Week 7 Lab: Endocrine + Cardiovascular

Learning outcomes of the lab exercises:

1. Match the major glands of the endocrine system with the hormones.
2. Identify the components of blood and how each component is produced within the body.
3. Describe the anatomy of the heart to include the electrical system and cardiac cycle.
4. Differentiate between arteries, veins, and capillaries and their distribution within the body.

Endocrine System Exercises

1. For the anterior pituitary gland, describe its location, the hormones it secretes, and the target organs of
each hormone, and the function of each hormone. If there are differences in the effects of the hormone bas

Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary Gland

Hormones Secreted:

1. Growth Hormone (GH)

● Target Organs: Liver, muscle, bone, cartilage, and other tissues.
● Function: Stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and cell regeneration. It
increases protein synthesis, promotes lipolysis, and raises blood glucose
levels. In the liver, it stimulates the production of insulin-like growth factor
1 (IGF-1), which further promotes growth.
● Sex Differences: GH secretion is generally higher in males than in
females, and its effects can be modulated by sex hormones, especially
during puberty.
2. Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
● Target Organs: Thyroid gland.
● Function: Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce and release thyroid
hormones (T3 and T4), which regulate metabolism, energy balance, and
growth and development.
● Sex Differences: None significant.
3. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
● Target Organs: Adrenal cortex.
● Function: Stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce and release cortisol
and other glucocorticoids, which help the body respond to stress, regulate
metabolism, and maintain blood pressure.
● Sex Differences: None significant.
4. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
● Target Organs: Ovaries (in females) and testes (in males).
● Function:
● Females: Stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles, which secrete
estrogen.
 ● Males: Stimulates spermatogenesis in the testes.
● Sex Differences: FSH is involved in different reproductive processes in
males and females, reflecting its role in the reproductive systems of each
sex.
5. Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
● Target Organs: Ovaries (in females) and testes (in males).
● Function:
● Females: Triggers ovulation and stimulates the formation of the
corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone.
● Males: Stimulates the production of testosterone by the Leydig cells
in the testes.
● Sex Differences: LH has distinct roles in the reproductive systems of
males and females, essential for their respective reproductive functions.
6. Prolactin (PRL)
● Target Organs: Mammary glands.
● Function: Promotes milk production (lactation) in females. Its role in males
is less well understood but may be involved in regulating reproductive and
immune functions.
● Sex Differences: Prolactin levels are generally higher in females,
particularly during pregnancy and lactation.
7. Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
● Target Organs: Melanocytes in the skin.
● Function: Stimulates the production and release of melanin, the pigment
responsible for skin color.
● Sex Differences: None significant.

2. For the posterior pituitary gland, describe its location, the hormones it secretes, the target organs of
each hormone, and the function of each hormone. (5 points)
Posterior Pituitary Gland

Location: The posterior pituitary gland, also known as the neurohypophysis, is

located at the base of the brain beneath the hypothalamus. It is the posterior lobe of the
pituitary gland and is connected to the hypothalamus by the pituitary stalk
(infundibulum).

Hormones Secreted:
The posterior pituitary gland does not produce hormones itself. Instead, it stores and
releases hormones that are produced by the hypothalamus. The two main hormones
secreted by the posterior pituitary gland are:

1. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

 2. Oxytocin

Target Organs and Functions of Each Hormone:

1. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

● Target Organs: Kidneys
● Function: ADH, also known as vasopressin, plays a crucial role in
regulating water balance in the body. It acts on the kidneys to promote the
reabsorption of water from the filtrate in the renal tubules back into the
bloodstream. This reduces urine volume and helps to maintain blood
pressure and fluid balance.
2. Oxytocin
● Target Organs: Uterus and Mammary Glands
● Function: Oxytocin has several important functions, including:
● Uterus: During childbirth, oxytocin stimulates contractions of the
uterine muscles, facilitating labor and delivery.
● Mammary Glands: Postpartum, oxytocin promotes the ejection of
milk from the mammary glands in response to suckling by the
infant, aiding in breastfeeding.

3. For the thyroid gland, describe its location, the hormones it secretes, the target
organs of each hormone, and the function of each hormone. (5 points)

3. Thyroid Gland

Location: The thyroid gland is located in the neck, anterior to the trachea, and just below the
larynx (voice box).

Hormones Secreted:

● Thyroxine (T4)
● Triiodothyronine (T3)
● Calcitonin

Target Organs and Functions:

1. Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3):

 ● Target Organs: Virtually all body tissues.
● Functions:
● Metabolism Regulation: Increase the basal metabolic rate (BMR), which
helps control the speed of chemical reactions in the body.
● Growth and Development: Crucial for normal growth and development,
especially for the brain during infancy and childhood.
● Energy Utilization: Enhance the rate of energy release from
carbohydrates and fats.
● Protein Synthesis: Aid in protein synthesis.
● Heart Rate and Muscle Function: Increase heart rate and strengthen
heart contractions.
2. Calcitonin:
● Target Organs: Bones, kidneys.
● Functions:
● Calcium Homeostasis: Lowers blood calcium levels by inhibiting
osteoclast activity (cells that break down bones) and promoting calcium
deposition in bones.
● Kidney Function: Reduces calcium reabsorption in the kidneys.

4. For the parathyroid gland, describe its location, the hormones it secretes, the target
organs of each hormone, and the function of each hormone. (5 points)

4. Parathyroid Gland

Location: The parathyroid glands are typically four small glands located on the posterior surface
of the thyroid gland, though their exact number and position can vary slightly.

Hormone Secreted: Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

Target Organs and Functions:

1. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH):

● Target Organs: Bones, kidneys, intestines.

● Functions:
● Calcium Homeostasis:
● Bones: Stimulates osteoclast activity to release calcium from
bones into the bloodstream.
● Kidneys: Increases calcium reabsorption in the kidneys, reducing
calcium loss in urine.
● Intestines: Enhances absorption of calcium from the intestine by
stimulating the production of active vitamin D (calcitriol).
 ● Phosphate Balance: Reduces phosphate reabsorption in the kidneys,
leading to its increased excretion in urine, which helps to balance calcium
and phosphate levels in the blood.

5. For the adrenal glands , describe its location, the hormones it secretes, the target organs
of eachhormone, and the function of each hormone. (5 points)

5. Adrenal Glands:

● Location: The adrenal glands are located on top of each kidney.

● Hormones Secreted:
● Cortisol: Targets the liver, muscles, and immune system; helps regulate
metabolism, reduce inflammation, and assist with stress response.
● Aldosterone: Targets the kidneys; regulates sodium and potassium levels, and
thus helps control blood pressure.
● Adrenaline (Epinephrine): Targets various organs, including the heart, muscles,
and liver; increases heart rate, muscle strength, blood pressure, and sugar
metabolism, preparing the body for a 'fight or flight' response.
● Noradrenaline (Norepinephrine): Similar to adrenaline, it targets the heart, blood
vessels, and other organs to increase blood pressure and blood sugar levels.
● Androgens: These hormones contribute to the development of secondary sexual
characteristics and reproductive activity.

6. For the pancreas, describe its location, the hormones it secretes, the target organs of each hormone,
and the function of each hormone. (5 points)

6. Pancreas:

● Location: The pancreas is located behind the stomach, nestled in the curve of the
duodenum (the first part of the small intestine).
● Hormones Secreted:
● Insulin: Targets liver, muscle, and fat cells; lowers blood glucose levels by
promoting the uptake of glucose into cells and storage as glycogen in the liver.
● Glucagon: Targets the liver; raises blood glucose levels by promoting the
breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver.
● Somatostatin: Targets the pancreas and gastrointestinal tract; inhibits the release
of insulin and glucagon and slows down gastrointestinal activity.
7. For the thymus gland, describe its location, the hormones it secretes, the target organs of each
hormone, and the function of each hormone. (5 points)

7. Thymus Gland:

● Location: The thymus gland is located in the upper anterior part of the chest, behind the
sternum, and between the lungs.
● Hormones Secreted:
● Thymosin: targets the immune system; and promotes the development and
differentiation of T-lymphocytes (T-cells), which are critical for the adaptive
immune response.

8. For the pineal gland, describe its location, the hormones it secretes, the target organs of each
hormone, and the function of each hormone. (5 points)
8. Pineal Gland

Location: The pineal gland is a small, pea-shaped endocrine gland located in the brain. It is
situated near the center of the brain, between the two hemispheres, in a groove where the two
halves of the thalamus join.

Hormones Secreted: Melatonin

Target Organs: Melatonin: Targets various tissues and organs in the body, but its primary target
is the brain.

Functions of Each Hormone:

● Melatonin:
● Regulates Sleep-Wake Cycle: Melatonin helps regulate the sleep-wake cycle by
signaling to the brain when it is time to sleep. Its production increases in
response to darkness and decreases in response to light, helping to maintain
circadian rhythms.
● Antioxidant Properties: Melatonin also acts as an antioxidant, helping to protect
cells from damage caused by free radicals.

9. For the ovaries, describe its location, the hormones it secretes, the target organs of each hormone,
and the function of each hormone. (5 points)

9. Ovaries

Location: The ovaries are two small, almond-shaped organs located in the female pelvic cavity, one on each sid

Hormones Secreted:
 ● Estrogen
● Progesterone
● Inhibin

Target Organs:

● Estrogen: Targets the uterus, breasts, bone, liver, and other tissues.
● Progesterone: Primarily targets the uterus and breasts.
● Inhibin: Targets the pituitary gland.

Functions of Each Hormone:

● Estrogen:
● Regulates Menstrual Cycle: Estrogen plays a crucial role in the regulation of the
menstrual cycle and the development of secondary sexual characteristics.
● Maintains Pregnancy: Helps prepare the uterus for pregnancy and supports fetal
development.
● Bone Health: Promotes bone growth and maintenance.
● Progesterone:
● Supports Pregnancy: Prepares the uterus for implantation of a fertilized egg and
maintains the uterine lining during pregnancy.
● Regulates Menstrual Cycle: Works with estrogen to regulate the menstrual cycle.
● Inhibin:
● Regulates FSH: Inhibits the secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) from
the pituitary gland, thus regulating the production of eggs and menstrual cycle.

10. For the testes, describe its location, the hormones it secretes, the target organs of each
hormone, and the function of each hormone. (5 points)

9. Testes

Location: The testes are two oval-shaped organs located in the male scrotum, outside the pelvic
cavity. They are part of the male reproductive system.

Hormones Secreted:

● Testosterone
● Inhibin

Target Organs:
 ● Testosterone: Targets various tissues and organs, including muscles, bones, skin, and
reproductive organs.
● Inhibin: Targets the pituitary gland.

Functions of Each Hormone:

● Testosterone:
● Develops Male Characteristics: Responsible for the development of male
secondary sexual characteristics, such as increased muscle and bone mass,
deepening of the voice, and growth of body hair.
● Sperm Production: Essential for the production of sperm and maintenance of
male fertility.
● Libido: Influences sexual drive and behavior.
● Inhibin:
● Regulates FSH: Inhibits the secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) from
the pituitary gland, helping to regulate sperm production.

Cardiovascular System Exercises

For the following terms related to the cardiovascular system, please describe each component, its function
and/or its application when appropriate. (40 points)

Blood: Functions and Composition

Main Functions of Blood:

1. Transport:
● Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide: Blood transports oxygen from the lungs to
the body's tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.
● Nutrients: Blood carries nutrients from the digestive tract to cells
throughout the body.
● Waste Products: Blood removes waste products of metabolism from cells
and transports them to excretory organs (e.g., kidneys) for disposal.
● Hormones: Blood distributes hormones from endocrine glands to target
organs and tissues.
2. Defense:
● Immune Response: Blood contains white blood cells (leukocytes) and
antibodies that identify and neutralize pathogens such as bacteria and
viruses.
● Clotting: Platelets and clotting factors in the blood help to prevent
excessive bleeding by forming clots at injury sites.
3. Maintenance of Homeostasis:
● Temperature Regulation: Blood helps regulate body temperature by
absorbing and distributing heat throughout the body.
 ● pH Balance: Blood maintains the acid-base balance (pH) of the body by
using buffers.
● Fluid and Electrolyte Balance: Blood helps maintain fluid volume and
electrolyte balance in body tissues.

Plasma Composition:

1. Water (about 90% of plasma):

● Acts as a solvent for carrying other substances.
● Helps in temperature regulation.
2. Proteins:
● Albumin: Maintains osmotic pressure, which helps in the distribution of
fluids between blood vessels and tissues.
● Globulins: Involved in immune functions (e.g., antibodies).
● Fibrinogen: Essential for blood clotting.
3. Other Substances:
● Electrolytes: Such as sodium, potassium, calcium, bicarbonate, which are
crucial for various physiological functions.
● Nutrients: Including glucose, amino acids, and lipids absorbed from the
digestive tract.
● Waste Products: Such as urea, creatinine, and bilirubin, which are
transported to the kidneys and liver for excretion.
● Gases: Oxygen and carbon dioxide dissolved in plasma.
● Hormones and Enzymes: Which regulate various physiological processes.

Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)

Erythrocytes, or red blood cells (RBCs), are primarily responsible for transporting
oxygen from the lungs to body tissues and carbon dioxide from tissues back to the
lungs. Key components and structures include:

● Hemoglobin: A protein found in RBCs that carries oxygen. Hemoglobin is

composed of four protein subunits (globins), each containing a heme group.
● Heme: A component of hemoglobin that contains iron. Each heme group binds
one molecule of oxygen, allowing each hemoglobin molecule to carry up to four
oxygen molecules.
● Globins: The protein part of hemoglobin, consisting of two alpha and two beta
chains in adults. Each chain is associated with a heme group.

Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)

Leukocytes are involved in protecting the body against infections and foreign invaders.
They are categorized into two main types based on the presence or absence of
granules in their cytoplasm:

Granulocytes

● Neutrophils: The most abundant type of white blood cells. They are the first
responders to infection and are involved in phagocytosis of bacteria and fungi.
● Eosinophils: These cells are involved in combating multicellular parasites and
certain infections. They also play a role in allergic reactions.
● Basophils: The least common type of granulocyte. They release histamine during
allergic reactions and play a role in inflammatory responses.

Agranulocytes

● Lymphocytes: Includes B cells, T cells, and natural killer (NK) cells. B cells
produce antibodies, T cells are involved in cell-mediated immunity, and NK cells
attack virus-infected cells and tumors.
● Monocytes: The largest type of white blood cell. They differentiate into
macrophages and dendritic cells that are involved in phagocytosis and antigen
presentation.

Platelets
Platelets, or thrombocytes, are small cell fragments derived from megakaryocytes in the
bone marrow. They play a crucial role in blood clotting (hemostasis) by forming a
temporary plug at the site of blood vessel injury and facilitating the blood coagulation
process.

Three Steps of Hemostasis

Hemostasis is the process that stops bleeding and involves three key steps:

1. Vascular Spasm: Immediate constriction of a damaged blood vessel to reduce

blood flow and limit blood loss.
2. Platelet Plug Formation: Platelets adhere to the exposed collagen fibers of the
damaged vessel, become activated, and release chemicals that make nearby
platelets sticky. This leads to the formation of a temporary platelet plug.
3. Coagulation (Blood Clotting): A complex cascade of enzymatic reactions
involving clotting factors leads to the conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin threads,
which weave through the platelet plug to form a stable blood clot.
These components and processes work together to maintain blood flow and protect the
body from infections and blood loss.

Blood Typing, Agglutinogens, and Agglutinins

Blood Typing: Blood typing is a method used to determine the specific type of blood a
person has. There are four main blood types: A, B, AB, and O, which are determined by
the presence or absence of specific antigens (agglutinogens) on the surface of red
blood cells.

Agglutinogens: These are antigens found on the surface of red blood cells. The
presence or absence of these antigens (A and B) determines an individual's blood type.

● Type A blood has agglutinogens.

● Type B blood has B agglutinogens.
● Type AB blood has both A and B agglutinogens.
● Type O blood has no A or B agglutinogens.

Agglutinins: These are antibodies found in the plasma of the blood. They react against
agglutinogens that are not present in the individual’s own red blood cells.

● Type A blood has anti-B agglutinins.

● Type B blood has anti-A agglutinins.
● Type AB blood has no anti-A or anti-B agglutinins.
● Type O blood has both anti-A and anti-B agglutinins.

Universal Donor
The universal donor is Type O negative (O-). People with this blood type can donate to
individuals of any blood type because their red blood cells do not have A, B, or Rh
antigens, which minimizes the risk of an immune reaction.

Universal Recipient
The universal recipient is Type AB positive (AB+). People with this blood type can
receive blood from any blood type because they have no anti-A, anti-B, or anti-Rh
antibodies, reducing the risk of an immune response.

Rh Group
The Rh group refers to the presence or absence of the Rh antigen (also called the Rh
factor) on the surface of red blood cells. If the Rh antigen is present, the blood type is
Rh positive (e.g., A+, B+, AB+, O+). If it is absent, the blood type is Rh negative (e.g.,
A-, B-, AB-, O-).

Pulmonary Circuit
The pulmonary circuit is the path of circulation between the heart and the lungs. It is
responsible for oxygenating the blood. Deoxygenated blood is pumped from the right
ventricle of the heart to the lungs via the pulmonary arteries. In the lungs, carbon
dioxide is exchanged for oxygen. The oxygenated blood then returns to the left atrium of
the heart via the pulmonary veins.

Systemic Circuit
The systemic circuit is the path of circulation between the heart and the rest of the body.
It is responsible for delivering oxygenated blood and nutrients to body tissues and
returning deoxygenated blood to the heart. Oxygenated blood is pumped from the left
ventricle of the heart into the aorta and distributed through the systemic arteries to
various body tissues. Deoxygenated blood returns to the right atrium of the heart
through the systemic veins.

Pericardial Sac
The pericardial sac, also known as the pericardium, is a double-walled sac that
encloses the heart and the roots of the great vessels. It has two layers:

● Fibrous Pericardium: The outer layer of the pericardium. It is tough, dense

connective tissue that protects the heart, anchors it to surrounding structures
(such as the diaphragm and sternum) and prevents it from overfilling with blood.
● Parietal Pericardium: The inner layer of the pericardium. It is a thin, serous
membrane that lines the fibrous pericardium and produces pericardial fluid, which
lubricates the heart and reduces friction as it beats.

Heart Wall Structure

1. Epicardium/Visceral Pericardium:
● The epicardium is also known as the visceral pericardium. It is the
outermost layer of the heart wall and forms a part of the pericardium, the
double-walled sac that encloses the heart.
● The epicardium provides a smooth, slippery texture to the outer surface of
the heart and is responsible for protecting the heart from friction during its
movements.
2. Pericardial Fluid:
 ● The pericardial fluid is found in the pericardial cavity, the space between
the visceral pericardium (epicardium) and the parietal pericardium.
● This fluid acts as a lubricant, reducing friction as the heart beats and
allowing the layers of the pericardium to glide smoothly over each other.
3. Myocardium:
● The myocardium is the middle layer of the heart wall and is composed of
cardiac muscle tissue. It is the thickest layer and is responsible for the
contractile function of the heart, pumping blood throughout the body.
● The myocardium's thickness varies in different parts of the heart, being
thickest in the left ventricle as it needs to pump blood to the entire body.
4. Endocardium:
● The endocardium is the innermost layer of the heart wall. It is a thin,
smooth membrane that lines the interior of the heart chambers and covers
the heart valves.
● The endocardium provides a smooth surface for blood flow within the
heart and helps prevent blood clotting within the heart chambers.

Anatomical Structures
1. Atria:
● The heart has two upper chambers called the atria (singular: atrium). The
right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body via the superior
and inferior vena cava, while the left atrium receives oxygenated blood
from the lungs via the pulmonary veins.
● The atria act as receiving chambers and push blood into the lower
chambers of the heart, the ventricles.
2. Ventricles:
● The heart has two lower chambers, called the ventricles. The right
ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs via the pulmonary artery,
while the left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body via
the aorta.
● The ventricles have thicker walls than the atria, especially the left
ventricle, due to the higher pressure required to pump blood throughout
the body.
3. Valves:
● Atrioventricular (AV) Valves:
● Tricuspid Valve: Located between the right atrium and right
ventricle, it has three cusps (flaps) and prevents backflow of blood
into the right atrium.
● Bicuspid (Mitral) Valve: Located between the left atrium and left
ventricle, it has two cusps and prevents backflow of blood into the
left atrium.
● Semilunar Valves:
 ● Pulmonary Valve: Located between the right ventricle and the
pulmonary artery, it prevents the backflow of blood into the right
ventricle.
● Aortic Valve: Located between the left ventricle and the aorta, it
prevents the backflow of blood into the left ventricle.

Cardiac Muscle Histology

Cardiomyocytes:

● Description: Cardiomyocytes are the muscle cells of the heart. They are striated,
branched, and connected in a network. These cells have one central nucleus,
although they can occasionally have two.
● Function: They are responsible for the contractile function of the heart, allowing it
to pump blood throughout the body. Cardiomyocytes contain abundant
mitochondria, reflecting their high energy demand.

Gap Junctions:

● Description: Gap junctions are specialized intercellular connections that directly

connect the cytoplasm of two cells.
● Function: They allow the passage of ions and small molecules between cells,
facilitating rapid and coordinated transmission of electrical signals across the
cardiac muscle, which is essential for synchronized heart contractions.

Desmosomes:

● Description: Desmosomes are junctional complexes found in cardiac tissue that

anchor cells together.
● Function: They provide structural support and maintain the integrity of the tissue
by holding the cardiomyocytes together during the mechanical stress of heart
contractions.

Layers of Blood Vessel Walls

Tunica Intima:

● Description: The innermost layer of a blood vessel, consisting of endothelial cells

and a thin layer of connective tissue.
 ● Function: Provides a smooth surface for blood flow and is involved in the
regulation of vascular functions, including permeability and blood vessel
constriction/dilation.

Tunica Media:

● Description: The middle layer, composed mainly of smooth muscle cells and
elastic fibers.
● Function: Responsible for the regulation of blood vessel diameter through
vasoconstriction and vasodilation, which helps control blood pressure and blood
flow.

Tunica Externa (Adventitia):

● Description: The outermost layer, made of connective tissue that contains

collagen and elastic fibers.
● Function: Provides structural support and protection for the blood vessel. It also
anchors the vessel to surrounding tissues.

Blood Pressure
Systolic Pressure:

● Description: The pressure in the arteries during the contraction of the heart
(systole).
● Normal Range: Typically around 120 mmHg in a healthy adult.
● Function: Indicates the maximum pressure exerted by the blood against the
artery walls during a heartbeat.

Diastolic Pressure:

● Description: The pressure in the arteries when the heart is at rest between beats
(diastole).
● Normal Range: Typically around 80 mmHg in a healthy adult.
● Function: Indicates the minimum pressure within the arteries when the heart is
filling with blood.

Hypertension:

● Description: Abnormally high blood pressure, usually defined as a systolic

pressure above 140 mmHg and/or a diastolic pressure above 90 mmHg.
 ● Causes and Risks: Can be caused by factors such as stress, obesity, high salt
intake, and genetics. It increases the risk of heart disease, stroke, and other
cardiovascular problems.

Hypotension:

● Description: Abnormally low blood pressure, generally considered to be a systolic

pressure below 90 mmHg and/or a diastolic pressure below 60 mmHg.
● Causes and Risks: Can result from dehydration, prolonged bed rest, heart
problems, or endocrine disorders. It may lead to dizziness, fainting, and
inadequate blood flow to organs.

Vasodilation:

● Description: The widening of blood vessels due to relaxation of the smooth

muscle in the tunica media.
● Function: Decreases blood pressure and increases blood flow to tissues. It can
be induced by factors such as increased carbon dioxide levels, low oxygen
levels, and certain medications.

Vasoconstriction:

● Description: The narrowing of blood vessels due to contraction of the smooth

muscle in the tunica media.
● Function: Increases blood pressure and reduces blood flow to certain areas. It
can be triggered by factors such as cold temperatures, stress, and certain
hormones (e.g., adrenaline).

Cardiovascular System Blood Flow Starting from the left atrium, describe the flow of
blood through the entire circulatory system, making sure to indicate which arteries and
veins blood travels through and when the blood is oxygenated/deoxygenated, ending
back at the left atrium. (10 points)

Blood Flow Through the Cardiovascular System

1. Left Atrium:
● Oxygenated Blood: Blood enters the left atrium from the pulmonary veins
after being oxygenated in the lungs.
2. Left Ventricle:
● Blood flows from the left atrium through the mitral (bicuspid) valve into the
left ventricle.
 3. Aorta:
● Oxygenated Blood: The left ventricle pumps blood through the aortic valve
into the aorta.
● Systemic Circulation: The aorta branches into arteries that distribute
oxygen-rich blood to the body tissues.
4. Systemic Arteries:
● Oxygenated Blood: Blood travels through major arteries (e.g., carotid
arteries, subclavian arteries, renal arteries, mesenteric arteries) and
smaller arterioles to reach capillary beds in tissues.
5. Capillaries:
● Gas Exchange: Oxygen and nutrients diffuse from the blood into tissues,
and carbon dioxide and waste products diffuse into the blood.
● Deoxygenated Blood: Blood becomes deoxygenated as it delivers oxygen
to the tissues and collects carbon dioxide.
6. Systemic Veins:
● Deoxygenated Blood: Blood returns to the heart through a network of
veins, including major veins like the superior vena cava (draining the
upper body) and the inferior vena cava (draining the lower body).
7. Right Atrium:
● Blood from the systemic veins enters the right atrium of the heart.
8. Right Ventricle:
● Blood flows from the right atrium through the tricuspid valve into the right
ventricle.
9. Pulmonary Arteries:
● Deoxygenated Blood: The right ventricle pumps blood through the
pulmonary valve into the pulmonary arteries, which carry deoxygenated
blood to the lungs.
10. Lungs:
● Gas Exchange: In the lung capillaries, blood releases carbon dioxide and
picks up oxygen during respiration.
● Oxygenated Blood: Blood becomes oxygenated in the lungs.
11. Pulmonary Veins:
● Oxygenated Blood: Blood returns from the lungs to the left atrium via the
pulmonary veins.
12. Left Atrium:
● Blood re-enters the left atrium, completing the circuit.

Oxygenated Blood: Travels from the left atrium → left ventricle → aorta → systemic
arteries → systemic capillaries (where gas exchange occurs).
Deoxygenated Blood: Travels from systemic capillaries → systemic veins → right
atrium → right ventricle → pulmonary arteries → lungs (where gas exchange occurs) →
pulmonary veins → left atrium.