FramForumInnmat2024 Spreads-1

PROFILE: ROLF ANKER IMS An ecosystem guy in the era of climate change, page 8
Fram Forum
FRAM – High North Research Centre for Climate and the Environment ANNUAL REPORTS / VOL 13
2024
MELTING GLACIERS:
LIFELINE OR THREAT FOR
ARCTIC FJORDS AND COASTS?
Philipp Assmy et al
PAGE 18
NAVIGATING THE WAVES EXPLORING THE CENTRAL SCIENCE TO INFORM

OF MARITIME SAFETY ARCTIC OCEAN FROM THE MANAGEMENT OF
REGULATIONS IN THE SVALBARD SHELF TO THE ANTARCTIC KRILL
NORWEGIAN ARCTIC NORTH POLE FISHERIES
Saskia Trubbach et al Haakon Hop et al Andrew Lowther et al
PAGE 34 PAGE 40 PAGE 114

2 FRAM FORUM 2024 CONTENTS CONTENTS FRAM FORUM 2024 3
4 Editorial: A different kind of climate change 88 How artificial intelligence can help us
Janet Holmén understand the Earth better
6 Editorial: Not in my back yard Nils Bochow
Helge M Markusson 92 Retrospective: Arctic Science: 30 years of
8 Profile: Rolf Anker Ims: An ecosystem guy in the Norwegian–Polish cooperation
Photo: Eva Fuglei / Norwegian Polar Institute
era of climate change Salve Dahle et al
Image: Nils Bochow, ChatGPT-4, and Dall-E

Ellen Kathrine Bludd 98 Sea ice fractures and climate feedbacks
18 Melting glaciers: lifeline or threat for Arctic Polona Itkin
fjords and coasts? 102 Cultural heritage in Svalbard – cleaning up after
Philipp Assmy et al a century of coal mining
26 Genetic advancements: monitoring northern Kristine Bondo Pedersen and Anita Evenset
Europe’s iconic wildlife species 110 Can the fish in the ocean handle marine
Kathrine Torday Gulden heatwaves?
34 Navigating the waves of maritime safety Ellen Kathrine Bludd
regulations in the Norwegian Arctic 114 Science to inform management of Norwegian
Profile: Rolf Anker Ims: An ecosystem guy in the era Saskia Trubbach et al How artificial intelligence can help us understand Antarctic krill fisheries
of climate change. Page 8 40 Exploring the Central Arctic Ocean from the the Earth better. Page 88 Andrew Lowther et al
Svalbard shelf to the North Pole 120 Where do contaminants in the Arctic come from?
Haakon Hop et al Meet the Nested Exposure Model
46 The sins of the fathers: multigenerational impact Ingjerd Sunde Krogseth et al
Photo: Nick Cobbing / National Geographic

Norwegian Institute for Nature Research
of crude oil on fish 126 Why are good ptarmigan years a rare
Jasmine Nahrgang commodity?
50 New tools to predict winter stress in grasslands Ellen Kathrine Bludd
Photo: Alexander Kopatz /
Siri Elise Dybdal 130 Coral forests and sponge gardens. Mapping
58 Floating in-feed medication combats salmon lice vulnerable benthic habitats
with less environmental impact Kathy Dunlop et al
Kjetil Sagerup et al 136 Marine biodiversity, ecosystem function,
62 The critical threshold of the Greenland ice sheet services, and societal benefit
Nils Bochow and Anna Poltronieri Sabine KJ Cochrane et al
Genetic advancements: monitoring northern 66 Unpleasant sound keeps whales away from Sea ice fractures and climate feedbacks. Page 98 142 Fisheries management contributes to
Europe’s iconic wildlife species. Page 26 fishing nets conservation of biodiversity
Ellen Kathrine Bludd and Stine Hommedal Alf Håkon Hoel
70 Taking the pulse of change in the Arctic Ocean 146 Why do scientists focus on organic carbon and
for more than 30 years how is it studied?
Laura de Steur et al Ingar Wasbotten and Oda Wilhelmsen
78 Troll Observing Network – status and progress 150 The Arctic is changing – and so is Polaria
Photo: Ove Haugen / Store Norske

in 2023 Stine Charlotte Benjaminsen
Birgit Njåstad and Christina Pedersen 156 The Mohn Prize: We stand at a critical juncture
82 The Arctic Queen and the Pacific invader: for international cooperation in the Arctic
Photo: Eva Frisnes
salmonid migrations in Svalbard Kjetil Rydland

Jenny Jensen et al 158 Reflections: Towards more sustainable scientific
86 Better understanding of icing is important for practices
industry in the High North Megan Lenss et al
Navigating the waves of maritime safety Espen Viklem Eidum Cultural heritage in Svalbard – cleaning up after a 162 Historic photo: The woman and the penguin
regulations in the Norwegian Arctic. Page 34 century of coal mining. Page 102 Ann Kristin Balto
4 FRAM FORUM 2024 EDITORIAL EDITORIAL
Publisher
Framsenteret Drift AS on behalf of the FRAM –
High North Research Centre for Climate and the
Environment
Editor
Janet Holmén
Freelance editor
A different kind of // janet.holmen@gmail.com
Executive
climate change
Helge M Markusson
Outreach coordinator
Fram Centre
// helge.markusson@framsenteret.no
W
Editorial committee
hen Russia invaded Ukraine, many absence of such contacts, collaborative networks Although Russia may be isolated politically and
Western countries imposed wide-ranging that have been years in the making run the risk of economically, the environment acknowledges no
Trude Borch
sanctions. Russia was excluded from interna- falling apart. This would be a major setback. national boundaries. To understand what is hap- Akvaplan-niva
tional forums and organisations. Meetings of pening in the Arctic as a whole, we must also have // trude.borch@akvaplan.niva.no
the Arctic Council were put on strategic hold, Work in the Arctic Council working groups gradu- data from the Russian Arctic. Russia’s databases on
even though Russia was chairing the Council at ally started up again in August 2023 for all Arctic permafrost and biodiversity are comprehensive, but Morten Günther
Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research
the time. In Norway, almost all collaboration at states, including Russia. At first they operated difficult to access digitally, which means research-
// morten.gunther@nibio.no
the institutional level ceased. Russia became an only in writing – a cumbersome solution that ers need help from people who are on site and can
outsider – and the Arctic research community did not enable the pace and efficiency the situa- compile the data by hand. Elin Vinje Jenssen
experienced profound cold that had nothing to do tion demanded, but an important step towards Norwegian Polar Institute
with the weather and everything to do with the resuming working group activities. Then at the Remote sensing has been suggested as a way to // elin.vinje.jenssen@npolar.no
geopolitical climate. end of February 2024, consensus was reached circumvent the need for data from Russia. However,
Vibeke Lund Pettersen
among the eight Arctic States in consultation with interpretation of satellite images requires inter-
Institute of Marine Research
This issue of Fram Forum offers many interesting the Indigenous Permanent Participant organisa- comparison and calibration with data collected // vibeke.lund.pettersen@hi.no
articles on an impressive range of topics, but you tions, that the working groups could meet virtu- on the ground. In some scientific fields, remote
will scarcely find any mention of how research is ally in real time. In accordance with the strategic sensing has advanced far enough that reasonable Kjetil Rydland
affected by Russia’s isolation. Are scientists delib- principle for ensuring scientific integrity, all these conclusions can be drawn based on satellite UiT The Arctic University of Norway
// kjetil.rydland@uit.no
erately avoiding political issues? Perhaps. discussions focus purely on science. Strengthened imagery. But other research disciplines rely heavily
trust and community feeling will hopefully follow. on fieldwork. Someone must go out and measure Christine F Solbakken
The icy geopolitical climate poses what may be snow depth, carbon content in the soil, vegetation NILU
the greatest threat ever to the Arctic Council, so A similar emphasis on solid, evidence-based composition and biomass, and permafrost depth and // christine.solbakken@nilu.no
our Fram Centre friends at the secretariats of knowledge may in part explain the apolitical temperature.
the Arctic Council and its working groups had to nature of the articles in this issue of Fram Forum.
Cover photo
tackle political issues head on. Focusing strictly on science leaves a common Our Russian colleagues are no doubt still measuring
Jon Leithe / Norwegian Polar Institute
ground that can support reconciliation in the all these things, just as scientists at the Fram Centre
Somewhat counterintuitively, the strengths of future. and other institutions continue to collect data. The Layout
the Arctic Council include that it does not deal articles in this issue of Fram Forum bear witness to TANK Design Tromsø AS
with questions of security, and does not make But how does Russia’s isolation affect Arctic the diversity of the Fram Centre’s research interests. www.tank.no
policy decisions. Its recommendations are legally research? Imagine the breadth of knowledge we can help gen-
Printer
non-binding. This means that working group erate when all data are shared freely and scientists Lundblad Media AS
members can maintain their scientific integrity; Russia comprises about half of the Arctic, both from all Arctic countries work together!
they are not obliged to water down their conclu- land and sea areas. It contains vast taiga forests, Online version
sions to fit within what is politically acceptable extensive wetlands, and nearly two-thirds of The geopolitical winds currently blowing over the www.framforum.com
back home. Bolstered by this integrity, they can the permafrost in the Northern Hemisphere. Arctic are unusually icy. When faced with adversity,
Contact information
ensure that those in power have access to the Mighty rivers laden with silt and pollutants empty Fram Centre scientists often joke that they are accus-
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this builds trust and a sense of community. In the the world. Janet Holmén, Editor
6 FRAM FORUM 2024 EDITORIAL EDITORIAL FRAM FORUM 2024 7
Helge M Markusson, Fram Centre Dissemination Group GOVERNANCE STRUCTURE AT THE FRAM CENTRE
STEERING COMMITTEE
Not in my back yard

The steering committee provides strategic oversight and guidance to
the research collaboration. The committee consists of the following
members:
Leader:
Dr Bo Andersen, appointed by the Ministry of Climate and Environment
Of all people, it was a comedian who turned the spotlight on loss of We must have more electricity in the north.
According to forecasts by the power company Deputy:
nature and made it into an issue that almost everyone in Norway Troms Kraft, there will be a deficit of at least 7.7
Dr Maria Fossheim, Institute of Marine Research
talked about in 2024. Up until that point, most people had turned a TWh in Troms and Finnmark County in 2030. Members:
They believe that this deficit can be covered Evy Jørgensen, Norwegian Polar Institute
blind eye to what was happening, as long as it wasn’t happening in by expanding and streamlining hydroelectric
Jørgen Berge, UiT The Arctic University of Norway
Anita Evenset, Akvaplan-niva/NIVA
their neighbourhood. power, wind power on land and at sea, and to Jo Aarseth, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research
some extent with solar power. Wind turbines Steinar Vaadal, Norwegian Mapping Authority
provide renewable energy, but require large Alma Thuestad, Norwegian Institute for Cultural Heritage
“T
Elina Haltunnen, Norwegian Institute for Nature Research
he Inspector”, a series of four episodes, Suddenly everything felt so much closer – things that areas, which can hamper the development of
was broadcast during prime time on the scientists have been pointing out for years. Things other industries, and building wind farms leaves RESEARCH HEADS’ GROUP
Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation’s television that we actually knew, but dismissed by saying: a significant environmental footprint. In order to The research heads’ group is the Fram Centre’s chief cooperative
body for heads of research. The group consists of one appointed
channel NRK1. It was led by one of the Norway’s “There’s plenty of nature to go around.” The truth realise a green shift in the north, construction of representative from each of the 20 member institutions that wish to
most famous comedians, Bård Tufte Johansen. The is that Norwegian nature is being degraded at a far new, emission-free energy sources is crucial. This participate, and the heads of the Flagship research programmes.
editorial team highlighted the loss of nature and quicker pace than most people are aware of. Reports puts pressure on local authorities. The decisions
Leader:
biodiversity due to various construction projects in have been written and books have been published, that are made could affect people’s confidence in
Alma Thuestad, Norwegian Institute for Cultural Heritage
Norway. but it took a comedian to get people to actually see Norwegian democracy.
what is happening. OUTREACH GROUP
The programme took us to Kvaløya in Tromsø, where Those who hold political power know that this Appointed by the steering committee
a large mountainous area has been completely There is nothing to suggest that this loss of nature is going to create conflicts. During the Arctic Leader:
transformed by a large wind turbine farm. We also will stop. Disputes over use of land and water areas Frontiers conference in January/February 2024, Helge M Markusson, Fram Centre secretariat
visited an island on the Helgeland coast that had been will affect us for decades to come. The m assive oppo- a high level Norwegian ministerial entourage was
Members:
blasted away beyond recognition; land-based fish sition to the development of the wind farm at Fosen – in place, led by Prime Minister Jonas Gahr Støre Pål Jakobsen, Norwegian Polar Institute
farms will be built there, completely secured against especially from the Sámi side, which is supported by and Foreign Minister Espen Barth Eide. The latter Bjørg Bruseth, Norwegian Institute for Nature Research
discharges and escaping salmon. We were taken a Supreme Court ruling – is just a foretaste of things highlighted the issue several times: “We must Hanne Karde, UiT The Arctic University of Norway
Trude Borch, Akvaplan-niva
south to Grenland where vast areas of forest are being to come. have some difficult debates and dare to make
Vibeke Lund Pettersen, Institute of Marine Research
cut down and levelled to make way for a data storage some choices with regard to land use conflicts.”
centre for Google. And not least, the trip visited We are facing a global energy crisis. Climate change REFERENCE GROUP
holiday cottage “villages” that were as big as cities. is already having major consequences, and these It is important that nature and local communities Appointed by the steering committee
contribute to the lack of resources. A decline in are taken into consideration, which means that Leader:
When the series started, NRK published a survey biodiversity and increasing food shortages charac- research in these fields must be strengthened. Kathryn Donnelly, Fram Centre secretariat
of nature destruction in Norway. The dataset was terise our present and future. As Norway struggles to Over the past two years, the Fram Centre steer-
Members:
compiled by the Norwegian Institute for Nature manage its green shift, conflict concerning how land ing committee has written an application for a Marianne Kroglund, Norwegian Environment Agency
Research. Using artificial intelligence and satellite and water areas should be used is – and will continue new research programme. The interdisciplinary Anne-Marie Abotnes, Directorate of Fisheries
imagery, they found 44,000 encroachments on na- to be – a common thread in most of what we do. programme will place greater emphasis on spatial Geir Arne Ystmark, Norwegian Food Safety Authority
Knut Aune Hoseth, Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate
ture over a five-year period. The study also revealed conflicts than previously, and our focus is on the
Stig-Morten Knutsen, Norwegian Offshore Directorate
thousands of encroachments on various particularly Northern Norway comprises resource-rich areas High North. Astrid Fjose, County Governor of Troms and Finnmark
important natural habitats. Every minute, Norway that make up one third of Norway’s total area, and Sten Olav Hætta, Sami Parliament
loses 79 square metres of nature. Even in particular- the region is key to the country’s green shift. The The Fram Centre’s research collaboration is ready Bjørn-Rikart Pedersen, Finnmark Estate
ly valuable areas, such as marshes and places where Government has presented five main principles that to take on the task. The rest is up to those who FRAMSENTERET DRIFT AS
wild reindeer roam, natural habitat corresponding in will form the basis for its High North policy in the adopt the national budget.■ The company Framsenteret Drift AS is owned by a group of the Fram
size to two football pitches or more disappears every years ahead. One of these is that the High North will Centre’s member institutions. Framsenteret Drift AS is responsible for
operating the collective services in the Fram Centre building and hosts
day. It should also be pointed out that this survey be a centre for sustainable energy, technology, the secretariat designated for the Fram Centre collaboration.
did not include areas affected by wind power and and food.
logging development. CEO:
Inger Christiansen
8 FRAM FORUM 2024 PROFILE PROFILE FRAM FORUM 2024 9
Ellen Kathrine Bludd // UiT The Arctic University of Norway Eva Fuglei (second from left) and Rolf A Ims (far right)
sitting with their friends the Laptander family during a
project in the Russian Arctic. When a husband and wife
are scientists in the same field – and are out for weeks
at a time doing fieldwork – it’s good to have some joint
projects. Photo: Alexander Sokolov / Arctic Lab Yamal
An ecosystem
guy in the era of
climate change
PROFILE
When Rolf Anker Ims embarked on his career as a

climate scientist, he was almost looked down upon.
Today, climate research is one of the most important
things one can do.
I n the 1990s, when Rolf Anker Ims started

researching the effects of climate change on the
natural environment, this field of study was new
“The fact that climate change has become so
tangible – that people can physically feel it and
that research confirms and reinforces what they
and people were sceptical. can already see – that’s where there has been a
big change. And this is because climate change
“It took place in a completely different academic has advanced much further; it’s more noticeable
climate from the one we now find ourselves in. than before. That makes it easier to be a climate
There were all sorts of climate change deniers and scientist today, but it really wasn’t very easy when
sceptics. Even quite respected people in various I first started,” says Ims.
research communities – people who should have
known better – had very critical opinions, saying Nonetheless, he points out that Norway is home
that this was pure speculation and we shouldn’t to a lot of climate sceptics, especially compared to
get involved,” says Ims. other countries. It has been suggested that this is
because we produce oil, and that actually having
Fortunately, things have gradually changed as the to reduce emissions will have consequences for
science has become more certain. Ims believes it us.
has a lot to do with the international position of
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change A CALL TO THE ARCTIC
(IPCC), but what people generally perceive is also
extremely influential in terms of what they believe Ims grew up on the eastern outskirts of Oslo, with
to be true and how they act in relation to it. the forests of Østmarka within easy reach.
A course in environmental chemistry led by a pro-

fessor named Hans Martin Seip, who was one of
the leading climate scientists at the time, turned
out to be an eye-opener for Rolf Ims. Seip talked
about the greenhouse effect and how dramatic its
consequences could be.
“It became clear to me that if we were to focus

on the effects of climate change, we should start
in the Arctic, because even back then we knew
that the effects would be most pronounced in the
north,” he says.
When Ims got the opportunity to work at the

University of Tromsø (UiT) in 2001, he didn’t have
to think twice. One could either apply for a profes-
sorship or one could be “called”.
“It was known as being ‘called’ back then. It

sounds like a kind of priesthood or something. I’m
so old that when I applied for the professorship
in Oslo in 1990, I had to apply to the Norwegian
Council of State, where the King himself presides,” Fieldwork in the Arctic involves a wide variety of challenges,
he laughs. such as these mosquito swarms on the Yamal Peninsula in
Russia. Photo: Vasily Sokolov / Arctic Lab Yamal
Global warming poses a threat to biodiversity in the But as luck would have it, Ims was actually called
Arctic, including waders, here represented by a ruff to UiT.
chick. Photo: Eva Fuglei / Norwegian Polar Institute
“I’d been fascinated by the Arctic and Nansen “It’s important to have continuity in research, but
since boyhood. I had read a lot about Nansen and there’s also continuity in a close collaboration that
“I guess I became interested in biology because I discipline that interested me back then, namely his achievements as a polar explorer, but also as a goes all the way back to the 1980s. I met Nigel in
had nature nearby, had parents who were interest- ecology.” scientist here in the north.” Oslo when he was a postdoc, and I was at about
ed in nature, and who took me out on excursions the same stage.”
when I was just a little tyke. They were hardly Ims explains that he almost became a chemist, but Ims started conducting research in Svalbard as
biologists and not really academics at all, but it realised he didn’t want to wear a white lab coat for early as 1989, while finishing his PhD in Oslo, and They also ended up in the same place. It is not en-
sparked my interest in nature from a very young the rest of his life. has continued right up to the present day. Over tirely coincidental that their offices are next door
age,” he says. the course of two very intense decades from 1989 to each other. Ims was instrumental in getting
“I decided to follow my main interest: I would onwards, Ims and his colleagues visited Svalbard Nigel up to the north.
He has always loved the natural sciences, so there stick to biology, aiming to study ecology at second several times a year.
were no doubts about his further studies. degree level. One thing led to another and I start- “I held an advisory position at NINA (Norwegian
ed a PhD,” says Ims. One of the people he has worked closely with in Institute for Nature Research), and when their
“When I started at the University of Oslo in the both Svalbard and Tromsø is the scientist Nigel department in Tromsø was recruiting new people,
1980s, there was a green wave and many students He quickly got a job as a professor in the early Yoccoz. I knew Nigel wanted to move from France. That’s
wanted to study biology. There was actually a 1990s in connection with the establishment of how he ended up working here. And I followed a
waiting list for the undergraduate biology course, the Centre for Development and the Environment DOUBLE ACT few years later,” says Ims.
and I didn’t start studying biology until after a following the Brundtland Commission’s report. It
couple of years of basic studies in mathematics, was a professorship in landscape ecology at the Rolf and Nigel are well-established as a research Two years after Ims moved to Tromsø, a vacant
statistics, chemistry, and physics. I wasn’t sure University of Oslo, with a focus on studying the duo, and Ims sees value in working together for a professorship was announced; Yoccoz applied,
if it was possible to find a job in the biological effects of land degradation. long time. then he too started at UiT.
For those of us who love white winters, snow, and scientists who can conduct this type of research Users ought to be involved in COAT from the very
skiing, it was a pretty miserable time,” says Ims. over time. beginning, helping define the problems, instead of
Tromsø offers both enough snow and enough being served the researcher’s perspective on each
scientists to collaborate with, not least at the Fram “COAT is set up to provide rapid documentation problem as a kind of fait accompli.
Centre, where Ims has been involved right from and forecasts of climate change and its effects in
the start. the High North. This allows Norway and the in- “It often takes a long time to build up a relation-
ternational community to deal with the situation ship of trust. Our experience is that users ask
CONTINUITY IN CLIMATE RESEARCH through preparedness and adaptations,” says Ims. questions that can prove to be very relevant. It’s
The good news for COAT is that the Norwegian good for them to feel that they are being listened
The establishment of the Fram Centre provid- state budget for 2024 allots the project NOK 20 to, and when it comes to measures, they are the
ed an opportunity to think a little differently million to operate the climate-ecological obser- practitioners who know what is administratively
about how climate change research could be vatory. The system relies on weather stations, possible and what it costs in terms of resources to
organised, making it more long-term and more cameras, microphones, and a number of manual do such things,” he explains.
COAT monitors ecosystems in Varanger. ecosystem-oriented. measurements in the field that provide monitoring
Photo: Rolf A Ims / UiT The Arctic University of Norway data on climate and ecosystems in East Finnmark Without discussing with those who will imple-
“One problem you encounter when conducting and Spitsbergen. These data are fed into models ment measures, and assessing the effect of those
research in Norway is that all of the projects only that make it possible to identify causal factors measures, environmental research is not really
“We needed his kind of expertise, and he ended last three to five years. That’s a hopelessly short behind changes and provide warnings of expected management-relevant.
up in the office next door.” time if we want to study the effects of climate further developments.
change. The very nature of climate change re- “We have had this kind of dialogue in relation to
The two scientists complement each other quires us to monitor things over long periods of “The thing that has been important for me and ptarmigan management regarding hunting quo-
academically, but they also like spending time time,” says Ims. my colleagues at COAT is that we are relevant to tas, and with forest managers regarding the huge
together. the management of natural resources and that winter moth infestations in Finnmark, discussing
To conduct good research on the effect of climate we are in close contact with those who need with interest organisations, and with Norwegian
Another biologist Ims enjoys spending time with is change, a continuous flow of data from ecosys- this knowledge – nature managers, people with regional and national management about how to
his wife Eva Fuglei, who works at the Norwegian tems is absolutely essential. commercial interests, and NGOs with non-profit assess and manage rapidly changing ecosystems.
Polar Institute. The two scientists collaborate interests in the values of nature. So, part of the The user groups are quite diverse, with different
not only in life: their research intersects when it “Without long-term data, we don’t know any- COAT activities is collaboration with user groups expertise,” says Ims.
comes to arctic foxes, birds, and the ecosystem as thing,” says the scientist. that are tasked with managing natural resources,
a whole, and they have written a number of publi- conservation of biodiversity, or industries such as And then there is reindeer husbandry.
cations together. In dialogue with the Ministry of Education and reindeer husbandry,” says Ims.
Research, Ims and his colleagues were given the Among other things, the COAT project aims to find
“I met Eva here in Tromsø. We’re both from the mandate to plan COAT – the Climate-Ecological COLLABORATION WITH USERS out how grazing conditions for reindeer and other
south, but we ended up here.” Observatory for Arctic Tundra. Ims was tasked herbivores are affected by climate change. But
with leading COAT and designing a plan for an “Being in continuous dialogue with nature what is it like to collaborate with an indigenous
They have no plans to move south again when endeavour that would not have a time limit. They management and commercial enterprise is really people who rely heavily on traditional knowledge?
their research careers have ended; they feel that received ample resources from the Ministry of important when ecosystems are in rapid change,
they are in the right place. Education and Research, and after almost three both so research is produced quickly and so man- COLLABORATION WITH REINDEER HERDERS
years of work, the plan was ready in 2013. agement measures that can mitigate the effects of
“I’ve never regretted moving north, not for one climate change are discussed,” says Ims. “Reindeer husbandry is very heterogeneous, and
second. It has to do with the professional side of “When the plan was to be implemented, funding many things depend on whether you have a small
things, a good university, a good academic envi- was lacking, but we’ve kept the research alive He feels that user-involved research works well or a large herd, and on where in the country you
ronment – and I’m very fond of winter.” since 2013,” says Ims. when time and resources allow for an ongoing are located. Reindeer owners can have very differ-
dialogue. COAT’s research has followed a protocol ent views on research,” says Ims.
Ims speaks of how the winters disappeared in the First they received 60 million NOK from the that clarifies roles, but users are also completely
south. Especially in the 1990s, winters essentially Research Council of Norway and Tromsø Research free to express their honest opinions. Such opin- Ims has seen that young reindeer herders have
vanished from where he lived, in Oslo. Foundation to establish research infrastructure ions can be formulated into hypotheses, which, greater interest in research, and has also expe-
in Svalbard and Finnmark. Then they secured with sufficient data, can actually be tested accord- rienced slightly different views when it comes to
“That was a mild period, so skiing conditions were support through short-term projects, funded by ing to standard scientific routines. traditional knowledge.
really poor in Nordmarka, even at higher eleva- various sources, which have made it possible
tions. It was like having six months of autumn. to develop new methodologies and train new
infrastructure builds trust. They then see that the Arctic in mainland Norway,” says the scientist.
A new monitoring method was developed in the we’re doing all of this for their benefit,” he says.
COAT programme headed by Rolf A Ims. Here These are dilemmas the scientists ought to speak
he is seen setting up a new type of camera trap VULNERABLE SPECIES about openly, even though it is difficult for many
that runs continuously, winter and summer, to accept, especially those who love the arctic fox.
and records the activity of small mammals Climate change makes it more difficult for rein-
– including the vole that hosts the parasite deer to access their food, but wild animals also “Yes, the arctic fox is very cute and on the list of
Ims discovered in 1999. Photo: Xavier Lambin / struggle in an ecosystem that is different from endangered species, but decimating the red fox
University of Aberdeen what they are used to. population to see if that would help the arctic
fox has been controversial. However, when we
The arctic fox population in Finnmark has strug- explain that this measure can provide knowledge
gled in recent decades, and COAT has conducted about why the arctic fox is disappearing and the
research-based evaluations of various measures to red fox is gaining ground, most people under-
strengthen the population. But if a species is una- stand,” says Ims.
ble to tolerate climate change, why fight so hard to
help it now that we know the climate is changing The experiment involving organised shooting of
to the extent that the species is doomed anyway? red foxes in Finnmark is being analysed by the
COAT scientists in an attempt to understand the
“This is a dilemma we are increasingly facing with effect of red foxes on arctic foxes, ptarmigan, and
arctic species, which don’t seem to have any fu- other ground-nesting birds. The experiment also
ture if climate projections prove accurate. We may provides data that may help scientists determine
be facing a situation where the snowy owl, the why the red fox has gradually become the domi-
“Some, especially the younger people I’ve spoken Scientists are also uncertain, but they have a arctic fox – perhaps even our beloved ptarmigan nant predator throughout Finnmark.
to, consider research-based knowledge about framework that deals with uncertainty in a – have no future in a hundred-year perspective,”
reindeer husbandry important, in combination systematic manner. That is what research does, it says Ims. How humans have managed ecosystems over time
with traditional knowledge. Because it’s a perti- tries to reduce uncertainty about things. may also have affected arctic foxes, red foxes, and
nent question whether traditional knowledge can He says that his motivation was linked to climate other animals.
solve everything in a non-traditional time. The Ims has found that reindeer owners are favourable change when he accepted the task from the
projections suggest that the climate will soon be towards listening to the research. Norwegian Environment Agency: to lead research
completely different from what anyone has experi- to understand why the arctic fox is disappearing.
enced before,” says Ims. “I think it has become easier with the younger The lemming is a key species in northern mountains and
generations. That is just the way it is, new genera- “COAT’s research on the arctic fox in Finnmark tundra and is affected by climate change. These rodents
The mandate of research is to predict what hasn’t tions step in with a different perspective.” highlights what happens when species’ habitats have been a constant research interest for Rolf A Ims.
yet been observed, based on what we already are destroyed or they no longer have a place in Photo: Xavier Lambin / University of Aberdeen
know. This means that research can take on a role It might also help that they see the scientists over ecosystems due to climate change. By generating
that can be of help to reindeer owners. long periods of time. robust science on the fate of species that people
care about, we can also raise general awareness,”
“I think that many in this industry have felt that “Reindeer husbandry has had many bad experi- he says.
a lot of reindeer husbandry research has been ences with scientists who come to do research on
forced on them by the state, questions like how them and then leave again. That really isn’t very In this context, Ims views the arctic fox as a ca-
many reindeer can graze sustainably and so on. good. When they realise they can trust us, and nary in the coal mine.
However, for today’s reindeer herders, it’s impor- when we produce results that they need, then I
tant to know how environmental conditions will think we’ve done a good job,” says Ims. “Some refugia – that is, some isolated pockets
change beyond what they have ever observed, where the arctic fox can survive – will probably
and what effects this can have on forage plants, COAT has now placed weather stations in eastern remain, especially on high-Arctic islands such
parasites, and snow conditions that affect the Finnmark, where the relationship between snow as the Svalbard archipelago. Although we won’t
reindeer. They have traditional knowledge about conditions and the status of winter pastures has reach that point for quite some time, it’s impor-
this, but they have no tradition of knowing what been poorly documented. tant to document what is happening and where
the vegetation or parasite infestation will look like future refugia might be. This is what has motivat-
in a climate that might be several degrees warmer “The fact that we have had discussions with ed our research in this area, even though we don’t
in just a few decades. That’s uncharted territory,” reindeer herders about where to set up this believe the foxes have a future in our small part of
says Ims.
HUMANS IN THE ECOSYSTEM
Rolf Ims has studied many different animals and

how they affect the ecosystem, but the animals Rolf A Ims with long-time
with the strongest effect on the ecosystem today collaborator Nigel G Yoccoz.
are human beings. Photo: Ellen Kathrine Bludd /
UiT The Arctic University of Norway
“We’re still part of the ecosystems, for better or
worse, mostly for worse now. In a sense, we occu-
py a ‘super-niche’ compared to everything else,
because we have the intellectual capacity to create
technology so we can extract more resources
from the earth than any other beings. That’s what
makes us completely dominant,” says Ims.
However, we are dependent on the very ecosphere

that we are about to destroy.
“Just to breathe. It’s as simple as that, just to

breathe and have a climate we can actually live
in,” says Ims. THE GREEN SHIFT “Even as we try to mitigate the effects of climate
change, they will still be there. We can limit global
He explains that even though major and rapid How does climate scientist Rolf Ims envision us warming, but it is likely that the global tempera-
climate changes are expected here, the High showing consideration towards wildlife, eco- ture will rise to maybe 2 to 4 degrees higher than
North will not become uninhabitable in terms of systems, reindeer husbandry, and indigenous the global pre-industrial average, and the increase
Rolf A Ims has worked closely with Nigel G temperature and precipitation. But large parts of peoples while at the same time moving towards may be three or four times greater in the High
Yoccoz since they met in 1988. A research the planet will have such high temperatures and the green shift? North. So, we must expect to see major effects
project they conducted in Svalbard led to the other extreme environmental conditions that regardless of what we manage to do,” says the
discovery of the Echinococcus multilocularis people will not be able to live there. “The question of who is going to bear the bur- scientist.
parasite in 1999. den of having infrastructure like wind turbines
Ims believes that we are still animals, whose next door is a terribly difficult dilemma. For me There is a lot of uncertainty about these figures
This discovery made the headline “Scientists inherent biological characteristics and limitations as a scientist, it’s important to have an objective and what effect the warming will actually have
found lethal parasite” shown in this facsimile of largely govern the fate of humanity and the global view based on my area of expertise by docu- on the climate and nature. It is very difficult, and
Svalbard’s weekly newspaper Svalbardposten. ecosphere. menting the effects of human infrastructure on highly speculative, to give a long-term prediction.
biodiversity, reindeer husbandry, and other living “I think the best thing we can do is pay close
The newspaper’s photo of Nigel and Rolf is “Even in a modern civilisation, we are fundamen- resources and ecosystem services. A decisively attention to what is happening and, based on this
from 1989. COAT has now a monitoring system tally attracted to certain things, like an animal important perspective that seems to be missing in understanding, make near-term forecasts. That’s
based on camera traps that specifically targets that fattens up on berries and sweet fruits. Our today’s intense discourse about how human infra- what COAT is tasked with doing. We have always
the invasive eastern European vole hosting the biological responses aren’t always good for us. structure affects nature is that impact assessments put a lot of effort into collecting data to continu-
parasite. We are about to destroy our own environment must be comprehensive in the sense that future ously analyse how the systems respond to these
because we’re in the midst of a huge materialistic climate change must also be included in the over- changes,” says Ims.
party that we can’t say no to. Humans have a hard all accounting,” says Ims.
time saying no to a party, even one that will cause “Our expectations for the effect of a green shift
a hangover for a few years – or generations. That’s As every single spot on the planet will be affected must be tempered with the knowledge that
why I still think of humanity as a relatively poorly by climate change, this perspective should under- climate change is happening regardless, so the
self-regulated population of animals,” says Ims. lie all environmental research and management. big question is: How do we minimise the overall
The climate is the most decisive factor in what life impact? That is an important research topic, but a
However, the same technology we have used to on Earth looks like. For example, consider the difficult one,” concludes Rolf Anker Ims. ■
extract resources from the earth can also be used difference between tundra, desert, and rain-
for something positive. forest. The climate is so defining for all life and
ecosystems.
18 FRAM FORUM 2024 RESEARCH NOTES RESEARCH NOTES FRAM FORUM 2024 19
Philipp Assmy, Allison Bailey, Pedro Duarte, Geir Wing Gabrielsen, Haakon Hop, Massive glacial run-off and associated
Elisabeth Isaksson and Jack Kohler // Norwegian Polar Institute sediment transport into Kongsfjorden and the
Jemma Wadham, Mohamed Ezat, Sarah Tingey and Silje Waaler // UiT The Arctic University of Norway adjacent shelf during a heat wave in Svalbard
Amanda Poste // Norwegian Institute of Nature Research in summer 2020. Satellite image from 27 July
Jon Hawkings // University of Pennsylvania 2020. Image: Copernicus, sentinelhub
Marianna Pinzone // University of Liege
Melting glaciers: lifeline

or threat for Arctic fjords
and coasts?
RESEARCH NOTES
Glaciers across the Arctic are melting. Glacial run-off

enters fjords and coastal waters, but we know little about
its impact on ocean life. Understanding how marine
organisms from microbes to mammals respond is critical
for sustainable management of coastal ecosystems and
the services they provide.
G laciers are intrinsic to the Arctic,

covering >2 million km2 of land area above
50°N. In many Arctic sectors, such as Svalbard,
ACCELERATED MELTING
Svalbard is warming twice as fast as the rest of

the Canadian Arctic, and Greenland, glaciers the Arctic and five to seven times faster than the
dominate the landscape and are central to the global average. Feeling the brunt of Arctic climate
complex relationship between fjords, oceans and and ocean warming are its >2000 glaciers, which
their precious ecosystems. In Svalbard, 57% of have undergone sustained and accelerating mass
the land area is covered by glaciers and over 900 loss over the past decades. This is driving the
km of the coastline is lined by tidewater glaciers landward march of tidewater glaciers and the
that calve directly into the sea. Combined, these expansion of glacier forefields, as well as chang-
glaciers release an average of 45 billion tonnes of ing freshwater and glacial sediment discharge to
sediment-laden meltwater into the coastal ocean fjords, altering fjord circulation, and contributing
every year. It requires little imagination to appre- to coastal-water darkening. While these physical
ciate that accelerating this hydrological cycle with impacts are relatively well studied, the response
climate warming will leave a lasting imprint on of fjord ecosystems to the chemical pulse of gla-
the interconnected ice–land–ocean systems and cial meltwaters is poorly known and represents Polar cod caught in front of Kronebreen
the coastal ecosystem services on which something of a conundrum via opposing positive glacier, Kongsfjorden, by helicopter-
humans rely. and negative effects. Here we describe how glacier towed plankton net. Photo: Anette Wold /
Norwegian Polar Institute
Ringed seal equipped with GPS tag inside the glacier

sediment plume. Photo: Christian Lydersen / Norwegian
Polar Institute
bays act as refugia for Arctic endemic species.

Then we examine how glacial meltwater both
stimulates fjord productivity via the release of nu-
trients and exerts potential toxic effects in fjords
through release of glacier-derived heavy metals.
ARCTIC CLIMATE REFUGIA
In Svalbard fjords, landfast sea ice is disappearing,

particularly along the west coast, and increased
advection of warm Atlantic water carries organ-
isms from lower latitudes. Arctic endemic species
are thus faced with habitat loss and increased
competition from boreal species. Glacier bays may
buffer some of these impacts and act as climate
refugia for Arctic endemic species because they
host Arctic-like conditions: colder and fresher
surface waters compared to the outer fjord and
seasonal ice-cover. Sea ice and floating icebergs
provide habitats for algae and small animals living
inside the sea ice and offer haulout platforms for
seals. Additionally, the rising meltwater plumes at
tidewater glacier fronts bring zooplankton to the
surface where they provide food for seabirds, such Black-legged kittiwakes feeding at Kronebreen glacier front.
as black-legged kittiwakes and northern fulmars. Photo: Geir Wing Gabrielsen / Norwegian Polar Institute
Flocks of several hundred birds can congregate on
the upwelling plume right in front of the towering
glacier wall for an easy meal. These feeding the efficacy of the nutrient pump will depend on
hotspots in close proximity to the nesting sites the depth at which glacial meltwater is injected
might become increasingly important as drifting into the fjord. In very deep fjords, the upwelling
sea ice retreats further offshore. Ringed seals also meltwater plume might not even make it to the
frequently visit glacier meltwater plumes during surface, while in shallow fjords it will not tap into
their foraging forays for their favorite diet, polar the most nutrient-rich deep waters. Augmenting
cod, suggesting that glacier bays are an important these glacial fertilising effects are non-glacial
refuge for this Arctic fish species. rivers which transport nutrients from thawing
permafrost, lakes, and soils to the fjord, and fjord
THE GLACIER NUTRIENT PUMP bottom sediments where nutrients are remobi-
lised from glacial sediments and marine muds.
Glacial run-off coincides with the nutrient-poor
summer months in fjords. While phytoplankton GLACIERS AS A SOURCE OF TOXINS
growth is generally light-limited in inner fjords by
the “brown soup” associated with turbid glacier Glaciers are the most powerful “rock grinding”
meltwaters, glacier meltwater can fertilise fjord machines on the planet, and the fine flour gen-
productivity further downstream. This happens erated at the glacier bed is dissolved by biogeo
in two ways, 1) direct release of macro- (eg silicon) chemical processes. The resulting meltwaters
and micronutrients (eg iron) from minerals by can be rich in minerals and chemical elements.
chemical and biological processes, and from Depending on the bedrock composition, trace and
atmospherically-deposited nutrients (eg nitrogen) heavy metals, such as arsenic, lead, or mercury,
from melting snow pack, and 2) indirect supply via can reach high concentrations. Mercury, in par-
“pumping” of nutrient-rich deep fjord waters to ticular, can bio-accumulate in fjord food webs and
the surface by meltwater discharge which upwells trigger toxicity in marine ecosystems. For exam-
at the fronts of tidewater glaciers. ple, rising mercury levels in polar bear hair and
kittiwake blood samples from Svalbard have been
The nutrient pump pathway is generally believed linked to glacial meltwater inputs and changing
to be more efficient in delivering macronutrients glacier forefields. While effects vary amongst met-
to the sea. Studies from Greenland have shown al species and across different trophic levels, and
that fjords with tidewater glaciers sustain phy- organs and tissues, top trophic predators normal-
toplankton blooms throughout the summer, ly display the greatest levels of enrichment and
unlike fjords with land-terminating glaciers which toxicity. What controls heavy metal export from
generally have low productivity. In Kongsfjorden, glaciers and the resulting toxicity in marine food
Water sampling at an improvised northwestern Svalbard, this tidewater “nutrient webs represents a huge gap in our knowledge,
beach camp near the Kronebreen pumping” has been observed to enhance summer making it challenging to devise management
glacier front in Kongsfjorden. primary production by up to 20%. The retreat of policies for Arctic waters and their ecological ser-
Photo: Haakon Hop / Norwegian tidewater glacier fronts onto land might thus have vices. The challenge is further exacerbated by the
Polar Institute a negative impact on fjord productivity. However, rapidity of Arctic glacier change.
Bearded seal hauled out on sea ice in Kongsfjorden.

Photo: Geir Wing Gabrielsen / Norwegian Polar Institute
PERSPECTIVES
Fjords and coastal ecosystems support local com- FOUR NEW RESEARCH INITIATIVES LED
munities and national economies across the Arctic BY FRAM CENTRE INSTITUTIONS:
via lucrative fisheries and tourism. This highlights
an urgent need for improved understanding of the Centre for ice, Cryosphere, Carbon and
impacts of glacier retreat on nutrient availability Climate – https://site.uit.no/iC3
and metal toxicity in Arctic marine food webs and
the role of glacier bays as climate refugia. Such METALLICA – https://en.uit.no/project/
fundamental knowledge is needed to inform poli- metallica
cy making and adapt environmental management
solutions. Four new research initiatives led by FACE-IT – https://www.face-it-project.
Fram Centre institutions in collaboration with in- eu/
ternational partners will tackle these multifaceted
issues. The Centre for ice, Cryosphere, Carbon and C2C – https://framsenteret.no/forskning/
Climate (iC3) and the METALLICA project, both fra-fjell-til-fjord-c2c/
funded by the Research Council of Norway, will Scroll down to switch from Norwegian
improve our understanding of the export and fate to English. For a fuller presentation
of glacier-sourced carbon, nutrients, toxic metals, in English, see https://framforum.
and other pollutants over ice-to-ocean gradients com/2023/03/09/catchment-to-coast-
and their impacts on fjord and ocean ecosystems. an-integrated-science-approach-in-the-
The EU-funded project FACE-IT aims to enable changing-north/
adaptive co-management of social-ecological
fjord systems in the Arctic in the face of rapid
cryosphere and biodiversity changes. The Fram
Centre research programme From Catchment
to Coast (C2C) also applies a holistic, integrat-
ed approach across terrestrial, freshwater, and
marine ecosystems to assess how global change FURTHER READING:
will impact cross-ecosystem connectivity and
Physical forcing of biological processes in a tidewater g
lacier- how this understanding can be used for improved Everett A, Kohler J, Sundfjord A, Kovacs KM,
influenced fjord during summer. ecosystem-based management. In combination, Torsvik T, Pramanik A, Boehme L, Lydersen C
these initiatives have the potential to transform (2018) Subglacial discharge plume behaviour
Glacier meltwater collects in the subglacial drainage system and our understanding how Arctic fjords and marine revealed by CTD-instrumented ringed seals.
drains into the fjord at the glacier grounding line. The glacial meltwater ecosystems will respond to the impacts of glacier Scientific Reports 8:13467, doi: 10.1038/s41598-
carries into the inner fjord high concentrations of sediments, visible as change, helping us to adapt to future change via 018-31875-8
a sediment plume, and glacier-derived nutrients (small white dots) and community action and management policies. ■
heavy metals such as mercury (red dots). Additionally, the rising glacial Halbach L et al (2019) Tidewater glaciers
meltwater plume entrains large volumes of fjord water, bringing nutrient- and bedrock characteristics control the
rich deep water and zooplankton to the surface. phytoplankton growth environment in a fjord in
the Arctic. Frontiers in Marine Science 6:254, doi:
This glacial pump can be a feeding hotspot for seabirds, polar cod, 10.3389/fmars.2019.00254
and seals, but at the same time carries the risk of biomagnification of
mercury in the marine food web. Phytoplankton growth is light-limited Lydersen C et al (2014) The importance of
near the glacier front due to high turbidity in the sediment plume but tidewater glaciers for marine mammals and
nutrient fertilisation by the glacier pump maintains elevated production seabirds in Svalbard, Norway. Journal of
further downstream. Illustration: Frida A Cnossen / Akvaplan-niva Marine Systems 129:452–471, doi: 10.1016/j.
jmarsys.2013.09.006
Kathrine Torday Gulden // Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research
Genetic advancements:
monitoring northern
Europe’s iconic wildlife
species
RESEARCH NOTES
Researchers at the Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy

Research (NIBIO) are currently developing new molecular-
genetic tools for non-invasive monitoring of three ecologically
important species in northern Europe, namely reindeer, moose,
and brown bear.
Dr Ingebjørg Helena Nymo (right), senior researcher at the
Norwegian Veterinary Institute, and PhD student Ester Malmstrøm
from the Inland Norway University College of Applied Sciences
taking a blood sample from a young reindeer. Photo: Emma Vangen
/ Norwegian Veterinary Institute M anaging wildlife populations and
semi-domesticated reindeer demands intri-
cate knowledge of their behaviour, diet, health,
Researcher Dr Cornelya Klutsch at NIBIO
Svanhovd works with international conserva-
tion issues in arctic and subarctic environments,
and reproduction. Yet, gathering such detailed which includes population genetic and wildlife fo-
data is a daunting task, especially in areas where rensic analyses of large carnivores and freshwater
the animals cross national boundaries as part of species. She says that understanding wild animal
their natural movements. populations significantly hinges on labour-inten-
sive techniques, involving the marking of animals
Cross-border migration among wildlife populations and reindeer Northern Norway, bordered by Russia, Finland, with radio devices and subsequently recapturing
herds can potentially contribute to the spread of pathogens and Sweden, faces this challenge. Animals cross- them for further sampling. Insight into the ani-
between countries. This underscores the need for continuous ing these borders might introduce new diseases, mals’ diet and health often stems from sampling
monitoring to safeguard the health of both domestic animals underscoring the critical need for continuous live animals during capture or from necropsies of
and native wildlife in Norway. Photo: Morten Günther / Norwegian monitoring to safeguard the health of both domes- deceased animals.
Institute of Bioeconomy Research tic animals and native wildlife.
Molecular-genetic methods can provide insights into

various crucial factors like diet, diseases, parasites,
genetic diversity, inbreeding, and relationships among
the animals. Photo: Morten Günther / Norwegian
Institute of Bioeconomy Research
Analysing scat samples from moose, reindeer, and brown bear “Due to their high cost and labour-intensive SPEEDY AND EFFICIENT ANALYSES Together with colleagues at NIBIO Svanhovd and
populations is instrumental in developing and testing various demands, these methods are increasingly being researchers from three other Norwegian institu-
molecular-genetic monitoring methods, and contributes to the supplemented with molecular-genetic approach- Methods based on high-throughput sequencing tions, Klutsch is now looking into ways to use HTS
establishment of a long-term biobank. Photos: Tommi Nyman / es,” Dr Klutsch says. “These new techniques (HTS) are increasingly used to read and un- for wildlife monitoring in the project RemoTnitor.
Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research enable the identification of individuals and the derstand genetic information from organisms.
assessment of their health and dietary habits Instead of examining just one or a few genes at a “In order to use HTS-based approaches for infer-
through non-invasive means, such as analysing time, HTS allows scientists to read and analyse ring the diet and health of individuals from large
DNA extracted from hair and animal droppings.” large amounts of genetic material, like an entire numbers of scat samples, we need to develop
genome, quickly and efficiently. what we call GT-seq genotyping panels first,” she
Methods based on non-intrusive genetic tracking, says. “These are sets of genetic markers – a bit like
notably using faeces, have significantly trans- “It’s like taking a massive snapshot of an organ- signposts on a road, or a genetic fingerprint – that
formed the monitoring of large carnivore popula- ism’s DNA, revealing large parts of its genetic we can use to separate and identify individual
tions in northern Europe over the past 15 years. make-up, which helps us understand more about animals based on specific parts of their DNA.”
Scat samples collected from the field contain not traits, diseases, and relationships between differ-
only the DNA of the animal, but also genetic infor- ent species,” Dr Klutsch explains. The genetic markers help the researchers figure
mation about its diet, parasites, pathogens, and out differences between individuals or groups by
gut microbes. looking at particular spots in an organism’s DNA.
Dr Tommi Nyman, RemoTnitor’s

Forest in Pasvikdalen in northeastern Norway, close to the Russian border. project manager and researcher at
Photo: Tommi Nyman / Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research NIBIO Svanhovd. Photo: Norwegian
Institute of Bioeconomy Research
The panels are customised for studying specific CITIZEN SCIENCE IS KEY “Collecting samples from various reindeer herd- bears from, among other places, Norway, Sweden,
animals such as reindeer, moose, or bears, and ing districts and moose populations is instrumen- Finland, Russia, Canada, and USA.
make it easier to study their genetic information For an approach based on comprehensive genetic tal in developing and testing various methods,
efficiently and accurately. monitoring to work, it is crucial to build a net- and contribute to the establishment of a long-term “We hope to achieve the same with reindeer and
work and collaboration among different sectors biobank,” he says. moose. If we succeed, it will be a significant leap
“Once we’ve developed cost-effective and power- and stakeholders, including reindeer herders and in how we understand, protect, and sustain these
ful GT-seq panels for the different species, we use moose hunters. NIBIO has had success with this approach when three economically and culturally important large
the panels for the identification of thousands of it comes to the collection of samples from brown mammal species in Norway,” Dr Nyman says.
non-invasively collected samples every year. This Dr Tommi Nyman, RemoTnitor’s project manager bear faeces and hair, samples of which are
is essential when making individual-level conclu- and researcher at NIBIO Svanhovd, says that ef- regularly submitted by both hunters and others. “It can also serve as a compelling demonstration
sions within species boasting large populations,” forts have been made to reach out to these groups Through extensive collaboration, the database at of the transformative impact that genomics can
says Dr Klutsch. to acquire additional faecal and tissue samples. NIBIO Svanhovd’s DNA laboratory now consists of have on wildlife conservation and overall manage-
more than 16,000 samples from more than 3,500 ment practices.” ■
EARLY WARNINGS FOR NEW DISEASES
Molecular-genetic methods are not just about iden-

tifying individuals; they provide insights into var-
ious crucial factors like diet, diseases, parasites, REMOTNITOR (2023-2031)
genetic diversity, inbreeding, and relationships New methods for integrated non-invasive genetic monitoring of semi-domesticated reindeer
among the animals. By employing the methods and wildlife based on high-throughput sequencing approaches (RemoTnitor) (2023-2026) is a
consistently over time, researchers can obtain collaborative project between the Norwegian Institute for Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), the
unique information that will benefit research, Norwegian Veterinary Institute (VI), Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA), and the
management, and the animals’ livelihoods. Arctic University Museum, UiT The Arctic University of Norway. The aim is to produce powerful
tools for non-invasive assessment of animal identity and relatedness, diet, and health,
“Faecal samples have proved to be invaluable based on genetic analyses of field-collected scat samples, and thereby enable more efficient
sources of information. They contain not only the surveillance and management of reindeer and wildlife in the North.
DNA of the animal itself, but also DNA from the
plants or animals they consume,” says Dr Galina Project manager is Dr Tommi Nyman, researcher and genetic expert at NIBIO. The project is
Gusarova, researcher at the Arctic University funded by the Ministry of Climate and Environment through FRAM – High North Research
Museum in Tromsø. “This treasure trove of Centre for Climate and the Environment (The Fram Centre).
genetic information enables us to understand
both the animals and their interactions with the
environment.”
Senior researcher at the Norwegian Veterinary

Institute, Dr Ingebjørg Helena Nymo, underscores
that cross-border migration among wildlife popu-
lations and reindeer herds can potentially contrib-
ute to the spread of pathogens between countries.
Climate change may also alter the disease preva-
lence in an area.
“As the climate changes, host–pathogen interac-

tions may change, or new diseases may spread
from more southern regions,” she says. “The
genomic methods we are developing can serve
as early warning systems for emerging diseases.
Among other things, this kind of information is
useful for the development and implementation Dr Galina Gusarova, researcher at the Arctic University Part of RemoTnitor’s project team. From left to right, Dr Hans Geir Eiken (NIBIO), Dr Ingebjørg Helena Nymo (VI),
of measures to mitigate disease transmission Museum in Tromsø, collecting reindeer scat samples. MSc Hedvig Mjøen (UiT), Dr Håkon Kaspersen (VI), Dr Galina Gusarova (UiT), Dr Øivind Øines (VI), and Dr Tommi
between animals.” Photo: UiT The Arctic University of Norway Nyman (NIBIO). Photo: Dr Torkild Tveraa / Norwegian Institute for Nature Research
34 FRAM FORUM 2024 SCIENCE AND SOCIETY SCIENCE AND SOCIETY FRAM FORUM 2024 35
Saskia Trubbach and Gunnar Sander // Norwegian Institute for Water Research
Maaike Knol-Kauffman // UiT The Arctic University of Norway
Jelmer Jeuring and Malte Müller // Norwegian Meteorological Institute
Navigating the waves of

maritime safety regulations
in the Norwegian Arctic
SCIENCE AND SOCIETY
As the Arctic Ocean’s ice cover recedes, we see increased

shipping amid hazardous weather and sea-ice conditions.
What challenges does this pose for maritime safety?
Are existing regulatory frameworks equipped to address
future challenges? What can we learn from recent accidents
in Norwegian waters?
BACKGROUND
T hese questions were the topic of a
two-day SUDARCO stakeholder workshop,
discussing prospective scenarios and regulatory
approaches for mitigating risks in the Norwegian
In 2018, the grounded trawler Arctic.
Northguider emphasised potential
hazards near Svalbard. SHIPPING TRENDS: PAST AND FUTURE
In the following year, the cruise While the expedition cruise season has expand-
ship Viking Sky experienced engine ed, further growth in shoulder seasons may be
failure in Hustadvika during a limited by winter vessel transfers to Antarctica.
storm. Although there were no Despite increased cruise activity in Svalbard wa-
fatalities, this event prompted the ters over the past decade, the course of future de-
establishment of a national Cruise velopments remains dependent on the continuous
Incident with the large cruise vessel Viking Sky near Hustadvika, 2019. Committee to evaluate the safety evolution of regulatory frameworks. Fishing ves-
Photo: Eva Frisnes implications of cruise operations. sels operate year-round, but uncertainties related
to fish stocks, quotas, and the impacts of ocean
warming make future projections challenging.
In contrast to regions at lower latitudes, high

latitudes pose additional operational risks due to
harsh and often hazardous weather and sea-ice
conditions, darkness, remoteness, and limited
communication and search and rescue (SAR)
infrastructures.
HOW EFFECTIVE IS THE POLAR CODE?
The International Maritime Organization

(IMO) adopted the International Code for Ships
Operating in Polar Waters (Polar Code) in 2017 to
enhance navigational safety in challenging Arctic
conditions. The Code outlines functional require-
ments for vessels regarding environmental and
human safety. Through a self-regulatory mecha-
nism, operators are responsible for implementing
risk mitigation measures based on operational risk
assessments. However, limited experience and un-
derstanding of hazards in the Arctic often lead to
gaps in the risk assessment, impeding the effective
implementation of the Polar Code. Governance ac-
tors argued that, while improvements are needed,
the overall framework adequately addresses risk
mitigation throughout the Arctic. The Association
of Arctic Expedition Cruise Operators (AECO)
emphasised the introduction of additional safety
protocols for its members, fostering collabora-
tion with SAR units. This regulatory bottom-up
approach by the sector itself complements IMO
regulations and has the potential to address defi-
ciencies in operational risk assessments. Fishing
vessels are currently excluded from the Polar
Code, but larger vessels will gradually face specific
requirements outlined in the Code. Uncertainties
remain about the practical implications of these
new regulations.
NATIONAL SOLUTIONS TO GLOBAL GAPS

The focus area (in blue) comprises waters in the Norwegian SAR Area
within the Polar Code limits. Expedition cruise tourism and fisheries The limitations of the Polar Code raised concerns
are currently the dominant sectors. Graphic: Adapted from NOU 2022:1 among workshop participants about the adequacy
of existing risk and safety systems. This sparked
discussions on the necessity for additional regu-
lations in Norway. Scepticism towards increased
national regulation was grounded in the current
proliferation of regulations by different sectoral
Harsh and hazardous conditions authorities, impacting shipping activity around
pose an additional operational risk. Svalbard. Cruise industry representatives ar-
Photo: Malte Müller / Norwegian gued that uncertainty about the implications of
Meteorological Institute new regulations could lead operators to explore
Illustration based on photo by Fabienne Mannherz. Increase in ship days of cruise vessels around Svalbard.
The drop in 2020–2021 was caused by the pandemic.
Graph adapted from Müller et al 2023
alternative destinations. They emphasised the im- 1. Static regulation: eg, restriction of the onboard but concerns were raised about the feasibility of
portance of considering the cumulative effects of capacity to 500-750 persons in Svalbard waters implementation and the challenges associated FURTHER READING:
additional regulations — a view supported by the with forecasting sea and weather conditions in
Cruise Committee. Their report explicitly asserts 2. Dynamic regulation: traffic regulation in spec- Arctic environments. A shift to dynamic regula- Cruise Committee (2022) Cruise traffic in
that dimensioning an emergency response system ified periods and areas when adverse weather tion would necessitate enhanced communication Norwegian waters and adjacent sea areas –
for an accident with a large cruise vessel is not conditions are present or forecasted infrastructure and warning systems. Nonetheless, Maritime safety, emergency preparedness and
feasible. The recommended measures are mainly handing over operational decision-making from rescue [Official Norwegian Reports NOU 2022: 1].
designed to reduce the probability of an accident, The static approach offers clarity and easy en- vessel operators to an external authority raises Ministry of Justice and Public Security. https://
accounting for the additional risk of shipping in forceability. With fewer people on board, evac- concerns about accountability and could poten- www.regjeringen.no/en/dokumenter/nou-2022-1/
Arctic waters. Workshop participants were asked uations are less challenging, and fishing vessels, tially create a misleading sense of safety in open id2901535/
to reflect on the advantages, disadvantages, which are usually closest to a distressed vessel, navigation areas. In SUDARCO, our ongoing
and practical challenges of two of the suggested face reduced pressure with an obligation to assist. interdisciplinary research will assess the practical Müller M, Knol-Kauffman M, Jeuring J, Palerme
measures: Criticisms mainly focus on the arbitrary and sim- feasibility of both static and dynamic regulations, C (2023) Arctic shipping trends during hazardous
plistic nature of static regulations. considering implications for knowledge require- weather and sea-ice conditions and the Polar
ments, information infrastructure, and resources Code’s effectiveness. npj Ocean Sustainability 2:
Dynamic regulations were commended by some at local operational and (inter)national policy 12, https://doi.org/10.1038/s44183-023-00021-x
for their ability to adapt to hazards in real time, levels. ■
Haakon Hop, Anna Nikolopoulos, Anette Wold, Mats A Granskog, Dmitry V Divine,
Paul Dodd and Ole Arve Misund // Norwegian Polar Institute
Doreen Kohlbach and Karley Campbell // UiT The Arctic University of Norway
Exploring the Central

Arctic Ocean from the
Svalbard shelf to the
North Pole
RESEARCH NOTES
The Arctic Ocean is shifting from white to blue during

summer, with less sea ice and more open water, while
boreal species expand northwards. This affects primary
production and energy flow in the marine food web.
Research cruises and long-term moorings provide
information for future management.
Bathymetric map of the Eurasian sector of the Arctic Ocean overlaid by the ship
track, CTD stations and trawling locations of the two Norwegian Polar Institute (NPI)
cruises in yellow (2022) and red (2023), the mooring locations of Amundsen-1 and
T he Arctic Ocean has been estimated to
warm twice the global mean rate in the upper
2000 m. The blue waters are expanding into the
KNOWLEDGE- AND CAPACITY-BUILDING
To increase our knowledge about the CAO Large

Nansen-1 (stars) and other long-term NPI observatories (white dots). The two inset currently ice-covered area of the Nansen Basin, Marine Ecosystem, cruises with RV Kronprins
figures show concentration and thickness of sea ice observed during AO-2022. which, together with the Amundsen Basin, forms Haakon were conducted in the Eurasian deep
the Eurasian part of the Central Arctic Ocean basins of the Arctic Ocean during July-August 2022
(CAO). The Arctic amplification is predicted to and 2023. The 2023 programme included students
accelerate with increased transport of warm and from USA, Canada, Greenland, Iceland, Sweden,
saline Atlantic water into the CAO (Atlantification). Finland, and Norway, to promote capacity- and
A shift from ice-covered to open ocean during network-building among students from circumpo-
summer will have dramatic consequences for lar nations with Arctic connections.
structure and functioning of the marine ecosys-
tem and will particularly impact ice-associated
organisms.
International students identifying fishes in the fish lab. Emily Stidham (left, University of Alaska),
Juni Bjørneset and Vegard Stürzinger (Norwegian Polar Institute), Jacob M Christensen and Malou
Platou Johansen (UiT The Arctic University of Norway). Photo: Haakon Hop / Norwegian Polar Institute
BREAKING THE ICE transect of the prevailing water masses shows that
the Amundsen Basin is characterised by low-sa-
During the 2022 expedition, Kronprins Haakon linity polar waters carried by the Transpolar Drift
followed in the wake of the icebreaker Le near the surface, and less influenced by warm
Commandant Charcot all the way to the North and saline Atlantic water masses compared to the
Pole through relatively thin sea ice with leads. Nansen Basin. The polar water originates from
The sea ice was relatively thick and consolidated the large Siberian rivers with a distinct terres-
with large ridges in the northernmost part of the trial signal, visible in the high load of Coloured
Amundsen Basin, while thinner ice with open Dissolved Organic Matter (CDOM). The presence
leads dominated in the Nansen Basin. The 2023 of this low-salinity water also results in different
cruise encompassed a shorter survey from the stratification regimes between the two basins. The
shelf and slope north of Svalbard. core of the warm Atlantic waters flows along the
Nansen Basin shelf slope while colder modified
DEEP BASINS FROM TOP TO BOTTOM Atlantic water circulates in both basins as a layer
below the polar waters.
In 2022, two long-term ocean observatories,
the moorings Amundsen-1 (N87°31' E5°36') and CAO MARINE ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM
Nansen-1 (N83°56' E22°15'), were deployed to com-
pare the marine environment between the two Both cruises were rather late in the season; ice
deep basins. These moorings are still in the water algal growth was limited along the transect and
and are planned to be retrieved and re-deployed bottom-ice algal production was greatest at the
in the summer 2024. northern stations, close to the North Pole in 2022.
The pelagic bloom had developed to a deep chlo-
Both years, hydrographic full-depth surveys of rophyll (chl) a maximum at 15-50 m depth, with
physical, chemical and biological properties were remaining chl a in the water column being much
conducted to explore the marine system from the less over the Amundsen Basin than in the Nansen Gridded distributions of temperature (full-depth) and salinity, coloured dissolved organic matter (CDOM), and
shelf slope and into the deep ocean, expanding Basin, where higher chl a prevailed near the ice chlorophyll a (upper 300 m) along the main section of AO-2022. Vertical grey lines show the CTD cast locations and
the spatial perspectives of the two moorings. The edge at N82°. yellow triangles indicate the two mooring locations at about 4000 m depth.
Hydroacoustic surveys with a Simrad EK80

hull-mounted echo sounder were done to deter- FURTHER READING:
mine distribution and biomass of zooplankton and
fish from the surface to 500 m depth. Over the CAFF (2017) State of the Arctic Marine
same depth range, pelagic trawling was conduct- Biodiversity Report. CAFF, Akureyri. 195 pages,
ed to sample fish and other organisms. Special http://hdl.handle.net/11374/1945
ice-rigging enabled trawling in ice-covered waters,
for the first time even at the North Pole! Skjoldal HR (Editor) (2022) Ecosystem
Assessment of the Central Arctic Ocean:
Boreal zooplankton and fish have been report- Description of the Ecosystem. ICES
ed to expand with increased inflow of Atlantic Cooperative Research Reports Vol 335,
water from lower latitudes into the Nansen Basin. 341 pages, https://doi.org/10.17895/ices.
Capelin (Mallotus villosus) have expanded into pub.20191787
the mesopelagic layer (300-500 m depth) near
the slope, and will likely be the first fish species Vylegzhanin AN, Young OR, Berkman PA (2020)
to expand further into the CAO. Other fishes in The Central Arctic Ocean Fisheries Agreement
the catch were mostly juveniles of beaked red- as an element in the evolving Arctic Ocean
fish (Sebastes mentella) and Greenland halibut governance complex. Journal of Marine
(Reinhardtius hippoglossoides), as well as a few Policy 118:104001, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
larger cod (Gadus morhua). As we moved away marpol.2020.104001
from the slope and into the deep waters, the fishes
associated with the mesopelagic layer diminished,
and the last species to persist was the glacial
lanternfish (Benthosema glaciale). With the fishes
gone, their niche was occupied by pelagic amphi-
pods, the large arrow worm Eukrohnia hamata
and jellyplankton. The large helmet jellyfish
(Periphylla periphylla) seems to have expanded
into the CAO; it was caught in several pelagic trawl ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
hauls in the Nansen Basin.
Expeditions were supported by the
MANAGEMENT CONCERNS Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Fram
Centre project Sustainable Development
Our long-term commitment to study the CAO is of the Arctic Ocean (SUDARCO), the
expected to contribute to management concerns Research Council of Norway project
regarding ecosystem protection and sustainable Bottom sea ice Respiration and nutrient
Pelagic trawling with RV Kronprins exploitation of marine resources in light of rapid Exchanges Assessed for THE Arctic
Haakon in the Arctic Ocean. Photo: climate change. These efforts will contribute to (BREATHE), and the Norwegian Polar
Vegard Stürzinger / Norwegian the Joint Scientific Research and Management Institute. We thank captains and crews of
Polar Institute Programme linked to the CAO Fisheries RV Kronprins Haakon and Le Commandant
Agreement. Less sea ice will open for oceanic Charcot (2022).
sailing routes and other human activities, such
as extraction of deep-sea minerals, fisheries, and
tourism. Changes in teleconnections between an
ice-free Arctic Ocean and the lower latitudes are
expected to grandly affect marine ecosystems
across latitudes. ■
The helmet jellyfish (Periphylla periphylla) has moved into the Arctic Ocean.
Photo: Vegard Stürzinger / Norwegian Polar Institute
Jasmine Nahrgang // UiT The Arctic University of Norway
The sins of the fathers:

multigenerational impact
of crude oil on fish
RESEARCH NOTES
Spawned in millions, tiny cod and polar cod embryos are

swept by currents into the unknown, helpless against
threats along the way. Will they meet a predator?
Illustration: Leah Strople / University of Bergen and UiT The Arctic University of Norway
Will they be carried to places that are too hot or too cold?
Will their journey end in a sheen of black gold?
O f the millions of cod eggs spawned,

only a few will hatch. Even fewer will survive
to eat their first prey. Crude oil is just one of the
TOXIC COMPOUNDS IMPACT REPRODUCTION
Thousands of compounds, to a large part

published study shows that exposure to crude oil
leads to an early onset of spawning. Surprising!
Most other such studies find a delay in gamete
cod. This batch spawner releases gametes every
few days over several weeks, allowing fertilisation
of gametes across treatments. A new experiment
dangers they face. They will not recover from an uncharacterised, come into play when crude oil production. Maybe the early spawning we saw was can be conducted. Embryos are raised, and mater-
exposure to these toxic chemicals dissolved in the and other petroleum products are spilled at sea. related to the timing of the exposure, late during nal and paternal effects can be disentangled.
water, even at infinitely low concentrations. These compounds, too many to fully comprehend, gonad maturation.
have the potential to affect all life stages of fish. HARD TIMES FOR THE OFFSPRING
The question arises: does the health of the entire Commercially and ecologically important species, FROM ONE MODEL SPECIES TO ANOTHER
population hang in the balance? Probably not, such as Atlantic cod and polar cod, are at risk. Exposure of the mother weighs hardest on the
because life for these embryonic fish is harsh and Whether these chemicals act individually, addi- What is the impact of parental exposure on early life stages; eggs are significantly smaller and
unforgiving, regardless of toxic chemicals. The tively, or synergistically in these complex mix- next-generation offspring? And which parent me- accumulate some oil compounds. Two days fol-
spawning stock is resilient. Oblivious to the fate of tures, they have the potential to disrupt critical diates the effect? We cannot tell. lowing fertilisation, maternally exposed embryos
their offspring, the parents may release millions processes during the reproductive phases of these show an inhibition of embryogenesis pathways,
of eggs again next year. So, is the spawning stock fish. Maternal and paternal effects can only be investi- visible through a transcriptome analysis. Four
safe? gated through cross fertilisation between gametes days after being fertilised, all maternally exposed
For example, millions of eggs of the arctic key- of control and exposed fish. But gametes from un- embryos have perished. But paternal effects can
Maybe not, after all. stone species polar cod are released premature- exposed polar cod are still unripe when eggs from also be seen: fewer larvae hatch, and they are
ly in the dead of the polar night. Our recently exposed parents are spawned. We need to change shorter.
our model species to another gadid, the Atlantic
THE PROJECTS AND THE PEOPLE
This work started in 2019 through the

Nansen Legacy project with post-doctoral
fellow Ireen Vieweg (UiT The Arctic
University of Norway) and master student
Leah Strople (University of Bergen/
UiT The Arctic University of Norway) as
drivers of the first experiment on polar
cod that also led to the first publication
by Strople et al (2023). In 2020, Claudia
Erhart followed up with the series of
experiments on Atlantic cod (PARENTOX
I and II projects) funded by the Fram
Centre flagship MIKON and ARCEx.
Since 2023, the work continues with the
ToxiGen project funded by the Research
Council of Norway. Throughout the years,
this series of studies has been conducted
in close collaboration with among others
Anders Goksøyr, Odd André Karlsen, and
Fekadu Yadetie (University of Bergen),
Lisbet Sørensen and Mari Creese (SINTEF
Ocean), Marianne Frantzen (Akvaplan-
niva) and Velmurugu Puvanendran and
Øyvind Hansen (Nofima).
THE SINS OF THE FATHERS IS FISH POPULATION HEALTH AT STAKE? Left: The polar cod, a keystone species in the Arctic,
spends much of its time in and under sea ice. FURTHER READING:
How offspring develop and thrive is tightly The most sensitive life stage is not always the stage Photo: Peter Leopold / Norwegian Polar Institute
connected to the parents’ life history. Through that exposes population vulnerability. Seemingly Strople LC, Vieweg I, Yadetie F, Odei
endocrine disruption, the first-generation off- robust life stages may carry hidden flaws that Top: Leah Strople conducting histological analyses of polar cod DK, Thorsen A, Karlsen OA, Goksøyr
spring may be at risk. Toxic compounds can alter could cause more harm than first assumed. gonads. Photo: Ireen Vieweg / UiT The Arctic University of Norway A, Sørensen L, Sarno A, Hansen BH,
a parent’s crucial regulatory mechanisms, which ToxiGen, a new project funded by the Research Frantzen M, Hansen ØJ, Puvanendran V,
in turn affect the quality of eggs and sperm. Council of Norway, seeks to identify the mecha- Above left: Ireen Vieweg, Velmurugu Puvanendran, Nahrgang J (2023) Spawning time in adult
Growing oocytes accumulate toxic substances that nisms at play when crude oil changes the fishes’ and Øyvind Hansen sexing polar cod using ultrasound. polar cod (Boreogadus saida) altered by
may or may not impact the future developing em- spawning time window. Ultimately, the project Photo: Jasmine Nahrgang / UiT The Arctic University of Norway crude oil exposure, independent of food
bryo. Some compounds may cause “epigenetic” aims to determine if effects can be passed down availability. J Toxicol Environ Health Part
alterations to the DNA. Such alterations leave the to generations that were never directly exposed. Above right: Claudia Erhart and Paul Dubourg about to strip roe from A: 1–24, https://doi.org/10.1080/15287394
DNA sequence unchanged, but affect how genes A comprehensive approach, encompassing not an Atlantic cod. Photo: Jasmine Nahrgang / UiT The Arctic University of .2023.2228535
are permanently turned on or off. If these epige- only sensitive early life stages of fish, but also Norway
netic changes are in reproductive cells, they can seemingly resilient ones, is crucial as we work to
be passed from parents to offspring and through safeguard our marine resources and in particular
generations. The Sins of the Fathers may cast a fish populations that contribute to fundamental
shadow on their children and their children’s ecosystem services. ■
children.
Field registration of botanical composition at one farm in Sortland. Siri Elise Dybdal // Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research
Photo: Ingvild Melkersen / Norwegian Agricultural Advisory Service
New tools to predict

winter stress in
grasslands
RESEARCH NOTES
Variable and unfavourable winter conditions often

cause damage and yield loss in grasslands in
northern Norway and other regions with long winters.
Now, researchers are combining high-tech tools,
models, and ground registrations to predict winter
survival and yields in grasslands in the region.
G rasslands form the basis for fodder

production for ruminants in large parts of the
world, including Norway and Poland. However,
In the project Tools for information to farmers on
grasslands yields under stressed conditions to sup-
port management practices (GrasSAT), researchers
climate change, with warmer and more unstable from the Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy
weather, has introduced new and greater chal- Research (NIBIO) and NORCE Norwegian Research
lenges in forage production. Centre have worked together with Poland’s
Institute of Geodesy and Cartography and Poznań
Variable winter weather and unstable snow condi- University of Life Sciences to adapt and combine
tions increase the risk of bare frost or prolonged high-tech tools such as remote sensing from
ice cover on the ground, resulting in significant satellites or drones, ground registrations, and
yield losses in grasslands, especially in northern process-based models.
and mountainous regions. Prolonged droughts
and abnormally high summer temperatures are In northern Norway, farmers and advisers from
also increasingly problematic in many regions. In the Norwegian Agricultural Advisory Service
Poland, this has caused significant yield losses in (Norsk landbruksrådgivning, NLR) have contrib-
grasslands, particularly on drought-prone soils. uted by selecting representative observation sites,
recording data on snow, soil frost, winter survival,
and yield, and providing information about prac-
tices such as reseeding, cutting, and fertilisation.
THE CHALLENGES OF LONG WINTERS
Agriculture in the northern regions operates

under challenging conditions with a short, intense
growing season and a long winter. Weather con-
ditions vary significantly from year to year and
between regions and locations, and the winter can
be challenging for perennial grasslands. Frost,
ice, and fungal diseases during the winter can, in
some years, result in significant yield losses, lead-
ing to a substantial economic burden for farmers.
“The background of this project is these diffi-

cult conditions for grass production in northern
Norway, as well as in Poland and other parts of
the world. Winter stress causes great uncertain-
ties for farmers,” says Tomas Persson, who leads
NIBIO’s part of the project.
Comparison with field measurements, such as plant Persson points out that with climate change, win-
height, leaf area, and yield, helps calibrate and validate ter conditions are projected to be even less stable,
results obtained from satellite data. Photo: Ingvild for example regarding snow cover.
Melkersen / Norwegian Agricultural Advisory Service
“The problem is that you don’t know what you
get. If the snow cover is less stable, or you have
longer periods with cold weather with no snow
cover, the plants will be exposed to much lower
temperatures than if they were covered with an
insulating layer of snow. Warm weather episodes
during winter also increase the risk for build-up
of impermeable ice covering the grass fields. This
is particularly detrimental for grassland and can Farmer Øystein Iselvmo and agricultural adviser Kristin Sørensen in Målselv
cause significant winter kill.” collecting ground data for the project. The data include information on botanical
composition, yield, and field registrations. Photo: Marit Jørgensen / Norwegian
More unstable conditions can also mean more Institute of Bioeconomy Research
frequent periods of low temperature early or late
during the winter season when plants normal-
ly are less cold hardy than in the middle of the HIGH TECH TOOLS calibrated the BASGRA model by combining data
winter. from ground registration and remote sensing from
The researchers have combined different tools, different times of the year such as the ground
It is often challenging to predict winter damage such as satellite and drone images, and a pro- coverage in autumn and early spring,” Persson
and estimate the extent of the harm during the cess-based model (BASGRA) that simulates forage explains.
subsequent spring. grass plant growth, and includes weather, soil,
and management data. This model can simulate “Comparison with field measurements, such
“Early warning of winter damage can help farm- the entire season – winter and summer – and pre- as plant height, leaf area, and yield, helps cali-
ers plan measures in time to minimise losses. One dict winter kill incidents. brate and validate the results from satellite data.
aim of the project was to combine tools to get bet- Additionally, satellite data can be integrated into
ter prediction of the conditions in the spring. We “It means you can get an early indication of plant growth models to continually update the
wanted to predict the degree of winter stress and the risk of winter kill. We have developed and models with new information throughout the
Field meeting in Sortland. Photo: Ingvild Melkersen / get better information for decision-making later,” adapted a system of tools for northern Norway, season,” Persson highlights.
Norwegian Agricultural Advisory Service Persson explains. and have tested different means of acquiring data,
Sheep grazing on Andøya. Climate change,

with warmer and more unstable weather, has
introduced new and greater challenges in
forage production. Photo: Morten Günther /
Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research
The research in the project has been carried out in collaboration Renna explains that when farmers have prior in- “They could benefit from being able to check for
with the Norwegian Agricultural Advisory Service division in formation on grassland conditions, they can start available land when planning, and in relation to
northern Norway, which helped select representative pasture counteracting damage earlier. This lessens the risk compensation schemes for crop failure. Farmers
areas from farms in five regions. Four to five pasture plots are of reduced yields and economic loss. bear the responsibility of reporting potential crop
examined in each region. Photo: Marit Jørgensen / Norwegian failure as early as possible, but municipalities
Institute of Bioeconomy Research “This will benefit the process of procuring the could contribute to assessments of potential out-
necessary resources and calculating needs such as comes,” she points out.
buying seed or avoiding buying fertiliser if alterna-
tive renewal measures are required. Knowing The agricultural adviser also says the information
about the conditions beforehand will give farmers on both winter and summer stress is useful in the
an opportunity to assess both what is needed and north.
how much.”
“This growing season, we have experienced
“There’s also the aspect of planning barnyard winter stress, as well as drought stress such as in
production that requires forage. For example, the Poland. The tool encompasses numerous elements
model might help farmers decide whether they that are proving useful for Norwegian farmers,”
should plan to acquire more land. That could be she concludes. ■
another advantage,” she says.
Renna also believes municipalities could poten-

tially use this tool for administrative purposes.
“Winter stress causes great uncertainties for

NEW FOR NORTHERN NORWAY USEFUL FOR FARMERS AND MUNICIPALITIES farmers,” says Tomas Persson (rightmost). Persson
leads NIBIO’s part of the project. Photo: Ragnhild
So far, project results indicate that adaptations The research in the project has been carried out Renna / Norwegian Agricultural Advisory Service
of the BASGRA model for conditions in northern in collaboration with NLR’s division in northern
Norway regarding winter survival and growth can Norway, which helped select representative pas-
reduce prediction errors in crop (ground cover, ture areas from farms in five regions: Nordreisa,
growth patterns, yield) from 90% to approximate- Malangen, Målselv, Kvæfjord, and Sortland, with
ly 20%. 4-5 pasture plots per region.
Forecasting yield and quality during a cultivation Ragnhild Renna, adviser at NLR North, has been
season involves examining the effects of poten- involved in collecting ground data for the project.
tial cultivation practices, such as fertilisation, “We have collected information on botanical
sowing and harvesting timing, in combination composition, yield, and made field registrations,”
with weather and soil conditions. Additionally, it she says.
includes investigating potential long-term adapta-
tions, considering factors such as climate change Renna confirms that agriculture in the north
and the need for new varieties of crops. of Norway is experiencing climate stress, and
there is unpredictability concerning climate and
Persson says combining these tools in research is weather.
new for this area of Norway. “And to focus on the
winter season is relatively new. Many are working “The information gathered in the project is highly
in this field of research, combining remote sensing valuable for considering the winter events and
and satellite data and crop growth models, but predicting the outcomes in spring. If technology
there is more work done for drought and heat can provide an advantage, and we need not wait
stress. However, we must not underestimate the for the snow to melt or temperatures to rise to see
impact of winter stress, which can also affect oth- what condition the grassland is in, farmers can
er regions than those at high latitudes,” the NIBIO benefit,” she says.
researcher underlines.
Kjetil Sagerup, Gro Harlaug Refseth, Magnus Drivdal, Eli Børve,

Maj Arnberg, Pierre Blévin and Trude Borch // Akvaplan-niva
Pernilla Carlsson, Ian John Allan, Roger Raanti, Samantha Eslava Martins,
Ailbhe Lisette Macken and Adam Lillicrap // Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA)
Floating in-feed medication

combats salmon lice with
less environmental impact
RESEARCH NOTES
Due to numerous challenges associated with salmon

lice, the aquaculture industry is constantly looking
for improved methods for lice removal. A research
team from Akvaplan-niva and NIVA is investigating
the environmental risks associated with an innovative
method: delousing medication in floating feed.
S almon lice are considered as one of the

biggest challenges for the aquaculture industry
in Norway and other salmon-farming countries.
also enter marine sediments via fish faeces and
urine. It takes months or even years for EMB to be
degraded in marine sediments. To minimise the A salmon with several lice. Photo: Erling
Beyond increasing the risks that lice spread to na- associated environmental risks and avoid col- Svensen / Akvaplan-niva
tive species and the animal welfare aspect of infes- lateral effects on untargeted marine species (eg,
tation, louse-infested salmon impose an economic organisms living on the sea floor around the fish
burden on aquaculture companies due to costs farms), the aquaculture industry needs to ensure
related to delousing. Both medicinal and non-me- responsible use of this delousing chemical. While
dicinal methods are used to fight salmon lice, but Norway is still lacking environmental threshold
they all have drawbacks related to environmental values for EMB, other fish-producing countries
impacts and fish welfare and health. such as Scotland have established stricter regula-
tions (see https://www.sepa.org.uk/).
The pesticide emamectin benzoate (EMB) is an
active ingredient in at least two commercial A while ago, a new idea for a delousing regime
in-feed medications. EMB has been used to treat came up: the use of EMB in-feed pellets with
salmon in Norway for more than two decades. It positive buoyancy. Unlike the sinking pellets, the
is usually administered via pellets fed to the fish floating feed will remain at the sea surface. If too
in open net pens in the ocean. If not consumed by many pellets are observed on the surface, this is
the fish, the leftover medicated pellets containing a strong indication to limit feeding and collect re- Collection of sediment samples close to a
EMB sink and end up on the sea floor. EMB will maining pellets. Therefore, this new method may fish farm. Photo: Carl Ballantine / Akvaplan-
reduce environmental impacts. niva
HOW WE STUDIED THIS WHAT WE LEARNED Aquaculture facilities in northern Norway.

Photo: Vegar Johnsen / Akvaplan-niva
The project POSITIV OPPDRIFT combined field We found EMB in the environment around the THE PROJECT
investigations and oceanographic modelling fish farms after both feed allocation methods.
to investigate whether floating in-feed pellets This was not surprising given the high persistence Environmental risk assessment
entailed environmental risks compared with of EMB in the environment. The concentration of a new method of administrat-
the traditional sinking feed method. Large-scale of EMB in all sediment samples was above the ing feed preparations against
field feeding treatment trials were carried out at Scottish threshold values. salmon lice (Positiv oppdrift) was
two aquaculture sites in northern Norway. In the financed by FHF – Norwegian
trials, fish were treated for a 10-day period with The oceanographic dispersion modelling showed Seafood Research Fund. The
either sinking or floating feed containing EMB. that the EMB in the water column dissipated project was led by Akvaplan-niva
Simultaneously, field studies were carried out to quickly. Most of the EMB reaching the sediment and carried out in collaboration
measure the environmental concentrations of the remained localised within 150 m around the farm. with the Norwegian Institute for
delousing agent in water and sediment samples In the model, it was assumed that 2% of the feed Water Research (NIVA), Skretting,
around the aquaculture sites. These field studies would not be eaten, which resulted in a 4-7% re- and Salmo Pharma AS.
were done before, during, and again after the duction in maximum modelled concentrations of
feeding experiment. In parallel, oceanographic EMB in sediment when floating feed pellets were
modelling was performed to simulate the spread used.
of the delousing agent around the sites after
treatment with the two different feed allocation However, the field investigation showed that EMB
methods. concentrations in sediment samples taken 500
m from the farm were relatively high, close to or
above the threshold levels for environmental im-
pacts set by the Scottish Environment Protection
Agency.
Moreover, we found much lower concentrations

of EMB in sediment samples taken in the vicinity
of the cages with floating pellets compared to
sinking pellets (up to 50% lower). Similarly, the
amount of EMB was slightly lower in samples from
waters where floating feed had been used. These
encouraging results suggest that this innovative
pesticide administration method with floating
feed can reduce environmental risk from delous-
ing processes. It must be emphasised that these
results are based on one test only, and the field
trials should be replicated.
Although the method looks promising, additional

risk-reducing measures should be implemented, as
EMB concentrations were still above the Scottish
EPA threshold values for environmental impacts. ■
Nils Bochow and Anna Poltronieri // UiT The Arctic University of Norway
The critical threshold of

the Greenland ice sheet
RESEARCH NOTES
The climate crisis is one of the biggest threats to the future of

human society. The consequences of a warming world are vast
and potentially catastrophic. Before 2100, millions of people
may be displaced by rising sea levels, which are closely linked
to the Greenland ice sheet.
A s global temperatures continue to rise,

extreme weather events such as heat waves,
droughts, and floods are becoming more frequent.
To date, several potential tipping elements
have been identified, for example the Atlantic
Meridional Overturning Circulation, the Amazon
Changes in ocean currents, precipitation and rainforest, the West Antarctic ice sheet and the
circulation patterns are expected, all while the Greenland ice sheet. It seems more and more
global sea level steadily increases. likely that we will cross the critical thresholds for
many tipping elements by the end of this century.
Some of these changes are expected to happen But what happens if we actually cross a tipping
faster than others. For example, the atmosphere point? Is there a time window in which we could
usually reacts to changes much faster than the prevent the worst case scenario?
ocean. In some cases, a change can happen
abruptly. In this context, the terms “tipping We recently investigated this question for the
points” and “tipping elements” are frequently Greenland ice sheet using computer models. We
mentioned, but what do they actually mean? identified a critical threshold between 1.7 and
2.3°C above pre-industrial
A tipping point is a critical global mean temperature.
threshold in a system, where Beyond this threshold, the
positive feedbacks create Greenland ice sheet could
abrupt, nonlinear changes. be lost in the long term even
Close to the tipping point, even without any additional warm-
small perturbations can lead ing. However, we also found a
to big changes. These chang- window of opportunity to re-
es can be partially or fully duce temperatures before the
irreversible, meaning that even loss of the ice sheet becomes
if we reverse the change and irreversible.
Above: Iceberg on frozen sea at sunrise. go below the threshold again,
Photo: Kedardome / Mostphotos the system may not recover. The Greenland ice sheet has
Such components of the Earth already been significantly
Right: Icebergs in Ilulisat fjord on the west coast system are known as “tipping affected by rising tempera-
of Greenland. Photo: Kedardome / Mostphotos elements”. tures. Currently, it loses more
than 270 billion tonnes of ice annually, equivalent Note that in this context, “rapid” means on the
to around 0.8 mm of sea level rise per year. A order of a few thousand years.
complete melt would contribute over 7 m to global
sea level rise. Most importantly, our models show that a tempo-
rary overshoot of the critical threshold is possible
Simply put, the health of an ice sheet is deter- without committing to a full or irreversible retreat
mined by its mass balance, the difference between of the ice sheet. That means, if we manage to
ice accumulation and ablation (loss). Rising tem- reverse the temperatures within a reasonable time
peratures drive increased surface melt, leading to after an initial rise above the critical threshold,
increased ice loss and a smaller mass balance. large-scale loss of the Greenland ice sheet might
be preventable. This is because the ice sheet has a
Icebergs floating in a Greenland fjord. In Greenland, various processes interact, shaping lot of inertia and reacts on a very slow time scale.
Photo: Kedardome / Mostphotos the fate of the ice sheet. Ice loss leads to lower However, the window of opportunity strongly
ice surfaces and warmer temperatures, intensi- depends on the overshoot temperature and the
fying melting in a feedback loop known as the subsequent cooling rate. In general, the higher
melt-elevation feedback, which is the main reason the overshoot, the shorter the time window. It is
we expect a tipping of the Greenland ice sheet important to keep in mind that the temporary sea
after we cross a critical threshold. Bedrock uplift level rise can still exceed several metres.
due to reduced ice load counteracts this feedback
to some extent, but does not prevent major ice Our findings support previous research, highlight-
loss. Additional factors, like the reflectivity of ing the importance of limiting global warming to
fresh snow versus old ice, and ice dynamics fur- 1.5–2.5°C above pre-industrial levels to mitigate
ther impact the stability of the ice sheet. loss of the Greenland ice sheet and associated
sea level rise. Timely action is crucial to prevent
In our study, we use two state-of-the-art ice-sheet extreme warming by the end of this century.
models. Both models yield consistent results
in the short- and long-term behaviour of the However, long-term climate projections for
Greenland ice sheet. We use these models to Greenland beyond 2100 remain uncertain, with
investigate how the ice sheet responds to temper- potential Arctic amplification reducing the ice
ature changes. Therefore, we force both models sheet’s safety margin. The risk of irreversible
with increasing regional temperatures relative to loss of the Greenland ice sheet is a significant
the present day. concern. While rapid cooling can offer a solution,
prolonged warmth worsens sea level rise. It is vital
First we raise temperatures at varying rates until to emphasise that even if the Greenland ice sheet
the year 2100. Then we gradually decrease the does not reach an irreversible tipping point, its Iceberg formations and blue sky over Greenland.
temperatures within time windows ranging from contributions to sea level rise can have a lasting Photo: Kedardome / Mostphotos
100 to 10,000 years. After the cooling phase, we impact. This underscores the urgency of proactive
stabilise at a “convergence temperature” between measures to protect our climate. ■
0°C and 4.0°C above today’s levels. We run our
simulations for at least 100,000 years to ensure FURTHER READING:
that the ice sheet is in equilibrium.
Bochow N, Poltronieri A, Robinson A, Montoya M, Rypdal M,
Both models indicate increased melting of the Boers N (2023) Overshooting the critical threshold for the
Greenland ice sheet in response to rising temper- Greenland ice sheet. Nature 622: 528–536, https://www.
atures, and that melting continues beyond 2100. nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06503-9
The extent of melting depends on the temperature
rise. Larger temperature increases lead to signifi- For a complete picture of the consequences of climate
cant ice loss in both models, with a consistent pat- change, we refer to the most recent IPCC report: https://
tern of sensitivity—initial retreat in the southwest- www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-cycle/
ern part, followed by the northern part. Extreme
warming scenarios result in rapid ice sheet loss.
Ellen Kathrine Bludd // UiT The Arctic University of Norway

Stine Hommedal // Institute of Marine Research
A killer whale pursues a fish
that escaped from the net.
Photo: Audun Rikardsen / UiT
The Arctic University of Norway
Unpleasant sound
keeps whales away
from fishing nets
RESEARCH NOTES
Whales are attracted to fishing boats in search of easy meals

but sometimes get caught in fishing nets. Sounds that whales
dislike may be the solution for both whales and fishermen.
T here are around 10,000 humpback whales

and 15,000 killer whales in the Northeast
Atlantic – and they are hungry. In Norwegian wa-
“Norwegian fishermen mainly use purse seines,
where fish schools are caught and collected close
to the ship’s side before the fish are pumped on
ters, these whales typically eat herring, mackerel, board,” says Maria Tenningen at the Institute of
and capelin, which are also commercially fished. Marine Research.
Norwegian fishermen catch about 1 million tonnes
of these fish species each year. Part of the fish school quickly ends up outside the
net, either because it was not caught or because it
Killer whales and humpbacks are attracted to the was pushed out again. This is an easy catch for a
fishing boats, both in open waters and in some whale.
fjords, for easy food. But this means trouble for
whales that inadvertently get tangled in fishing “The whale saves energy by avoiding doing the job
gear. of gathering the fish,” says Tenningen.
FISHING BOAT = FAST FOOD BAD FOR BOTH WHALES AND FISHERMEN
Researchers from the Institute of Marine On average, seven humpback whales and eleven
Research, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, killer whales are caught in Norwegian herring
and the University of St Andrews in Scotland are nets each year. Some die, but some whales can be
working together with the fishing industry to find disentangled and survive. However, getting the
a way to keep the whales away from the herring whale out alive is no easy task.
fishery.
Below: Audun Rikardsen,

professor at UiT’s
Department of Arctic and
Marine Biology. Photo:
Fredrik Broms
Above: Researchers from the Institute of Marine Research have tagged a

whale. Photo: Audun Rikardsen / UiT The Arctic University of Norway
Left: People from the Directorate of Fisheries liberate a humpback

whale that has become entangled in the drift anchor of a herring
trawler. Photo: Audun Rikardsen / UiT The Arctic University of Norway
“If the fishermen get a whale in their gear, it’s not “The idea is that whales will steer clear of the boat “We equipped killer and humpback whales with “When we stopped playing the sounds, the whales
good for the whale or the fishermen. Often, the and the nets if the boat emits a sound that the advanced satellite tags that both film and record returned to the boats within a few minutes,” he
fishermen lose their catch and have their fishing whales don’t like,” says Maria Tenningen. the sounds of what the whales are doing underwa- says.
gear destroyed, which can be expensive. They also ter. The tags are attached with suction cups and
lose valuable fishing time,” says Audun Rikardsen, “We counted whales before, during, and after the measure other important things like depth and The effect of the sound signal decreased quickly
professor at UiT. fishing boat emitted sound. Each phase lasted acceleration,” says Audun Rikardsen. with distance. It was clearly lower at 50–100 me-
five minutes. Together with the fishermen, we tres from the sound source than at 0–50 metres.
Even if the whale survives, it is often injured, investigated this through 18 herring catches,” says The tags fall off after a few hours and give the
and some eventually die. Rikardsen explains that Deanna Leonard, a technician at the Institute of researchers a unique insight into how the whales “This suggests that killer whales are not harmed
whale entanglement is therefore also an ethical Marine Research. react when exposed to the scare sounds. by the sound signals and are not permanent-
issue. That’s why it is so important that such situa- ly scared away from the area,” says Maria
tions are reduced to a minimum. The number of observations of killer whales on “Watching the videos is almost like riding on the Tenningen.
the surface was reduced by 85 percent during the whales’ backs and becoming part of their herd,”
“But keeping a hungry 30-tonne humpback whale playback of the sound signals, compared to before says an enthusiastic Audun Rikardsen. The results are more uncertain for humpback
or a smart 5-tonne killer whale away from a fish- playback. whales, who have a lower hearing frequency
ing boat is easier said than done,” says Rikardsen. WHALES RETURNED WHEN THE NOISE range than killer whales.
New trials show that sound may be the solution. A SOUND KILLER WHALES DON’T LIKE STOPPED
Further research could help determine which
FEWER WHALES ON FISHING GROUNDS The marine researchers used a method developed Professor Rikardsen emphasises that the sound sounds work best for both whale species, so that
by the Scottish researchers and Genuswave AS signals are in no way harmful to the whales and in the future, fishing boats can be equipped with
To test if sounds could keep whales away, the to find sounds that killer and humpback whales only work within a limited area around the fishing systems that help whales – and fishermen – avoid
marine researchers went out during the winter perceive as unpleasant, but that don’t harm the boat. entanglement. ■
fishing for Norwegian spring spawning herring in animals’ hearing.
the fjords of Kvænangen in Troms County.
Laura de Steur, Paul A Dodd, Mats A Granskog, Dmitry V Divine, Sebastian Gerland,
Agneta Fransson, Hiroshi Sumata, Kit M Kovacs, Christian Lydersen and Heidi Ahonen
// Norwegian Polar Institute
Melissa Chierici // Institute of Marine Research
Colin A Stedmon // Technical University of Denmark
Michael Karcher and Frank Kauker // Alfred Wegener Institute
Svein Østerhus // NORCE Norwegian Research Centre
Taking the pulse

of change in the
Arctic Ocean for Sea-ice measurements and sampling
more than 30 years with RV Kronprins Haakon (bottom

image), and as it was done until
2017 with RV Lance (upper left).
Occasionally sea-ice surveys are done
RESEARCH NOTES from helicopter (upper right). Bottom

photo: Lawrence Hislop. Top photos:
Sebastian Gerland / Norwegian Polar
Since 1990, the Fram Strait Arctic Outflow Observatory Institute
has delivered oceanographic and sea-ice data from the

East Greenland Current. With continuous refinement
of its observational capacities, it also tracks marine
mammals and ocean acidification. Such data are vital
to monitor the changing Arctic.
T he upper layer of the Arctic Ocean

hosts a large reservoir of oceanic freshwa-
ter including river discharge from Siberian and
fresh Arctic Water and sea ice southward. Arctic
freshwater circulates mostly in the clockwise
Beaufort Gyre while the mobile sea ice travels
North American rivers, low salinity water from across the Arctic Basin with the Transpolar Drift
the Pacific Ocean, and sea-ice meltwater. Large Stream. Since approximately 90% of the sea ice
variations in the export of freshwater and sea ice and 50% of the liquid freshwater exported from
from the Arctic are expected to play a role in mod- the Arctic Ocean passes through western Fram
ulating the large-scale overturning circulation in Strait, this gateway is an ideal location to monitor
the Atlantic Ocean, which brings warm and saline changes in pan-Arctic sea ice and upper ocean
Atlantic Water northward and returns cold and properties.
Map showing the currents and

sea-ice drift in the Arctic Ocean
(top) and a cross section of
the Fram Strait Arctic Outflow
Observatory (bottom). The
Norwegian Polar Institute
(NPI) maintains the
moorings in the west
while the Alfred
Wegener Institute
(AWI) maintains
those in the east. Time series of ice thickness distribution
Graphic: Anders showing the regime shift in 2007. Graph adapted
Skoglund, Paul A from Sumata et al (2023) Nature 615:443-449
Dodd, Laura de
Steur / Norwegian
Polar Institute
HISTORY estimates, in 2012. In 2021 sensors for ocean

acidification were added on the moorings. Since
In 1981, the Norwegian Polar Institute (NPI) 2018, the observatory has been serviced by the
acquired the research vessel Lance, originally an icebreaking ship RV Kronprins Haakon.
ice-strengthened sealing ship which was con-
verted into a research platform. Dr Torgny Vinje OCEAN CLIMATE INDICATORS
used RV Lance for annual expeditions to the Fram
Strait, which focussed on drilling campaigns to Here we highlight some key indications of chang-
study ice thickness and “freeboard of the sea ice” es in ocean climate derived from the continuous
(ie, how high above the surface the ice reached measurements from the observatory:
into the air), with the goal of calculating the
volume flux of sea ice out of the Arctic Ocean. 1. A distinct regime shift in sea-ice thickness oc-
To do this task, continuous measurements were curred around 2007, when thick and deformed
necessary, and Vinje initiated the development (uneven) ice was replaced with thinner and
of the moored Upward Looking Sonar, an instru- more uniform (flat) sea ice. After the shift, the
ment anchored in the ocean to obtain sea-ice fraction of thick “deformed” ice dropped by
thickness measurements year-round. Sustained half and has not recovered.
observations of the East Greenland Current began
in 1990, when NPI, the University of Bergen and 2. Between 2015 and 2019, freshwater transport in
the University of Washington, deployed ocean Fram Strait was low because of a weaker flow
moorings at 79°N with upward looking sonars and and a larger amount of Atlantic Water in the
sensors for ocean velocity, salinity, and tempera- central strait.
ture to obtain estimates of how much freshwater
and sea ice was being transported southward 3. Declining summer sea ice has resulted in in-
from the Arctic. In 1997, a full array of oceano- creasing temperatures of the Polar Water at ~55
graphic moorings was established at intervals m depth in summer, which, in turn, reduces
across the strait by NPI and the Alfred Wegener sea ice locally and downstream along the coast
Institute. NPI maintains and collects data from of East Greenland.
the moorings in the western part with the Fram
Strait Arctic Outflow Observatory. The observa- 4. The Atlantic Water in the Norwegian Atlantic
tory was expanded to include freshwater tracers Current in eastern Fram Strait has shown a
in 2008, with passive acoustic monitoring, and warming trend over recent decades (from
more sensors to improve the freshwater transport 2001-2017).
BIOGEOCHEMISTRY scale. The purpose of these studies is to obtain

data for validation of the upward-looking sonar
Changes in the chemical composition of the monitoring and satellite remote sensing. The
Arctic outflow give us clues as to why freshwater investigations have revealed declining spatial ice
transport is changing. For example, changes in thickness trends across Fram Strait for winter/
oxygen isotope ratios in the upper 25 m observed spring conditions, but not during summer. A
in summers since the late 1990s reveal the contri- general thinning of sea ice from the early 2000s to
bution of sea-ice meltwater to the ocean as the sea the 2010s was confirmed, providing an important
ice retreats. A shift in the relative proportions of spatial perspective to the point observations from
nitrate and phosphate observed in 2011 pointed the upward looking sonars. Older ice types, usu-
to an increased contribution of water from the ally abundant in the 2000s, became rare in the
Pacific Ocean, transported to Fram Strait via the 2010s and 2020s. This is consistent with pan-Arc-
Transpolar Drift due to an anomalous surface tic findings for the Arctic Ocean.
circulation at that time.
WHALE RESEARCH IN FRAM STRAIT
Arctic rivers are typically stained brown with high
concentrations of dissolved organic matter and Since 2008 a passive acoustic listening device
these signatures of the rivers are preserved during has been mounted on an oceanographic mooring
transport across the central basins to the Fram in the observatory – near the Greenland shelf –
Strait, allowing riverine sources to be detected recording underwater sounds from biological and
downstream. physical sources. Surprisingly, a very high pres-
ence of narwhals and bowhead whales has been
Measurements of the carbonate system over many detected at this drift-ice covered site. This discov-
years indicate that the outflow is undergoing acid- ery led to a suite of scientific investigations that
ification. This is caused by ocean uptake of carbon has markedly changed our understanding of the
dioxide from rising atmospheric CO2, enhanced by ecology of these two species regionally. Satellite
freshwater dilution, which further decreases the tracking, genetic studies, acoustic monitoring,
availability of carbonate to calciferous organisms. and a survey have shown that we have: 1) much
higher numbers of these animals in the region
IN SITU SEA-ICE WORK than previously thought; 2) populations that
constitute unique entities; and 3) populations that
Since 2003, the annual Fram Strait cruises have are more highly ice-affiliated than conspecifics
included systematic collection of in situ sea-ice in neighbouring populations, residing in heavily
and snow thickness measurements, and other ice-covered waters from the western Fram Strait
physical property data; samples have also been eastward into Russian waters.
collected to assess sea-ice conditions on the local
Servicing one of NPI’s six ocean moorings with RV Kronprins Haakon in September 2023.
The graph shows 18 years of Polar Water temperature measurements from ice-covered
mooring F14 at 6.5°W (which sits at the shelf and measures the East Greenland Current).
Photo: Lawrence Hislop / Norwegian Polar Institute, inset graph adapted from De Steur et al
(2023) Communications Earth & Environment 4(1): 261
Inflow in the eastern part of Fram Deploying a satellite tag on a bowhead whale from a helicopter in Fram Strait. The end of an era: The CTD instrument package lands
Strait. The top panels show 22 years of Upper inset: Track of a bowhead whale tagged in Fram Strait, September 2020 on deck after collecting the 2017 profile. This was the
late-summer temperature and salinity (duration 260 days). Lower inset: Acoustic presence of bowhead whales and last scientific operation carried out with RV Lance
measurements in the core of the narwhals by month, based on recordings from a passive listening device on a before that ship was transferred to new owners.
Norwegian Atlantic Current at 8°E. mooring in Fram Strait. Photo: Christian Lydersen / Norwegian Polar Institute Photo: Paul A Dodd / Norwegian Polar Institute
THE FUTURE
FUNDING ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Arctic is warming about four times faster

than the global mean and significant changes in
• Norwegian Polar Institute the ocean and sea ice have been identified by the FURTHER READING:
• EU projects: ASOF-N, DAMOCLES, Arctic PASSION, EPOC Fram Strait Arctic Outflow Observatory in recent
• Research Council of Norway: iAOOS, Ice whales, FreshARC, CIRFA-SFI decades. The observatory is an important gate- An overview of all publications coming from the
• Soviet–Norwegian oceanographic programme 1988-1992 way component of the international pan-Arctic Fram Strait Arctic Outflow Observatory can be
• Fram Centre projects “CASPER” (2012-2014) and “ALSIM” (2018-2020) observing system, which is essential to quantify found at https://www.npolar.no/en/projects/
• Fram Centre Arctic Ocean and Ocean Acidification Flagship programmes (2012-2021) ongoing changes in the Arctic environment and fram-strait-arctic-outflow-observatory/ and the
• Fram Centre Sustainable Development of the Arctic Ocean “SUDARCO” programme (2022-) assess impacts in the Arctic and downstream. The derived ocean climate indicators can be found at
• The (former) Norwegian–Russian Environment Commission continuation of these efforts will contribute to the https://mosj.no/en/indikator/climate/ocean/
• Greenland Institute of Natural Resources development of the Atlantic–Arctic Distributed
• Independent Research Fund Denmark Biological Observatory and will further enhance
their relevance for understanding and predicting
Arctic Ocean changes. ■
78 FRAM FORUM 2024 IN BRIEF IN BRIEF FRAM FORUM 2024 79
Birgit Njåstad and Christina Pedersen // Norwegian Polar Institute
Troll Observing
Network – status Sébastien Descamps, responsible for the Seabird
Monitoring Observatory, retrieved the first memory
chip full of images at the end of 2023. By using machine
and progress in 2023 learning to analyse the images, we will obtain basic data
on the status and trends of important seabird populations
in Dronning Maud Land. Photo: Lea Lipphardt and
Sébastien Descamps / Norwegian Polar Institute
IN BRIEF
Troll Observing Network (TONe)

is a new national research
infrastructure that will contribute
to the collection of observational
data from physical, biological,
chemical, and geological
processes in Antarctica.
2023 was the second year of the five-

year establishment phase of the
TONe project – an active and diverse year in which
the partners faced various phases and challenges
in the establishment of their observatories. By
2027, eight observatories and a drone service
will be in place at and around the Troll research
station in Dronning Maud Land, in an area with
relatively little observational data already avail-
able. Here is a brief summary of some highlights
from the year.
Expedition participants at the Troll research station.

In the background, snowcat vehicles and sledges are
loaded with a total of 90 tonnes of equipment that will
be driven to the first drill site on the Fimbulisen ice
shelf. Photo: Julien Witwicky / CNRS Grenoble
INSTRUMENTS INSTALLED AND OPERATIONAL INSTRUMENTS PREPARED, SENT TO TROLL
• Seabird Monitoring Observatory (Norwegian • Ionospheric Observatory (University of Oslo):

Polar Institute): Time-lapse cameras and au- 2023 was primarily used to clarify all technical
tomatic weather stations were installed in two details of the digisonde radar that will be set up.
seabird colonies. The cameras will regularly take At the end of the year, the equipment was sent to
pictures throughout the year and provide data Troll for installation in the 2024–2025 season. The
on phenology, population density, and breeding brain of the radar is called a sounder and is a very
success. precious piece of equipment, so precious in fact
that Wojciech Miloch, the head of the Ionospheric
• Atmospheric Composition Observatory (NILU): Observatory, will be taking it with him on the
Three TONe instruments have been installed at flight down to Troll. He dares not let it out of his
NILU’s observatory at Trollhaugen. They measure sight.
the greenhouse gases CO2 and CH4; particle size
distribution, and trace gases such as NO2, SO2, O3 • Seismic Array and Infrasound Array (NORSAR):
and formaldehyde. The data are already flowing in 2023 was used for procurement of these arrays,
and we have the start of exciting new time series. testing their functionality and performance, and
Atmospheric Composition Observatory project preparations for shipping them to Troll. It has
leader Wenche Aas notes that these measure- also taken time to plan the practical and technical
ments are particularly valuable because there are aspects of constructing the installation, which
few observatories in the southern hemisphere and will cover an area of almost a square kilometre in
scarcely any information from Antarctica. difficult and rocky terrain at the Troll station.
• Multidisciplinary Ocean Moored Observatory

(Norwegian Polar Institute and University of FACILITATING PLANNED CONSTRUCTION
Bergen): Existing rigs over the continental shelf
at 6°E off Dronning Maud Land were complement- • The operators from the Norwegian Polar Institute
ed by new TONe instruments during the annual at Troll have had their hands full planning the
TrollTransect cruise in January 2023. groundwork for three new observatories and sup-
porting the demanding drilling campaign during
a short Antarctic summer. Jon Hugo Strømseng,
PLANS FOR INSTRUMENTS UNDER THE ICE leader of the Norwegian Polar Institute’s Antarctic
Storms at Troll enshroud NILU’s Atmospheric Composition Section, emphasises that they have done a lot
Observatory. “It was exciting to see how the first storms • Fimbulisen Ice-Shelf Observatory (Norwegian of thorough planning together with the people
would affect the TONe instruments, but everything seems Polar Institute): 2023 was used for planning and involved in TONe, which is particularly important
to have gone smoothly,” says project leader Wenche Aas. implementing a 50-day field campaign to the for a successful implementation. ■
Weather and climate are a challenge for many of the Fimbulisen ice shelf, where drilling will take place
TONe installations. Sébastien Descamps (in charge of through the 400-metre thick ice. TONe instru-
the seabird monitoring observatory) notes that although ments will subsequently be installed above and FURTHER READING:
time-lapse cameras are nothing new, getting them to work under the ice. The expedition set off in mid-De- Learn more about TONe at www.npolar.no/tone
properly in such an extreme environment is challenging, cember 2023, hoping for a successful campaign.
and adds: “Every single component needs to be well The seismic instruments will be at the Troll
protected and firmly fastened in order to survive the station in the 2024–2025 season. Johannes
extreme winter storms. The cold is also a challenge for Schweitzer, responsible for the seismic and
batteries, especially since it is not possible to charge infrared arrays, was excited to receive and
them via solar panels during the winter.” Ionic Observatory test the instruments and is “confident that
leader Wojciech Miloch says that the design of the they will, after they have been installed,
digisonde antenna had to be changed during the planning contribute the highest quality data for future
phase due to the particularly difficult wind conditions research”. Photo: NORSAR
the antenna must withstand at Troll. Photo: Jan-Gunnar
Winther / Norwegian Polar Institute
Jenny Jensen, Guttorm Christensen, Eirik H Henriksen and Oddmund Isaksen // Akvaplan-niva Guttorm Christensen (Akvaplan-niva) with
Thrond O Haugen and Thor Bjørn Thorkildsen // Norwegian University of Life Sciences the first acoustically tagged pink salmon
Benjamin Merkel // Norwegian Polar Institute in Svalbard. Photo: Oddmund Isaksen /
Akvaplan-niva
The Arctic queen and

the Pacific invader:
salmonid migrations
in Svalbard
RESEARCH NOTES
The Arctic charr long reigned supreme as the

only freshwater fish in Svalbard. This “Arctic
queen” must now compete with Pacific pink
salmon released from Russia. Will the true
Arctic be too cold for the invader? Can the two
species co-exist, or will the Pacific invader
supplant the Arctic queen?
T he anadromous Arctic charr (Salvelinus

alpinus) lives a marginal life in Svalbard.
Anadromous fish alternate between fresh and
In 2021 Akvaplan-niva initiated a study with sup-
port from the Svalbard Environmental Protection
Fund using electronic tracking of Arctic charr’s
ARCTIC CHARR
The ongoing study showed that anadromous

An invasive Pacific pink salmon (above)
and a native Arctic charr (below) caught in
Isfjorden in Svalbard. Both species have
salt water, feeding at sea and reproducing in migratory behaviour. This study was extended in Arctic charr in Svalbard, like charr on the main- a silvery exterior while at sea and can be
fresh water, but Svalbard’s unpredictable fresh- 2023 to include a focus on the invading pink salm- land, are quite homebound and often reside in difficult to tell apart. The most obvious
water runoffs restrict access to the nutrient-rich on. Since 2021, more than 150 Arctic charr and 11 areas near estuaries – including estuaries without difference is that the inside of the mouth
marine areas. Moreover, the Pacific pink salmon pink salmon have been equipped with electronic known Arctic charr populations. However, some of a pink salmon is black. In addition, pink
(Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) – a potential competitor tags in Isfjorden and their movements recorded individuals migrated more than 80 km, and over- salmon often have a dark leopard pattern
– has recently invaded northern Norway includ- by stationary receivers located at strategic places lapping area use by different charr populations on the tail fin, which the Arctic charr lacks.
ing Svalbard. Arctic charr is in high demand by in the fjord system. This study will continue until (see map on page 85) was recorded frequently. Arctic charr have white stripes on their
anglers, but knowledge on population size and 2025. Individuals that were recorded during multiple pectoral and pelvic fins. Photo: Guttorm
harvesting patterns is scarce. All these factors years used different areas in different years, high- Christensen / Akvaplan-niva
make the species challenging to manage. lighting the opportunistic lifestyle of this species.
The fish were found almost exclusively between

0-3 metres depth. We also found that Arctic charr
in Svalbard often reside in the estuary for about
one week before returning to fresh water.
The timing of Arctic charr migration from fresh- The number of tagged Arctic charr registered on acoustic receivers in Isfjorden
water to the sea most likely depends on ice condi- in Svalbard. Acoustic receivers, placed on buoys moored as indicated by the
tions in lakes and rivers. In 2022, charr left the riv- circles on the map, registered and stored unique signals from individually tagged
ers during the first two weeks of June or earlier. By fish. The size of each circle indicates the number of tagged fish detected by
the end of July around 60% had returned to fresh- the receivers during the study and gives a rough picture of area use amongst
water, with larger individuals returning first. Most Arctic charr. Plus signs show the locations of receivers without detections.
rivers in Svalbard dry up during autumn, which Documented anadromous Arctic charr populations are marked with triangles.
makes the anadromous lifestyle of Arctic charr a Map: Eirik Haugstvedt Henriksen / Akvaplan-niva and Benjamin Merkel /
risky endeavour, and may explain why larger, sex- Norwegian Polar Institute
ually mature individuals return early. The optimal
migration strategy will most likely vary among Fish in this study are tagged by surgically implanting an electronic
years in this unpredictable environment. acoustic tag (top left corner) into the body cavity (above). The tags
transmit coded individual signals that are registered and stored
PINK SALMON by moored acoustic receivers placed in the fjord (below). The
registrations are later downloaded, and the fish’s movements can The movement of an
Pink salmon in mainland Norway typically enter be analysed. Photos: Oddmund Isaksen and Guttorm Christensen / individual pink salmon
rivers for spawning in late July/early August and Akvaplan-niva over time in Isfjorden (top
spawn in mid-August. In Svalbard, however, left), and bubble diagrams
pink salmon tagged at sea at the end of July were showing the number of
registered in the fjord or estuaries for on average pink salmon recorded by
13 days. The tagged pink salmon in Svalbard thus the acoustic receivers in
stayed at sea later than the majority of their main- the first (top right), second
land counterparts. Six of the individuals tagged in (bottom left), and third and
Svalbard used large parts of Isfjorden after tagging fourth (bottom right) week
(illustrated by #967), while the other five individu- after tagging. Each bubble
als remained near their estuarine tagging loca- represents an acoustic
tion. The tagged pink salmon ranged more widely receiver, and its size signals
over Isfjorden during the week after tagging than the number of different fish
later in the season. registered. Plus signs show
the locations of receivers
Our study so far indicates that Arctic charr and that detected no fish during
pink salmon have an overlap in fjord area use in the specified periods. Maps:
Svalbard. They also have a known overlap in diet. Eirik Haugstvedt Henriksen /
Arctic ecosystems are sensitive to change, and Akvaplan-niva and Benjamin
climate warming together with random effects Merkel / Norwegian Polar
such as an introduced species may cause large Institute
disturbances. There is a strong need for careful
monitoring, and this ongoing study is a first step
towards understanding the impact of the recent
pink salmon invasion in Svalbard. We hope our
novel information on fjord migratory behaviour
of anadromous Arctic charr and pink salmon can
aid managers in protecting our northernmost
freshwater fish species. ■
Espen Viklem Eidum // UiT The Arctic University of Norway
Better understanding of icing

is important for industry in
the High North
IN BRIEF
Human activities are increasingly

extending into the High North,
where formation of ice on buildings
and other infrastructure can be
a challenge from operational,
maintenance, safety, and financial
perspectives. A new ice monitoring
field station near Narvik will help Extent of icing on station
researchers address the issue. Part of the group involved in establishing the mast. Photo: Muhammad
research station at Fagernesfjellet. Photo: Espen Icing field station. Virk / UiT The Arctic
Viklem Eidum / UiT The Arctic University of Norway Photo: Muhammad Virk / UiT The Arctic University of Norway University of Norway
“It is important to better understand

structural icing and develop new techno-
logical solutions to combat icing,” says Professor
“I haven’t seen anything like this icing station any-
where in the world,” says Svein Fikke, an interna-
tionally known expert in the icing field.
Various advanced sensors are installed at this field
research station site, where they collect meteor-
ological data, such as wind speed and direction,
This knowledge will help improve the design and
safety of structures in ice-prone regions. Such struc-
tures may include power transmission lines, railway
Muhammad Virk, icing researcher and leader of air temperature, atmospheric humidity, and air infrastructure, bridges, communication towers,
the icing station project. To better understand icing on structures, it is pressure. In addition, the sensors also collect roads, wind turbines, buildings, and drones. That, in
essential to know the type, frequency, severity, data about liquid water content in air, droplet turn, means money saved for business – and society.
A research team (arcICE) from UiT The Arctic and duration of icing events. The severity of icing size, icing load, icing intensity, etc. The station
University of Norway has installed an ad- events varies depending on local weather con- is installed at about 1000 m altitude in extreme “With the icing station, we are giving external actors
vanced ice monitoring field station at Linken/ ditions. In particular, the site altitude compared weather conditions near Narvik, above the Arctic an opportunity to collaborate with UiT to test, for
Fagernesfjellet in Narvik to study the complex to the average height of the terrain has a great Circle in northern Norway. This location is highly example, weather sensors under extreme condi-
meteorological parameters related to structural effect on the severity of icing. Climate change has suitable for studying extreme icing events. tions,” says Virk.
atmospheric icing. This scientific setup is unique also started to have an influence on icing cycles.
in its kind, as no other such field station for Stronger weather variability and rapid changes in Data collected from this field station will help us to “What we have achieved here wouldn’t have been
studying icing exists in Norway. meteorological conditions, which are projected re- better understand the meteorological parameters possible without the effort put in by everyone on
sponses to climate change, affect the ice accretion leading to complex icing events and thus improve the team that established this icing station. I want to
on structures. our ability to forecast icing events and estimate thank them all very much,” says Professor Virk. ■
the possible ice loads on different structures.
Nils Bochow // UiT The Arctic University of Norway
How artificial intelligence

can help us understand the
Earth better
RESEARCH NOTES
In the field of climate and environmental science,

we model highly complex systems and manage vast
amounts of data. Artificial intelligence can benefit
researchers and help us gain a better understanding
of the Earth. But as with all technologies, there are
risks involved. How should we be using AI?
A rtificial intelligence (AI) has become a

buzzword in the past few years. In particular,
generative models such as ChatGPT and Stable
LOOKING FORWARD IN TIME
Most of the time, we are interested in the future:

Diffusion have gained tremendous attention tomorrow’s weather or the climate a thousand
recently. It has never been easier to create art*, years from now. Traditionally, we relied on
write essays, or answer emails. numerical models to predict the weather and cli-
mate. Numerical models are based on basic phys-
Artificial intelligence made its way into ap- ical principles and are able to produce accurate
plied research quite a few years ago and many results – most of the time. However, running them
researchers have already been using machine is often very expensive and slow. In recent years,
learning methods, a subfield of AI, without even it has been shown that AI models can perform as
knowing it. well as – or better than – the classical models.
The field of AI and machine learning is vast and For example, generative models have demonstrat-
continuously advancing, with numerous applied the ability to realistically predict precipitation
cations in environmental and climate science. fields and even outperform classical weather
These applications range from forecasting of time models. Echo state networks (a type of neural
series or spatial fields, reconstruction of historical network) can predict the onset of the Indian mon-
If provided with clear instructions and knowledge of the laws of observations, improving model output or pre-pro- soon better than other models. Machine learning
physics, AI can produce detailed, convincing images of nonexistent cessing data to assisting with programming or uncovered connections between extreme-rainfall
worlds. The author created this image with ChatGPT-4 and Dall-E. summarising research articles. events occurring in different parts of the globe,
and can forecast the El Niño–Southern Oscillation.
* The question of whether AI-generated art can be considered “real” art is a topic of ongoing debate.
LOOKING BACKWARD IN TIME SAVING SUPERCOMPUTER TIME For example, diffusion models have problems quality of their code and save them time that
with generating human hands. They often dream could be better spent on other tasks. AI models
Besides forecasting, artificial intelligence has been There is also an active effort to leverage and of more than five fingers if we ask them to gener- are capable of comprehending long articles when
able to successfully reconstruct missing historical combine the advantages of machine learning with ate a human hand. While it is easy for us to see busy scientists do not have enough time to read
climate information. Historical data are often classical Earth system models. These climate mod- seven fingers as unconvincing, implausibility is them, and they can even formulate emails when
very sparse before large-scale observations were els are computationally extremely expensive and not so obvious in complex physical systems such we struggle to find the right words. But why are
introduced in the mid-20th century. For some often cannot be run further than a few centuries as the climate system of the Earth. these models so effective? Often, they are trained
observables (eg temperature, precipitation), we into the future, and even then only with low res- on massive datasets – tens or even hundreds
have o bservations for just a few years. Without olutions of several hundred kilometres. A single Recent efforts try to include physical constraints of terabytes of data – and it is not always clear
k nowledge of the past, we cannot quantify simulation with a state-of-the-art climate model into machine learning to achieve what are called whether the copyrights of the owners are being
historical changes, making it even harder to for a century can take several weeks or months of physics-informed neural networks. There, the respected. This issue is often ignored but should
predict the future. wall time on a supercomputer. However, we often model is penalised for generating “unphysical be kept in mind.
need ensembles of simulations – a huge number of results”. However, physically constraining a model
AI models are trained on climate model output simulations from the same model – to do statistical is often not trivial or feasible. Furthermore, these models can give wrong
and can reconstruct the spatial and temporal analyses and ensure that we do not, by chance, answers or results that can only be identified
extent of various real-world variables. In other get a simulation at the extreme end of all possible The “explainability” of AI models is another issue. as incorrect by people with expert knowledge.
words, the AI model learns from the climate outcomes. Climate models show what we call in- Often we do not know how the models achieve the Trusting the model output blindly can significant-
model and can apply that knowledge to the real ternal variability, which is the naturally occurring results. Especially when the results are unexpect- ly harm the scientific community and the public.
world. They have been shown to outperform other variation on different timescales and the chaotic ed, it is important to understand why the model There have been several cases of AI-generated
widely used methods in geosciences. However, nature of the Earth system. While AI models often behaves the way it does. In the context of weather content in scientific articles. In the best-case
by the nature of the problem, it is hard to ensure need exceedingly time-consuming fine-tuning and and climate, we need trustable results that we scenario, AI can lead to no or only minor inac-
and verify that the results are plausible because training, they can generate results several magni- can communicate with certainty to the public and curacies, while in the worst-case scenario, it can
we cannot compare our reconstruction with tudes faster than classical models once they are policymakers, and that is why explainability is so result in false statements in scientific articles
the observation, since that is what we want to trained. This allows us, in principle, to run large important. based on faulty and unaudited output from AI
reconstruct. ensemble simulations with higher resolutions. As models. Therefore, most publishers prohibit the
of today, we have the first prototypes of hybrid SAVING SCIENTISTS’ TIME? use of large language models for writing scientific
We can, however, compare our reconstructions Earth system models, and the first validated mod- articles, and rightly so.
with known historical events. There are several els are expected within the next few years. In addition to direct application of AI in research,
historical events that led to droughts, bad har- AI tools can also boost the productivity of scien- OUTLOOK
vests, and famines. One example is the warm PLAUSIBILITY AND “EXPLAINABILITY” tists. For example, tools like ChatGPT and GitHub
phase of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, which Copilot can be surprisingly effective in sketching While AI can be an incredibly valuable tool for
has a clear signature in the surface temperatures One of the biggest questions that the application and improving code, provided that the instruc- researchers, enhancing our understanding of the
in the Pacific Ocean. During the years 1876–1877, of artificial intelligence poses in climate science tions are clear. Researchers, who often teach Earth and increasing productivity, it is not a pan-
the El Niño led to the most deadly famines during is the physical plausibility of these models. How themselves programming, can particularly benefit acea. Careless use of AI can have negative conse-
the 19th century. can we ensure that the results make sense in a from such tools. These models can improve the quences for both science and society. ■
physical way?
However, we only have very sparse observations
of the surface temperature during that time. Classical numerical models are governed by the
While widely used statistical methods are not able laws of physics, often differential equations that
to reconstruct the spatial patterns of the El Niño conserve quantities such as energy or momentum. FURTHER READING:
in 1876/77, a reconstruction with machine learning We can, in theory, make sense of the results and
models reveals the extraordinarily warm Pacific explain them in a physical manner. However, https://deepmind.google/discover/blog/graphcast-ai-model-for-faster-and-more-accurate-global-
during that time. machine learning models are often not physically weather-forecasting/
restrained or explainable. https://www.science.org/content/article/ai-churns-out-lightning-fast-forecasts-good-weather-
agencies
https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-02084-9 (requires subscription)
92 FRAM FORUM 2024 RETROSPECTIVE RETROSPECTIVE FRAM FORUM 2024 93
Salve Dahle and Paul Renaud // Akvaplan-niva

Stig Falk-Petersen // Independent researcher
Jan-Marcin Węsławski // Institute of Oceanology of the Polish Academy of Sciences
Jørgen Berge // UiT The Arctic University of Norway
Arctic science:
30 years of
Norwegian–Polish
cooperation
RETROSPECTIVE
The break-up of the Soviet Union and end of the Cold

War in the beginning of 1990s led to major changes in the
international Arctic research community. The political thaw
opened for more real pan-Arctic cooperation, including the
establishment of the Arctic Council in 1996.
R esearch institutions in northern Norway

were in the forefront of expanding the Arctic
research, with special focus on developing coop-
JOINT RESEARCH IN SVALBARD WATERS
The start of Norwegian research cooperation with

Sampling in front of a glacier
in Kongsfjorden in 1996. Photo:
Mikael Westh Hammer
eration with former Soviet-bloc scientists. Several Poland goes back to the Second International
research programmes involving Russian and Polar Year 1931/32 when three Polish scientists
Polish researchers were established. However, de- were invited to the Norwegian meteorological sta-
velopments in Russia after around 2010 gradually tion on Bjørnøya. One of the scientists, Stanisław
reduced the Russian component of this cooper- Siedlecki, a geologist, mountaineer, and sports-
ation. After the Russian annexation of Crimea in man, devoted his entire life to polar research. In
2014 and later the full-scale invasion of Ukraine, 1936 he organised expeditions to Svalbard, includ-
cooperation with Russia came to a halt. ing the first crossing of Spitsbergen from Sørkapp
to the north on skis. After the Second World War,
Siedlecki oversaw the selection of Isbjørnhamna
in Hornsund as the location for the permanent
Polish Polar Station. Siedlecki spent the Third The Polish research
International Polar Year 1957/58 at the station. vessel Oceania in 1996.
Photo: Mikael Westh Hammer
The Polish Polar Station became a facility under

the protection of the Governor of Svalbard –
and not affiliated with the Russian Consulate in
Barentsburg. This was important, as it meant that
the Polar Station in Hornsund never surrendered
to the Soviet Union’s Cold War period demand
that the Soviet flag always be flown alongside
the Norwegian flag. Norwegian cooperation
with Polish marine researchers increased grad-
ually throughout the 1980s. Poland’s Institute
of Oceanology in Sopot (Instytut Oceanologii
Polskiej Akademii Nauk – IOPAN), which is part
of the Polish Academy of Sciences, has been at
the forefront of Polish institutions participating.
Since 1987 the IOPAN research vessel Oceania
has docked in Tromsø every year on her voyage
to Svalbard waters. This unique vessel has been
the platform for multiple joint research projects
between Poland and Norway.
Although IOPAN and other Polish research insti-

tutes have had several terrestrial research projects
in Svalbard, the main arena for cooperation has
been the Svalbard fjords and coastal waters. The
main Norwegian research partners have been
the Norwegian Polar Institute (especially after
its move from Oslo to Tromsø), UiT The Arctic
University of Norway, the University Centre in
Svalbard (UNIS), and Akvaplan-niva.
Polish researchers have been working intensively

in Svalbard waters since the 1980s, and have at-
tained unique competence on taxonomy, ecology,
and physical oceanography. This expertise is well
integrated into many Norwegian research initi-
atives, including the Nansen Legacy project and
many Fram Centre research programmes. Much
of this cooperation was initiated and run by the
researchers within the ARCTOS network (https://
arctos.uit.no). Below we present some examples of
the results of this long-term cooperation.
Changes in sea temperature in Svalbard waters.

Graphs and map: Jan-Marcin Węsławski /
Institute of Oceanology of the Polish Academy of Sciences
FOCUS ON THE NORTH ATLANTIC CURRENT COOPERATION IN KONGSFJORDEN ACTIVITIES DURING IPY 2007–2008 FUTURE RESEARCH COLLABORATION
With the help of former director of the Norwegian IOPAN has conducted studies on the fjords and During the International Polar Year 2007–2008, European scientists now experience a situation
Polar Institute Odd Rogne, Poland, with IOPAN coasts of Hornsund since 1984, and since the joint Polish–Norwegian research activities were similar to the Cold War, with almost no coop-
and RV Oceania, was the first non-NATO country late 1990s, the collaboration with Norwegian initiated in Rijpfjorden on the north side of eration with Russian researchers. At the same
to become a partner in the Greenland Sea Project. institutions has had a particularly prominent Nordaustlandet. Rijpfjorden is a very cold Arctic time Svalbard and the Northern waters are high
The year was 1987 and this was the start of the focus on oceanographic and ecological studies in fjord that opens northwards. During the study on the political agenda. This attention includes
still ongoing summer monitoring of the tempera- Kongsfjorden. it was confirmed that warm and nutrient-rich concerns for the environmental impacts from
ture and salinity of Atlantic Water flowing north Atlantic Water was transported to the surface increased shipping activity, retreating ice in the
through the Fram Strait. In subsequent years the Over the last 30 years, Kongsfjorden has been along the shelf break from Spitsbergen to Franz Arctic Ocean, increased harvesting of marine
activity was expanded to include atmospheric sci- transformed from a cold and Arctic fjord to a fjord Josef Land. This creates a highly productive resources, as well as the effects of ongoing climate
ence, plankton ecology, and hydrographic investi- system with a much stronger Atlantic or boreal ice-free lead system (polynya) in these mainly change. In this situation it is clearly very impor-
gations in the area between Tromsø and northern character, exemplified through an increase in ice-covered seas. Already in late March, fat and tant to maintain these long-term collaborations
Svalbard. These observations have now become boreal fish species such as capelin, herring, and energy-rich zooplankton (Calanus) were recorded and time-series. As such, it is positive that Polish
one of the longest continuous data time-series mackerel. The Hornsund fjord further south in in the surface waters, ready to feed with the start researchers currently are engaged in several
on the inflow of Atlantic Water through the Fram Svalbard, on the other hand, is still rather cold. of spring algae bloom. This highly bio-productive projects with Norwegian science partners. IOPAN
Strait. The section running west from Sørkapp on The explanation is that this fjord is shielded from area is utilised by large stocks of seals, whales and is a partner in the EU projects ECOTIP (with UiT),
Spitsbergen and intersecting the Atlantic inflow Atlantification by the cold Sørkapp current run- seabirds. and MARBEFES (with Akvaplan-niva). These
shows an increase in sea surface temperature (at ning northwards along the southwestern coast of two projects (presented, respectively, at https://
0–10 m depth) from 4.5°C in 1996 to 6.5°C in 2005. Svalbard. ecotip-arctic.eu/ and https://marbefes.eu) study
Between 2008 and 2019 the temperature varied the impacts of Arctic climate change on biodiver-
between 6 and 6.5°C and in 2023 the temperature sity and ecosystem services. IOPAN is also partner
reached 7°C. in the PolarFront project (https://akvaplan.no/en/
project/polarfront), which is led by Akvaplan-niva
and investigates the role of the Polar Front for the
pelagic ecosystem of the Barents Sea. The diverse
expertise and infrastructure of Polish institutions
complement well those of Norwegian institutions,
and the trust, respect, and fellowship built up
over decades of collaboration continue to generate
productive and exciting joint projects. ■
Frequent collaborators, left to right:

Haakon Hop, Jan-Marcin Węsławski head
of cruise, now director of IOPAN, Stig Falk-
Petersen, and Salve Dahle onboard RV Oceania
in 1996. Photo: Mikael Westh Hammer
Polona Itkin // UiT The Arctic University of Norway
Sea ice fractures at increasing scales in space and time with

typical size and duration of their formation (from lower left to
upper right): X-ray tomography scan of a single crack inside an ice
block, photo of intercepting ice cracks, photo of Arctic sea ice with
a lead and small ridges at its edge, satellite radar image of zones of
Sea ice fractures and leads (red) and ridges (blue), numerical model simulation of Arctic
fractures (Svalbard and Greenland are on top right of the map). The
approximate drift of MOSAiC with the sea ice current is marked by
climate feedbacks a blue arrow. Photos: Sönke Maus, Matt Gott, Wenkai Guo, Polona
Itkin, Nils Hutter; Figure concept: Polona Itkin
RESEARCH NOTES
You have no doubt heard about “albedo feedback”, a

loop of connections that warm our planet. The bright
sea ice cover in the Arctic melts, exposing a dark
ocean surface that absorbs more solar energy and
accelerates global warming. But are there other Arctic
feedback loops that can change our climate?
D uring winter the thin layer of sea ice

between the atmosphere and ocean is cold
and brittle. The force of wind can easily fracture
Sea ice deformation, fracturing, and motion
(kinematics) are connected to transfer of motion,
heat, and light between the atmosphere and the
it. As the wind continues to blow, it can tear the ocean. Sea ice deformation generates leads and
shattered ice plates apart to expose the ocean wa- pressure ridges – rough features that further
ter. Such wide fractures are known as leads. When enhance the motion coupling. Deformation also
fractures are pushed together and the ice piles up diversifies the sea ice thickness, and increases the
along them, ice ridges form. Multiple leads and winter sea ice volume. At the same time, leads
ridges can aggregate into joined-up systems that are open windows that let the heat out from the
can stretch across the ocean for hundreds of kilo- ocean into the atmosphere and let light into the
metres. In any given place, some wind directions seawater. The ultimate impact of fracturing on
are more common than others, and the same sea ice resilience to the summer melt and climate
holds for the Arctic. These prevailing winds drive change is unknown, as the effects are mediated
sea ice currents – large, slow rivers of ice that can by the albedo feedback, melt water accumulation,
transport the fractured ice plates from one side sea ice strength, and other processes. Leads and
of the ocean to the other. Taken together, this is ridges are also crucial in ship navigation, where
a complex process: it starts with fracturing at the the former are desirable (often described as “high-
millimetre scale within fractions of a second, but ways to the Arctic”), while the latter are hurdles to
may ultimately result in pan-Arctic features that be avoided.
have consequences lasting the entire winter. What
kinds of climate-relevant feedbacks are hiding in
that process?
From October 2019 to October 2020, interdis- Most of what we know today about Arctic sea ice Sea ice, photographed
ciplinary teams totalling more than a hundred fractures and subsequent deformation is based from a drone. The drone
scientists from many countries drifted on board on satellite remote sensing and drifting buoy image at the bottom shows
the research icebreaker Polarstern with the ice trajectories. Ice fracture processes have also been fractured sea ice in a lead.
current, from the northern Laptev Sea into the explored in laboratory and floe-scale experiments.
Fram Strait. The expedition known by its ac- Furthermore, the engineering community has
ronym MOSAiC (for Multidisciplinary drifting collected a lot of data on pack ice driving forces
Observatory for the Study of Arctic Climate) that should become part of the geophysical sea
started from Tromsø in northern Norway and ice deformation puzzle. MOSAiC was designed to
collected a lot of data also about sea ice fractures, help implement this knowledge into the climate
measured their motion, and observed lead and models. Three years after the end of the expedi-
ridge formation. At the same time, numerous tion, much of the sea ice deformation data has
radar images were taken from space satellites, been analysed, but about the same remains to be
recording the large scale fractures. We are now examined and interpreted. ■
facing the exciting challenge to implement our
observations into numerical models that simulate
the weather and climate. The challenging task of
combining on-site measurements, satellite obser- This contribution was written as an outcome of the “Sea ice deformation workshop” organised in Tromsø, Norway from
vations, and numerical models will answer the big 26 to 28 November 2023 and funded by the Research Council of Norway, via the project SIDRiFT (287871). Workshop
question: Do sea ice fractures accelerate or slow participants were: Nik Aksamit, Angela Bliss, Mirjam Bourgett, Dmitry Divine, Wenkai Guo, Jari Haapala, Jennifer
down climate change? Hutchings, Nils Hutter, Polona Itkin, Jack Landy, Sönke Maus, Chris Polashenski, Pierre Rampal, Robert Ricker, David
Clemens Sewall, Catherine Taelmann, Matias Uusinoka, Luisa von Albedyll and Daniel M Watkins
WE SUGGEST THE FOLLOWING ACTIONS TO BE DONE 4. At smaller scales, likely below a kilometre, the
IN THE COMING YEARS: assumption of the sea ice having negligible thickness
compared to the extent of individual floes breaks down.
1. MOSAiC observations need to be offered on standard In this regime, discrete element models developed in
grids. Most of the raw data are freely available to date, engineering can be used instead of continuum models
but also the sea ice kinematics, deformation, lead, (addressed in the previous point). We need efforts to
and roughness products need to be added in formats bridge the methodological gaps between both types of
that are referential in space and in time. Only in such a numerical models.
way can they be picked up by the numerical modelling 5. At even smaller scales, new technologies like sensors
community. on drones and micro-tomography scans of fractures in
2. We need to use the radar satellite remote sensing ice can greatly increase the volume of collected data.
images to create an updated pan-Arctic sea ice Remote sensing radar data are already collected in
deformation product, fused with the sea ice thickness overwhelming quantities. The Artificial Intelligence
products from altimetry. This will enable research technology in data analysis can be used to process
of the feedback between sea ice deformation and the data and finally also optimise parameter tuning in
thickness distribution. numerical models.
3. While none of direct measurements or remote sensing 6. We need to better understand the scaling of sea ice
observations can measure fracturing properties or fractures from laboratory experiments (1 m and 1
consequences at all spatial and temporal scales, s and smaller) to the geophysical scale (10 m and 1
the same is true for numerical model simulations. minute and larger). The data from MOSAiC and other
Several models need to implement alternative campaigns should be integrated into an observational
Sea ice landscapes feature a diversity of ice that varies in age, rheologies (representations of ice kinematics) so that framework of fractures, their driving forces, and ice
thickness, and snow cover. On the left in this image, thin ice has they can be compared more efficiently. Especially conditions at different scales and during all seasons,
formed in a small lead, which appears dark and snow-free. To the the newly developed brittle-class rheologies seem and especially during freeze-up and spring melt. The
right is a pressure ridge that may be as much as 10 metres thick to be promising for modelling large-scale sea ice next large international interdisciplinary polar activity
and can in places be covered by over a metre of snow. deformation. – the International Polar Year in 2032 – should be used
Photo: Nick Cobbing / National Geographic as the ultimate target to finalise this.
Kristine Bondo Pedersen and Anita Evenset // Akvaplan-niva
Cultural heritage in Svalbard

– cleaning up after a century
of coal mining
SCIENCE AND SOCIETY
Coal mining is part of Svalbard’s identity and cultural

heritage, yet environmental protection laws stipulate that
when industrial activities cease, the landscape must be
returned to its natural state. The end of the mining epoch in
Svea is a case study in balancing between nature and culture. Central Svea prior to cleanup.
Photo: Ove Haugen / Store Norske
C oal mining in Svalbard can be traced

back to the 17th century, when coal depos-
its were found by whalers and early explorers.
that pollution of the past does not leave footprints
for the future.
sulphides are oxidised to sulfuric acid. Although
the coal contains sulphides, analysis of coal from
Svea revealed low potential for acidification. The
of cultural heritage remains, and landscaping.
Several consulting companies joined the project
group to prepare an ambitious termination plan
However, commercial mining activities did not IS COAL A SOURCE OF POLLUTANTS? coal in itself was therefore not considered to pose for Svea.
begin until 1899. Both Norway and Russia have a risk to the environment.
had mining operations in Svalbard, but owing to Coal is clearly visible in the landscape in Svalbard, SVEA – ENVIRONMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS
coal depletion or economic conditions most of and bears witness to the coal mining heritage. SVEA – A BRIEF BACKGROUND
the mines were closed by 2000. Today only one But is the coal in itself a source of pollution? More The main objective of the environmental inves-
Russian mine in Barentsburg and Mine 7 outside than 200 samples of coal (crushed and pro- Sveagruva was both a mine and a settlement that tigations conducted in 2018–2019 was to find and
Longyearbyen are still in operation. Until 2015 cessed) from Sveagruva, Mine 7 and Hotellneset, accommodated miners, located in the innermost delineate pollution found at the site, as well as to
it was largely unknown how polluted the areas the former coal storage site for Longyearbyen’s part of Van Mijenfjorden, approximately 44 km provide a foundation for mitigation of pollution,
around the coal mines were, and what impact pol- mines, have been analysed for pollutants. Most southeast of Longyearbyen. During operations in accordance with the goal of bringing Svea back
lution might have had on the environment. A few of the coal samples qualified as clean according there, from 1917 until 2017, several coal deposits to nature. There were several potential sources of
environmental investigations had been conduct- to Norwegian threshold values. However, about were mined. In 2017 the Norwegian government pollution in Svea, including processing plants, an
ed, but these were often confined to limited areas. 25% of the samples had elevated concentra- decided to close down the mines in Svea. This oil tank farm, oil tanks for heating, workshops,
tions of benzene, mercury and/or polyaromatic meant that Lunckefjell, where a previously un- power stations, landfills, sewage outlets, a shoot-
As part of the green transition, the Norwegian hydrocarbons (PAH). The samples with elevated touched deposit had been prepared for extraction, ing range, storage sites, trucks, airport, and areas
government decided to close all Norwegian-run concentrations of pollutants were sporadic, that never commenced with the production phase. used to practice extinguishing fires. To cover all
coal mines in Svalbard. According to the Svalbard is, not all from the same areas, and no dispersion The mining company, Store Norske, managed the the potential pollutants, an extensive environmen-
Environmental Protection Act, sites used for of pollutants was detected. Benzene and PAH mine closure with the environmental goal of re- tal investigation was conducted, including 550
industrial purposes must be brought back to their are known to be bound tightly in coal particles, turning the area to its natural state. This entailed sampling points on land, 20 sediment stations,
original state when operations cease. This has resulting in low mobility and bioavailability. extensive work, not just mapping and cleanup 15 water sampling stations, and inspection of
entailed laborious work to map and mitigate pollu- Mercury is also bound in the coal particles, but of pollution, but also demolition of buildings three oil separators. Samples were analysed for a
tion at the mining sites Svea and Mine 7 to ensure may mobilise in acidic conditions, for example if and infrastructure, mapping and safeguarding variety of pollutants including metals, chlorinated
Svea in September 2019

(top) and September
2023 (bottom).
Photos: Ove Haugen /
Store Norske
solvents, hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphe- persistent in the environment and biomagnify in

nyls (PCB), per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances food chains, leading to high concentrations in top
(PFAS) and brominated flame retardants (PBDE). predators that are exposed. The PBDE had not dis-
persed outside the storage site as the compounds
The investigations revealed that the long period of have very low mobility and preferentially bind to
operation had not resulted in substantial pollu- particles rather than dissolving in water. However,
tion, and the local environment was generally due to the high concentrations and large quanti-
in fairly good condition. However, some small, ties found at the site, combined with the environ-
limited areas were found to contain pollution that mental risk related to PBDE, mitigation measures
was assessed as posing environmental risks. were necessary. The polluted soil was excavated
and transported to mainland Norway for disposal
SVEA – POLLUTION AND MITIGATION at a licensed landfill.
Pollution from a large oil spill was found on All mitigation measures for removing or stabilising
land at the oil tank farm; it was believed to have polluted soil in Svea were conducted in accord-
originated from a leaking tank or pipes in 1978. ance with plans to restore the landscape’s original
Although the volume was large and the concen- topography. The cleanup of Svea was completed in
trations high, the spilled oil mainly consisted of 2023 and apart from a few buildings and equip-
long-chained hydrocarbons with low mobility. ment that are protected as cultural heritage, the
Moreover, the pollution remained behind a retain- footprint of the extensive mining activities is no
ing wall in the tank area. Since the pollution was longer visible.
stable, it did not pose a risk of dispersion to the
adjacent fjord. In addition, no excavation was nec- MINE 7 ENVIRONMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS
essary to accommodate landscaping of the area
and the oil-polluted soil could therefore remain Mine 7 is located approximately 11 kilometres from
on site. It was further stabilised by covering the Longyearbyen on a plateau about 380 m above
whole area with clean soil. sea level, between two valleys, Bolterdalen and
Foxdalen. The main shaft is located 4-7 km into the
At a landfill for household and industrial waste on mountain (Breinosa). Exploratory investigations
Kapp Amsterdam, PFAS pollution was discovered. of the mine took place in the 1960s; production
The source was fire-fighting foam that had been started in 1976 and is still ongoing. Store Norske
used during fire extinguishing practice. PFAS do has decided to close the mine in 2025. The termi-
not break down and are extremely persistent both nation plan for the mine includes aspects aimed to
in the environment and in the human body. Store fulfil requirements in the Svalbard Environmental
Norske stopped using PFAS-containing foam in the Protection Act and from the authorities. However,
early 1990s, but the pollution remained on Kapp the Governor of Svalbard has decided that some of
Amsterdam, and had dispersed to an adjacent the infrastructure related to Mine 7 is to remain as
stream running into the fjord. Due to the high part of Svalbard’s cultural heritage, and that the
quantity of PFAS in the soil as well as the risk of site will not as a whole be restored to its original
dispersion to the marine environment, mitigation appearance. Mitigation measures in the area are
actions were deemed necessary. The polluted soil largely determined by whether pollution poses a
was therefore excavated and transported by ship risk to the environment.
to mainland Norway for disposal at a licensed
landfill. The main mining facilities (not including the
The signs of human activity that remain after the cleanup in Svea date from before underground mine) encompass approximately
1946 and are therefore automatically protected as cultural heritage. The building At a storage site for metal waste from the mining 85,000 m2. In this area the potential pollution
foundations in the centre of this image supported barracks during the time Svea activities, PBDE pollution was discovered. It orig- sources include a processing plant (silos and
was a Swedish mining community (1917–1925). The rusty tank and scattered debris inated from transport belts that had caught fire in sifting machine), spoil tips, fuel tank, oil separa-
in the foreground were part of a power station. Photo: Ove Haugen / Store Norske the mine and been temporarily stored at the site, tor, workshop, storage of vehicles and equipment,
prior to being shipped out as waste. PBDE were sewage discharge, and disposal of waste. Potential
used as a flame retardant, but like PFAS they are pollutants hence span a wide range, including
metals, hydrocarbons, benzene, PCBs, PFAS, and

PBDE. In 2022, environmental investigations were
conducted around the main mining facilities and
included collection of 491 soil samples from 160
drillings and 10 excavation pits. In addition, water
and sediment were sampled at and downstream
from the mine site.
Despite a fairly long operational period, the soil at

the mining facilities was generally relatively un-
polluted. Several areas were found to be polluted
with oil. These ranged in size from small (1–200
m3) to large (200–2,500 m3). However, since the
amount of oil was small, its composition indicated
low mobility, and the spills were already stabilised
in the soil, the study concluded that the environ-
mental risks related to the oil were small. The plan
is therefore to leave most of the oil where it is.
Removing the oil may entail higher environmental
costs than environmental benefits.
Small amounts of oil were also found at the spoil Kapp Amsterdam in
Soil sampling in protected areas was done with great care. tip. However, this area is prone to landslides, and September 2007 (top)
Photo: Kristine B Pedersen / Akvaplan-niva the oil is at risk of dispersion down the mountain- and September 2023
side. Another oil-polluted site that has been rec- (bottom). Photos: Ove
ommended for mitigation is located on the eastern Haugen / Store Norske
plateaus used as spoil tips and for storage. The
pollution is also located in a landslide-prone area,
and in addition contains PBDE in concentrations
above threshold values set by the Norwegian envi-
ronmental authorities. For this reason, mitigation
actions to remove the oil are planned, tentatively
to be carried out in 2025.
In a few areas buried waste was found. This waste

will be sorted and removed as part of the mitiga-
tion, tentatively in 2025.
In the mine itself, PFAS pollution has been found,

originating from efforts to extinguish a fire in the
1980s. The PFAS pollution is confined to a dry
area of the mine at an elevation lower than the
entrance. No signs of dispersal to areas outside
the mine were detected. The PFAS pollution is
in part of the mine where mitigation will not be
possible for health and safety reasons. When the
mine closes, the area’s hydrological pathways may
change; thus, PFAS-monitoring downstream of
In polluted areas, more powerful soil sampling methods the former mining facility will be important in the
could be used. Photo: Kristine B Pedersen / Akvaplan-niva years to come. ■
Ellen Kathrine Bludd // UiT The Arctic University of Norway
Can the fish in

the ocean handle
marine heatwaves?
RESEARCH NOTES
Long periods of unusually warm ocean temperatures, known

as marine heatwaves, can have devastating effects on marine
ecosystems and have been linked to widespread coral bleaching,
harmful algal blooms, and abrupt declines in commercially
important fish species. How worried should we be?
R esearchers have investigated whether

fish in the sea are affected by marine heat-
waves. Their research was published last summer
period analysed included 248 marine heatwaves
with extreme sea bottom temperatures.
in the journal Nature. The surprising finding was The trawl surveys were carried out by towing a
that marine heat waves have generally not had net above the seafloor, to look at the amounts of
lasting effects on the fish communities that sup- bottom-dwelling species that include commercial-
port many of the world’s largest and most produc- ly important fish species such as flounder, pollock,
tive fisheries. haddock, redfish, and halibut. Around 82,000 dif-
ferent trawls are included in the study with over
“As of now, we see no effects of marine heatwaves 1,700 different fish species from both the Pacific
on the fish communities,” says Laurène Pecuchet, and Atlantic oceans.
associate professor at UiT The Arctic University
of Norway and one of the researchers behind the The researchers looked for effects on fish biomass
study. “But we know that fish communities are and composition of species in the fish commu-
affected by temperature, and heatwaves could still nity the year after a marine heat wave. To their
affect fish in the future.” surprise, they found no evidence that marine heat
waves generally have major effects on regional fish
248 MARINE HEAT WAVES communities. A new study has found that marine heat
waves generally do not affect the fish
The researchers used data from long-term scien- “There is an emerging sense that the oceans have communities that form the basis of many
tific trawl surveys on the continental shelves of some resilience, and while they are changing in of the world’s largest and most productive
North America and Europe from 1993 to 2019. The response to climate change, we don’t see evidence fisheries. Photo: Knut Troim / Unsplash
that marine heatwaves are wiping out fisheries,” The researchers defined marine heatwaves as pe-
says Alexa Fredston, lead author and associate riods of more than five days of unusually high sea
professor at the University of California at Santa bottom temperatures for that region and time of
Cruz. year. By extracting the effects of long-term ocean
warming trends, they were able to distinguish
Although declines in biomass did occur after episodes of extreme warming on top of the long-
some marine heatwaves, the researchers found term trends.
that these cases were the exception, not the rule.
Overall, they found that the effects of marine heat- “The findings suggest that fish may be able to find
waves are not distinguishable from the natural safe harbours by moving to areas with cooler wa-
variability in these ecosystems. ter during these extreme events,” says the marine
biologist.
FISH FIND HIDING PLACES
THERE IS STILL HOPE
Laurène Pecuchet says that this is the first study
on heatwaves in the ocean that has studied the Pecuchet says that temperatures in the North
effect on fish species that live far out at sea. Atlantic in 2023 were the warmest ever recorded, Associate Professor Laurène Pecuchet,
and that this past summer is not included in the Norwegian College of Fisheries Science at
“Fish move and they can find hiding places where data the researchers used in this study. UiT The Arctic University of Norway. Photo:
the water is a little colder,” says Pecuchet. Jakob Bjørvik Henriksen / UiT The Arctic
In the so-called Paris Agreement, most of the University of Norway
She explains that in coastal areas the situation can world’s countries agreed that we must work
be worse. Clearly, there are species that do not together to ensure that the average global temper-
move, such as kelp and coral, but there are also ature does not increase by more than 1.5 degrees
fish that live in one location for most of the year. Celsius above pre-industrial levels.
These areas and these species are more affected
by such temperature changes. “If anything, this study shows the importance of
staying below 1.5 degrees. Today we are about one
“Cod that migrate (called skrei in Norway) may degree warmer than pre-industrial levels, and it
not be as strongly affected by heatwaves as coastal seems that the fish are dealing with the effects of
cod, which don’t migrate as much,” says Pecuchet. the heatwaves at the present time. But we don’t
She emphasises that this has not yet been studied know what the effect will be if the temperature
in detail. continues to rise. As long as we stay below a
1.5-degree increase, there is still hope, but that
TROPICAL SEA means reducing emissions drastically,” concludes
Pecuchet. ■
In addition to assessing the impact on biomass,
the researchers looked at whether marine heat-
waves caused changes in the composition of fish
communities. For instance, they might lead to
a loss of species associated with cold water and FURTHER READING:
an increase in species associated with warm
water. The researchers call this phenomenon Fredston AL, Cheung WWL, Frölicher TL, Kitchel
tropicalisation. ZJ, Maureaud AA, Thorson JT, Auber A, Mérigot B, The researchers have analysed fish
Palacios-Abrantes J, Palomares MLD, Pecuchet from scientific trawl surveys carried out
“Tropicalisation has been associated with long- L, Shackell NL, Pinsky ML (2023) Marine heat between 1993 and 2019 in the Atlantic and
term warming of the oceans, but we saw no signs waves are not a dominant driver of change in Pacific oceans. The study includes 82,000
that this is the case with marine heatwaves,” demersal fishes. Nature 620: 324–329, doi: different trawls and 1,769 different fish
Pecuchet says. 10.1038/s41586-023-06449-y species. Photo: André Frainer / UiT The
Arctic University of Norway
Andrew Lowther and Elling Deehr Johannessen // Norwegian Polar Institute

W Chris Oosthuizen // University of Cape Town, South Africa
Bjørn A Krafft // Institute of Marine Research
Federico G Riet Sapriza // Vida Silvestre, Uruguay
Science to inform
management of
Norwegian Antarctic
krill fisheries
RESEARCH NOTES
Antarctic fisheries catch thousands of tonnes of krill each year,

and large krill predators such as whales are recovering from heavy
harvest. Meanwhile, chinstrap penguins, which depend on krill,
have become markedly fewer. Understanding the cause of this
decline is critical.
I n the Antarctic, the largest volume fishery

is that for Antarctic krill, with a current annual
total of about 450,000 tonnes caught near the
estimated sustainable yield and 1% of the estimat-
ed standing stock in the Scotia Sea. Along the Antarctic Peninsula, the krill fishery has
recently centred around two areas (red shading). In
Antarctic Peninsula in the Scotia Sea. Norwegian CCAMLR has determined that any future increas- 2019 a large multi-site penguin tracking project led
vessels take over 60% of this total, primarily for es in catch must be science-driven and sustain- by Norway was conducted to determine the degree
use in aquaculture feed and to extract krill oil for able. However, its Environmental Monitoring of overlap between krill-eating penguins (Deception
nutritional supplements. Programme (CEMP), developed in the late 1980s, Island: pink lines, Nelson Island: yellow lines, Kopaitic
is outdated and unable to attribute causation of Island: black lines) and the fishery. In addition, a
The krill fishery is managed under the Convention ecosystem change to either climate change, fish- novel monitoring programme using tourist vessels
on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living ing pressure or both. Here, we present two active as opportunistic platforms for collecting data on the
Resources (CCAMLR) and supported by a Scientific research programmes led by Norway that aim to density and distribution of krill-eating baleen whales
Committee that provides science-based advice to develop modern ecosystem monitoring methods clearly shows complete overlap with the at-sea
set sustainable harvest levels. Since 1991 CCAMLR and shed light on possible drivers of the recent- distribution of breeding penguins (humpback whale
has had in place a precautionary catch limit of ly observed steep decline in chinstrap penguin Observers on a cruise vessel looking out for whales. distribution and relative densities denoted by green
620,000 tonnes, representing about 10% of the populations. Photo: Camille Seaman / National Geographic Expeditions shading). Map and graphics: Norwegian Polar Institute
A chinstrap penguin returning to feed its DO MORE WHALES MEAN FEWER PENGUINS? operating. Surprisingly, competition with hump-
young. Photo: Chris Oosthuizen / University back whales is often not considered as a factor in
of Cape Town Surveying the abundance and distribution of the decline of chinstrap penguins.
whales in the Antarctic is costly and logistically
challenging, and often results in a single point Our research, now entering its fourth year of data
estimate in time. We make use of cruise ships collection, demonstrates that platforms of oppor-
that support the large tourist industry operating tunity such as tourist ships can be used to obtain
throughout the Antarctic Peninsula between highly relevant information on krill predator
November and March each year as platforms of dynamics and represent a cost-effective means to
opportunity. Trained observers conduct stand- improve CEMP.
Humpback whale spouting in Gerlache ardised observations throughout the Antarctic
Strait, Antarctic Peninsula. Photo: Elling summer. These observations, combined with PENGUINS MONITOR ECOSYSTEMS FOR US
Johannessen / Norwegian Polar Institute model-based analyses, can estimate abundance,
distribution, and species composition of whales in While foraging chinstrap penguins and the krill
the region. Because cruise ships repeatedly follow fishery overlap little during the breeding season in
regularly scheduled routes, using these platforms the Antarctic Peninsula, they do overlap in space
also allows us to characterise how whale abun- and time at the South Orkney Islands. Here, just
dance and distribution changes over the summer under half of the total annual krill catch is con-
months. centrated in a pair of marine canyons 30 km west
of Coronation Island. These canyons are within
During the summer breeding season, chinstrap the foraging range of penguins breeding along the
penguins make short trips to sea to catch krill, west coast of the island. There is no permanent
returning to land to feed their chicks at regu- research infrastructure here, and penguin popula-
lar intervals, thus limiting how far and for how tion sizes near the key fishing grounds have not
long parents can travel to forage. To help better been updated since the late 1980s. This makes it
understand why chinstrap penguin populations incredibly difficult to conduct CEMP monitoring.
were in decline, in 2019 Norway led the largest
penguin tracking programme ever performed in Our second research programme specifically
the Antarctic Peninsula. Three field teams simul- addresses these challenges, and aims to develop
taneously instrumented hundreds of penguins at a monitoring index that minimises the need for
three separate locations, including two colonies human presence while being relevant enough to
that have shown high rates of decline, to deter- determine whether fishing activities are adversely
mine where they fed at sea. One of the findings impacting penguins. With knowledge of the loca-
from this study was that the foraging distribution of fishing activity and the prevailing ocean
tion of these chinstrap penguin colonies did not currents, we selected two penguin colonies: one
overlap with the krill fishery during their breeding where adult birds foraging at sea are directly ex-
seasons, but that it overlapped extensively with posed to fishing activities (Monroe Island), and the
that of whales. other in an area that was not affected by fishing
(Powell Island). At both locations, we instrument-
The spatial distribution of the krill fishery is driv- ed penguins with miniaturised high resolution
en by many factors, including sea ice distribution electronic tags (measuring GPS position, diving
and quota availability. This results in a predictable depth, and body acceleration) and animal-borne
fishing pattern, with little or no krill harvest off HD video cameras.
the western Antarctic peninsula during the pen-
guin breeding period (December–February). In We were able to match krill feeding activities
contrast, our whale observations indicate substan- recorded by video to body acceleration data.
tial overlap between penguin foraging locations Subsequently, implementing a machine learning
and the highest densities of humpback whales, a algorithm, we can identify how often penguins
species that has undergone a dramatic recovery catch krill at sea using body acceleration sensors
over the same period that the fishery has been only. This allows us to determine precisely how
much krill individual penguins catch and under Video footage gave researchers a “bird’s-eye” view of
what conditions, using inexpensive tags that chinstrap penguins foraging for krill, and ultimately
record body acceleration data. We are now able to made it possible to monitor individual penguins’
develop a time series of penguin foraging perfor- feeding rates based solely on accelerometer data.
mance with high enough resolution to determine Photo: Norwegian Polar Institute
the impacts of fishing against the backdrop of nat-
ural variation in krill abundance through changes
in feeding rates.
The sustainable management of fishing is essential

to ensure global food security; however, the condi-
tions and remoteness of Antarctica, and the con-
tinual decline in governmental research funding,
make it more challenging to provide science-based
advice on sustainable ecosystem-based manage-
ment of krill fisheries. Therefore, employing cut-
ting-edge field and lab methods and collaborating
with tourist and fishing industry partners will be
crucial. ■
FURTHER READING:
Johannessen JED, Biuw M, Lindstrøm U,

Ollus VMS, Martín López LM, Gkikopoulou KC,
Oosthuizen WC, Lowther A (2022) Intra-season
variations in distribution and abundance
of humpback whales in the West Antarctic
Peninsula using cruise vessels as opportunistic
platforms. Ecology and Evolution 12(2):e8571, doi:
doi.org/10.1002/ece3.8571
Lowther AD, Staniland I, Lydersen C, Kovacs

KM (2020) Male Antarctic fur seals: neglected
food competitors of bioindicator species in
the context of an increasing Antarctic krill
fishery. Scientific reports 10(1):18436, doi: doi. Penguins at a nesting site on Monroe
org/10.1038/s41598-020-75148-9 Island off Coronation Island in the South
Orkney Islands archipelago. Photo: Chris
Oosthuizen / University of Cape Town
Humpback whales and fisheries are not the chinstrap

penguin’s only competitors. Antarctic fur seals also
consume large amounts of krill. The fur seals in this
photo are sharing the beach with a few larger southern
elephant seals. Photo: Drone operated by Andy Lowther
/ Norwegian Polar Institute
Global Physicochemical Environmental

emissions properties properties
Ingjerd Sunde Krogseth, Knut Breivik, Sabine Eckhardt and Christine Forsetlund Solbakken // NILU
of the chemical of the chemical
Where do contaminants in
the Arctic come from? Meet
the Nested Exposure Model
RESEARCH NOTES
Measuring concentrations of contaminants in Arctic

Concentrations air and biota is important. Still, it’s not always easy to
in the physical environment know from measurements alone where contaminants
originally come from. And how do they end up in fish
caught in the Arctic?
Properties of the Concentrations
organisms and
food webs
in biota
T he Nested Exposure Model (NEM) is a new
mechanistic multimedia model made to pre-
dict how neutral organic contaminants move in
MODELS CAN SUPPORT REGULATIONS
“Some contaminants we find in the Arctic origi-

the environment and food webs. It was developed nate locally,” says Krogseth. “Yet most have been
by NILU scientists Knut Breivik and Ingjerd Sunde transported to the Arctic by air and ocean cur-
Krogseth, with assistance from several partners. rents from regions further south. Hence, we need
a global perspective to understand where the
contaminants come from and how they get there.”
This is particularly important from a regulatory
The Nested Exposure Model: NEM consists of perspective. To enforce scientifically sound regu-
a global module for the physical environment latory measures, it is vital to know the sources of
and a bioaccumulation module for selected the contaminants. Will regulatory measures need
key species in Norwegian marine areas. Model to be implemented on a national scale, a continen-
input (blue arrows) is used together with a tal scale – or a global scale?
set of mathematical equations to predict
chemical concentrations in both the physical Also relevant is how the rapidly changing climate
environment and biota (pink arrows). In the impacts contaminant transport to the Arctic envi-
recently published paper, we focused on the ronment and accumulation in Arctic organisms.
geographical area indicated in the pink frame. This is something mechanistic models can help us
Illustration: NILU to address.
WHAT LIES BEHIND THE MODEL NAME? HOW DOES NEM WORK? Maps of estimated concentrations
of PCB-153 (nanograms per gram
“NEM is a so-called mechanistic multimedia Simulating the whole journey between global lipid weight) in 5-year-old herring
environmental fate and bioaccumulation model,” emissions and ecosystem exposure, including and cod in northern European
says Krogseth. “It aims to simulate an organic variation in time and space, requires a lot of input marine areas in January 2020
contaminant’s journey through both the physical into NEM. The input can be grouped into three based on 5° × 5° lat/long spatial
environment and food webs.” categories: resolution. Numbers to the left
of the graph show degrees North
Krogseth explains that “mechanistic” means that 1. Information on the size, time, place, and mode latitude. (The shading over land
the model is based on our theoretical understand- of entry of the chemical emissions areas is not an estimate of PCB-
ing of the contaminants and how they behave in 153 concentrations in fish there,
the environment – in other words the underlying 2. Physical-chemical properties and degradation but merely an artefact of how the
mechanisms. “Multimedia” signals that the mod- rates of the chemical itself maps are made.) Adapted from
els account for contaminant distribution and fate Krogseth et al 2023 Environ Sci
in the whole environment. 3. Various information about the physical Process Impacts 25:1986-2000,
environment and biota https://creativecommons.org/
“This is important,” Krogseth states, “because licenses/by/3.0
the contaminants we work with are present in all The model’s backbone is made of mathematical
media. We can’t look at just air or just water to get equations. They describe how a chemical will
the big picture.” partition in the environment and in organisms,
for example between air and water and organic
NEM is also a global model. It can simulate the matter. This is based on properties of the chem-
whole process between global emissions of con- ical and of the environment/organisms, such as
taminants and the resulting ecosystem exposure temperature and lipid content. Information on
in the Norwegian Arctic with both spatial and tem- environmental transport rates, eg, air and ocean
poral resolution. currents and feeding rates, is also used to calcu-
late how the chemical moves in both the physical
“Lastly, it is called nested because the model for environment and the food web.
the physical environment can be run in a nested
way,” Krogseth explains. “Thus, we can first run a Based on these equations and the input data, the
large model domain such as the whole globe with model can predict contaminant concentrations in
a coarse spatial resolution. Then, we can zoom air, water, or soil, as well as in different species.
in to any area of interest – in our case often the It can also predict contaminant distribution and
Arctic – for a more detailed analysis.” transport, uptake, and elimination rates. This in-
formation can be used to understand for example Fraction (in percent) of total
which prey species seals mainly get their contam- estimated PCB-153 concentrations
inants from. in herring muscle tissue in January
2020 estimated to originate from
historical or ongoing primary
emissions in the EU (member
countries as of 1973). Numbers to
the left and below the graph show
degrees North and East. Adapted
from Krogseth et al 2023 Environ
Sci Process Impacts 25:1986-2000,
https://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/3.0
CROSS-DISCIPLINARY COLLABORATION
All in all, getting the input data right is sometimes

the most time-consuming part.
Krogseth explains that the bioaccumulation

module includes a lot of species-dependent
information. Examples are seasonal lipid-content
of species, body weight curves for an organism’s
whole lifetime, dietary composition including age
of prey species, and details about reproduction. In their recently published
paper, Krogseth et al describe
To know that the model works as intended, results obtained using NEM,
Krogseth explains that they test model re- showing that Norwegian PCB-
sults against actual measurements. So far, 153 emissions from 1930 until
they have evaluated NEM for PCB-153 in the 2020 had negligible impact on
European atmosphere, in cod and herring in the the PCB-153 that is found in
Norwegian marine areas, and in key species of the herring and cod in Norwegian
Kongsfjorden ecosystem. The model-estimated marine areas. Most of it comes
concentrations are in reasonable agreement with from European emissions.
measurements.
Krogseth IS, Breivik K,
“One of the strengths of NEM is that once evaluat- Frantzen S, Nilsen BM,
ed, it can be used to tease out where the contam- Eckhardt S, Nøst TH, Wania F
inants actually come from, and how the pollutant (2023) Modelling PCB-153 in
load may change in the future, given changes in northern ecosystems across
emissions,” says Krogseth. time, space, and species
using the nested exposure
The model can also be used to evaluate how the model. Environmental Science:
contaminant’s behaviour is impacted by proper- Process & Impacts 25:1986–
ties of the environment or organisms. Right now, 2000, https://doi.org/10.1039/
the team behind NEM is expanding and evaluating D2EM00439A
the model to use it to look at the effect of climate
change on contaminant dynamics in the Arctic This work is part of the COPE
environment and food chain. project (Integrated Risk
Assessment Framework for
“To get all this input data right, we are completely Evaluating the Combined
dependent on good collaboration across scientific Impacts of Multiple Pressures
disciplines – with chemists, geophysicists, biolo- on Arctic Ecosystems), funded
gists, and ecotoxicologists,” says Krogseth. by the Research Council of
Norway (RCN #287114).
The cross-disciplinary collaboration in the Fram
Centre is essential to ensure this, for instance
through the COPE project and the Fram Centre
research programmes CLEAN and SUDARCO.
Input from collaborators is vital to create realistic
climate scenarios for changes occurring both in
the physical environment and in the food webs
that Krogseth and her partners can use as input to
Ringed seal in Svalbard. NEM. ■
Photo: Colourbox
Ptarmigan are easily spotted Ellen Kathrine Bludd // UiT The Arctic University of Norway
when they moult to white plumage
before the first snow falls.
Photo: Stig Brøndbo /
Why are good

ptarmigan years a
rare commodity?
RESEARCH NOTES
A few years ago, things didn’t look so good for the

ptarmigan in Finnmark, northernmost Norway. But
2023 was a good year for this northern bird. Why do
its numbers fluctuate? Professor Rolf Anker Ims at
UiT The Arctic University of Norway explains what
ptarmigan populations need in order to thrive.
T he two species, rock ptarmigan and willow

ptarmigan, are in the middle of the food
chain.
But all predators also eat lemmings.
“When there is an abundance of lemmings or

other small rodents, the ptarmigan gets a year off
“Ptarmigan feed on vegetation, so they need a from this predatory pressure,” says Ims.
certain amount of food plants present, and an
entire community of predators eat ptarmigan at This leads to good production of eggs and great
different life stages. Both eggs, chicks, and adults survival.
are eaten,” says Ims.
HOPELESS CAMOUFLAGE
DESIRABLE GAME
Weather and climate also affect the bird.
He explains that crows, ravens, foxes, and stoats “In spring, when the chicks hatch, they are vul-
rob nests. Chicks are good food for anyone who nerable to cold and wet weather. At that point they
eats meat, while the gyrfalcon specialises on are almost ‘cold-blooded’ and need to be warmed
adults. Golden eagles also love ptarmigan. by their mother. But they must go out in the open
When ptarmigan eggs hatch, the Rolf Anker Ims. to eat,” says the professor.
chicks are vulnerable to cold and Photo: Ellen Kathrine Bludd / UiT “It’s desirable game for many animals, including
wet weather. Photo: Rolf A Ims / The Arctic University of Norway humans,” he says.
Photo: Valeri Belov
When lemmings are plentiful,

stoat predation on ptarmigan
decreases. Photo: Bernt Østhus
Chicks eat insects the first week, then switch to HISTORIC PTARMIGAN POPULATIONS In the past, there was a lemming year approx- Ims believes this is a good example of what the
plants for food. Therefore, the weather during egg imately every four years. Now this peak is COAT project can be used for.
hatch is crucial. In spring 2023 there were a lot of Ptarmigan populations have always fluctuated, sometimes aborted because of a bad winter.
small rodents, and the weather was good when but historically the numbers were higher. This disruption in the lemming cycle affects “We have good data on what affects the ptarmi-
the chicks hatched. But with climate change, the the ptarmigan. Ims and colleagues in the COAT gan. Hence, we can contribute to what we call
climate will be wetter and wilder, so there may “2023 was Finnmark’s best year for ptarmigan in project have been studying this cycle for years, ‘ecosystem-based management’. Models like these
be tougher times ahead for the bird. Ptarmigan almost 20 years, but historically, it’s nothing to providing knowledge that can be used in ptarmi- provide forecasts which in turn provide sound
are well adapted to winter conditions, but in the brag about,” says Ims. gan management. management,” says Ims.
future, we may have shorter winters. Late snow
means trouble for the ptarmigan. Populations of ptarmigan in all of Norway have PREDICTING PTARMIGAN NUMBERS The hunt for one year is also included in the ptar-
declined. migan model for the following year.
“Ptarmigan turn white in autumn as camouflage. “Once we know what the weather and the rodent
But being a white bird against a dark background “The distribution range is shrinking northwards population are like in spring, we use a statistical “Hunting has a much smaller effect than small
doesn’t work well as protection from predators. and in altitude, as climate change affects the eco- model to predict how large the willow ptarmigan rodents and climate change,” says the professor.
They become hopelessly visible,” says Ims. systems,” Ims says. population will be in the autumn,” says Ims.
He adds that the Norwegian biodiversity act stipu-
Moulting, the process where old feathers are re- Lemmings also face bad times. The Finnmark Estate (FeFo) which manages 96% lates that harvesting should be allowed only when
placed by new ones and a bird’s plumage changes of Finnmark County, including the ptarmigan there is a surplus and that it should not harm
colour, is controlled by light, not by snow. Day “Lemmings have been hit hard by climate change population, uses this information to prepare other species in the ecosystem. He emphasises
length signals change. A late winter means there and good years are far and few between. Mild win- hunting quotas. Additionally, they do a manual that making good management choices early on is
will be fewer ptarmigan the following spring be- ters, when it sometimes freezes over again, make bird count before the start of the hunting season. better than correcting them when disasters occur.
cause more of them will have been eaten. it hard for small rodents to get under the snow to For the third year in a row, the predictions of the
eat,” says Ims. researchers’ model have been on target, and in “The ptarmigan management that FeFo is now
In autumn 2022, the snow came early, which was 2023 FeFo was able to set a higher quota than in carrying out is sustainable. In years with a small
good news for the population in 2023. previous years. ptarmigan population, they set the quotas low.
Then they can increase the quotas in good years,”
says Ims. ■
Kathy Dunlop, Mona Fuhrmann and Tina Kutti // Institute of Marine Research
Coral forests and sponge A ndfjorden, Tysfjorden, and Rystraumen

are home to diverse marine life and are
prioritised alongside many other regions as part
Andfjorden is important for shrimp fishing and
nursery grounds for cod, halibut, redfish, and
lumpsuckers. Mapping by the Mareano project, in
gardens. Mapping vulnerable of the Norway’s coastal marine protected area

network plan. The marine protection plan written
back in 2004 selected 49 areas, 36 of which were
combination with fishers’ observations, revealed
a spectacular deep seafloor containing forests of
gorgonian and bamboo corals, gardens of spong-
benthic habitats given top priority to be mapped further and es-

tablished. These areas were selected because they
give a good representation of Norway’s different
es and sea pens, and reefs. The Steinavær reef,
located between Andøya and Senja, was first
discovered and mapped by dredging in the 1930s.
coastal marine habitats. Several of these priority It covers four square kilometres and up until 1944
RESEARCH NOTES
marine protected areas (MPAs) are in northern it was Norway’s largest known coral reef. Since
Norway, including Tromsø’s local Rystraumen, then, other reefs have been discovered elsewhere
What do Andfjorden, Tysfjorden, and Rystraumen Lophelia reef (species which represents a strong tidal current coastal in Norway but Steinavær remains one of Norway’s
previously named habitat, Tysfjorden as a fjordal region, and a tran- most spectacular. Mapping by the Institute of
have in common? They typify three of Norway’s Desmophyllum pertusum) sect leading from one of Europe’s largest under- Marine Research in 2022 resulted in the definition
diverse costal marine habitats, while also containing and redfish in Andfjorden. water canyons “Bleiksdjupet” into Andfjorden. of accurate borders of the reef and the creation of
Photo: Tina Kutti and Mona Areas that made the short list were recognised for a plan, currently under hearing, to fully protect
vulnerable species that are important for the rest Fuhrmann / Institute of their representation of these habitats but also for the reef from bottom-touching fishing gear.
of the marine ecosystem. All three are now being Marine Research containing species and habitats considered to be
vulnerable and valuable because they are rare, RYASTRAUMEN
mapped to plan the best protection. sensitive to human activities, and have a signifi-
cant function for the rest of the marine ecosystem. Tromsø’s local MPA, Rystraumen, lies south
of Kvaløya around the popular fishing spot of
Mapping of special species and habitats is the Hella. It originally made it onto the list of priority
basis for decisions on the location and extent of protected areas based on studies from UiT The
protection measures. The selection of the original Arctic University of Norway, which demonstrated
priority list was based on mapping information the presence of rare, vulnerable, and valuable
from reports, studies, and observations several benthic species in the strong tidal current. The
decades old. Further systematic and detailed Institute of Marine Research mapped the area
mapping is required to ensure that an effective in greater detail in 2022, using a towed camera.
marine protection plan for each area is in place. Soft corals (Duva florida and Alcyonium digitatum)
Since 2011, the seafloor in some of these selected and sponges (Geodia baretti) live in the deep strait
areas has been mapped by the Institute of Marine aptly named Storstraumen (The Big Current),
Research in collaboration with the Geological while shallower waters support kelp forests and
Survey of Norway and the Norwegian Mapping marl beds that provide valuable habitats to other
Authority. Mapping has revealed previously un- species, including saithe and wolffish that attract
known reefs of Lophelia coral (previously known fishers to Hella. The distribution and extent of
as Desmophyllum pertusum) close to our shores, these habitats outside what could be mapped with
bamboo coral forests on the deep fjord bottom, the towed camera was estimated using a predic-
soft coral gardens in places with strong currents, tive distribution model to enable development of
deep-sea gorgonian corals, sponge beds and sea the MPA plan.
pen fields.
Soft corals in Rystraumen.

Photo: Kathy Dunlop and Nigel
Keeley / Institute of Marine
TYSFJORDEN Research
With its deep basins (> 700 m) and steep walls,

Tysfjorden is known for hosting a variety of coral
habitats and the northernmost lobster population.
Tysfjorden is under growing pressure from aqua-
culture and increasing traffic related to the mining
industry near the port of Drag. Recent mapping
has provided local authorities with more informa-
tion on where deep-sea species are found. On the
northern border of the planned MPA, at depths
around 700 m, a dense forest of bamboo corals
together with metre-high sea pens (Funiculina
quadrangularis) was found. The red-listed bamboo
coral Isidella lofotensis only occurs in Norway and
has especially high natural and cultural relevance
to management. The steep walls of the fjord are
often colonised by Lophelia and hard-bottom
gorgonians, which feed by filtering particles
from the water, aided by the strong current. One
of the largest known coral reef complexes in
Nordland was recently mapped in the inner part
of Vestfjorden near the entrances of Ofotfjorden
and Tysfjorden, but it does not lie within any of Bamboo coral forest in the deep
the currently planned protected areas. This reef basin in Tysfjorden. Photo: Mona
complex provides habitat for both fish and other Fuhrmann and Kathy Dunlop /
benthic communities. Results from this mapping Institute of Marine Research
work will provide distribution models of some of
the major habitats, which will be important when
environmental managers decide on further pro-
tection measures.
Kathy Dunlop, from the Tromsø

division of the Institute of
Marine Research, is pleased
with the day’s discoveries
in Tysfjorden. Photo: Mona
Fuhrmann / Institute of Marine
Research
Diverse coral and sponges at the entrance Mona Fuhrmann, deep in concentration, annotating deep-water species in forests of bamboo
to Tysfjorden and Ofotfjorden, Nordland. corals in Tysfjorden. The video Fuhrmann is scrutinising is transmitted in real time from a remotely
Photo: Tina Kutti and Mona Fuhrmann / operated underwater vehicle that the Institute of Marine Research uses in field mapping.
Institute of Marine Research Photo: Kathy Dunlop and Mona Fuhrmann / Institute of Marine Research
PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS a “no-take” zone to protect spawning cod. Other

areas, including Andfjorden, Tysfjorden, and
Once an area has gained protection, what does Rystraumen, have only received partial protec-
that mean for human activities? Internationally, tion such as restrictions of the establishment of
since the creation of the first marine protect- fish farms, and limits on bottom trawling. The
ed areas around 40–45 years ago, enough time Global Biodiversity Framework has committed to
has passed to see some real positive effects of a biodiversity strategy to protect 30% of all marine
increased protection. These include improved and terrestrial ecosystems and habitats by 2030,
fish recruitment and stronger lobster popula- a commitment that Norway supports. However,
tions. However, most successes have largely been merely protecting 30% of the total land and sea
attributed to “no-take” zones where no fishing or area should not be the only or most important
shellfish gathering is allowed. Norway currently focus: the level of protection is also crucial. ■
only protects an area of 1.5 square kilometres as
Sabine KJ Cochrane // Akvaplan-niva The 12 main study sites within the

Herman Hummel // Hummel Foundation for Sustainable Solutions, The Netherlands MARBEFES project. Map: Artūras
Jan Marcin Węsławski // Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences Razinkovas-Baziukas / Marine Research
Institute, Klaipeda University, Lithuania
Marine biodiversity,
ecosystem function,
services, and societal
benefit
SCIENCE AND SOCIETY
Worldwide there is a fundamental need to understand

how to maintain biodiversity and ecosystem functioning
to ensure that they deliver ecosystem services and
societal goods and benefits necessary for our wellbeing
and welfare. The MARBEFS project focuses on how
marine ecosystems benefit society.
N orway and other Arctic nations have a

particular responsibility for understanding
ongoing climate-driven ecosystem changes in
MARBEFES studies coastal ecosystems and eco-
logical communities at 12 locations within the four
main overarching European marine regions.
high latitudes, where the impacts of change are The project is developing a range of innovative
highly visible. Coastal communities in Svalbard tools for cost-efficient mapping of biodiversity (and
and northern Norway are valuable study areas. its indicators) including automated species-recog-
In these places, we see not only a changing nition tools, coupling of biogeochemical modelling
climate, but also increasing human use of the with ecosystem health assessment, and linking of
marine environment: here, much of the economy biological traits to overall ecosystem functioning.
now stems from ecotourism, targeting marine In addition, it is using citizen science for both
wildlife and nature. There is therefore an urgent education and data collection.
need to assess the holistic value of coastal and
marine biodiversity and their ecosystem services All pressures in the marine environment present
and societal goods and benefits, as a basis for a risk either to nature or to society, and so we
cost-effective management of human activities. are developing and demonstrating various risk
assessment and risk management processes, with Porsangerfjorden, on the other hand, has long
ecosystem, societal, and economic components. been inhabited by humans: traces of settlements
These then are integrated into a series of “what dating from between 9000 and 4000 BC have
if?” scenarios, whose applicability is tested be- been found there. The area was almost exclusively
yond European waters. inhabited by the original indigenous Sami people,
until around 1750, when the earliest Kven people
This article focuses on Svalbard and came from northern Finland and Sweden and
Porsangerfjorden, the two northernmost study began to settle. The influx of Norwegians to the
areas in the MARBEFES project. area came relatively late; even in 1910, only 13% of
the inhabitants were Norwegian. Whereas a large
The project has a strong focus on stakeholder in- proportion of Longyearbyen’s inhabitants live
volvement as users of information and tools with- there only for a few years, much of the population
in a toolbox for assessing biodiversity and ecosys- around Porsangerfjorden has multi-generational
tem health. We aim to create a virtual toolbox to roots and a strong sense of connection between
guide users to the appropriate tools. This has been the seasonality of nature and their own lifestyle
informed by the MARBEFES team conducting over and cultural identity. Leisure activities are strong-
250 stakeholder surveys and interviews across ly connected to personal food-gathering (fish,
Europe, 30 of which have been in the Arctic. berries, mushrooms, and game such as wildfowl
and European moose).
Svalbard is represented by Hornsund and
Kongsfjorden as relatively pristine biodiversi- Many of the general environmental concerns that
ty areas, which offer contrasting scenarios of are prevalent across Europe appear to be less of
oceanographic change (“still cold” and “warmed an issue in the Arctic because of overall low popu-
up”, r espectively). For socioeconomic issues, we lation density; this reflects the sense of space and
focus on the town of Longyearbyen, which was easy access to undisturbed nature.
established in the early 1900s for coal mining, but
currently relies mostly on tourism and a strong
research and education community, with asso-
ciated infrastructure. Most of the population is
strongly driven by an adventure-loving lifestyle,
and outdoor pursuits such as hiking, snowmo-
biling, skiing, and boat/kayak touring dominate
leisure activities.
Illustrative pictures showing (upper)

tourist-oriented resting and bonfire
facilities with a view over extensive tidal
flats, at Fjordutsikten Motel og Camping,
Lakselv, Porsangerfjorden and (lower), the
settlement of Longyearbyen overlooking
Adventfjorden. Photos: Sabine Cochrane /
Akvaplan-niva and Britt Thijssen / Hummel
Foundation for Sustainable Solutions
Climate change is especially apparent in the Arctic,

both in Svalbard and in the Porsanger region,
where fjords that used to be seasonally ice-covered
now have open water for large parts of the winter,
restricting snowmobile transport routes and activ-
ities such as ice fishing. As another indication of ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
change, thriving populations of Atlantic cod and
the European blue mussel, previously absent for The MARBEFES project is funded
many decades or even centuries are now established through the European Union’s Horizon
around Svalbard. Porsangerfjorden has experienced Europe research and innovation
a marked decline in its kelp forests and there has programme (Grant Agreement no
been a decline in spawning grounds for fish such as 101060937).
Atlantic cod. The extent to which the various pred-
ator–prey relations that have led to these changes Other project contributors include:
are related to climate or human impacts (such as Charlotte Weber and Ingvild Ytterhus
overfishing) is still a matter of ongoing research. The Utengen, Akvaplan-niva; Britt Thijssen,
Pacific “pink” salmon also has invaded the area and Hummel Foundation for Sustainable
is competing with the spawning territories of the Solutions, The Netherlands; Artūras
native Atlantic salmon, fishing of which is a large Razinkovas-Baziukas, Marine
source of revenue. This has led to initiation of much Research Institute, Klaipeda
research and management programmes. University, Lithuania; Julie Bremner,
Centre of Environment Fisheries and
Both local people and businesses in the Arctic have Aquaculture Science, Lowestoft, UK;
a very strong sense of seasonality, which was less Mike Elliott, International Estuarine &
apparent elsewhere in Europe. In Porsanger, people Coastal Specialists Ltd, UK; Tasman
define the seasons according to when various species Crowe, University College of Dublin,
(terrestrial, freshwater, and marine) are present and Ireland; and Christos Arvanitides,
thus also available for harvesting. In Svalbard, the Lifewatch ERIC, Greece.
Mind-map presentation summarising part of a stakeholder interview on their perception of values and extremely marked seasonality dictates the activities
importance of marine biodiversity, together with indications on mutual interactions. Hilde Skanke (left) of not only residents, but also those of the research We thank all the stakeholders we
CEO, Kvensk Institute, Porsanger, Norway, and Herman Hummel, Hummel Foundation for Sustainable and tourist sectors, both of which have become ma- interviewed in June 2023: local
Solutions. Photo: Sabine Cochrane / Akvaplan-niva jor pillars in the economy of Longyearbyen. ■ historians, entrepreneurs, hoteliers,
tour operators, fishermen, regulators,
educators, researchers, spiritual
guides, artists, and many more.
Historical and ecological information is
compiled from various public sources,
and we particularly thank the Sami and
Kven people we interviewed for insight
into indigenous cultural values. Special
General representation of importance/ thanks go to the “Back to Life” project
strength of selected elements assessed for Porsanger – a collaborative project
across our pan-European study areas. between the municipality of Lakselv,
Note: “Arctic” includes results from the Norwegian Institute of Marine
Porsanger and Svalbard combined, Research, UiT The Arctic University of
and may therefore mask the subtle Norway, and the local population.
differences between these areas.
P=Pressure, SE=Socioeconomic element,
SC=Sociocultural element. Graph:
Herman Hummel / Hummel Foundation for
Sustainable Solutions
Alf Håkon Hoel // UiT The Arctic University of Norway and Institute of Marine Research
Fisheries management
contributes to
conservation of
biodiversity
SCIENCE AND SOCIETY
The Convention on Biological Diversity aims to conserve

biodiversity, ensure sustainable use of its components, and
see to it that the benefits of genetic resources are shared fairly.
Achieving this will require awareness, not least among those
who base their livelihoods on biological resources.
S ince the adoption of the Convention on

Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1992, a major
concern has been how to “mainstream” biodiver-
targets) for the 2011–2020 period. Target 11
addresses improving the status of biodiversity,
stating among other things that by 2020, 10% of
sity, meaning how the three aims of the conven- coastal and marine areas should be conserved by
tion can be pursued across the various sectors of protected areas and other effective area-based
the economy. This is important in relation to the conservation measures. In the revised Global
management of living marine resources, where Biodiversity Framework adopted in 2022, which
the economic activity is based on nature. includes 23 targets, the conservation target was
raised to 30% of land and sea areas. What does
In 2010, the conference of parties under the CBD this mean in practice, and how do fisheries man-
adopted a global strategic plan for biodiversity agement measures contribute to conservation of A sample of the biodiversity in the Barents Sea.
that included 20 targets (the Aichi biodiversity biodiversity? Photo: Olaf Schneider / Norwegian Polar Institute
OTHER EFFECTIVE CONSERVATION MEASURES Conservation of target stocks as well as ecosys- OTHER TARGETS to contribute to food security, among other things.
tems is a major goal of fisheries management An important aspect of the global framework is
Following the adoption of the 2010 framework, today. Broadly speaking, this is achieved by limit- Fisheries management addresses a number of also its relation to the 2030 agenda and the UN
there was a need to develop instructions for how ing access to fisheries, limiting how much can be objectives and is therefore also relevant to the Sustainable Development Goals. In both cases it is
the targets could be implemented. In 2018 the CBD caught of a given fish stock, and by restrictions on CBD aim of use of biodiversity as well as other paramount to consider the documents as a whole
conference of the parties adopted a non-binding how, when, and where fishing can occur. targets in the Global Biodiversity Framework. and view the various goals and targets in relation
decision that defined “other effective area-based Its target 10, for example (Enhance Biodiversity to each other. In all cases, securing adequate
conservation measures (OECM)” thus: In Norway, the 2008 Marine Resources Act and Sustainability in Agriculture, Aquaculture, scientific data on important nature attributes is
requires the fisheries authorities to consider bio- Fisheries, and Forestry), addresses the sustainable critical for the assessment of conservation effects
…a geographically defined area other than diversity when developing fisheries regulations. use of areas where natural resources are leveraged of regulations. ■
a Protected Area, which is governed and The act also mandates a number of area-based
managed in ways that achieve positive and measures, including partially or wholly protected
sustained long-term outcomes for the in situ areas. A recent assessment of area-based fisheries
conservation of biodiversity, with associated management measures based on the above crite-
ecosystem functions and services and where ria concluded that a number of these were OECMs, Conservation measures – including
applicable, cultural, spiritual, socio-economic, while others needed more restrictive regulations fisheries management – are needed
and other locally relevant values. in order to qualify. Important criteria include that to protect biological diversity in
the measure in question is permanent in nature, the seas. Photo: Stein Tronstad /
The decision also included non-binding guidance and that the area it covers contains significant Norwegian Polar Institute
notes on how the definition is to be operational- biodiversity and is subject to management by a
ised, including scientific and technical criteria. legitimate authority.
On the basis of this there have been several An example of a regulatory measure that clearly
initiatives to develop practical advice on how the qualifies as an OECM, is the Norwegian fisheries
definition and the guidance can be used to assess regulation on protection of vulnerable marine
how fisheries management measures can qualify ecosystems, adopted in 2011. Also regulations that
as OECMs and thereby be counted against the 30% do not have nature conservation as an explicit A fishing boat sets out from
target in the same way as protected areas. The objective can qualify as OECMs, as long as they Oldervik. Photo: Ann Kristin Balto
UN Food and Agriculture Organization FAO, the provide a lasting conservation benefit. / Norwegian Polar Institute
International Council for the Exploration of the
Sea ICES, the IUCN Fisheries Expert Group as well An important question concerns the level of scien-
as several regional fisheries management organ- tific knowledge and documentation required for
isations have elaborated on the 2018 guidance assessments of area-based protection measures
to make it applicable to fisheries management to be undertaken. The Norwegian assessment
measures. is based on expert knowledge, which in turn
builds on a large number of scientific publica-
FROM PAPER TO PRACTICE tions, including recent studies that synthesise our
understanding of marine and coastal ecosystems.
CBD decisions are not legally binding, so ad- Norway’s marine areas exceed 2 million km2 –
dressing the targets in the Global Biodiversity more than five times its land area – and its coast-
Framework is not a legal obligation for states. line is 100,000 km long, so the level of knowledge
Also, the 30% target is a global target and not a on biodiversity needed is also a question of costs.
domestic one, relevant to national as well as inter-
national waters. Nevertheless, nature conserva-
tion is urgent. In keeping with the mainstreaming
mandate, it is important for nature-based indus-
tries such as fisheries to consider their ecological
footprint and document conservation benefits of
management measures.
Ingar Wasbotten and Oda Wilhelmsen // Akvaplan-niva
Diatoms sampled during the spring bloom in the Barents

Sea. Marine microalgae bind CO2 through photosynthesis,
producing organic carbon and oxygen. Photo: Eva Leu
Why do scientists focus

on organic carbon and
how is it studied?
IN BRIEF
Carbon is the most abundant element in living

organisms and is essential for almost all life
as we know it. It is the foundation of all organic
molecules, which are the building blocks of life.
I n nature, carbon exists in two different

forms: inorganic and organic. These two dis-
tinct forms of carbon play crucial roles in various
sunlight to convert CO2 and water into organic
compounds. These compounds then pass through
the food chain as organisms consume each other.
environmental and biological processes. When dead organisms decompose completely,
their carbon is oxidised to inorganic form and
Inorganic carbon refers to carbon that is not part ends up in air or water. If the decomposition
of living or decomposing organisms. It can exist in process is incomplete, the result may be oil or
gas form such as carbon monoxide (CO) or carbon peat or coal – which still contain organic carbon.
dioxide (CO2), in water as carbonate ions (CO32-) or Combustion of these fossil fuels increases the
bicarbonate ions (HCO3-), or as minerals. Inorganic atmospheric content of CO2.
carbon is primarily derived from geological pro-
cesses, such as volcanic eruptions and weathering Differentiating between inorganic and organic
of rocks. carbon is key to understanding their respective
contributions to the environment and their impact
Organic carbon originates from the process of on living organisms.
photosynthesis, where plants use the energy from
HOW IS ORGANIC CARBON MEASURED? Sediment and soil concentrations of organic

carbon and organic load are very well correlated.
Historically, a variety of analytical techniques Organic carbon can therefore be used as a tool
have been used to measure the total organic for tracking environmental load, as it gives an
carbon content in soil and sediments. These estimate of the level of contamination.
techniques ranged from basic measurements like
colour and gravimetric analysis to more complex BIOAVAILABLE OR NOT?
ones like dry and wet oxidation or spectroscopy.
Below we describe a technique we use at Bioavailable organic carbon represents the por-
Akvaplan-niva. tion of organic matter that microorganisms can
use. Microbial activity in turn affects nutrient
The basis of the method is dry combustion to car- cycling, sediment biogeochemistry, and the over-
bon dioxide. A small sample of soil or sediment is all health of the environment. Non-bioavailable
heated up to different temperatures with different carbon, on the other hand, plays a significant role
carrier gases, and the amount of carbon dioxide in long-term carbon storage in sediments, con-
released at each level is measured. tributing to the sequestration of carbon from the
atmosphere.
First, oxygen is blown into the chamber con-
taining the sample and heated to 400°C; organic Differentiating between bioavailable and
carbon is oxidised and released as CO2. Then the non-bioavailable organic carbon in sediments is
carrier gas is switched to nitrogen and the sample crucial for understanding the potential for carbon
is heated to 900°C. At this point, inorganic car- degradation and its impact on the environment.
bonate in the sample decomposes to CO2. Last, the Moreover, the relative amount of bioavailable
carrier gas is switched back to oxygen, and any versus non-bioavailable carbon has implications
residual oxidizable carbon is combusted to CO2. for important biogeochemical processes.
Organic carbon is released during both the first Carbon degradation and nutrient cycling: The carbon cycle describes the movement of carbon atoms between
and the last step. Together, they are called total Bioavailable organic carbon fuels microbial activ- the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and lithosphere.
organic carbon (TOC). However, the carbon ity; organic matter is broken down and nutrients Carbon cycling in and out of the biosphere is rapid, on the order of
released in the first step is “bioavailable”, which are released back into the soil or water column. 1-50 years. Carbon cycling involving the lithosphere is far slower,
means that it can readily be decomposed by This nutrient cycling supports the growth of phy- taking from hundreds to millions of years. Graphic: NASA
microorganisms and serve as a source of energy toplankton and other primary producers, forming
and nutrients. The carbon released in the last step the foundation of the food web. ENVIRONMENTAL SURVEYS
comes from compounds that are more complex
and resistant to decomposition and are not easily Carbon sequestration: Non-bioavailable organic In environmental surveys in Norway, it is common However, even moderate changes in organic load
accessible to microorganisms. This fraction of carbon acts as a long-term carbon pool and a link to determine total organic carbon in soil and sedi- can result in less favourable conditions, allow-
organic carbon is described as “non-bioavailable”. between the rapid and the slow parts of the car- ments, but usually no distinction is made between ing opportunistic species to outcompete more
bon cycle. For example, carbon in sediments can bioavailable and non-bioavailable organic carbon. sensitive species, resulting in reduced species
THE SCIENTIFIC VALUE OF TOC end up being stored over geological timescales. But the fact that the total carbon content is high diversity. Changes in species diversity near emis-
This contributes to removing CO2 from the atmos- does not necessarily mean that it is bioavailable, sion points (eg, fish farms, sewage outflows) can
TOC is a widely used parameter to assess water phere and mitigates climate change. By measuring or that the sediments are influenced by anthro- largely be attributed to changes in the organic
quality. Organic carbon in water can indicate the the amount of non-bioavailable organic carbon, pogenic input. Therefore, one should determine content of the sediment.
presence of decaying organic matter, which can one can estimate the carbon sequestration poten- the proportion of bioavailable organic carbon,
contribute to oxygen depletion and affect aquatic tial of marine sediments. and consider it in relation to total organic carbon In conclusion, by looking at not just total organic
ecosystems. when assessing the condition of sediments or soil. carbon, but also its bioavailability, scientists can
Understanding the dynamics of bioavailable get a deeper understanding of ecosystems, and
TOC is also commonly used to study soil fertility. and non-bioavailable organic carbon fractions is Changes in the bottom fauna communities are how organic load affects them. ■
The organic carbon in soil plays a vital role in soil crucial for informed decision-making in marine good indications of unwanted organic loads.
structure, water retention, and nutrient cycling, management and conservation. Under natural conditions, benthic communities
as well as being the main source of energy for soil typically consist of many species. Species diversity
microorganisms. is dependent on, among other things, favourable
conditions for the fauna.
Stine Charlotte Benjaminsen // Polaria
The Arctic is
changing – and
so is Polaria
SCIENCE AND SOCIETY
From light to dark, calm to storm, from ice cover to open

sea – the Arctic has always changed with the seasons.
But something is new: temperatures are rising, and ice is
disappearing. The climate in the Arctic is changing more
rapidly than anywhere else on Earth. At Polaria, we hope
to show you why.
In the Amphitheatre you will learn about climate
A t the Fram Centre in Tromsø, scientists

study the effects of multiple stressors on
the Arctic environment. Next door, at Polaria, we
time and financial muscle, as Norway distributed
pandemic support funds.
change through an interactive ice wall. Here you can
reflect over your own choices and attitudes, and
create your own ice floe. Photo: Anne Ragnhild Fause
showcase and explain their findings. Polaria had never been given a better chance to / Polaria
change. And we took it with both hands.
POLARIA: A WINDOW FOR THE FRAM CENTRE
REBUILDING THE WINDOW, STEP BY STEP
Polaria is a science attraction centre with a
mandate to communicate science on behalf of the In 2021, Polaria and the Fram Centre signed a
Fram Centre. However, over the years the window letter of intent to work together to create new ex-
into the Fram Centre has diminished, only giving hibitions at Polaria based on research conducted
the public a few peeks here and there. Apart from by researchers at the Fram Centre. Polaria created
the climate exhibition “Priceless”, the Polaria a position for a person to represent Polaria in the
exhibitions have been outdated for a long time. exhibition project and to have editorial responsi-
There was a strong motivation to change this, and bility for the content in the exhibition. It was de-
the covid-19 pandemic and lockdown provided cided that the base of the exhibition should be the Author Stine Charlotte Benjaminsen,
Exhibition Manager at Polaria. Photo: Polaria
“The Changing Arctic” consists of several In Polaria’s “Food Web” we encounter several The sound tunnel gives guests an opportunity to learn
modules representing our “Food Web”, as well arctic animals in their habitats. We want to show through sound. Animals use sound to hunt for food,
as an amphitheatre with an interactive ice our guests that all species are important, and that navigate, detect predators, and find partners. But
wall, and a sound tunnel. Photo: Anne Ragnhild everything is connected, directly or indirectly. what happens when the sea is full of man-made noise
Fause / Polaria Photo: Anne Ragnhild Fause / Polaria pollution? Photo: Anne Ragnhild Fause / Polaria
structure and function of Arctic ecosystems. The To be able to create the exhibition, it was crucial with ideas and design was not always straightfor- samples and so on. This made us more aware of
thought was that this would create a foundation to work closely with the researchers, engineers, ward. Sometimes it seemed that every other email the importance of dialogue: the most interesting
for communicating research results on the effects and communication personnel in the Fram was an out-of-office autoreply: scientists naturally content for the exhibition came from face-to-face
of human activity on these ecosystems, effects like Centre. The first step was to create a working spend a lot of time on research cruises, fieldwork, meetings and not from prefabricated questions
ocean acidification, environmental pollution, and group consisting of representatives from different and conferences or must prioritise finishing pa- sent by email.
climate change. In goes without saying that the research institutions, both researchers and com- pers or applications for funding.
context is the Arctic, but what is happening in the munication advisers. BRINGING SCIENCE TO THE PEOPLE
Arctic is relevant outside of the context as well. As After a while we skipped some links in the chain
glaciologist and science communicator Dr Heidi The next step was to gather scientific material of communication and just showed up outside Once the necessary material was collected, the
Sevestre puts it: “If climate change persists at the from researchers at the Fram Centre’s 20 scientific the researcher’s office. These talks often led to process of designing how to communicate the
rates expected in the Arctic, it will continue to institutions. Well over 70 different researchers far more interesting stories, deeper knowledge, scientific results began. In this work, Polaria col-
affect the world’s ecosystems, economies, political have contributed so far. However, getting the and closer collaborations. The researchers also laborated with SixSides, a Norwegian exhibition
stability, and human health and well-being.” material we needed so we could move forward seemed to feel more ownership over the exhibi- architecture company.
tion and were thus more motivated to share their
time and dig up the necessary papers, photos,
Banners of fabric show Polaria’s visitors how the

annual mean temperature in Svalbard has changed
since 2000: blue for colder, red for warmer.
Photo: Anne Ragnhild Fause / Polaria
Every module is a combination of digital and analogue.

The digital side contains pictures, texts, games, and
puzzles, and the analogue side shows different artifacts
related to the various species.
Photo: Anne Ragnhild Fause / Polaria
Each and every one of us is involved in shaping in itself. Let’s take communicating climate change piece representing changes in the annual mean WHERE DOES THE JOURNEY GO NOW?
the environment and climate we live in, and we as an example. Climate change messages must temperature in Svalbard since the turn of the
need knowledge and insight to make informed penetrate many psychological barriers to get millennium: blue for colder, red for warmer. The In the near future Polaria will open another new
choices about how we want it to be shaped. Such through to the intended recipients, and as edu- closer we get to the present time, the redder the exhibition – “How do we know?” – which shows
essential information is often provided by the cators, we should be aware of that. Just writing a fabrics get. So yes, the Arctic is changing. What, how the science-based knowledge in the first part
research community, but the information does not popular science article about climate change and exactly, is happening in the Arctic? of the exhibitions was obtained. The focus is on
necessarily reach the public. There can be several its effects might not do the trick. An exhibition research methods, field equipment and technolo-
reasons for this. Often the scientists lack a suitable that touches people at a deeper, more personal To find some of the answers, guests are invited on gy, interdisciplinary science, and on the scientists
platform, or use suboptimal format and language. level will likely have greater impact than yet an- a journey starting on the ice and ending up at the themselves: How did they become scientists?
other article. Reaching the audience by appealing seafloor. On the way, they learn how everything is What drives them?
Polaria has more than 140,000 local and inter- to several senses may help them form memories, connected and experience fascination over nature
national visitors each year and has capacity and learn new things, and experience stronger reso- and its inhabitants. By the end of the journey, To keep our exhibitions up to date and present
potential to reach many people, near and far. nance with what is presented. the guest has also wandered through the sound the newest findings, we need to maintain good
Combined with its proximity to Fram Centre tunnel, and sent off a personal ice floe to the huge cooperation and dialogue with active scientists.
researchers, in both location and partnership, WE’RE OPEN – AND YOU’RE INVITED! ice wall. We envision a group comprised of representatives
Polaria is indeed a suitable platform with high from the Fram Centre and Polaria that could meet
credibility. In November 2023, Polaria proudly opened its Throughout the exhibition we ask the guest ques- on a regular basis to ensure that the exhibition
new exhibition “The Changing Arctic”. tions – often the same questions the researchers is updated. Polaria should also be included in
Regarding format of the exhibition, there is no ask themselves. We have created a space for reflec- activities at the Fram Centre, and the research-
size that fits all, and choosing the right format and When guests enter, they are met by long pieces of tions, interesting discussions, and learning. ers should familiarise themselves with Polaria
the right words is in a way a scientific endeavour blue and red fabric hanging from the ceiling, each as a platform for outreach. After all, that is what
Polaria is for. ■
Kjetil Rydland // UiT The Arctic University of Norway ORAN YOUNG THE MOHN PRIZE
• 1962, BA in Government, Harvard University The Mohn Prize recognises outstanding research related
We stand at a •
•
1965, PhD in Political Science, Yale University
1968, Professor of Environmental Studies and
director of the Institute of Arctic Studies at
to the Arctic. The award also aims at setting issues that
are central to the further development of the Arctic on
the national and international agenda.
critical juncture •
Dartmouth College
Professor emeritus at Bren School of Environmental
Science and Management at the University of
Named after Henrik Mohn (1835–1916), the founder of
Norwegian meteorological research and director general
for international •
California Santa Barbara
Young has published 20 books, 25 edited volumes,
and more than 150 articles and book chapters
of the Norwegian Meteorological Institute from its
inception in 1866 until 1913.
cooperation in •
•
International Arctic Social Sciences Association’s
Honorary Lifetime Membership Award
Russian Academy of Sciences’ Vernadsky Medal
The prize is awarded jointly by Academia Borealis
– The Academy of Sciences and Letters of Northern
Norway, Tromsø Research Foundation, and UiT The Arctic
the Arctic •
•
IASC Medal
Honorary doctorates from UiT The Arctic University of
Norway and the University of Lapland
University of Norway. The 2 million NOK prize is awarded
biennially.
SCIENCE AND SOCIETY
The 2024 Mohn Prize laureate is professor emeritus Oran Young summarised his own Young has been in leading positions in global change In his Mohn Prize acceptance speech, Young underlined
research and described his search for research for several decades, among others as founding how the common narrative of peace and cooperation in the
Oran Young. A champion of Arctic collaboration and new ways forward at the Mohn Seminar, chair of the Committee on the Human Dimensions of Global Arctic after the Cold War is the reason why the Arctic is now
holistic perspectives on the North for five decades, entitled “Still the Age of the Arctic?” Change of the US National Academy of Sciences, founding relatively free of conflict. But he believes we need new narra-
Photo: Jørn Berger Nyvoll / UiT The Arctic co-chair of the Global Carbon Project, a member of the US tives that embrace local, regional, national, and international
he has hopes for a better way forward. University of Norway Polar Research Board, and co-chair of the Arctic Human perspectives, narratives that give everyone voices and real
Development Report in 2004. opportunities, based on mutual respect.
Y oung says he has spent his professional life

seeking to understand the roles that social institutions
can, and sometimes do, play in fostering international coop-
region to be studied holistically, and recognises him for his
research on international regimes and institutional dynam-
ics in the Arctic.
When it was announced that Young would be the 2024 Mohn
Prize laureate, he highlighted the changing geopolitical
landscape of the Arctic. He noted that while the post-Cold
Oran Young says that being selected to receive the 2024
Mohn Prize is an exceptional honour, the capstone of his 50
years of active engagement in Arctic affairs. ■
eration on issues of common concern. War era offered opportunities for East–West cooperation, the
They emphasise his contributions to investigations into the current climate of heightened tensions and global interest in
In an Arctic context, perhaps no single individual has human dimensions of Arctic environmental change, the role the Arctic presents new challenges.
influenced that understanding more than Young. He is an in- of the Arctic in a changing global order, and the governance
ternational leader in studies of international governance and of the Arctic Ocean. Further, they commemorate his contri- However, he does not believe that these challenges are im-
environmental institutions and the world’s foremost expert butions to our thinking on the political economy of resource possible to overcome. The absence of severe conflicts in the
on these topics in the Arctic. management globally and on the needed contours of govern- region itself and the presence of many issues requiring col-
ance in a changing world order. laborative efforts makes cooperation and solutions possible.
He has contributed to establishing a knowledge-based public But he believes that the institutions of yesteryear are not well
discourse about management in the Arctic and an informed Oran Young helped establish and was the first director of the suited for the conditions prevailing in the 2020s and 2030s.
dialogue with political decision-makers. His political and sci- Institute of Arctic Studies at Dartmouth College in the 1960s. And modest adjustments will not be sufficient.
entific roles have been key to ensuring peaceful international During the 1980s and 1990s, he played a significant role in
cooperation and sustainable management in the Arctic. establishing key Arctic institutions such as the International Young calls for a re-invention of current Arctic institutions.
Arctic Science Committee (IASC), the University of the Arctic He does not claim to have a solution, but urges creative
In its nomination for Oran Young as the 2024 laureate, the (UArctic), and the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy engagement between members of the policy and science
Scientific Committee of the Mohn Prize unanimously views (AEPS), which would lead to the formation of the Arctic communities to come up with solutions. Oran Young, just after receiving the Mohn Prize diploma,
Dr Young as an esteemed leader in promoting the Arctic as a Council. flanked by Norwegian Prime Minister Jonas Gahr Støre and
UiT rector and steering committee chair Dag Rune Olsen.
Photo: Jørn Berger Nyvoll / UiT The Arctic University of Norway
158 FRAM FORUM 2024 REFLECTIONS REFLECTIONS FRAM FORUM 2024 159
Megan Lenss, Vegard Stürzinger, Morven Muilwijk and E Zoe Walker * Integrating the United Nations Sustainability Goals (SDGs) into daily scientific practices
establishes the groundwork for meaningful change, and operating as an organisation rather
than as individuals, further facilitates high-impact results. The research vessel Kronprins
Haakon illustrates a scientific activity with an exceptionally large environmental footprint.
Photo: Vegard Stürzinger / Norwegian Polar Institute
Towards more
sustainable
scientific
practices
REFLECTIONS
Producing knowledge about the climate and the environment

comes at a cost – a cost that extends beyond invoices and
employment contracts. Scientific activities based at the
Fram Centre have an environmental footprint of their own.
W hether from carbon dioxide emissions

associated with ship time, consumption of
single-use materials in the lab, or direct distur-
Like many organisations housed at the Fram
Centre, the Norwegian Polar Institute (NPI)
is supported by funding from the Norwegian
organisation, rather than as individuals, offers an
opportunity for increased impact. For example,
considering the substantial annual expenditure
Centre. A joint stock of consumables could be
maintained and replaced as needed, while larger,
more expensive pieces of equipment could be
bance of already vulnerable ecosystems, our Government. As a governmental organisation, NPI on equipment and services, our consumer power purchased collectively. Supply-and-demand meet-
research affects the very environment we are is accountable to the United Nations Sustainable becomes significant. Implementing sustainable ings could be held bi-annually which, in tandem
trying to understand. Our results are clear: sea ice Development Goals (SDGs). The SDGs are 17 purchasing practices would direct these funds with collective purchasing, would also enhance
is in rapid decline; ice caps are melting; biodiver- goals with a holistic and modern approach to towards companies committed to achieving the inter-sectional cooperation. Such a system would
sity is severely threatened; and the polar regions sustainability, spanning from fighting inequality SDGs and prioritise longer-lasting goods, such be both cost-saving and efficient, not to mention
are warming alarmingly fast. Today, these facts to stopping climate change, which were formal- as modular technology with easy maintenance its positive impacts on several of the SDGs (1, 8, 12-
are no longer shocking. Studying, publishing, and ly adopted by all United Nation member states, and replaceable parts. Sustainable purchasing 15, 17), underlining the interconnectedness of the
discussing imminent global catastrophe has sadly including Norway, in 2015. All operations at NPI could also be supported through equipment goals and extending our impact globally.
become business as usual. However, the environ- can be placed within the framework of the SDGs, sharing and an institutional equipment bank. This
mental cost of conducting such research cannot and, as a governmental institution, NPI has an equipment bank could be supported by a digitally Other opportunities for organisation-level change
be accepted as a necessary evil. Somewhere explicit responsibility to integrate the SDGs into accessible inventory of laboratory materials and range in both influence and impact. Simple solu-
between the lines of scientific excellence and daily operations. field equipment, allowing researchers to quickly tions should be considered, such as prioritising
geopolitical strategy lies an inherent question: obtain supplies in-house, and eliminating the vegetarian meal options through an “opt-in for
what can be done to align our scientific pursuits We contend that increased accountability for up- constant stream of small shipments to the Fram meat” initiative at conferences, events, and field
with sustainability? holding these goals is necessary, and acting as an
* Authors ML, VS and MM work at the Norwegian Polar Institute. The perspectives presented in this article solely represent the authors’
personal views on sustainability and science. These viewpoints do not constitute or reflect the strategies or positions of NPI.
160 FRAM FORUM 2024 REFLECTIONS REFLECTIONS FRAM FORUM 2024 161
campaigns. Additionally, the organisation should steps, and alignment with specific goals could
encourage ground travel to professional events be evaluated in a system similar to a risk assess-
and promote digital participation in events that ment, providing a fair tool for funding evaluation.
require long-distance flights. Finally, every re- Incorporating sustainability risk assessments into
search activity with an environmental impact, be all organisational operations would support a top-
it fieldwork or in the lab, should be maximised for down change with meaningful bottom-up action.
scientific outcome. For example, ship time should
be well planned and use of available participant At the end of the day, the largest annual output
space optimised by encouraging more interdisci- of many research institutions at the Fram Centre
plinary collaboration, student involvement, and is data and information related to climate change
stakeholder engagement. Together, these changes and its impacts. The impact of these data on poli-
would support six more SDGs (2, 4, 9, 11, 16, 17). cies related to sustainable development and envi-
ronmental protection must be in alignment with
Integrating the SDGs into the operational frame- the values of the research institution. An oppor-
work at NPI is only one example of how the tunity is missed when these organisations do not
SDGs can be applied at the organisational level. make internal changes to support those policies.
Ultimately, they should be integrated into the As the Norwegian government has already com-
broader research community across Norway. We mitted to the SDGs, integrating and implementing
believe that the greatest potential for incorpo- them into Norwegian institutions is the next logi-
rating the SDGs at the system level lies with the cal step. We strongly encourage all employees and
funding agencies, including the Research Council students at the Fram Centre to bring the SDGs to
of Norway. At present, research proposals are their group meetings, lunch tables, and adminis-
assessed for scientific excellence, impact, societal trative conversations. It is timely, important, and
relevance, and dissemination. We propose the simply correct to consider research and scientific
additional consideration of SDG achievement, activities within the framework of the SDGs, and
contending that this could alleviate harmful envi- we hope the examples presented here inspire the
ronmental impacts, especially when projects are employees at the Fram Centre to consider their
equally rated in other aspects but diverge in their work in a newer, greener light. ■
support of the SDGs. Potential impact, mitigation
Scientific activities at the Norwegian Polar Institute span a large variety, from operating remote
research stations, vessels, supercomputing, and laboratories to work at our headquarters in
Tromsø – all with an environmental footprint of their own. Photos (from top left to lower right):
Helge Tore Markussen, Espen Ali Johansen, Ann Kristin Balto, Mar Fernandez Mendez, Ane K
Engvik, all affiliated with the Norwegian Polar Institute except Espen Ali Johansen (Sigma)
Ann Kristin Balto // Norwegian Polar Institute Mathilde Wegger feeding a king penguin on
the deck of the Thorshavn in 1931. Photo:
Jens Eggvin / Norwegian Polar Institute
The woman and

the penguin
RETROSPECTIVE
A black and white photo of a woman with a king penguin

in her arms on a boat is impossible to ignore!
What is the story behind it?
I n 1931, Mathilde Wegger went on a

voyage around “The South Polar Land”. She
was accompanying Ingrid Christensen, who
In 1936, SS Neptune arrived in Norway with
nine king penguins on board. The birds were
provided by Lars Christensen and everything
wanted a female companion with her during was organised by the Norwegian Association for
the long voyage around Antarctica on board MS Nature Conservation. Two pairs of penguins were
Thorshavn. Mrs Ingrid Christensen was the wife of released on the island of Røst in Lofoten and two
whaling shipowner Lars Christensen, who in the pairs and one juvenile were released at Gjesvær in
years from 1927 to 1931 studied whale populations Finnmark. In subsequent years, several penguin
in the Southern Ocean, carried out research and species would be introduced on Røst, namely
mapped uncharted areas. macaroni penguins and South African penguins.
The penguins were released on islands where they
Among the many animals found in these southern had easy access to the sea and where there were
waters, whales were not the only species in focus; no predators. The experiment was not a success,
penguins also attracted attention. In the 1930s, and there were no more sightings of penguins in
many different attempts were made to introduce Lofoten and Gjesvær after 1950.
new animal species to areas where they did not
naturally belong. In Norway, we know of the musk Long after the photograph of Mathilde Wegger
oxen that were brought to Dovre from Greenland. with the penguin was taken, another picture of
The idea was that new species could become a Mathilde Wegger sitting with Ingrid Christensen
resource in the areas where they were released. on the deck of Thorshavn inspired a novel about
That notion also applied to penguins. A few years women in Antarctica. Australian author Jesse
after this picture was taken, the first king pen- Blackadders came across the picture at a library
guins were transported to Norway. in Sydney and was both curious and fascinated by
the two women, and wrote the book Chasing the
Light, which was published in 2013. ■
eral public.
orities, the
h scientific
nd we aim
mmunicate
nment and
o Norway’s
on Climate
Online version: ISSN 8193-5540
Print version: ISSN 1893-5532

Photo: Sebastian Gerland / Norwegian Polar Institute
FRAM FORUM 2020 FRAM FORUM 2016
–
THEME ISSUE Research Harbour seal diet and behaviour Norwegian Young Sea ICE Cruise research Profiles Education/outreach In brief
Focus on arctic birds Environmental toxins and you Climate ethics: a new research priority Joint proxies – voices from the past Nitrogen deposition Paul Wassmann High North Academy Arctic Council Secretariat
Goose patrol Ocean acidification state in Svalbard Fram Strait outflow observatory Planktonic food web Torkjel Sandanger Reindeer cooling Nansen–Amundsen Year 2011
In Brief/Outreach:
–
Geese beyond borders Climate-Ecological Observatory Climate change is moving fish populations Reindeer herders Antarctic logistics Geodetic antenna Ny-Ålesund
Mercury, Mining, Fram Science Days,
PAGE 52
Seabird breeding timing Svalbard’s antique mountains New ways to measure glacier mass loss Invasive plants retrospective Kittiwakes Fram Centre expectations
Arctic Council, Ny-Ålesund seminar,
The atmosphere and guillemot survival Ecosystem modelling in the Arctic Monitoring challenges in the Arctic Methane release Adolf Hoel Secondary schools Fram Centre Flagships
Arctic Frontiers, Fram Centre News
FRAM CENTRE SEATRACK – tracking birds in winter Polyaromatic hydrocarbons in the Arctic Upward growth of sea ice fraM CEntrE NCoE-Tundra Norwegian-Russian cooperation Recent doctorates New books
Fram Centre
Profile: Audun Rikardsen
N – 9296 Tromsø
Fax: +47 77 75 02 01
Jesamine Bartlett and

www.framsenteret.no
ARCTIC ALIENS:
Phone: +47 77 75 02 00
A RISING THREAT
Kristine Bakke Westergaard

E-mail: post@framsenteret.no
Framsenteret, POB 6606 Langnes
Fram Centre
PAGE 72
2016
2012
N – 9296 Tromsø
FRAM – High North Research Centre for Climate and the Environment
Eva Fuglei and Arnaud Tarroux

SVALBARD TO CANADA
Fax: +47 77 75 02 01
FOX ON THE RUN FROM
PROFILE: SALVE DAHLE
www.framsenteret.no
FRAM FORUM
Phone: +47 77 75 02 00
fraM foruM
PAGE 108
Ellen Kathrine Bludd
FRAM TO POLARSTERN
ANNUAL REPORTS / VOL 9
On the lookout for adventure, page 6
PAGE 14
Rolf A Ims et al
Is there a link?
FEWER BIRDS?
ARCTIC
GREENER
Fram Forum
DRIFTING WITH ICE – FROM

2020

FRAM FORUM 2021
FRAM FORUM 2017
Research Vulnerable to oil spills Sound pollution and endangered whales Outreach/In brief research Climate-driven shifts Education/outreach in brief
Answers from tundra-dwellers Fat matters to polar bears SOS from the Arctic UFOs search for contaminants Ocean acidification Arctic hitchhikers Ice drift in the Barents Sea New ice-breaking vessel
Sustainable harvest Contaminants in Norwegian waters Paleoceanography reveals ancient seas Arctic Safety Centre Contaminant cocktails Climate-ecological observatory TopoSvalbard Greenland sharks
–
–
The Green Arctic Blue mussels to Svalbard from afar Tidewater glacier fronts: Arctic oases Digital map of Svalbard’s geology Warm Gulf Stream and methane Fram Centre Awards Cod in the Barents Sea
PAGE 28
PAGE 94
Goose density and predation Benthic fauna as a warning system New modelling tools for Kongsfjorden The Bird Cliff Joint Norwegian–Russian cruise Profile: Åshild Ønvik Pedersen Research plaza Various news items
fram-annual2013-fa_6.indd 1
Food and health security The Arctic Ocean’s invisible forest Weather station in the sea Retrospective: “The people’s welfare” Cosmetics as contaminants Politics between two poles Fram Centre Flagships
Fram Centre
Fram Centre
FRAM CENTRE Profile: Jasmine Nahrgang fram CEntrE Satellites and fieldwork retrospective: CE Borchgrevink Recent doctorates New books
Monitoring Russian tundra animals Innovative research in the polar night Antarctic ice rises
N – 9296 Tromsø
N – 9296 Tromsø
Fax: +47 77 75 02 01
Fax: +47 77 75 02 01
Janne E Søreide et al
www.framsenteret.no
www.framsenteret.no
Phone: +47 77 75 02 00
Phone: +47 77 75 02 00
Hjalmar Johansens gate 14
FJORD ICE – A COLD,

WET KINDERGARTEN
Magnus Andersen et al
NUISANCE
PAGE 38
2017
2013
DELIGHT AND
POLAR BEARS:
Claudia Halsband et al
TRICK OR TREAT?
BIOFOULED PLASTIC.
FRAM FORUM
fram forum
PAGE 106
PROFILE: ELDBJØRG SOFIE HEIMSTAD
Harald Dag Jølle

NORWAY’S PATH TO
THE ANTARCTIC TREATY

The team player, page 8
Fram Forum
2021
22.02.13 10:26
Theme: Oceans Northeast Arctic cod habitat changes? Integrating biology into risk assessment Pollutants and energy in arctic geese Research Seafood and pollutants In Brief/Education/Outreach Climate communication
Marine plastic pollution in the Arctic Sympagohydra tuuli in Svalbard sea ice Tidewater glaciers and ecosystems Exploring the potential of microalgae Sea urchin deserts to kelp forests Carbon dioxide and acidification New Flagship – MIKON Norwegian-Russian cooperation
Herring impacts on fjord ecosystems Arctic weather and sea ice information Population changes in polar bears Sea or summit: reindeer foraging Atlantic inflow to the Arctic Ocean Seafloor secrets in Porsanger Ocean acidification Tundra schoolnet
–
–
Eddies transport heat to the Arctic Where river meets fjord Research Sunlight in a wintry world Lumpsucker and Themisto libellula Harp seals in the Barents Sea Improved sea ice charting Expanding industries
Polar bears and ringed seals Sea–ice system in the Arctic Ocean Multiple stressors threaten predators One uranium mountain Plastic litter in the ocean Glacier mass balance in Antarctica Nansen Memorial Expedition
Ocean acidification and zooplankton More, longer winter warming events Small engineers with large impact Retrospective: 60 years of cooperation Future arctic sea ice regime Little auk distribution and threats Climate and Cryosphere Profile: Alf Håkon Hoel
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2018
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Theme: Plastic Research A new approach to governance The Nansen Legacy Research Methane from sea to air? In Brief/Outreach Research at the end of the earth
Plastic in the Arctic Kongsfjorden sea ice observation Climate and cryosphere project Climate shift around Svalbard Grubbers on the Svalbard tundra The snow crab Ocean acidification Fisheries in the Arctic Ocean?
Plastic in Arctic fish diets Atlantification in Kongsfjorden Consequences of oil spills on fishes Where seals dare Pollutants in polar bears Modelling Arctic Ocean ecosystems Eclogites – colourful rocks Keeping decision-makers updated
Developing biodegradable plastic Polar bear or “aquabear”? Polar cod in a changing Arctic SEATRACK 2014-2018 Sea ice–ocean–ecosystem modelling Record high levels of siloxanes Plant biomass and climate change Science in the City
PAGE 18
Checking a sunken nuclear submarine What hunting statistics can teach us Seeing in the dark Arctic Frontiers 2015
PAGE 46
PhD course in plastic Salmon louse pesticide sampling Mineral particles in tailings Geological mapping in Antarctica
In brief Compiling mineral data Computer model finds contaminants Arctic Council Secretariat Profile: Laura Jaakola
Retrospective: Johan Hjort Science in environmental policy Monitoring whales with drones
FRAM CENTRE FRAM CENTRE Insurance branch and arctic shipping Black carbon in snow and ice Norwegian Meteorological Institute Retrospective: The sea, fish and oil
Profile: Dorte Herzke A marine system in our backyard Svalbard reindeer trends – 40 years Bowheads, Narwhals, Quantarctica 3
Zina Kebir et al
FOODS: DRIVERS
AND BARRIERS IN
SUSTAINABLE BLUE
NORTHERN NORWAY
Kathrine Torday Gulden
2015
2019
PAGE 82
FUTURE
BLUE/GREEN
Ellen Kathrine Bludd

LEADERS FOR A
TRAINING OCEAN
PROFILE: MARIT REIGSTAD
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WHAT SHALL WE
HOW WILL CLIMATE CHANGE
DO WHILE WAITING
Christine F Solbakken et al
FOR ENVIRONMENTAL
AFFECT ARCTIC AGRICULTURE?
Carrying Nansen’s legacy forward, page 8
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PROFILE: ROLF ANKER IMS An ecosystem guy in the era of climate change, page 8

NAVIGATING THE WAVES EXPLORING THE CENTRAL SCIENCE TO INFORM

PAGE 34 PAGE 40 PAGE 114

era of climate change Salve Dahle et al

Image: Nils Bochow, ChatGPT-4, and Dall-E

Photo: Nick Cobbing / National Geographic

Photo: Ove Haugen / Store Norske

salmonid migrations in Svalbard Kjetil Rydland

A different kind of // janet.holmen@gmail.com

Not in my back yard

When Rolf Anker Ims embarked on his career as a

I n the 1990s, when Rolf Anker Ims started

A course in environmental chemistry led by a pro-

“It became clear to me that if we were to focus

When Ims got the opportunity to work at the

“It was known as being ‘called’ back then. It

HUMANS IN THE ECOSYSTEM

Rolf Ims has studied many different animals and

However, we are dependent on the very ecosphere

“Just to breathe. It’s as simple as that, just to

Melting glaciers: lifeline

Glaciers across the Arctic are melting. Glacial run-off

G laciers are intrinsic to the Arctic,

Svalbard is warming twice as fast as the rest of

Ringed seal equipped with GPS tag inside the glacier

bays act as refugia for Arctic endemic species.

ARCTIC CLIMATE REFUGIA

In Svalbard fjords, landfast sea ice is disappearing,

Bearded seal hauled out on sea ice in Kongsfjorden.

Kathrine Torday Gulden // Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research

Researchers at the Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy

Molecular-genetic methods can provide insights into

Dr Tommi Nyman, RemoTnitor’s

Molecular-genetic methods are not just about iden-

Senior researcher at the Norwegian Veterinary

“As the climate changes, host–pathogen interac-

Navigating the waves of

As the Arctic Ocean’s ice cover recedes, we see increased

In contrast to regions at lower latitudes, high

HOW EFFECTIVE IS THE POLAR CODE?

The International Maritime Organization

NATIONAL SOLUTIONS TO GLOBAL GAPS

Exploring the Central

The Arctic Ocean is shifting from white to blue during

To increase our knowledge about the CAO Large

Hydroacoustic surveys with a Simrad EK80

Jasmine Nahrgang // UiT The Arctic University of Norway

The sins of the fathers:

Spawned in millions, tiny cod and polar cod embryos are

O f the millions of cod eggs spawned,

Thousands of compounds, to a large part

THE PROJECTS AND THE PEOPLE

This work started in 2019 through the

New tools to predict

Variable and unfavourable winter conditions often

G rasslands form the basis for fodder

THE CHALLENGES OF LONG WINTERS

Agriculture in the northern regions operates

“The background of this project is these diffi-