friends are not
interested in recreational activities this might also influence you as well.
 Gender
 Females don’t take part in recreational activities in large numbers due to circumstances
surrounding feminity and stereotype.
 Facilities and equipment

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  In some places facilities do not exist or distance to facilities is long, and this has lead
people to have nothing to use for them to participate.
 Skill level
 Some recreational activities require a certain level of skill to perform which might
exclude those without skill.
 Religion
 Some religions view sport and recreational activities as encouraging nudity. By so doing
they discourage their members from taking part.
 Disability
 Many recreational facilities are not favourable to disabled people, and this exclude
disabled people who need modified facilities that suit their needs.

WAYS OF BRINGING THE COMMUNITIES TO LEISURE/RECREATIONAL CENTRES

 Giving information about the about availability of recreational centres.
 Information can be given through the word of mouth or any media about availability of
facilities. This would encourage those with interest to take part.
 Advertising the programmes they have.
 This can be done by billboards or I newspapers.
 Promote competition in communities.
 Reducing entry fees to recreational facilities.

WAYS OF PROMOTING PHYSICAL RECREATION IN THE COMMUNITY

 Involving prominent sports personalities
 Giving incentives
 Improving facilities
 Promoting formation of clubs

HOW INDIVIDUALS AND COMMUNITIES UTILISE PHYSICAL RECREATIONAL FACILITIES IN THEIR

COMMUNITIES
 Recreational parks
 People visit them to relax and for picnics, and this helps relieve stress and boredom.
 Game Reserves
 People visit them to view different animal species and vegetation.
 Community halls
 They serve as recreational centres in their towns. This is where young people meet and
exchange talents in different areas.
 Stadium
 Stadia are used for sports competitions, talent identification and development.

WAYS OF PROTECTING THE ENVIRONMENT AND SELF

 Do not pollute the environment. This can be through littering, loud noise, and spilling of
waste into water sources like rivers. Pollution has adverse effects on plant and animal
life.

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  Avoid cutting down trees. Trees are very important as they act as wind breakers, and
also are a source of oxygen which is needed by people and animals.
 Recycle all recyclable waste where necessary.
 When camping try to dispose off all waste by burying it or burning it to protect animals
that might eat it. Extinguish all camp fires to avoid bush fires.

MODULE 7: SPORT AND SOCIETY

TOPIC: SPORT PARTICIPATION

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the chapter learners should be able to:

 Define sport in the context of society.
 Discuss sporting activities in society.
 Describe organizational structure of sporting activities in society.
 Recognize various levels of participation in sport.
 Voluntarily organize and run sports activities at local level.
 Discuss the role of the National Sports Organising bodies.
 Discuss the functions of a sports club.
 Explain the role of the local authority in sport such as the chief, regional sports officers,
BISA, coaches, department of sports and recreation and youth and culture.
 Explain factors which affect participation in sport such as motivation, level of skill,
gender, age, physique, stress, facilities, etc.

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  Explain societal perceptions and attitudes towards participation in sport.
 Discuss the importance of sport and its place in society.
 Explain the role of sport in society.
 Differentiate between positive and negative aspects of sport through issues such as
doping, substance abuse, good/bad sponsorship, tolerance, racism, gender, media
influence, hooliganism and religion.
 Discuss the risks associated with doping and substance abuse.

WHAT IS SPORT IN THE CONTEXT OF SOCIETY?

 An activity involving physical exertion and skill that is governed by a set of rules or
customs and often undertaken competitively. It can also be done for exercise or
pleasure, usually in a special area and according to fixed rules. And society is a
community of people living in a particular region with shared organisations, customs,
laws, etc.

SPORTING ACTIVITIES IN SOCIETY

 Softball
 Basketball
 Judo
 Rugby
 Wrestling
 Netball
 Swimming
 Cricket
 Tennis
 Athletics
 Hockey
 Football
 Archery
 Badminton
 Boxing
 Table tennis
 Karate

LEVELS OF PARTICIPATION IN SPORT

 School level
 Club level
 District/Regional level
 National level
 International level

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THE ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE OF SPORT

1. The Organisational Structure of a sports club

The organizational structure of any sport club is very similar. Clubs are made up of
members, who elect a committee which help run the affairs of the club on behalf of the
members since all the members cannot run the club.

(a) Members
 People who belong to a club are its members. In most clubs members take part in club
activity, although may not always be active. Club members are the life-hood of the club:
they pay subscription fees that finance the club, they take part in activities of the club,
and they participate in fundraising events for the club.

(b) Committee
 Even in the smallest clubs, it would be difficult for every member to be involved in
making decisions about the club. Therefore members usually elect a smaller number of
people to look after the club’s affairs. This is usually known as a committee and these
are the officials of the club (not to be confused with match officials who control the
games). Members of the committee tend to have skills in running the club. The
committee comprises of the following:
 Chairperson: This is usually the most important official in the club, and is the person in
overall charge of a club with major responsibilities. They will chair meetings and make
decisions regarding the club on their own, and with the help of other committee
members. They represent the club at special events.
 Treasurer: This is the person in charge of the finances of the club. They may have to
collect money such as match fees and make sure that accounts are produced for all
sales and purchases. They also pay the club’s bills. Each year the treasurer will have to
produce a set of accounts showing how the money was raised and spent throughout the
year.
 Secretary: He / She arrange committee meetings, and carry out club correspondence.
During a meeting they will take notes, which are known as minutes. After meetings, the
secretary will let the rest of the members know what the committee has decided.
 Vice – Chairperson: If the Chairperson is ill or unable to attend a meeting, then the Vice
– Chair will stand in.
 Club Captain: This is the person who might be in charge of one or other of the playing
teams. They have to pick or select teams and probably be in charge of them in a
competitive situation.
 President/Vice-President/Patron: The President or his vice are not usually involved with
the running of the club. They are often appointed to this special position because they
are well known people in the community who might raise the profile and improve the

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 image of the club. They may or may not have been club members; in some cases they
may not have even played the sport.

In larger clubs there may be more officials such as fixtures secretary, a coach, a physical
trainer, a physiotherapist, a team doctor, etc. In most clubs the officials are voluntary they
do not get paid for the work they do for the club). They are usually club players or former
players and have a commitment to their sport or club. Quite often they have specialist skills
which are useful in running the club. The treasurer may be an accountant, or the coach
might be a P. E. teacher with special skills in a particular sport. As clubs get larger, officials
might get paid for work they do. They then become officers rather than officials although
they still work for the club members.

2. The Organisational Structure of Botswana National Sports Council

(B. N. S. C)
The Botswana National Sports Council is the umbrella body that controls sport in Botswana.
All the governing bodies fall under it hence they are called affiliates of B. N. S. C. The B. N. S.
C. executive committee is made up of affiliates of B. N. S. C. which are governing bodies of
each sports code in the country. The B. N. S. C. executive committee is the one which takes
decisions, which are implemented by the administrative staff of the B. N. S. C. The
administrative staff is employed to perform the day to day duties of the council on daily
basis, and is headed by the Chief Executive Officer who also sits in the executive committee.
Members of the executive committee are not employees of B. N. S. C. they only hold
elective office. The executive committee is made up of the following members:
 Chairperson: The chairperson of the Botswana National Sports Council is appointed by
the minister responsible for sport.
 Executive Secretary: The executive secretary is the Chief Executive Officer and he heads
the administrative staff of B. N. S. C. He is the only one in the committee who is a full-
time employee of the council.
 Vice-Chairperson
 Treasurer
 Three Additional members
The Vice-Chairperson, Treasurer and three Additional members are elected by the affiliates
of the sports council at the general meeting where all sports codes are represented.

THE FUNCTIONS OF SPORTS CLUBS

The role of any local club in any sport is:
 To provide facilities for members.
 To organize competitions for members.
 To promote the sport and encourage new members. One good way to encourage new
members is to make links with local schools, this also benefits schools.
 To bring people together.
 To provide opportunities for members to participate at high levels of competition.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF A SPORTS CLUB
 Membership is voluntary; that is, you join because you want to do it, not because you
are told to do so.
 Members pay a subscription fee.
 Clubs have to affiliate to sport associations.
 A club participates in different competitions.
 A club is made up of members.

THE ROLE OF THE LOCAL AUTHORITY IN SPORT

The local authority include such people or institutions as the chief, regional sports officers, BISA,
coaches, the town council, the department of sports and recreation or the department of youth
and culture.
 They provide facilities and equipment for schools and communities for recreation, e.g.
recreational parks, swimming pools, golf courses, playgrounds and community halls.
 They encourage as many people as possible to play sport.

Responsibilities of sports governing bodies

A governing body is a body that runs a particular sporting code.
 Organising local and national competitions. This can range from local leagues and
teams right through to international competitions.
 Team selection; they choose and select regional and international teams and players.
 To keep players and participants informed; ranging from coaching information, rule
changes, equipment provision, etc.
 Maintaining relationships with the media; including negotiating television rights and
advertising, etc.
 Drafting the rules and laws of the game or activity; this includes upholding them and
considering any changes.

THE ROLE OF THE NATIONAL SPORTS ORGANISING BODIES

National sports organising bodies are such bodies as BISA and BNSC. They help organize sports
at a national level.
 Advice government on sport matters.
 Provide a channel for participation at national and international level.
 To develop sports facilities for the community.
 To coordinate sport.
 To develop sports opportunities for women and people with disabilities.
 To work with the governing bodies to develop sport at “grass roots” level, especially
among young people.
 To bring people together through sport.
 Arrange fixtures for games.
 Publicity: helps publicize sport.
 Finance sport.

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FACTORS WHICH AFFECT PARTICIPATION IN SPORT
(a) PHYSIQUE
 Physique refers to the physical make up, or the body type, or body build, or body
structure, or body composition of a person. Physique can greatly influence participation
and performance in sports. Being tall is important for basketball and volleyball. Being
tall and heavy is ideal for many positions in rugby particularly in scrimmaging and line-
outs. Many leading backs in rugby are big and when moving fast, they are difficult o
stop. So people’s size, weight and shape may help them to participate in some sports
but not in others. Success in sports depends to a large extent on your body build.
SOMATOTYPING is a way to describe body build. It looks at how fat, how muscular, and
how linear you are, in that order. The three body types are as follows:

 Endomorph
 Wide hips and narrow shoulders (pear shaped).
 A lot of fat in the body.
 A lot of fat on the upper arms and thighs.
 Quite slim wrists and ankles.
 Suitable for weightlifting

 Mesomorph
 Broad shoulders and narrow hips (wedge-shaped).
 A large head.
 A muscular body.
 Strong forearms and thighs.
 Very little body fat.
 Suitable for activities which require strength and power.

 Ectomorph
 Narrow shoulders and hips.
 Narrow shoulders and hips.
 Thin face and high forehead.
 Thin narrow chest and abdomen.
 Thin legs and arms.
 Very little muscle or body fat.
 Suitable for activities which require endurance.

The following are some activities in which the body type can be an advantage:
 Gymnastics: Extreme mesomorphs are relatively short and small. This gives them a low
centre of gravity with a low body weight therefore allowing them to perform rotation
activities much more easily.
 Weightlifting: Extreme endomorphs are generally large with short legs in relation to
their trunks. This gives them a low centre of gravity with body bulk, which greatly assists
in lifting heavy weights.

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  Basketball: Extreme ectomorphs are generally tall and thin. Their long legs and long
arms enable them to receive higher passes and shoot at the basket more easily.
 Marathon: Ecto-mesomorphs have features of an ectomorph and a mesomorph, the
dominant feature being the ectomorph. They can be able to carry their bodies over long
distances since they are light with some bit of muscle strength and endurance.

N.B. THERE ARE FEW INSTANCES WHERE YOU FIND EXTREME BODY TYPES. MOST TIMES
BODY TYPES ARE A COMBINATION OF TWO BODY TYPES; E.G. ENDO-MESOMORPH, MESO-
ECTOMORPH, ECTO-MESOMORPH, ETC.

(b) MOTIVATION
 Motivation is the desire, or enthusiasm, or driving force to succeed that makes you
perform at your best. It is also the drive to participate in a goal-orientated activity
(sport), which is usually associated with the expectation that there will be beneficial
experiences gained from that participation. Motivation can influence how well or badly
an individual will perform. The more motivated you are about something the more likely
you are to succeed. Motivation may be intrinsic or extrinsic or a mixture of the two.

Types of motivation
 Intrinsic motivation
 This is the desire or drive to succeed that comes from within you or from the activity
itself. (Intrinsic means built in). In intrinsic motivation you enjoy the activity and you
want to experience the satisfaction and pride of winning or just taking part. If you play a
sport because you enjoy it and feel proud of your skill at it, you are intrinsically
motivated.

 Extrinsic motivation
 This is the desire or drive to succeed which comes from, external rewards, or is
stimulated by external factors. These may be winning a trophy, a prize, money, medals
or to please another person such as a coach. Extrinsic motivators such as trophies and
medals are used a great deal to encourage players. The Ryder Cup for golf and FA Cup
for football are examples. Money is an important motivator for some sports.

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Arousal and how it affects performance
 Arousal is a state of excitement and alertness. Arousal helps improve performance. At
low arousal, people are lethargic and perform badly. Increased arousal improves
performance – but only to a point, after which increasing arousal actually decreases
performance. Before a competition you may reach a high level of arousal. Increase in
arousal beyond optimum level (over arousal) has a detrimental effect on performance.
Too little arousal causes the level of performance to be low, but too much arousal
causes control of behaviour to be lost hence poor performance because of panicking.
Arousal will be different according to the complexity, nature of the task, and to specific
situations. People tend to perform best at medium level of arousal. Research has found
that different tasks require different levels of arousal for optimal performance. For
example, difficult or intellectually demanding tasks may require a lower level of arousal
(to facilitate concentration), whereas tasks demanding stamina or persistence may be
performed better with higher levels of arousal (to increase motivation).

The physiological response of the body to arousal

 Production of adrenalin.
 Increased heart rate.
 Increased breathing.
 Muscles tense in readiness for action.
 Sweaty palms.
 Dry mouth.

Causes of arousal
 The level of arousal for a sports event will affect performance. Things that can cause, or
increase, arousal are:

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 A pep talk from the coach before an event.
 The warm up before the event.
 Having a definite goal you want to achieve in the event.
 Bright lights and lots of noise around you.
 Friendly or hostile sports fans looking on.

Techniques used to control anxiety as a result of over arousal

 Relaxation: Use techniques such as slow deep breathing and relaxing different muscle
groups in turn.
 Visualisation: This is where you go through the event in your mind in advance, in detail.
You “see” yourself performing well and staying calm and confident. It is also called
mental rehearsal.
 Focusing: You can concentrate completely on the activity you are about to perform. You
don’t allow any distractions to affect your concentration.

(c) GENDER
 This is whether you are male or female

Reasons for low participation by women in physical and recreational activities

 Past attitudes to women: A hundred years ago women were regarded as fragile
creatures. It was thought that vigorous physical activity would harm their internal
organs and affect their ability to have children. It was also un-lady like to look glowing,
tousled and sweaty. A woman should look delicate. These attitudes persisted for
decades among both women and men.
 Lack of time and energy: The traditional role of a woman has been wife, mother and
homemaker. This leaves little time or energy for physical recreation. Now many women
work outside the home and bring up a family. That means even less free time.
 Lack of money: Women who don’t have a job outside the home often don’t have the
money to spend on physical recreation.
 Lack of access to facilities: The number of facilities is increasing but if a woman at home
does not have the use of a car, getting to a facility (especially with small children in tow)
can take enormous effort.

Reasons why more women take part in sport than in the past
 The sports council’s effort to promote sport for everyone. Nowadays women are
encouraged to take part in sport.
 Funds for facilities for women sports are available.
 Growth in popularity of certain activities that are targeted at women, and they appeal to
them e.g. step aerobics.
 Emergence of women role models in sport.
 Recognition that women can compete in events which in the past were considered too
strenuous for women have opened the door for women participants, e.g. marathon,
triple jump, pole vault, etc.

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 Men and women are now competing on equal terms, e.g. equestrian sport.
 Recognition that exercise is good for health.
 There is greater economic freedom for women. Nowadays, more women earn more and
do not have to depend on men for money.

Reasons why less women took part in sport in the past

 Traditionally, women did not have equal opportunities to participate in sporting
activities due to:
 Clothing: The type of clothing they wore hampered performance.
 Motherhood: Women were expected to be homemakers and carers of the family.
 Social attitudes: Men always thought that they knew better and most events were
thought to be strenuous for women. Women were considered the weaker sex.
 Lack of women role models in sport.
 Lack of money.
 Low or little media coverage
 Lack of coaches trained to handle women.
 Physique.
 Lack of sponsorship for women sports.
 Mistaken beliefs that sport is a men’s world.

(d) MEDIA
 Media are all the means by which information is delivered to you or it is various means
of communication.

Types of media
 Print media, e.g. books, newspapers, magazines.
 Electronic media, e.g. video, internet, CD-ROMS, cinema, telephone.
 Mass media, e.g. radio, television.

Positive influence of media coverage on sport

 The media helps to promote sport. More people can see, hear and read about sport in
the media.
 They create sports “stars” that may inspire young athletes. David Beckham and Cristiano
Ronaldo are examples.
 Sports that get a lot of media coverage, especially on TV, find it easier to attract
sponsorship. With sponsorship a sport can improve its facilities, equipment and training.
 The media can educate and inform people about sport. For example, through
documentaries, coaching programmes and discussions on current issues.
 TV companies pay large sums of money to the governing bodies of sport for the right to
broadcast events. This is used to develop the sport.
 The media can give a better understanding of performance which enables people to
either enjoy watching the activity more or even to improve their actual performance.

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 This can be achieved by slow motion replays of an activity (such as gymnastics) which
allows all of the movement to be shown in detail and appreciated fully.
 The media will apportion a large amount of coverage to certain events. This will raise
their profile and make people more aware of them. An example of this is the coverage
of gymnastics within the Olympic Games, which triggers off an increase in participation
and membership in gymnastics clubs throughout the world. When a sport gets a lot of
media attention it becomes popular, and more people get interested in playing it.
 Media has brought about changes in the rules and organization of cricket. Television
replays help with umpiring, i.e. third umpire. Miniature cameras giving good action
shots are always placed in cricket stumps.

Drawbacks of media coverage on sport

 This can also be termed as negative influence of media coverage on sport.
 The media may have excess coverage of certain activities. This can discourage people
from going along to see the event. As there is much coverage of Premiership soccer on
television viewers will watch these matches instead of watching lower level games and
the revenue these lesser clubs receive is therefore reduced significantly.
 The media can interfere with the timings of events. This is done to cater for the largest
viewing audiences they can have. An example is cricket where there are not only
day/night matches but also games arranged out of normal playing seasons to make sure
there are sufficient matches.
 Media exposure may foster the desire to win at all cost rather than play for enjoyment.
An example is where athletes fail the drug test because of the desire to win.
 Sports stars lose privacy. Their private lives get reported on. David Beckham was once
victim to this.
 The media may over - sensationalise events.
 There is pressure on managers and team captains to get results. The media may hound
them out of their jobs if they fail.
 The media may become very critical of referees/officials’ decisions hence chasing
potential referees from the sport.

The impact of television on sport

 Of all the media, TV has the biggest impact on sport and vice versa.
 Sport occupies a large percentage of the viewing time; television allows viewers to see
the biggest competitions in the world.
 Event/Match analysis allows the viewer to see the events in great detail, e.g. slow
motion replays.
 Television companies contribute to event prize money. Television companies decide,
due to their financial support, which sport will be shown.
 Colour TV allows some sports to be clearly seen which were not possible with black and
white TV, e.g. snooker, bowls, etc.

(e) FACILITIES

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 Facilities for physical activities vary depending on where people live, and might
influence people’s participation in sport. Urban centres may have leisure centres, sports
stadia, and specialist sports clubs. Rural areas and remote areas are unlikely to have
purpose built sports facilities but may have natural facilities for such activities as sailing,
hill walking, rock climbing, etc. Therefore access to facilities may determine your
participation in sport.

Sport and recreation facilities may be controlled and run by local authorities like the city
council, private companies or voluntary organizations. Local authorities normally own
sports facilities but do not always run them. Companies compete for chances to use or
run the facilities. Dual use facilities are often school facilities which are also used by the
local community.

(f) SKILL
 Skill is the learned ability to bring about a pre-determined result with maximum
certainty and efficiency. In other words, it means you can perform an activity or
movement to get exactly the result you intended without wasting time or energy, or
both. Most often people do not participate in sport because they do not have the
requisite skill hence they fear embarrassment from their peers. Others however do
participate because they have skill.

Types of skill
 All skills in sport are motor skills; that is, they involve movement and they form the basis
of all sports. There are a number of ways of classifying skill. These could be according to
the:

i. Complexity of the skill

 Basic or simple skill: These skills do not require intricate body movements and are
learnt at an early age, and are easily transferable to a number of situations e.g. jumping,
throwing, catching and hitting.
 Complex skill: These skills involve more movements and finer control of many parts of
the body. They are specific to a given sport and need much more practice to learn
correctly e.g. a serve in tennis, high jump using fosbury flop and the backstroke in
swimming.

ii. Stability of the environment or the situation in which the skill is performed
 Open skill: These skills are mostly influenced by the environment or external factors.
For example, they depend on where your opponent is in netball or football, deciding
when to tackle in a football game, the direction of the wind in sailing.

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  Closed skill: A closed skill is one where the movements are always exactly the same.
The skill follows a set, predetermined pattern of movement regardless of external
factors or environment e.g. throwing a dart, a cartwheel in gymnastics, etc.

iii. Degree of bodily involvement or precision of movement

 Fine motor skill: They require small muscle movements, and usually involve
manipulation of tools or objects. They are associated with speed, accuracy and
efficiency e.g. dart throwing, fencing, archery, playing golf, etc.
 Gross motor skill: They require large muscle movements, and usually involve total body
or multi-limb movements. They are associated with strength, endurance and power e.g.
kicking a ball, running, jumping, etc.

iv. How clearly defined the beginning and end of the skill is
 Continuous skill: The skill has no distinct beginning or end. It requires repetition of
movement pattern, and the activity goes on for unspecified time e.g. cycling, running on
the track, rowing, etc.
 Discrete skill: The skill has a well defined beginning and end. It is usually brief in nature
e.g. kicking a ball, throwing an object, etc.

Factors affecting variations in skill level

 Age and maturity

 It is easier to learn a skill at a young age than when somebody is old. As the person
matures there is a high degree of skill retention.

 Motivation
 Whether intrinsic or extrinsic.

 Personality
 Personality traits determine behaviour in normal life and in sporting situations. People
who are quiet, shy, calm and retiring, can be described as introverts, whereas
extroverts are the direct opposite, being outgoing, loud, lively and sociable.

It is true that introverts prefer:

 Individual sports
 Sports with intricate skills
 Sports with restricted movements
 Routine and repetitive sports.

Extroverts may prefer:

 Team sports
 Whole body activities
 Sports with a lot of movement
 Sports with high levels of excitement.
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  Facilities
 Environment
 Teaching/Coaching
 Arousal conditions

(g) The following are some more factors that might affect participation in sport:
 Age
 Level of education
 Tradition and culture
 Religion
 Peer group pressure
 Family
 Money
 Disability
 Politics
 Environment and climate.

THE IMPORTANCE OF SPORT AND ITS PLACE IN SOCIETY

 Cultural exchange
 During tournaments such as the World Cup supporters of the travelling teams meet
others from different cultures thus copying positive traits from each other’s cultures.

 Brings about unity

 It brings people of all races together, regardless of their differences. It also gives players
and supporters from different countries the chance to meet and develop friendship. It
unites people from different races, religions, cultures and classes in a shared interest.

 It is a form of recreation
 Sport encourages and spreads people’s interest in recreation. This discourages
delinquency as more people will have something to do during leisure.

 Creation of jobs
 More people take up sport as a form of employment. Nowadays sport is one of the
biggest employers in the world.

 Helps improve fitness

 Sport helps enhance fitness. A fit person is less likely to fall sick, and this in turn reduces
the cost of health care for the individual and the government.

 Economical boost

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  As more people get employed in sport they pay tax. Also revenue accrues to the country
as it hosts major sporting events.

 Political boost
 Countries that excel in sport have an improved image and reputation. It gets more
recognition internationally.

 Sport attracts sponsorship

 Sponsorship brings money into sport. Even at local level, small businesses often sponsor
teams and help them financially, allowing more people to take part. Sponsoring sport
helps businesses because sponsorship is always tax deductible; that is, businesses do
not have to pay tax on the amount it spends on sponsorship.

 Provides scholarship to excelling athletes

 Sport gives the world’s top athletes the chance to compete against each other. This
encourages excellence. Athletes given scholarship through sport programmes train with
top coaches in top facilities; they don’t have to worry about money.

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ASPECTS OF SPORT THROUGH SOCIETAL ISSUES IN SPORT

 DOPING/SUBSTANCE ABUSE
 Doping is the use of drugs or chemical substances to enhance performance. There are
two types of doping, which are drug doping and blood doping. Blood doping is the
practice of taking blood from an individual and transfuse it at a later stage to increase
red blood cells in the body hence more oxygen carrying capacity of the athlete’s blood.
Drugs are any chemical substance introduced to the body which affects how the body
works.

Reasons why sports persons take drugs

 To kill pain.
 To prolong activities or to perform for a long time without getting tired.
 To improve performance.
 To kill pain.

Types of drugs identified as performance enhancing and banned by the International Olympic
Committee

Substance Negative effect

Stimulants  pain and fatigue can be masked and the athlete can continue to

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 perform causing further injury
 the athlete can feel really low afterwards
 can cause aggressive behaviour
 can lead to high blood pressure
 can cause liver damage
 can cause brain damage
Narcotic  can cause low blood pressure
analgesics  result in constipation
 they are addictive
 if a performer becomes addicted they will suffer withdrawal
symptoms
 masking of pain which can cause further injury
 morphine and heroin are illegal in many countries so use can result
in legal action
Diuretics  sodium and potassium salts are excreted causing an imbalance in
the body of minerals
 low levels of potassium lead to muscle weakness
 low levels of potassium can lead to heart damage
Beta-  lowers performance during lengthy events
blockers  can cause sleep problems
 can cause depression
 can cause blood pressure to drop
Anabolic  heart disease
steroids  high blood pressure
 weakened ligaments and tendons
 infertility
 cancer
 aggressive behaviour/depression
 changes in sexual characteristics
 deepening of the voice
Tranquillisers  the user feels dull/uninterested
 lacking in energy
 addictive

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