Social Psychology KB

Social Psychology
Block-1 Introduction to Social Psychology [4]
Unit-1 Definition, Concept and Research Methods in Social Psychology
Unit-2 Historical Perspective of Social Psychology, Social Psychology and Other Related Disciplines
Unit-3 Social and Person Perception – Definition, Description and Functional Factors
Unit-4 Cognitive Basis and Dynamics of Social Perception and Person Perception
Block-2 Attitudes and Behaviour [4]
Unit-1 Definition, Concept, Description, Characteristic of Attitude
Unit-2 Components of Attitude
Unit-3 Predicting Behaviour from Attitude

Unit-4 Effecting Attitudinal Change and Cognitive Dissonance Theory, Compliance of Self-perception
Theory, Self-affirmation
Block-3 Group Dynamics [4]
Unit-1 Introduction to Groups: Definition, Characteristics and Types of Groups

Unit-2 Group Process: Social Facilitation, Social Loafing, Group Interaction, Group Polarization and
Group Mind
Unit-3 Group Behaviour: Influence of Norms, Status and Roles; Introduction to Crowd Behavioural
Theory, Crowd Psychology (Classical and Convergence Theories)
Unit-4 Crowd Psychology: Collective Consciousness and Collective Hysteria
Block-4 Culture and Norms [4]
Unit-1 Definition of Norms, Social Norms, Need and Characteristics Features of Norms
Unit-2 Norm Formation, Factors Influencing Norms, Enforcement of Norms, Norm Formation and
Social Conformity
Unit-3 Autokinetic Experiment in Norm Formation
Unit-4 Norms and Conformity: Asch’s Line of Length Experiments
Definition, Concept and
UNIT 1 DEFINITION, CONCEPT AND Research Methods in Social
Psychology
RESEARCH METHODS IN SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Definition and Concept of Social Psychology
1.2.1 Concept of Social Psychology
1.2.2 Concept of Social Behaviour
1.2.3 Concept of Social Interaction
1.2.4 Concept of Social Influence
1.2.5 Scope of Social Psychology
1.3 Research Methods in Social Psychology
1.3.1 Goals of Research in Social Psychology
1.3.2 Sources of Research in Social Psychology
1.4 Experimental Methods
1.4.1 Laboratory Method
1.4.2 Field Method
1.5 Non-Experimental Methods
1.5.1 Observation Method
1.5.2 Archival Method
1.5.3 Case Study Method
1.5.4 Correlational Method
1.5.5 Survey Method
1.6 Other Research Methods
1.6.1 Cross Cultural Method
1.6.2 Research Through Internet
1.7 Research Ethics
1.8 Let Us Sum Up
1.9 Unit End Questions
1.10 Suggested Readings
1.11 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In earlier courses you might have got a clear picture about what is psychology,
what is the biological basis of our behaviour, how does the human development
take place, how research in psychology is done and quantified etc. From this
course onwards, we are entering into the ‘social’ world of an individual because
most of our behaviours is a result of our interaction with people and their influence
on our behaviour. Also most of these interactions involve other people and it
mainly occurs in social context and social situation. The branch of psychology
which studies the ‘individual behaviour’ in social context is called as ‘social
psychology’. Social psychology is a very important branch of psychology,
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Introduction to Social combining the elements from two strong disciplines – sociology and psychology.
Psychology
Block 1 explains the concept of social psychology and its relevance to individual
behaviours. It explains the various definitions of social psychology traces its
historical developments and landmarks as well as further explains the relation of
social psychology to other discipline. In establishing as a new discipline, social
psychology enriched its research, by adopting various research methods – both
experimental and non-experimental as well as including modern research through
internet. Further the block 1 studies the most important concept of social
psychology – social cognition – a process of understanding and predicting the
behaviour of self and others i.e. social perception and person perception. It goes
on to explore the definition, structure and functional process as well as cognitive
and dynamic basis of social perception and person perception.
In this unit, we are going to introduce to you the concepts of social behaviour,
social interaction and social influence. Next you see the nature of social
psychology in general and the definition of social psychology. Further you will
be studying various methods which social psychologists employ in carrying out
his / her research about the different social phenomena.
1.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
• describe the terms – social behaviour, social interaction and social influence;
• discuss that that the larger part of our life and behaviour is social;
• explain the way needs are satisfied in the social context;
• distinguish between physical and social environment;
• analysis the different types of research methods used in the field of social
psychology;
• explore various experimental and non-experimental methods used by social
psychologists; and
• identify the merits and demerits of the different methods of research.
1.2 DEFINITION AND CONCEPT OF SOCIAL

PSYCHOLOGY
The study of individual in the social context is the subject matter of the field of
psychology called social psychology. Social psychologists not only try to
understand the social behaviour and social influence but have developed many
methods to measure the social phenomena like leadership, modeling and prejudice
etc. They employ many experimental as well as non-experimental methods to
carry out their research in the field of social psychology. As dealing with human
life and human problems, social psychologists also take care to follow the ethical
code and to avoid common bias in social science research.
The various definitions of social psychology are given:

• Social psychology is the discipline that explores deeply the various aspects
of this social interaction.
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• Social psychology is a branch of psychology which is concerned with the Definition, Concept and
Research Methods in Social
social aspect of life – how people interaction with and think about others. Psychology
This branch of knowledge studies human behaviour in all its perspective
which further helps in establishing equal relationships and solving social
problems.
• Baron and Byrne (2006) define social psychology as the scientific field that
seeks to understand the nature and causes of individual behaviour in social
situations. In other words, social psychologists seek to understand how we
think about and interact with others.
• Social psychology attempts to understand how thoughts, feelings and
behaviours of individual are influenced by actual, imagined and implied
presence of others.
• Social psychology is the study of how people influence other people.
1.2.1 Concept of Social Psychology

It is a truth that human actions do not take place in a vacuum. Every behaviours
occur in some ‘physical context’ and most of what we do take place in the presence
of others – that is, in an interpersonal context or social context. Moreover, a
considerable portion of the behaviour that individuals perform when alone is
based on ‘past encounters’ with other people.
Psychology studies behaviour which is a result of individuals thoughts and

feelings, but individuals thoughts and feelings are inferred from his expressed or
overt behaviour. Behaviours which include learning, problem solving, perceiving
are the ‘overt behaviour’, on the other hand, behaviours like dreaming, imaging,
memorising represents ‘covert behaviour’.
There is another category of behaviour. Behaviour which is result or caused by

or occurs because of others presence or influence is called social behaviour.
This social behaviour is of great significance to social psychology. Whenever
our psychological processes of perceiving, learning, motivating, decision making
etc. are influenced by or a result of or related to / or occur in a social context,
these processes are called as social perception, social learning, social motivations,
group conformity respectively. These behaviours which have a social context
and occur in social environment and involve social stimuli are the main subject
matter of social psychology.
1.2.2 Concept of Social Behaviour

If I ask you to make a list of all the activities which you perform from the time
you get up till you sleep, you will observe that about 20% of these activities are
just ‘behaviours’ but the remaining 80% of these are ‘social behaviours’. This
would make you understand social behaviour in terms of the significance of
‘others’ in our life, as most of our time of the day is spent in interacting with
other members of our family or society. A careful look at these ‘social interaction’
would make it very clear that in many of these interactions, our behaviour is
influenced by others and we influence others behaviour. So our life is not only
‘social’ but our social interactions to a large extent are shaped, influenced and
changed as a result of social influence. A major part of our behaviour occurs in a
social context, as well as in an environment involving ‘others’.
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Introduction to Social 1.2.3 Concept of Social Interaction
Psychology
Unlike animals that come together either for progeny or protecting themselves
from danger, human being is a truly social animal. Each one of us is surrounded
by and interacts with at least one or two individuals who are close to us. Human
being live, grow and strive within the close interpersonal relationship. Many of
our needs are satisfied in this social context. In satisfying the needs one establishes
contacts, co-operates with other people and adjusts with other members of the
society. Actions that are performed by the individual in relation to the members
of the society are called ‘Social Actions and Interaction’ as these actions affect
two or more individuals. This results in action, social actions and interaction.
This interaction with others is called ‘Social Interaction’ and this social interaction
is the basis for establishing lasting relationship in life. Two mechanisms underlie
every social interaction, these are:
1) Social interaction requires a social contact or social relationship: Every

social situation involves social contact at least between two people without
which no interaction can take place. This contact may be direct or indirect
and can have negative and positive impact. Positive social contact gives
rise to pro-social behaviours like co-operation, organisation as simulation,
adjustment, adaptation and accommodation. Negative social contact may
retract a person away from entering into social interaction and even if s/he
‘has to’, it results in unhelpful social behaviours like unhealthy competition,
aggression etc.
2) Social interaction involves communication: Social interaction between

any two individuals involves some form of communication that is verbal or
non-verbal without which the social interaction cannot take place. As is
known, social interaction takes place at three levels, a) Individual to
individual, b) Individual to groups, and c) Group to group level.
1.2.4 Concept of Social Influence

Each one of us depends on others to satisfy, many of our day to day needs – food,
clothing, housing, love, security. This interdependence produces interaction
between persons. In the course of this interaction an individual is influenced by
parents, friends, teachers and they are also in turn influenced by the person.
Thus other people affect and influence our outlook, our belief our values and so
on marginally or profoundly. Such influence are exerted directly and deliberately,
subtly and implied. The individual behaviour is influenced by this social influence,
as for example: Sita is newly married and comes to her in-laws house in a new
city. Her behaviour is more likely to be influenced by the directions g etc. which
slowly do influence her husband and children. Our social life is thus a process of
mutual influence and change which enrich our relationship in a social context.
1.2.5 Scope of Social Psychology

Social psychology concentrates on the individual behaviour in the social contact,
so the subject matter of social psychology is the interactions of individuals with
other individuals and society. It is the social world, based upon the relations of
humans to their fellow beings which furnishes the subject matter of social
psychology. The scope of social psychology includes:
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1) Social stimuli example: books, any situation, other people) and social Definition, Concept and
stimulus situations (Flag hosting, Deepawali, Christmas and Ramzan). Psychology
2) Individual’s reactions and experiences which arise from social situations.
3) Impact of social environment on the individual social behaviour is a result
of four factors:
i) Charateristics of other persons;
ii) Cognitive processes;
iii) Physical environment; and
iv) Cultural context.
Examples: Whenever two or more people are interacting, their behaviour is
guided by the traits of ‘the other’ person with which they are interacting and
depending on the behaviour of the other person (whether dominant, co-
operative or submissive), our response to it would differ. Example: child
behaving in a docile manner in front of teacher or parent.
Also how we react and interpret and understand the social situation depends
to a great extent on how we perceive the social stimuli, what aspects of
social situation influences us etc. Example: when two individuals are bitterly,
in that one person is not speaking a word and the other is uttering all the bud
words, we might sympathize with the first one and interpret the event
accordingly.
4) The physical context in which an event takes place is also very crucial. For
example: when two people belonging to different cultural and ethnic group
start fighting during the already riot prone, locality, it will get a different
meaning than when the scenario occurs in a normal context.
5) Each social behaviour has a specific cultural context and as a result, same
behaviour may be interpreted in an entirely different way. Cultural norms of
each culture provides that context and so many times the behaviour would
be misinterpreted by others who do not belong to that culture – example:
women not hiding their face (by their veil) in front of elders would be
amounted to insulting the elders, the same behaviour would ‘pass off’ as
normal in other context of urban setting.
Self Assessment Questions 1

Exercise-I
Match the Column I and Column II
A) For the following statements, indicate what type of social situation and
words category each statement indicate
Column I Column II
1) A child smiling and giving his toy to a) Social behaviour
another child
2) A stranger looking at you b) Non-social behaviour
3) Your neighbour smiling at you c) Social interaction
4) A film d) Social influence
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Introduction to Social
Psychology 5) A novel e) Social stimuli
6) Independence day f) Social situation
7) Your child learns to use bad words from neighbours sons
8) Teachers day
9) Children playing with each other
10) Children burns his hand
11) After a scolding a child cries
12) Child goes and sits near his friend
B) Write down a list of five behaviours of yours which are a result of some
social influence. Also name that agent who is exerting the social
influence.
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1.3 RESEARCH METHODS IN SOCIAL

PSYCHOLOGY
1.3.1 Goals of Research in Social Psychology
Social psychological research has four goals:
1) Description: A major goal is to provide careful and systematic descriptions
of social behaviour that permit social psychologists to make reliable
generalisations about how people act in various social settings. Example:
Are men more aggressive than women’s.
2) Causal analysis: Much research in psychology seeks to establish cause and
effect relationship, because scientific inquiry in the research is to establish
cause and effect relations. Example: Does college education make students
more liberal in their social attitudes.
3) Theory building: Third goal is to develop theories about social behaviour
which help social psychologists understand why people behave the way they
do. This can further lead to suggest new predictions that can be tested in
further research.
4) Application: Knowledge gained by the above three attempt can help to
solve everyday social problems.
1.3.2 Sources of Research in Social Psychology

Social psychology is the scientific study of social behaviour. These are a diverse
range of methods available to social psychologists. Any research begins with a
hunch or hypothesis (a tentative solution), that the researcher wants to test. There
are two ways in which a researcher chooses the hypothesis.
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1) People often generate hypothesis from previous theories and research. Many Definition, Concept and
studies stem from a researcher’s dissatisfaction with existing theories and Psychology
explanation. Example: Leon Festinger was dissatisfied with ‘behaviourism’
to explain attitude change. He thus formulated a new approach called the
dissonance theory that made specific predictions about when and how people
would change their attitude. In this way new research is continuously carried
out in order to update the existing theory.
2) Theory is not the only way to derive a new hypothesis in social psychology.
Researchers often observe a phenomenon in everyday life that they find
curious and interesting. The researcher then constructs a theory related to
that phenomenon, thus generating new theory. Example: The mere presence
of other person that led to better performance lead to the famous phenomena
of ‘social facilitation’.
The research methods used by social psychology could be divided into two broad
categories: 1) Experimental method, and 2) Non-experimental method.
1.4 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

An experiment involves manipulating one variable – which we call the
Independent Variable (IV) and then seeing whether this has an effect on a second
variable, which we refer to as the Dependent Variable (DV). To explain this, we
describe an experiment conducted by Scheier and Carver (1977) in which the
independent variable ‘self awareness’ was manipulated by having participants
either watch themselves in a mirror or not. These two levels of self awareness
high self awareness (mirror present) and low self awareness (mirror not present)
formed the two experimental conditions. The prediction was that people in the
high self-awareness would show more extreme emotional responses. Participant’s
self reported emotions were measured. These emotions provided the dependent
variable in the experiment.
The experimental method could further be divided into two sub-categories

i) Laboratory method, ii) Field method.
1.4.1 Laboratory Method

The majority of experiments are conducted in a laboratory. In some studies, the
laboratory is equipped with television, video cameras, computer monitors,
microphones and other experimental apparatuses. In other cases, the laboratory
is a simple room with a table and chair wherein a participant fills out a
questionnaire. The benefit of conducting a laboratory experiment is that conditions
could be highly controlled. Putting it in another way, within the confines of the
laboratory, everything (example: environment, temperament, instructions given
by the researcher) apart from the independent variable can be held constant. This
way if changes in the independent variable are accompanied by changes in the
dependent variable, we can very confidently say that the changes in the dependent
variable are caused by the independent variable. Another benefit of experiments
conducted in such a controlled environment is that they can be replicated, which
would otherwise be more difficult to create outside the laboratory. Laboratory
experiments have been used to study a wide range of social phenomena and have
formed the basis for a number of highly influenced theories.
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Introduction to Social The Advantages and Disadvantages of Laboratory method are:
Psychology
1) Although the high degree of control over conditions allows us to infer
causality from the finding – it also makes the experiment rather artificial
i.e. the experiments lacks external validity.
2) Information that participants pickup from the experimental context that leads
them to guess what the experimenter is predicting will happen. When this
happens it will influence the ‘behaviour’ which the experimenter is looking
for because the internal mental processes of the participant cannot be
controlled.
3) Experimenters themselves may also pose a risk to the validity of an
experiment. ‘Experimenter effects’ are subtle cues or signals that are given
out by an experimenter who knows the experimental hypothesis – ex: body
language, eye movements, tone of voice.
1.4.2 Field Method

Experiments are not only confined to the laboratory. They are also conducted in
naturalistic settings. For example given a situation; wherein an individual requires
help, how many people come forward to help and why? Field experiments have
greater external validity (not being artificial but genuine) than laboratory
experiment. They are less likely to be influenced by ‘demand characteristics’ a
participants typically have no idea that they are taking part in a study.
The Advantage and Disadvantage of Field Method are:

1) The situation is not nearly as controlled as in a laboratory situation and so
the impact of external influences cannot be ruled out.
2) It is also not possible to randomly assign participants to conditions.
1.5 NON-EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

Researchers have three options. They can:
1) Ask research participants to report on their behaviour, thoughts or feeling –
through self report.
2) They can observe questioned participant directly – observation
3) They can go to an archive and use data originally collected for other purposes.
Although experiments are the best way of determining cause and effect, there
are many circumstances where they are practically not feasible. If we are interested
to know how gender, ethnicity or age affects behaviour, we cannot assign
participants to different conditions of an experimental method. Moreover, when
social psychologists are interested to study psychological phenomenon on a broad
societal level (ex: ethnic prejudice), experimental method cannot be used. In
such instances a number of non-experimental methods are available to a social
psychologist. These are: i) Observation method, ii) Archival method, iii) Case
study, iv) Correlational method, and v) Survey method.
1.5.1 Observation Method

In social psychology, the observers are trained as social scientists who set out to
answer questions about a particular social phenomena by observation and coding
it according to a prearranged set of criteria. This method varies according to the
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degree to which the observer actively participates in the scene. At one extreme Definition, Concept and
the observer is a non participant. S/he neither participates nor intervenes in any Psychology
way as for example: a researcher is interested in children’s social behaviour may
stand outside a playground to observe. Children at play in some situations, by
their very nature, require observer participants, who observe, but tries not to
alter the situation in any way, for example – to get to know the intricacies of
certain social phenomena like rituals, cultural way. The observer can be a
participant as a friend or relative. Certain behaviours are difficult to observe as
they occur rarely or privately. It is confined to one particular group of people,
setting, and activity.
1.5.2 Archival Method

Another way that social psychologist can observe social phenomenon without
conducting an experiment is to re-analyse existing data. The researcher examines
the accumulated document or archives of a culture, for example; diaries, novels,
suicide notes, television shows, movies, magazines, newspaper articles,
advertising, sexual violence etc.
Archival analysis can tell us a great deal about the society’s values and beliefs. It
has got two advantages. It is inexpensive and it can study the change over time
frame. This is particularly useful when researches are interested in the effect of
societal events on behaviours, which have occurred in the past. This research
comes under ‘archival research’ first conducted by Hovland and Sears (1940).
1.5.3 Case Study Method

Other non-experimental methods are field studies and case studies. Case study
is a study of a particular participant or a small group of participants which involve
a detailed and often descriptive investigation. Example: Behaviour of people
after the earthquake.
1.5.4 Correlation Method

In correlation studies, the researcher carefully observers and records the
relationship between (or among) two or more factors technically known as
variables. For example: Is physical attractiveness is related to a student’s
popularity with other students. In a correlation design, the research does not
influence the student’s behaviour in any way but merely records information.
The hallmark of an experimental design is intervention – with putting people in

controlled situation or have confederates. Correlation research asks if there is an
association between the variables and whether this association is high (+ve) or
low (-ve) or neutral (no correlation). Example: whether or not watching violence
on television is related to aggressive behaviour.
The Advantages and Disadvantage of Correlational method are:

1) Correlation designs enable research to study problems in which intervention
is impossible.
2) This design is efficient. It allows research to collect more information and
relationship.
3) No clear cut evidence of cause and effect
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Introduction to Social 1.5.5 Survey Method
Psychology
It is a research method that involves asking participants to respond to a series of
questions, through interviews or questionnaires. Poll survey, marketing survey
are the best examples. Surveys can be administered to a large, sample with relative
ease and at little expense because surveys are gathered from large numbers and
researchers can be sure of it is genuinity. The downside to questionnaire is that if
they are not very carefully designed they can be misinterpreted by
participants. There are also a number of response biases that participants have a
tendency to blindly agree with positively worded questions and frequently fail to
use the full range of possible responses like ‘I don’t know’ etc.
1.6 OTHER RESEARCH METHODS

As psychology advanced and become global, and started focusing on cross cultural
social phenomena, this method became a very important method.
1.6.1 Cross Cultural Method

It has two goals (i) demonstrates that a particular psychological process or law
is universe and it operates the same way in all human being across various cultures.
(ii) explore the differences among human beings, by examining how culture
influences the basic social psychological process.
1.6.2 Research Through Internet

Recently social psychology has started to conduct research using the internet.
The internet offers several advantages to researchers.
i) Internet makes it easier to recruit participants who come from diverse
background distant geographic regions or specific group.
ii) The information collected from the participants is automatically recorded.
This increases efficiency of data collection.
iii) Internet research is less expensive.
iv) Internet chat rooms and bulletin boards provide a rich sample of human
social behaviour, where people discuss current social issues or hobbies on
the online forums and study many topics including communication, prejudice
and spread of new ideas. In research:
• Same subjects can participate in many studies more than once
• The identity, responses in a frivolous and malicious manner.
• Impossible to monitor participant’s behaviour or undesirable
distractions.
Exercise-II
1) Below are given contain topics find out which research method would
suit them
• A child reactions to a stranger.
• A behaviour of criminal after rehabilitation.
• Percentage of relapses in alcoholics.
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• Studying the celebrity status and suicidal rate among them. Research Methods in Social
Psychology
• Public opinion about homosexual individual.
• Study of ‘twitter’ or ‘blog’ to check mentally health or unhealthy
statements.
• Studying peoples pro-social or helping behaviour using a confederate.
2) Write examples from T.V. and media about violation of ethical standards.
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1.7 RESEARCH ETHICS

Regardless of the method used to conduct research in social psychology, because
it involves people, social psychologist needs to be aware of a number of ethical
issues. To ensure that research is not physically or psychologically harmful to
participants, in 1972, the American Psychological Association suggested a set of
principles for ethical conduct to guide the conduction of research.
1) Participant Welfare: It is essential that the physical and psychological

welfare of participant is protected. Although it is not too difficult to determine
the extent of physical harm to the participants, it is indeed difficult to
determine the extent of psychological harm. Some experiments may leave a
negative psychological impact (fear, stress, anxiety) for example: Eliciting
anger may for example lead to temporarily depressed self esteem (Carver
and Glass 1978). So efforts should be made to ensure that the negative
psychological impact should be inconsequential and short lived.
2) Deception: In order to avoid the problem caused by ‘demand characteristics’

or subjective bias. It is important that participant is not aware of the aim of
the study Milgram (1963) deceived participants by making them believe
that they were really administering electric shocks. This was necessary to
gauge the participants reactions. Many other experiments use confederates
– someone who is a participant but who is actually an actor instructed by
the experimenter in order to test a particular hypothesis. However, most
deception is of a trival nature, and the participants are told the full purpose
of the experiment after completion and there is no evidence that deception
causes long term harm.
3) Confidentiality: Participants in social psychology research is often required

to disclose information of a personal or intimate nature. To reassure
participants that this information will not be used against them in any way
social psychologists need to inform participants that data derived from their
participation will be completely confidential. Thus the anonymity of
participants is also usually safeguarded by identifying them with a ‘number’
(roll number) rather than name.
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Introduction to Social 4) Informed consent and debriefing: It is a well known practice to obtain
Psychology
informed consent from individuals prior to their participation in a study.
The participants provide their full and voluntary consent in writing or they
can withdraw from the experiment. After the experiment, participants need
to be fully debriefed, this involve telling them the true purpose of the
experiment. It gives experimenters the opportunity to demonstrate the
importance and relevance of the research and the participants an opportunity
to contribute to the genuine cause to the field (of social psychology) research.
One of the important risks is the invasion of privacy, which should be
respected and valued. The researcher who studies sensitive topics as sex,
drug, alcohol use, illegal behaviour, religion, beliefs. Must be protected the
risk involved minimal, should be – possible risk for the participants in the
research should not be greater than those ordinally encountered in daily
life.
1.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have studied the various terms like social behaviour, social
interaction and social influence and their significance in understanding the concept
of social psychology. We also came to know the scope of social psychology
which basically involves social stimuli and social situations. Later we have studied
the different definitions of social psychology. Next we concentrated on how a
social psychologist conducts its research. Firstly we became aware that the
research starts with setting appropriate goals of research i.e. description, casual
analysis theory building application and exploring the basic sources of topic
generation from earlier research or personal knowledge and experience.
Lastly you were provided with a detailed understanding of various experimental,

laboratory, field, non-experimental, observation, archival, case study, correlation
and survey methods. Also you would have learnt the new research through internet
and how to take care of conducting a fair and scientific research by following
ethical code of research.
1.9 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) Describe the terms social behaviour, social interaction and social influence
and explain their relation to the concept of social psychology.
2) Enumerate the goals of researches and its sources.
3) What is an experimental method? Describe the types of experimental
methods.
4) What are the non-experimental methods? Mention the types of non-
experimental methods and describe in detail any one method, critically
examining its merits and demerits.
1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

Baron, R.A and Donn Bryne (2006) Social Psychology, Prentice Hall of India
10th Edition, New Delhi – 110 001.
Crisp, R.J and Rhiannon N., Turner Essential Social Psychology, Sage
Publications, New Delhi.
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1.11 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT Research Methods in Social
Psychology
QUESTIONS
Self Assessement Questions 1 (Exercise I)
1) c
2) b
3) a
4) e
5) e
6) f
7) d
8) f
9) c
10) b
11) d
12) a
Self Assessment Questions 2 (Exercise II)
1) Observation method
2) Case study method
3) Correlation method
4) Archival method
5) Survey method
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Psychology UNIT 2 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY AND OTHER
RELATED DISCIPLINES
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Historical Perspective
2.2.1 Social Philosophers
2.2.2 Pioneer Anthropologists
2.2.3 British Evolutionists
2.2.4 Early Sociologists
2.3 Landmarks in the History of Social Psychology
2.4 Social Psychology and other Related Disciplines
2.4.1 Levels of Analysis of Behaviour
2.4.2 Social Psychology and General Psychology
2.4.3 Social Psychology and Sociology
2.4.4 Social Psychology and Anthropology
2.4.5 Social Psychology and Ethics
2.4.6 Social Psychology and Political Science
2.4.7 Social Psychology and Economics
2.4.8 Significance of Social Psychology Today
2.5 Let Us Sum Up
2.0 INTRODUCTION
In previous unit we have been acquainted with the concepts of social behaviour,
social interaction and social influenced and also have define the nature and scope
of social psychology. We also took a close glance at various research methods
which a social psychologists use. In this unit we will see the contributions made
by early theorists like social psychologist, philosophers, pioneer anthropologists,
British evolutionists, early sociologists and others to create an awareness about
the social psychological concepts. We will also touch upon other important
landmarks in the history of social psychology, bringing it to the status of the
field as it today. Next we will see the close association of the filed of social
psychology to other social sciences. In this unit we will also discuss the emergence
of social psychology as a separate discipline.
2.1 OBJECTIVES
After readings this unit, you will be able to:
18 • discuss the journey of ‘emerging discipline’ of social psychology;
• identify the various landmarks of social psychology; and Historical Perspective of
Social Psychology, Social
• discuss the close link among social psychology and related disciplines. Psychology and Other
Related Disciplines
2.2 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Social psychology combines elements of psychology and social sciences and
has a complex genealogy, which includes strains from many disciplines. It came
on scene about 1900, after the way had been prepared by at least four groups of
scholars: social philosophers, pioneer anthropologists, British evolutionists and
early sociologists.
2.2.1 Social Philosophers

Ancient, medieval and early modern philosophers speculated widely about human
nature, heredity and instincts, impulses, customs and social relations. In the writing
of Plato Aristotle, Montesquieu, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau and many others, the
problems of social living were given considerable attention.
2.2.2 Pioneer Anthropologists

In 1860, two Germans scholars, Herman Steinthal and Mortiz Lazarus, established
a journal called Folk psychology, with the intention of discovering the mental
processes of primitive people by studying their language, mythology, religion,
literature and art ‘Group minds’ and folk souls’, these concepts inspired William
Wundt.
Wundt felt that higher social processes could be explored in the laboratory, but
they had to be investigated by way of the first protests against the ancient doctrine
that the group may have a collective mind, soul or psyche over and above the
minds of the individuals in the group. But he could not stick to this individualised
approach like most of his contemporaries; he dealt with collective minds and
grand generalisations about the evolution of culture. Nonetheless, Steintal,
Lazarus and Wundt did bring anthropology and psychology within speaking
distance of each other.
2.2.3 British Evolutionists

Charles Darwin made a tremendous contribution to social science as well as
biological science. His statement of the theory of evolution in ‘The origin of
species’ changed the course of scientific thinking.
Spencer, Darwin’s contemporary is known for applying evolutionary concepts
to social life. His principle contributions to social psychology were his insistence
that life is a process of continual adjustment of internal to external relations
(society) and his emphasis on study of social environment. He foresaw a “social
science” which would study how the individual becomes an organic part of a
group and how the group becomes an organic unity.
2.2.4 Early Sociologists

Auguste Comte, the 19th century French author is considered the founder of
sociology and possibly the first genuine social scientist. He stated clearly the
idea that the human mind can develop only through society, the individual must
be considered always in a social setting. Comte was one of the first to discuss the
existence and importance of social setting. 19
Introduction to Social Another pioneering French sociologist important to social psychology was Emile
Psychology
Durkheim. His well known theory of ‘collective representations’ stressed the
significance of group experiences.
Max Weber, a German sociologist-economist-historian, influenced later social

psychologists, both directly and indirectly. His analysis of bureaucracy in the
government and business organisations and the effects of Protestantism on
economic processes, as well as his studies of comparative religions, have
stimulated the research of contemporary social scientists.
2.3 LANDMARKS IN THE HISTORY OF SOCIAL

PSYCHOLOGY
The idea of studying social processes in a scientific manner emerged in the mid
19th century French thinker Auguste Comte (1838) helped to lay the foundations
for social psychology by arguing that society and social issues should be studied
in the same scientific manner as natural science. Although it is difficult to pinpoint
an exact starting point, the study of social psychology gathered pace at the turn
of the 20th century. In 1895, French writer Gustav LeBon proposed a theory of
crowd behaviour, arguing that people behave badly in groups because they are
controlled by a crowd mind. This work was a precursor to much later work on
social influence and aggression. It was the first work to focus on the way in
which the behaviour of individuals is influenced by their social context. In 1897,
Norman Triplett conducted what was probably the first social psychology
experiment, when he systematically compared children who completed a task
alone or in the presence of others who were completing the same task. He found
that performing in the presence of others led children to complete the task more
quickly because it aroused a competitive instinct.
In 1908, the first two textbooks on social psychology were published. English
psychologist William McDougall wrote ‘An Introduction to Social Psychology’,
which grounded social behaviour in biology, talking about the role of instincts,
which he defined as inherited or innate dispositional characteristics, in producing
primary emotions (for example fear, anger, curiosity and tenderness) in response
to stimuli in the social world. American sociologist Edward Ross wrote Social
Psychology from a rather different perspective, focusing on more complex social
phenomena such as crowd behaviour, culture, conformity, and conflict.
The first half of the 20th century saw an explosion in social psychology research.
Many of the classic social psychology studies that occurred in this period. In
1934, in an investigation of behaviour and attitudes of American hotel owners
towards a Chinese couple. LaPierre found that people’s attitudes and behaviour
do not always correspond with one another. In 1935, Sherif experimentally
demonstrated the role of social norms in influencing people’s behaviour when
they are in the presence of others. In 1940, Hovland and Sears proposed and
tested a theory that explained why people behaved aggressively, based on how
people take out their frustrations about their lives on a scapegoat.
The Second World War had a profound influence on the direction of social
psychological theory and research. At around this time, societies began to realise
that prejudice against ethnic minorities was irrational and morally wrong (Harding,
Kutner, Proshanky & Chein, 1954). Psychologists became interested in the idea
20 that bringing together members of different groups would lead to mutual regard
and respect. The battlefield in the Second World War also provided a good Historical Perspective of
opportunity to consider the effects of contact. Psychology and Other
Related Disciplines
Research of this kind resulted in Gordon Allport’s classic 1954 text, ‘The Nature
of Prejudice’, in which he proposed the ‘contact hypothesis’, the idea that bringing
different groups together would reduce prejudice, although critically, only under
certain conditions (Allport, 1954). At around the same time a series of classic
studies were conducted by Sherif and colleagues looking at group dynamics at a
summer camp for boys (Sherif & Sherif, 1953; Sherif, White, & Harvey, 1955).
This research demonstrated two of the key conditions for intergroup contact to
reduce prejudice – cooperation and common goals – as well as providing the
basis for a classic theory of intergroup conflict: realistic group conflict theory.
Events during the Second World War also generated research on conformity in
an attempt to understand events in Germany. Solomon Asch (1956) experimentally
investigated the impact of group members on the individual while, in one of the
most famous social psychology experiments, Milgram (1963) explored why
people follow orders, even where those orders involve causing harm to other
people. At around the same time, Adorno and colleagues (1950) considered
whether people with a certain type of personality were more likely to behave
with prejudice towards others, in their research on the authoritarian personality.
In the later half of the 20th century, through to the present day, research on social
psychology has continued to rapidly expand and diversify. The 1960s saw research
on a diverse range of topics including aggression, pro-social behaviour and
interpersonal relationships, while the role of cognition in social psychology came
to the fore in the 1970’s.
It is only around 1970-80’s social psychology become ‘application oriented’ many
practical and social aspects of human behaviour were researched. Some of these
were:
Personal health – example: Life style and social behaviour
Social support and individual behaviour
Legal processes – example: How valid in the eye witnesses testimony
Work setting – example: Effect of different work setting – climate, structure and
role affects the individual behaviour. Around 1990 , the field of social psychology
extended to become more global with its in multicultural perspective. The main
focus here was to study the generalisations of certain social behaviours to other
cultures; and Which aspects of social behaviour are cultures specific?
Exercise-I
1) Arrange the following events according to historical timeframe.
Column I Column II
1) Durkleim a) Social norms
2) Darwin b) Crowd behaviour
3) Sherif c) Collective representations
4) Milgrion d) Folk psychology and groupmind
5) Lebon e) The origin of species
6) Lazarus f) Conformity
21
Psychology 2.4 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND OTHER
RELATED DISCIPLINES
The goal of social psychology is to identify universal properties of human nature
that make everyone – regardless of social class or culture susceptible to social
influence. By contrast political science, sociology and economics, cultural
anthropology have a starting point in the political, societal and cultural systems
in which an individual lives while general psychology studies learning processes,
motivation and perception, intelligence, social psychology studies the behaviour
of individual in his face-to-face interaction with others, anthropology is concerned
with the culture of the group, its technology, its beliefs, values and so on, sociology
studies the social institutions and social organisations and social systems and
attempts to relate the various aspects of social structure to the patterns of human
behaviour and regulate the behaviour of individuals through a set of rules. Thus
the knowledge of norms, sanctions and roles in the given society will help the
sociologist to explain the uniform patterns of human behaviour. Social
psychologist, as against this focuses on how individual perceives the norms,
sanctions and roles in the group in which he lives and work. Thus social
psychology tries to understand the influences which produces regularities and
diversities in human social behaviour. Its interest in the individual as a participant
in the social relationships and its emphasis is on the understanding of the social
influence process underlying relationships.
2.4.1 Levels of Analysis of Behaviour

Social psychology’s focus on social behaviour is shared by several other
disciplines in the socials sciences including sociology, economics, political
science, anthropology, psychology etc. each of these disciplines is concerned
with the influence of social and societal factors on human behaviour for example,
the effect of recession on the world economy, a typical society with its unique
rules and norm, a family which is totally authoritarian, an NGO organisation and
its functioning.
In all these examples, the emphasis is on larger social structure like world
economy, ethnic group, family, and an NGO and not on individual
behaviour. However the important difference between social psychology and the
other social sciences is in their level of analysis.
The societal level of analysis is used by sociologists, economists, political

scientists, and other social scientists. These scholars attempt to understand general
patterns of social behaviour, such as homicide rates, voting behaviour, or
consumer spending. According to this viewpoint, social behaviour can be
explained by such forces as economic hard times, class conflicts, and clashes
between competing ethnic groups, regional crop failures, governmental politics,
or technological change. The goal of societal analysis is to identify links between
broad social forces and general patterns of social behaviour. To study violence in
urban areas, social scientists might identify relationships between rates of violent
crime and such factors as poverty, immigration, or the industrialisation of a society.
The individual level of analysis is typically used by clinical and personality

psychologists, who explain behaviour in terms of a person’s unique life history
and psychological characteristics. According to this viewpoint, personality traits
22
and motives can explain why individuals behave as they do, and why two people Historical Perspective of
may react quite differently to the same situation. Emphasis is given to individual Psychology and Other
differences in childhood experiences, in ability and motivation, and in personality Related Disciplines
or psychological adjustment. The individual approach explains violent crime in
terms of the unique histories and characteristics of the criminal. To understand
such behaviour, the psychologists using the individual approach would consider
the personality and background of the person: was the criminal depressed or
suffering from paranoid delusions or using drugs? What kind of life had the
bank teller led? For example, was he physically abused as a child?
Social psychologists adopt a different level of analysis: The interpersonal level.

Social psychologists typically focus on a person’s current social situation. That
social situation includes the other people in the environment, their attitudes and
behaviours, and their relationship to the individual. The same teenage boy who
is outgoing and talkative with his close friends may be shy and withdrawn with
unfamiliar adults. The same teenage girl who got. As in math in her supportive
all-girl high school may be struggle with math in her competitive, largely male
college math classes. Change the social context, and the individual will change.
2.4.2 Social Psychology and General Psychology

Social psychology is so intimately related with general psychology that it may
be considered as a branch of psychology itself. This fact is also clear from the
matter appearing in the chapter relating to the scope of social psychology in the
preceding pages. Many subjects of psychology are studied in the field of social
psychology. Besides, social psychology takes within its purview some such
subjects which do not form a part of general psychology. Therefore, both of
these subjects have been separated.
General psychology, in a way, independently carries out the study of human

behaviour whereas social psychology aims at knowing as to how far and in what
way the behaviour of an individual affects the behaviour of others. For example:
assessing the intelligence of an individual is a job of a psychologist but to study
the influence of peer group of intelligence becomes a topic of research of social
psychologist. One of the aims of the social psychology is to study changes in
human behaviour in the changed modern conditions. It is a fact that the
development of various qualities, habits, aptitudes and character of an individual
takes place in the society. Conditions in a society are ever-changing and these
changing conditions are deeply related to an individual’s development. In general
psychology, too, we try to study various aspects of man’s development. In social
psychology while studying these aspects of development, our mind goes
particularly towards those social influences which directly or indirectly affect
them. In this way we find that general psychology and social psychology are
inter-linked. Consequently, it is very difficult to keep them apart. However, the
field of activity of both subjects is different and therefore, these are studied
independently.
2.4.3 Social Psychology and Sociology

In sociology we study groups, society and institutions, whereas in social
psychology our attention is centered round the action and reactions of individuals.
Individuals and groups are naturally related to society. For example: studying
‘family’ as a whole and its structure and function is the job of a sociologist but
23
Introduction to Social how family atmosphere influences each child differently becomes the study topic
Psychology
for a social psychologist. As such, relationship between sociology and social
psychology is but natural. It is people who form masses and organise society.
Many activities of persons take place either in a group or in a society. Therefore,
in studying a person’s behaviour we have to study those groups, societies or
institutions where he shows or had shown his behaviour.
Social customs, religion, marriage and other social traditions develop according
to the needs of the people. The sociologist has to take the aid of social psychology
in order to find out the necessities that inspire man for creating and organising
his various customs and traditions.
2.4.4 Social Psychology and Anthropology

In anthropology we study different organisms and developmental and cultural
aspects of human life. Anthropology has two branches – physical and cultural.
Social psychology appears to be related with both of them. In the field of physical
anthropology differences relating to heredity and race are studied. Study of
differences relating to heredity and race becomes a subject of social psychological
studies. An anthropologist also takes interest in group behaviour, but his interest
remains confined to ancient and aborigine races. A study of a racial or cultural
group in its detail to observe continuity of a tradition is a subject matter of
anthropologist, but how the culture shapes the cognitive and affective tendency
of an individual is a matter of interest to a social psychologist. The anthropologist
unlike the social psychologist does not study an individual’s behaviour in the
cultural or social background. However, it is now seen that sociologists have
started taking interest in cultural studies along with the study of some very
important persons because of the life story of such important persons which
plays a vital role in the building of a particular culture. It will have to be admitted
that this kind of study conducted by anthropologists will remain incomplete
without the help of social psychology. This shows that anthropology and social
psychology are inter-dependent upto some extent.
2.4.5 Social Psychology and Ethics

It is evident from the preceding discussion that social psychology is related in
some way or other with all those sciences which analyse and define human
behaviour. The same holds true in the case of ethics too. Ethics analyses public
behaviour and determines its appropriateness or otherwise. In the background of
a man’s good or bad behaviour lie some of his drives. The study of these drives
is one of the main aims of social psychology. It is thus evident that ethics has
close relationship with social psychology. For example: ethical appropriateness
or inappropriateness of an individual or group behaviour is a study of ethics,
anthropologist or a sociologist, but the main motive behind following an ethical
code or reasons for doing or not doing so are a subject of concern to social
psychologist.
2.4.6 Social Psychology and Political Science

In political science a detailed analysis is made of the mental attitude of rulers
and the ruled. It also undertakes the study of such measures and sources that
strengthen the state authority and administration. Side by side theories are also
propounded to protect the interests of the ruled. How is the public opinion formed?
24
What should the leader do in order to build public opinion in his favour? What Historical Perspective of
should be done to inspire and encourage the public? How should the ruler deal Psychology and Other
with national and international problems? How should he build up organisational? Related Disciplines
These are some of the issues that come under the purview of political science. To
understand the various problems relating to politics, the political scientists have
to take the help of social psychology, because it is only through social psychology
that political science may succeed in understanding the latest and complex
problems and motives of the public. Similarity, social psychology has to lean
towards political science for understanding some of its subjects because political
science deals with the welfare of masses. Many a studies about leadership,
authoritarian personality and group dynamics and group conformity are taken up
by social psychologist.
2.4.7 Social Psychology and Economics

Under economics activities relating to earning of money and production are
studied. Economics is essentially a subject dealing with money matters,
production, consumption and distribution of products and money. In the
background of all such matters and activities concerning earning of money lie an
individual’s natural drives and necessities. As such, economics will certainly
need the help of social psychology. An individual’s behaviours are motivated
due to his monetary considerations. Consequently, economics, too, has to rely
on social psychology in understanding certain matters. A very recent example is
the economic recession and its impact on different individuals.
2.4.8 Significance of Social Psychology Today

Social psychology is not only related to other social sciences. Since it became an
applied field, social psychological concepts of awareness, attitudes, social
perceptions, motivational aspects are been used to study – rural problem,
organisation problem, health and fertility behaviours and environmental attitudes
and so on.
The main utility of social psychology is that through its study we may get enough
help in solution of various social problems. Each nation of the world is facing
different types of problems. For instance our own India is facing problems of
unemployment, caste, communalism, linguism, regionalism, socialism,
communism, sectarianism, beggary, prostitution, capitalism, religion, dress, food
habits, standard of living, robbery, dacoity, poverty, diseases etc. All these create
great difficulties from time to time. Similar problems are found in other countries
too. At the root of all these problems are some psychological causes. Social
psychology is capable of reaching the roots of these problems and offering some
solutions. Therefore, the utility of social psychology for us cannot be dispute.
Individuals, institutions, society or the government have equal opportunities to
make use of social psychology. In fact, these bodies do take the help of social
psychology. Thus, we take the help of social psychology for solving our social
problems as and when needed in some form or the other.
Exercise-II
Fill in the blanks
1) The level of analysis of sociology field is .......... (Societal / Interpersonal).
25
Psychology 2) Psychology studies the behaviour at .............................. (societal level /
individual level).
3) Political science studies ....................................... (political system /
political incident).
4) Cultural anthropology’s interest is ............................... (cultural values
of a person/cultural system).
5) Economics is worried about ................................. (world economy / per
capita income)
6) General psychology concentrates on ............................ (learning process
/ family income).
7) Social psychology’s subject matter is ............................. (individual in
a social context / group in a society).
8) Ethics analysis ................................ of behaviour (appropriateness /
causes of appropriate).
9) Social psychology studies or .................................. on norms values or
effect of individual behaviour (norms/values environment).
10) Sociology studies ...................................... (organisations / religious value
of an individual).
2.5 LET US SUM UP

This unit started with acknowledging the contributions of early social scientists
– social philosophers, evolutionists, anthropologists and sociologists to the field
of social psychology.
Then the unit traced the beginning of social psychology field with books published
by McDougall and Allport. It then slowly touched upon the landmarks in the
historical development of social psychology as a separate discipline like study
of crowd behaviour, conformity behaviour and attitude, formation of social norm,
racial prejudice, co-operation and common goals and lifestyle and social
behaviour, environment concerns etc. Later in the unit, we related and the subject
matter of social psychology with other similar disciplines – like sociology,
psychology, political science, ethnics, anthropology and economics. It stressed
that the difference is mainly because of the level of analysis done by other social
sciences which is either societal or individual level on compared to interpersonal
level analysis by social psychologist.

1) Briefly explain the contributions of early theorists to social psychology.
2) Enumerate the important landmarks in the historical development of social
psychology.
3) Explain the differences in the level of analysis used by social psychologists
and other social scientists.
26
4) Describe the similarities and differences in bringing out relationship of social Historical Perspective of
psychology and (any two) Political science, Sociology, Psychology and Psychology and Other
Economics Related Disciplines

Baron, R.A and Donn Bryne (2006) Social Psychology, Prentice Hall of India
(10th Edition), New Delhi.
Crisp, R.J and Rhiannon N.Turner, Essential Social Psychology, Sage

Publications, New Delhi.
2.8 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
(Exercise-I)
a) 3, b) 5, c) 1, d) 6, e) 2, f) 4

(Exercise-II)
1) Societal
2) Individual level
3) Political system
4) Cultural system
5) World economy
6) Learning process
7) Individual in a societal context
8) Appropriateness
9) Norms and values
10) Organisations
27
Psychology UNIT 3 SOCIAL AND PERSON PERCEPTION–
DEFINITION, DESCRIPTION AND
FUNCTIONAL FACTORS
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Social Cognition – Description and Nature
3.3 Social Perception – Definition
3.4 Mechanisms Social Perception
3.4.1 Understanding Temporary States
3.4.2 Basic Channels Non-verbal Communication
3.5 Understanding of the Most Permanent or Lasting Characteristics –
Attributions
3.5.1 Types of Attributions
3.5.2 Theories of Attributions
3.6 Impression Formation
3.7 Implicit Personality Theory
3.8 Person Perception
3.8.1 Mechanisms of Person Perception
3.9 Let Us Sum Up
3.0 INTRODUCTION
Social cognition involves two basic processes of social perception and person
perception. The process of social perception helps us in understanding other
people and in doing so looks for the causes behind their behaviour. The process
starts with using the non-verbal communication channels of body language to
understand the person. Next it attempts to understand the cause behind others
behaviour by describing the locus of causality or internal or external attribution.
The unit further studies the process of impression formation to get a clear
understanding of the other’s behaviour and touches upon ‘implicit personality
theory’ of preconceived assumptions about people based on our experience.
The unit then describes the second process of social cognition – person
perception, which deals with forming impressions of people using clues from
their roles in social life, physical cues, their distinct mannerisms forming schemas
or mental structures about people, stereotype, scripts. The unit further studies
the heuristics a mental short cuts which reduce complex judgement to simple
rules of thumb and social categorisation.
28
Social and Person
3.1 OBJECTIVES Perception – Definition,
Description and Functional
Factors
After readings through the unit, you will be able to:
• describe social perception and person perception;
• identified different mechanisms behind forming social perception;
• explain the term close to social perception – person perception; and
• analysis the mechanisms of forming person perception.
3.2 SOCIAL COGNITION – DESCRIPTION AND

NATURE
Apart from the self, the individual is curious to know about the other people.
The phenomenon of how people think about other people is discussed in the
social cognition. It is a broad term that describe on the way perceiver encode,
process, remember and use information in social contexts in order to make sense
of other people’s behaviour. It becomes an essential element in our understanding
of inter-group and interpersonal processes.
3.3 SOCIAL PERCEPTION – DEFINITION

“We had one girl in our college, she was very popular among boys but was a
subject of jealously of girls, because boys use to always follow her and she was
constantly interacting with them. One day when I asked the other girls ‘what is
that this girl has got? The girls unanimously expressed that, she has the knack of
talking to boys – the way she looks at them, smiles, her posture, her mannerisms
give boys a clue that she is ready for friendship”.
This example brings us to a very important concept in social psychology, Social

Perception, that is the processes through which we seek to understand other
persons. Because other people play such important roles in our life, we engage
in this process very often and devote a lot of effort in trying to figure out what
makes people tick? Why some people is socially popular and others are not?
Sometimes their efforts to impress others work but also we often make errors in
our efforts to understand them.
3.4 MECHANISMS OF SOCIAL PERCEPTION

Mechanisms of social perception – people use various techniques, methods, and
ways to know about others in order to get superficial or a deeper understanding
of them. Mechanisms of social perception include – nonverbal channels of
communications, internal and external attributions, impressions and implicit
theories about people.
The process of social perception sets the stage for much of social interactions.
Our perceptions of the way others feel, their motives and traits play an important
role in shaping the nature of our interaction with them. Knowing the other person
involves two stages.
Understanding temporary states of others – i.e. their present emotions and feelings.
29
Introduction to Social Understanding the most permanent or lasting characteristics i.e. their motives,
Psychology
intentions or traits.
3.4.1 Understanding Temporary States

Our social behaviour is affected by temporary factors or causes like changing
moods, fatigue, illness, and drugs – all these can influence the way in which we
think and behave. For example: one of our teacher use to behave in a ‘peculiar
way’ and later we realised that it was because she was used to take a strong drug
for her illness. Because such temporary factors exert influence on social
behaviours and thoughts, we try to find out how others are feeling. How do we
go about this process of understanding? If we attempt to ask the people about
how they are feeling – we may not get genuine answers and people may look at
us in a suspicious manner. So the next best alternative and a less direct method
for gathering information about others is to give careful attention their body
language and other non-verbal cues, provided by changes in their facial
expressions, eye contact, posture, body movement. As noted by Depaulo (1992)
such non-verbal behaviour is relatively irresistible or difficult to control, so that
even when others try to conceal their inner feelings from us, these non-verbal
cues often leak out real feelings in many subtle way especially the people close
to the person would understand. The information conveyed by such cues and our
efforts to interpret this are often described as ‘non-verbal communication’. The
language of facial expressions, eye contact, tone and posture (body language).
3.4.2 Basic Channels of Non-verbal Communication

All of us are aware that we act differently when we are happy or when we are
sad. People tend to behave differently when experiencing different emotional
states. Let us understand how precisely our inner states show up in our behaviour.
This brings us to the basic channels through which such communications take
place and there are five basic channels:
i) facial expressions,
ii) eye contact,
iii) body language,
iv) body movements, and
v) touching and proximics.
i) Facial expressions: More than two thousand years ago, the Roman Orator
Cicero stated “The face is the image of the soul” by this he meant that
human feelings and emotions are often reflected in the face and modern
research asserts these findings. But are these facial expressions universal?
Early research suggest that facial expressions are universal (Ekman and
Friesen 1975) but the result of more recent study, (Russell 1994, Carroll
1996) indicate that although facial expressions are indeed universal, our
judgements of these emotions may also be affected by the context and
various situational cues.
ii) Eye contact: As in the case of face, it is also said that “our eyes are windows
of soul”. If some one is talking to you and is staring at you constantly, you
will feel uncomfortable. Also when some one does not maintain ‘eye contact’,
you may feel that the person is hiding something. Similarly, have you ever
30
had a conversation with someone wearing very dark glasses, if so, you may Social and Person
Perception – Definition,
be in a uncomfortable position and would wonder ‘what the other person is Description and Functional
hiding from you’? Factors
Human eyes are indeed a very powerful ‘cue’ in reflecting our feelings and
we do often learn much about others feelings from their eyes. While a high
level of eye contact with others is usually interpreted as a sign of liking or
positive feelings, a stare is often interpreted as a sign of anger or hostility
and many people find this non-verbal cues very disturbing.
iii) Body language (Gestures, postures and movement): Our emotions are always
accompanied by physiological arousal and changes. Every emotion has a
relatively same set of physiological reactions which have come to us by
evolution.
For example: when you are angry, your face becomes red, your fists are
drawn together and you are ready to attack.
When you are afraid, your legs start shivering but you are ready to run or
faint.
When you are sad, your face becomes pale, and you have a drained down
feelings
These postures, gestures and body movements together are termed as body
language. Body language often reveals other’s emotional states. Do you
have a pet (cat or dog)? if yes, when happy, how does a pet behaves - rubbing,
its body, sitting close to you, licking you, clearly indicating its happiness.
Straight body position is usually taken to indicate ‘rigidity’, whereas a
‘leaning forward’ body position indicates ‘warmness’ and ‘interest in the
other person’. Related finding indicate that large scale body movements or
postures can sometimes provide important information about others emotions
and even about their apparent traits.
iv) Body movement: More specific information is also provided by gestures.
Gestures fall into several categories; the most important are emblems –
body movements carrying specific meaning in a given culture. These
movements have clear and definite meaning in one culture but in other culture
it may not have any meaning. People have to be careful with their gestures
while traveling in different cultures as you might offend others without
meaning to do so.
v) Touching and Proximics: A lot depends on the meaning you assign to the
nature of this physical contact and the context in which it occurs. Existing
evidence indicates that when touching is considered appropriate, it often
produces positive reactions in the person being touched. One acceptable
may in which people in many different cultures touch strangers is through
handshake. Many books on etiquette suggest that handshake reveal much
about other. Person’s personality traits – assertiveness, humbleness,
submissiveness etc.
A practical applicability of these non-verbal cues is recognising deception or lie
detection. When people lie, subtle changes often occur in their facial expressions,
body posture or movements and certain non-verbal aspects of speech.
31
Psychology Non-verbal cues of deception
• Micro expressions – fleeting facial expressions
• Interchannel discrepancy – inconsistencies between non –
• verbal cues from different basic
• channels. Example: eyes telling
• something facial expressions
• pleasant
• Non-verbal aspect of speech – Pitch of voice raises
• Speak in a more hesitating manner
• Eye contact – Blinking is more
• Pupils are more dilated
• Low or unusually high eye
• Contact
• Facial expression – exaggerated facial expressions (more smile, broad
smile).
Further to check whether lies be detected across cultures? The study by Bond
and Atoum (2000) clearly showed that participants were accurate in recognising
lies by persons in their own culture than by persons from another culture.
3.5 UNDERSTANDING OF THE MOST

PERMANENT OR LASTING
CHARACTERISTICS – ATTRIBUTIONS
Humans are rational creatures and always behave in a balanced and coherent and
analytic way. This highly influential view was presented by Heider (1958) who
said that people are motivated by two primary .
The need to form a coherent view of the world and the need to gain control over
the environment. Heider believed that this desire for consistency, stability and
the ability to predict and control make us. Naïve scientists. In particular this
need to attribute causes to effects. (observed behaviours and event) and to create
a meaningful, stable world, where things make sense was the basis for a theoretical
approach which become highly influential in how social psychologist viewed
social cognition. This was referred as the attribution theory.
Heider believed that a ‘basic need to attribute’ make the world a clear, definable
and predictable place, thereby reducing uncertainty.
3.5.1 Types of Attributions

Attributing causality has generated a great deal of work that attempted to model
the way in which humans try to explain the actions of themselves and others.
This brings us to the ‘Locus of causality’. The main distinction can be made
between Internal-External attributions. The internal attribution locates the cause
of behaviour to the personal characteristics of the person such as personality,
mood, ability, attitudes and effort; it is also known as personal attribution. On
32
the contrary the external attribution locates the cause to the external events such Social and Person
as actions of others, nature of situation, social pressure or luck. It is also known Description and Functional
as situation attribution. A simple example can help us to understand this attribution Factors
of causality.
A child fails in an examination if he attributes the cause for his failure to his
effort then he is showing internal causality but if he attributes the cause for his
failure to his luck, then he is showing external causality.
3.5.2 Theories of Attributions

Attribution is complex process and so many theories have been proposed to
explain its operations. Two such views have been extremely influential
1) Theory of correspondence inference, and 2) co-variation model.
The correspondence inference

Jones and Davis’s (1965) correspondence inference theory focuses on how we
use information about other’s behaviour as a basis for inferring that they possess
various traits. Other’s behaviour provides us with a rich source of information
on which to draw.
Very often, it is observed that individuals act in certain ways not because doing
so is consistent with their own traits or they want to behave in that way (their
choice) but because external factors (external cause) leave them little choice. In
such cases, drawing inferences can be misleading.
Two kinds of effects can be observed, when ‘many’ individuals act in a certain
way, this is called common effect, which is usually caused by external events
and involves high social desirability. There are situations when an individual
behaves in a unique fashion, even though others may not and the act may be
socially undesirable. These are the non-common effects. According to Jones and
Davis, these non-common effects help one to infer about other’s traits.
According to Jones and Davis (1965) we assess whether there is a correspondence

between behaviour and personality (i.e. arrive at a correspondent inference or, in
other words, a dispositional attribution) by processing three key types of
information: social desirability, choice, and non-common effects.
Social desirability information refers to whether the behaviour observed is

consistent with or counters to, social norms. An internal, dispositional attribution
is more likely when socially to adhere to the majority viewpoint – because they
wish to avoid exclusion and ridicule for standing out and being different from
the crowd. As such, behaviour that is socially desirable does not tell us much
about people’s personalities because they may simply be going along with the
group norm, which may or may not coincide with their own personal point of
view. In contrast, someone who exhibits socially undesirable behaviour – who
goes against the social norm – is much more likely to be displaying behaviour
that corresponds to an underlying personality trait, because the behaviour cannot
be attributed to the person simply conformity to the majority.
According to Jones and Davis, another type of information that social perceivers
seek in order to make a correspondent inference is whether the behaviour in
question was freely chosen or not. An internal, dispositional attribution is more
33
Introduction to Social likely when the person being observed has freely chosen the given behaviour.
Psychology
Again, this makes a lot of sense; if behaviour has been freely chosen then it is
much more likely to be the result of an underlying personality characteristic or
attitude, rather than a result of coercion, threat, or inducements.
When a behaviour has a unique consequence, rather than having a range of

possible other consequences, we can refer to it as having non-common effects.
An internal, dispositional attribution is more likely when the outcome of a
behaviour has a unique (or non common) effect. For instance, a punch has really
only one possible outcome so it is more likely to be attributed to an internal,
dispositional cause.
The co-variation model

Kelley’s (1967) co-variation model accounts for multiple behaviours. Importantly,
it also details the processes that result in external as well as internal attributions.
According to Kelley, causality is attributed using the co-variation principle. This
principle states that for something to be the cause of a particular behaviour it
must be present when the behaviour is present and absent when the behaviour is
absent (i.e. it must co-vary). From multiple potential causes we ascribe causality
to the one that co-varies with the behaviour to the greatest extent – acting, as
Heider (1958) would say, exactly like native scientists.
The co-variation model states that three types of information are crucial for
arriving at an internal or external attribution; (i) consensus (ii) consistency and
(iii) distinctiveness information. When observing someone’s behaviour in a
particular social context, the combined impact of these three types of information
will determine what type of attribution is made. Consensus information is the
extent to which other people in the scene react in the same way as the target
person. Consistency information is the extent to which the target person reacts
in the same way on different occasions. Distinctiveness information is the extent
to which the target person reacts in the same way in other social contexts.
Here’s an example to illustrate. Imagine you are sitting in the class one day and
your professor walks in wearing an unusual multi-coloured sweater, sporting on
its front a picture of a large happy badger. As native scientists we like to have a
stable and predictable world, so you would be compelled to try to figure out why
your professor has chosen to wear such a strange garment. According to the co-
variation model, you would assess whether the three types of information outlined
above are present or absent.
First: consensus. Is everyone wearing the same type of sweater or is it only your
professor? If it is only your professor then you’re likely to begin to make an
internal, dispositional attribution: no-one else is behaving in the same way (i.e.
wearing a strange sweater), so the cause of this strange behaviour is likely to be
something uniquely to do with your professor, and not the situation (otherwise
other people would also be affected by whatever the cause might be –such as a
new fashion – and would also be wearing a badger sweater).
Second: consistency. Is this the first time your professor has worn this sweater,
or does he do it every week? If he wears this weird sweater every week, then
you’re going to be even more inclined to make a dispositional attribution. If he
is only wearing it this week then you might think he’s having only a temporary
34
fashion crisis – perhaps his washing machine has broken (a situational attribution) Social and Person
and the peculiar sweater is the only one he has left that is clean. Description and Functional
Factors
Third: distinctiveness: Does your professor wear this sweater in different classes?
Do you see him around campus sporting similarly ill-advised sweaters? If you
do, again you’re going to be more inclined to make a dispositional attribution
(i.e. your professor has chronic fashion problems, or perhaps an enduring badger
fixation). This is because the behaviour is not distinctive to the current situation
(which would make it likely that it is something in the immediate context that is
making your professor wear the sweater).
In sum, if your professor wears bad badger sweaters consistently over time and
in different contexts, and he is the only person to be doing so, then you are going
to make a dispositional attribution and conclude that he has terrible fashion sense
(or a badger fixation). So Dispositional attribution: Any explanation that locates
the cause as being internal to the person (personality, mood, attitudes, abilities,
effort). Situational attribution: Any explanation that locates the cause as being
external to the person (actions of others, the nature of the situation, luck).
3.6 IMPRESSION FORMATION

The moment we look at a stranger, the process of impression formation starts,
although we are not aware of such a process, we end up either forming positive
or negative impression about others. We look at a person and immediately a
certain impression of his character forms itself before us. A glance, a few spoken
words are sufficient to start a story about that person. As we have already seen,
some aspects of social perception, such as nonverbal communication, attribution
which requires a lot of hard work and it is not always easy to draw inferences
about other’s motives or traits from their behaviour. In contrast, forming first
impressions seems to be relatively effortless.
a) How do we form unified impressions of others in the quick and seeing
effortless way that we offer do?
Asch applied these ideas to understand impression formation process
suggesting that we do not form impressions simply by adding together all
the traits we observe in other persons. Rather we perceive these traits in
relation to one another so that the traits cease to exist individually and become
a part of an integrated dynamic whole.
On the basis of many studies, Asch concluded that, forming impressions
about others involve more than simply adding together individual traits –
but the two or more traits entering into a particular relationship. His research
exerted a lasting impact on the field.
The impression formation process has been explained by understanding
i) Role of central traits.
ii) The issue of adding versus averaging information.
iii) The primacy or recency of information.
iv) Central traits – when impressions are being formed of another person
some pieces of information carry greater weight than others and are
able to modify the whole picture. Asch called such influential 35
Introduction to Social characteristic as central traits and showed that ‘warm’ or ‘cold’
Psychology
dimension was a central one that could strongly affect the organisation
of people’s impression. Extending Asch’s study, Kelley (1950)
introduced a guest lecturer to several university classes. Some of the
students were told in advance that this lecturer was among other
characteristics, a rather ‘warm’ person and to others that he was ‘cold’
person. The lecturer gave an identical talk to each group and when
each of class member was asked about their impressions, each group
formed the impression as per earlier instructions that were consistent
with their initial description of ‘warm’ or cold.
b) Adding Versus Averaging Methods:
Many a times, we are given a list of personality traits that describe a person.
For example when describing a person, some one might say that he / she is
open minded, cleaver and modest, but is quiet. What sort of impression do
we form of this person? Social psychologists have developed two basic
models to explain how this kind of information is combined. The additive
model and the averaging model. Both the additive and the averaging models
begin by assuming that traits can be sealed in their likeability. Some traits
convey very favourable information about a person, while others indicate
negative information.
The averaging model claims that we use the mean value of the traits provided
to form our impression of a person. For example instance in the earlier
example where we said a person is open minded, clever, modest but quiet,
if we said only open minded and clever the person would have a more
favourable impression, because both these traits are very desirable and have
values. But inclusion of the traits modest or quiet would reduce the average
as they are less active traits and have low values.
The additive or summation model in contrast, predicts that one’s judgement
is based on the sum of the traits values rather than on the average. Therefore
the majority of evidence is supportive of averaging model. Anderson (1968)
has given a weighted average model, over the simple average model
discussed earlier: He says that the weighted average model predicts
impressions on the basis of an average of scores that have been given
weightage according to their importance. This more complicating version
of average models gives a better account for our integrating information of
other people.
c) Primacy and recency effects:
As said earlier we want to make the best possible impression on others at
our first meeting some new relatives. Now the question is which information
is more influential the first information in another person’s perception of us
(primacy effect) or the latest information (recency effect). It was found first
impressions are lasting? i.e. primacy effect apparently very important in
determining our final impressions of other’s. However under certain
conditions recency effects also occur, i.e. some additional activity intervenes
and influences the more recent information. According to this model, adding
values traits ‘modest’ and ‘quiet’ to the value of clever and open minded
would increase the favorability of the overall evaluation for example: if two
persons are given scores on some traits as follows:
36
Social and Person
Person-I Person-II Perception – Definition,
Understand (+3) Understanding (+3) Factors
Poised (+2) Sharp willed (+2)
Confident (+1) Congenial (+2)
Resourceful (+2)
Total= +6 Loud mouth (-3) Total = +6
Now when we take additive model the sum value for each person would be +6,
therefore according to this model the sum value being +6 for both, the overall
impression of the two persons would be equally favourable. But when we take
the averaging model we get a mean value for each differently i.e. +6/3=+3 for
person I and +6/5=11/5 for person II. Therefore the averaging model would predict
that overall evaluation of person I would be better than that of person II will
have a stronger effect. For example you met a person at a party last month and
formed a negative impression but then encountered her again this week and
reached positively, your impression is more likely to be positive than negative.
Therefore if one is instructed to combine all information about a person, the
recency effect may be eliminated and only the primacy effect would prevail.
Organising Impressions: Categories and Principles

In forming information of other people it is not just the external characteristics
or the traits which influence us. Rather we have certain preconceived assumptions
about people based on our experiences. At the general level we may have some
over siding philosophers of human nature-expectation that people will posses
certain qualities and behave in certain ways. At more specific levels we have
particular ways of categorising people and events. For example: stereotyping ,
this is one way of organising our thoughts about certain group of people. To
describe these categories of impression social psychologists have started using
the words prototype and schemas. We shall now consider some of these categories
and principles that effect our interpretation of people and events around us.
3.7 IMPLICIT PERSONALITY THEORY

This is a set of unstated assumption about what traits are associated with one
another, which are developed on our own, through development and experience.
Since, these theories are rarely stated in formal terms, they are considered implicit.
But all the same they dominate our judgment of other people. Such theories may
be true or false as judged against the actual occurrence of them in real life. For
example we assume that being good at studies would fetch us a good position in
the society. This may be true or may be false. In fact the most important feature
which distinguishes implicit personality theory from more formal psychological
theories is their likely hood of being tested and founded incorrect because we
form an association between two aspects and we don’t notice the rule. For example
having higher education and gaining a good position in the society. Not all highly
educated individuals have high position in the society. If we see our politicians,
most of them don’t even have secondary education. But we make assumption all
the same.
The use of such implicit theories shows that we have a need to simplify and
integrate information. So that we can deal more easily with the complexities of 37
Introduction to Social human interactions. Even with limited information about a person, we tend to
Psychology
fill in the detail, and make a person more understandable in terms of our own
experiences and we invariably develop a rationale for the theory that we have
formed.
Another approach to understand people’s implicit personality theories is

represented in the works of Kelly: he developed the cognitive theory of human
behaviour wherein he was concerned with the links between our perception and
our behaviour. A most important link in this chain is our interpretation of the
events and stimuli in our world.
Exercise-I
i) Below are given day to day examples, examine each example carefully
and choose the appropriate mechanisms of social and person perception:
A mother asks the child little sternly ‘did you take money from my
purse’. Child answers it as ‘no’, but he is not looking at her directly. It
is an example of which non-verbal communication channel.
In one incident, an Indian man was arrested in Dubai, because this person
was found with another woman in her bedroom sitting next to her. This
is an example of what nonverbal communication channel.
ii) In the following example find out the internal and external locus of
causality
a) A child comes homes and informs the mother that he got less marks
but he also says that his friend got the highest marks in that paper.
What will the mother of the child would say
You have got marks as per your effort or studies
The mother says – my child got less marks because the teacher is
partial and she does not like my child.
b) In a exams, all students copy except one child who does not
This is a ...................................... effect.
3.8 PERSON PERCEPTION

Person perception is a process of forming impressions of people. Let us understand
how do we go about it? What kind of information we use, how accurate it is and
what bias affect our impression.
3.8.1 Mechanisms of Person Perception

Mechanisms of person perception – includes ways of impressions about the other
person, for this people use whatever obvious physical cues, their behaviour role
which are available to them. Also they further develop mental shortcuts by forming
schemas and heuristics and further go and categorise them according to some
rules of thumb.
A glance at someone’s picture or at an individual passing by on the street gives

us an idea about what kind of person s/he is. In fact when two people meet, if
only for a moment, they start forming impressions of each other. With more
38
contact they form fuller and richer information of that person. In forming Social and Person
impressions of other person, we depend on the following to help us form Description and Functional
impression about a person. Factors
i) Roles/traits
ii) Physical cues and
iii) Salience
i) Roles/traits: If roles are informative, rich and well articulated, it can help in
summarising a lot of information across a wide range of situations. Roles
are more distinctive than traits. Moreover role schemas are more useful
than traits for recall ex: try to recall the names of all the people you met in
a seminar and next try to recall rude and stubborn people you met, which
task is easier, I am sure it is the first task, because people tend to think of
others within a ‘role context’ first and only then according to their personality
traits.
ii) Physical cues: The other person’s physical appearance and behaviours are
usually taken together to form an impression about that person.
The observation that a person is wearing traditional clothes help us infer
that the person might be from rural background. We even infer personality
traits from person’s behaviour – A person who is helping others is inferred
as kind, or a chubby faced person is thought to be warm etc.
iii) Salience: People’s attention is to drawn to those aspects or characteristics of
the persons which stand out. This is termed as ‘figure ground’ principle. A
more outstanding feature or salient feature like fair skinned, handicapped,
high pitched voice etc., is used to form the overall impression about the
person as a total person.
Salient behaviours draw more attention than do less obvious ones. It also
influences perception of causality. But a disadvantage here is that salience
also can produce ‘extreme evaluative judgement’.
We do not stop at just forming impressions from observable information such as
appearance, behaviour, but we move on to quickly form inferences about
personality traits about the person from this information. Referring to trait is
more economical and general way of describing a person than is referring to
behaviour – if someone asked you about what your room mate is like – instead
of describing about each and every behaviour of his in detail, it is easier to say
that ‘he is cool’ or ‘he is good natured’. This process of inferring also occurs
spontaneously, even automatically. These traits can act as bases for predicting
future behaviour.
Schemas
Social cognition is the process in which people think about themselves and the
social world – how they select interpret, remember and use social information to
make judgments and decisions.
How people think about the social world’s people rely on a variety of mental
shortcuts that serve them well. They use quite practical, adopt different procedures
and rules according to their goals and needs in that situation.
39
Introduction to Social Like a scientists, all of us, in our everyday lives, develop theories that help us
Psychology
understand ourselves and the social world. These theories called Schemas are
mental structures people use to organise their knowledge around themes or topics
or subject.
A schema is a way of representing the memory process. In other words, people

do not respond to what they see, rather they interpret it on the basis of previous
experience that is represented in memory as a schema.
Self schema is defined as a generalisation about the self based on experience we

use to interpret events related to the self. Similarly we have schemata about
other people too.
The general form of schema can be defined as an organised configuration of

knowledge, derived from past experience that is used to interpret our experience.
We have schemas about many things – other people, ourselves, social roles and
specific events. Schemas effect what information we notice, think about and
remember.
Schemas are often resistant to change – they show a strong perseverance effect,
remaining unchanged even in the face of contradictory information. Perhaps
even worse schemas can sometime be self fulfilling.
People have role schema – these represent the organised abstract concepts we
have of people in a particular role, such as cowboy, professor, devoted lover.
Other schemas focus on groups. The most familiar is the group stereotype – it is
belief about typical characteristics of members of a group or social category, and
which attributes specific traits to a particular group of people. Example: certain
communities are assumed to be stingy (money wise), absent minded or aggressive
etc.
Prototype – is an abstract ideal of the schema – for example may be about his
body type, mannerisms etc. we assume leaders to be busy – so a well composed
and relaxed leader goes contrary to our schema.
Schemas about extremely common events are usually called scripts. A script is a
standard sequence of behaviour over a period of time. The essence of a script is
in its boundedness in time, its causal flow and its being simple, coherent,
perceptual unit – ex: a wedding in a community goes through a serious of rituals
connected to each other and follow a pattern many schemas contain. Ex: a category
that embodies the significant attribute or ideal of the category – for example in
India the name of Sachin Tendulkar is an exemplar of the category ‘cricket’.
Function or schematic processing

Advantages
Schemas and information processing – schemas help us process an enormous
amount of information swiftly and economically.
Schemas aid recall – memory often works best when we have a schema
representation of past event or people.
40
Schema speed up processing – it is easier to process information relevant to the Social and Person
schema. Description and Functional
Factors
Schemas aid automatic inference – schematic processing can occur almost
automatically, without any conscious effort. When meeting a friendly person,
you may automatically attribute to him other characteristics associated with
friendliness – kindness wart.
Schema aid information – schema can help us fill in missing information where
there are gaps in our knowledge.
Schemas aid interpretation – schemas help you interpret ambiguous situation.
A person having no knowledge about ‘mumps’ would have no confusion about

other inferences about ‘mumps’ schemas allow confident inferences about matters
that would otherwise not be clear.
Schemas provide expectations – schemas contain expectations about what should

happen expected match lead to unpleasantness.
Schemas contain affect – use of a particular schema can produce an emotional

response called ‘schema-drives-affect’ - for example schema for politician. This
schema can have ‘affective response’ attached to it. Some of us feel positively
about politician and think of them as helpful law makers, but others may feel
negatively thinking of them as power hungry and corrupt.
Heuristics
Although we think all human beings are rational, logical and do cognitive effort
to analyse our social worlds, Fiske and Taylor argued that we are quite the opposite
i.e. we are cognitive misers. As cognitive misers we are reluctant to expand our
cognitive resources and we look for any opportunity to avoid engaging in the
effortful thoughts. According to Fiske and Taylor, our mental processing resources
are highly valued, so we engage in numerous ways to save time and effort when
trying to understand the social world.
People save time and effort in making judgments by using heuristics. Heuristics
are time saving mental shortcuts that reduce complex judgment to simple rules
of thumb. They are quick and easy but can result in biased information processing
(Ajzen,1996) they have been used instead of more time consuming, but more
accurate, strategies. The most commonly used types of heuristics are –
representatives and availability.
Representatives Heuristics – it is a tendency to allocate a set of attributes to
some one if they match the prototype of a given category. It is again quick and
easy way of putting people into categories.
The important draw back in such categorisation is the base rate fallacy which is
the tendency to ignore statistical information (base rates) in favor of representative
ness information.
For example: Even when you have the data that ‘gender is uncorrected with
managerial and administrative roles in some organisations, there would be more
likelihood of attributing more managerial roles to men than women, because
such roles are more representative of men than women.
41
Introduction to Social The availability Heuristic: it is the tendency to judge the frequency or probability
Psychology
of an event in terms of how easy it is to think of examples of that event. It is
related to the concept of accessibility, which is the extent to which a concept is
readily brought to mind.
For example: you might feel more anxiety about taking a flight if you have just
heard about a horrific plan crash.
This heuristic mechanism also gives rise to a bias called the false consensus
effect (Gross & Miller, 1997). This is the tendency to exaggerate how common
one’s own opinions are in the general population.
The anchoring heuristics – It is often the case that a distinction is made between
the availability heuristic and another called anchoring heuristics. Anchoring is
the tendency to be biased towards the starting value (or anchor) in making
quantitative judgement. It appears that our judgements on a range of issues are
significantly influenced by the point at which we start our deliberations ex: a
harsh verdict become subsequently harsher in their final decision than participants
asked.
It is clear that we use heuristics routinely and consistently. In our daily life very
often we do not have time to think about every issue as important and self relevant
and have all the information not that often. Heuristic thought is used a great deal
in social perception.
A unique heuristics that has received considerable attention from social

psychologists because it helps in understanding how people, think, feel and
behave. It is a heuristic that defines attitudes and social behaviour – social
categorisation.
Construct
Construct is a key term for Kelly which is the way of interpreting the world and
serves as a guide to behaviour. Human beings have a tendency to choose constructs
that will make the world understandable and predictable. Kelly says that people
do not strive for reinforcement or try to avoid anxiety. They only try to validate
their own construct system. He further suggests that conditions have meanings
only if they are constructed by the individual.
Social categorisation
Categorisation is the process if understanding what something is by knowing
what other things it is equivalent to and what other things it is different from. It
is a way of classifying some collection of objects, events, opinions, attitudes,
concepts or people.
Categories are defined by prototype in dealing with social categories we can

refer to prototype as stereotype. How are they forming? Mostly based on social
learning, experience and existing negative. Stereotypes or shared distinctiveness.
Categories can be heterogeneous (made up of many different sorts of people) or

homogeneous (made up of only few people who are similar to each other).
Consequences of categorisation – categorisation typically leads to heightened

accessibility of stereotype consistent information. They do not only apply to
42
relatively neutral categories like librarian or waitress but seen to be also related Social and Person
to racial categories. These positive vs negative stereotypes associated with Description and Functional
different groups are therefore highly divisive and can contribute to continuing Factors
problems of racial prejudice and discrimination.
Another important fact of Kelly’s is that every construct we use helps us to

classify the similarities and differences between people, objects and events. Each
one of us develop only a limited number of constructs and arrange them in order
of importance. One person’s construct need not be identical with another person’s,
though they may be similar. He believes that to the extent that the constructs are
similar. People’s behaviour will be similar as well. For example: the belief system
of a family. The member of the family will behave similar if they have a strong
belief system.

Exercise-II
1) There is a mischievous child Anand, who play tricks on other. The teacher
get a news that one child was held by the principal for doing serious
mischief and the teacher suspects the child to be Anand. This is because
of ...................... If I assume that people who wear power glasses are
very intelligent. What kind of schema is that?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
2) Give the examples of exemplar for the following events
Boxing
Athletic
Beautiful model Ms. India
Good actor
Dancer
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
3.9 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, you have understood the different ways in which we try to understand
other people –who are close to us or when we come across in our day to day
interactions. We employ two processes to know, understand and interpreted others
behaviour – social perception and person perception. This unit specifically deals
with structure and functions of these processes. 43
Introduction to Social In social perception, we seek to understand and then try to analyse the ‘cause’
Psychology
behind others behaviour. Here we concentrate on nonverbal communication and
impression formation processes. Then we form theories of attributions and implicit
theories in understanding the causes behind the person’s behaviour. Similarly
under person perception, we explore the various cues which we gather from
other persons behaviour, as well as use cognitive short cuts which we use in the
form of schemas heuristics and social categorisations to justify our ‘true’
understanding of others behaviour.

1) Define what social perception is and describe the mechanisms of social
perceptions describing in detail any two.
2) What is person perception? Describe the different ways of forming person
perception.
3) “Non-verbal communication channels are the most reliable source of
understanding others” – describe its role in social and person perception.

Aronson E, Wilson T. D, and Akert R.M (1998). Social Psychology (third edition),
Longman Inc.
Baron.R, Byrne D (2003), Social Psychology, Prentice Hall of India Pvt Ltd.,
New Delhi.
Chaube S.P (1986) Social Psychology. Lakshmi Navayan Agarwal, Educational
Publishers, Agra, Pg-21-24.
Lindzey C and Aronson E (1992). The Handbook of Social Psychology, Vol-I
Addison Wesley Publishing Company, California.
Taylor S.E. Peplay L.A, Sears D.O (2006) Social Psychology, Pearson Education
Pg-2-96.
Turner R.N and Richard J.Crisp (2007) Essential Social Psychology, Sage
Publications, New Delhi, Pg-39-71.
3.12 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
Self Assessment Questions 1 (Exercise-I)
i) Eye contact and Proximics in cultural settings
ii) a is Internal attribution b is External attribution and Non-common trait.
Self Assessment Questions 2 (Exercise-II)
1) Salience and Stereotype
2) Examples
Khali, Dara Singh
P.T. Usha
Aishwarya Rai
Amitabh Bachan
44 Sonal Mansingh
Social and Person
UNIT 4 COGNITIVE BASIS AND DYNAMICS Perception – Definition,
OF SOCIAL PERCEPTION AND Factors
PERSON PERCEPTION
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Cognitive and Motivational Basis of Social and Person Perception
4.2.1 Impression Formation and Management
4.2.2 Impression Management
4.2.3 Theories of Self Presentation
4.2.4 Self Presentation Tactics
4.2.5 Individual Differences in Self Presentation
4.3 Bias in Attribution
4.4 Schemas
4.5 Role of Emotions, Motivation in Information Processing
4.6 Motivated Person Perception
4.7 Effect of Cognitive and Emotional States
4.7.1 Emotion, Mood and Social Influence
4.7.2 Automatic Evaluation
4.7.3 Motivation and Inferences
4.7.4 Suppressing Thoughts and Emotions
4.8 Let Us Sum Up
4.10 Suggested Readings and References
4.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit we have studied social cognition – a process of knowing,
understanding and predicting the behaviour of others. Social cognition involves
two basic processes i.e. social perception and person perception. Under social
perception, we had studied various mechanisms of social perception – non-verbal
communications, attributions, impression formation, and implicit personality
theory. In person perception, the mechanisms we studied were physical cues,
schemas, heuristics, construct and social categorisation. Here we concentrated
on the structural and functional aspects of social and person perception.
In this unit we will move ahead continuing our description from the unit 3. But
here we are going to explore the cognitive and dynamics of these processes and
would be studying the most pertinent question – to what extent our social
perceptions and person perceptions are accurate? Do these processes have errors,
bias and misinterpretation which affect our real understanding of social world?
In layman’s language, can we trust the information which we have gathered
from impression formation, attributions and social categorisation? If not what
do we about it.
45
Psychology 4.1 OBJECTIVES
• describe the cognitive basis of social and person perception;
• identify the different bias and errors involved in social and person perception;
• analyse the dynamics of social and person perception;
• explain how emotional states and motives affect the social and person
perception; and
• identify the practical applications of social and person perception.
4.2 COGNITIVE AND MOTIVATIONAL BASIS OF

SOCIAL AND PERSON PERCEPTION
The cognitive basis of social and person perception involves the processes through
which we collect the information, process and select it and later interpret this
information. But what is more important in this information processing is the
role played by our emotions, motives in distorting this information so as to suit
our needs, goals and aspirations. So the truthfulness and accuracy of the
information collected about others gets distorted. The information turns out the
way in which it protects one’s self esteem, leading to various bias in our attribution
process, in our managing impression’s and influencing the self presentation tactics.
Most importantly our basic emotional states, motives, our goal of accurate
information gathering shadows our social and person perception.
We will now deal with the various biases in attributions, impression formation,
categorisations which are result of these cognitive and dynamic factors.
4.2.1 Impression Formation and Management

In forming impression about others, there are six simple and general principles:
• People form impressions of others quickly and on the basis of minimal
information and go on to infer about general traits about them.
• People pay attention to most salient features of a person we notice the qualities
that make a person distinctive or unusual, rather than to everything.
• In processing information about people involves some coherent meaning in
their behaviour and use context of a persons behaviour to infer its meaning,
rather than interpret the behaviour in isolation.
• We organise our perceptions by categorising or grouping stimuli i.e. rather
than to see each person as a separate individual, we tend to see people as
members of a group – for example: people wearing while coat are doctors.
• We use cognitive structure to make sense of people’s behaviour. If we come
across woman doctor, we use our information about doctor more generally
to infer her attributes and meaning of her behaviour.
• A perceivers own needs and personal goals influences how he or she perceives
others.
46
Why are our impressions of others sometimes wrong? Cognitive Basis and
Dynamics of Social
Our impressions are sometimes wrong because of the mental shortcuts. We use Perception and Person
Perception
when forming social judgment people are too ready to attribute other’s actions
to their personalities rather than to the situation.
Another reason our impression can go wrong concerns our use of schemas. People
use implicit personality theories to fill in the gaps in their knowledge about other
people and use schemas or theories to decide why other people what they do.
Why does it seem like our impression are accurate?

Why does it seem like our impressions are accurate when as we have seen that
‘our impressions can go wrong’. These are three reasons:
First – we often see people in a limited number of situations and thus never have
the opportunity to see that our impressions are wrong.
Second - we will not realise that our impressions are wrong if we make them
come true, this is the case with self-fulfilling prophecies even if an initial
impression is incorrect, we often make it come true.
Third – we might not realise we are wrong if a lot of people agree on what
someone’s is like – even when everyone is wrong.
4.2.2 Impression Management (Impression Management - The

Fine Art of Looking Good)
The desire to make a favorable impression on others is a strong one so most of us
do our best to look good to others when we meet them for the first time. Social
psychologists use the term impression management (or self-presentation) to
describe these effort to make a good impression on others and the results of their
research on such efforts suggest that they are worthwhile.
The different techniques for boostering their image fall into two categories: self
enhancement – effort to increase their appeal to others and other enhancement –
effort to make the target person feel good in various ways.
With respect to self-enhancement, the strategies include effort to boost one’s

physical appearance through style of dress, personal grooming and the use of
various props. (example: eye glasses). Additional tactics of self enhancement
involves efforts to describe oneself in positive terms.
Turning to other enhancement, individuals use many different tactics to induce

positive moods and reaction in others example: flattery.
According to William James observation, people often shows different sides of

themselves to different groups of people. Youngsters who are demure and obedient
before their parents and teachers and may swear and swagger in the company of
their friends. Most parents do not show their actual self to their children as they
do to their colleagues or intimate friends.
We usually talk as if there is a single self which is stable and well defined. But
social psychologists believe it is more appropriate to think of self as multiple
selves because people display different aspects of themselves in different
47
Introduction to Social situations. Schlenker (1980) has termed this as ‘impression management’ and
Psychology
defined it as the conscious or unconscious attempt to control images that are
projected in real or imagined social interactions. When there images deal with
some aspects of self we call the process as self presentation.
4.2.3 Theories of Self Presentation

Cooley (1902/1922) and Mead (1934) have put forth a theory known as:
A symbolic interactionism: They have stressed that participants in social
interactions try to take the role of the others and see themselves as others see
them. This process helps them to know how they appear to others and also guide
their social behaviour so that it has the desired effect. By taking the role of others,
a person can choose the right clothes and the right speech patterns to communicate
with others. For example: politicians, and leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and
Indira Gandhi would wear the traditional dresses of the places which they visited
and also spoke few words of local language.
Theory of self presentation: Erving Goffman has drawn parallels of this

behaviour to the world of theater and formulated a theory of ‘self presentation in
everyday life’. Goffman (1959/1967) has described social interaction as a
theoretical performance in which each individual acts out “live” – a set of carefully
choosen verbal and non-verbal acts that expresses one’s self. In self presentation,
one of the fundamental rules of social interaction is mutual commitment i.e. all
the members of the interaction use certain face-saving devices, so as to maintain
a face. Through maintaining face is not the goal of the social interaction it is
rather necessary for social interaction to continue. Incidents that threaten the
face of participant also threaten the survival of the relationship. Therefore we
somehow try to avert the embarrassment that might occur and threaten the
relationship by overlooking by helping others apologise for the social blindness
that they commit. Thus for Goffman social interaction requires its participants
to be able to regulate their self presentation and that it will be perceived and
evaluated appropriately by others.
Situated identities theory: C.N.Alexander has put forth another theory called
the ‘situated identities’ theory. There is a pattern of social behaviour for each
social setting and Alexander claimed that people strive to create the most
favourable situated identities for themselves in their social encounters. For
example a college professor might aim for a highly academic identity when
presenting a paper at a seminar, a somewhat more relaxed identity during lectures
and a causal and informal situated identities at a social gathering and with friends.
This is simply a role a person is performing in different situations. However a
situated identity is tied much more to a specific situational context than a role is.
Where role focuses on behaviours that are expected, situated identities deal more
with the images one choose to project in a particular social interaction.
Each of the three theories of self presentation agrees that other people are forming
impressions of us and are using these impressions to guide their interactions
with us. Further each theory also points to variety of tactics that individuals use
to manage and control the image they present to other.
48
There are number of reasons why the self presentation occurs: Cognitive Basis and
Dynamics of Social
One is to gain social approval: finding it pleasant to be liked by others. If you Perception and Person
Perception
make a favourable person impression on another you may gain many benefits
from that person. It serves as a means to other goals.
Impression management of self representation may also allow a sense of control
in a situation. Thus combination of reasons serves as powerful motivation for
the use of self presentation tactics.
4.2.4 Self Presentation Tactics

There are a variety of tactics that people use in presenting themselves to others
Jones and Pittman (1982) have identified five major tactics of self representation
which differ according to the particular attribute the person is trying to gain.
They are:
i) Ingratiation: This is the most common of presentation techniques and is
defined as a class of strategic behaviour illicitly designed to influence a
particular other person concerning the attractiveness of one’s personal
qualities. In other words, the main goal of the ingratiator is to be seen to be
likeable.
There are number of ways in accomplishing this and one of the most common
tactics is to give compliment to another person. However a successful
ingratiatory knows when to compliment people and also has certain amount
of credibility and sincerity. He uses his discrimination properly.
Another tactics is to confirm to other person’s opinions and behaviours. We
tend to like people whose beliefs, attitudes and behaviours are similar to
our own. But, there is a danger here, i.e. if the other person (target) suspects
ingration this factor does not work.
ii) Intimidation: Is to arouse fear in other people. This is in contrast to
ingratiation. In intimidation by creating the image of dangerous person, the
intimidator seeks to control and interaction by the exercise of power.
Intimidation is mostly used in relationships that are non voluntary in which
escape is not easily accomplished. Example a street robber with a threat to
kill if money or jewelry is not handed over. Some times parents do it with
their children and also teachers with their pupils.
iii) Self promotion: If a person wants to show himself as competent person at
some activity this is the tactics mostly used. He does this by accepting or
acknowledging some of the minor flows or weaknesses he has to target
person and then go and emphasis the positive traits that the target person
was not aware of him. However, there is one danger in using self promotion.
i.e. the mismatch between the self promoted claims of competencies and
the reality. For example if a person claims to the target person that he is very
good at some things and of that skill come upto be tested and he does not
show any competencies then he looses his credibility.
iv) Exemplification: Here the goal is to influence the impressions that others
are not conscientious workers. The person here wants to prove that he has
more integrity and moral worthiness compared to others, and wants to arouse
guilty in the target person. He wants to create an impression of a sufferer.
49
Introduction to Social v) Supplication: Here the person advertises his/ her weakness and dependent
Psychology
on other person. He is seeking sympathy. This is usually a last resort i.e.
what a person is unable to use any other strategies, he resorts to gaining
sympathy. The person is presenting an image of helplessness hoping to elicit
a sense obligation from the target.
The person may use all five self presentation tactics on different occasions. So
people may specialise in one or other tactic and may use it on more than one
occasions. What ever choice or combination, the person’s aim is to create the
desired impressions someone else, there by increasing the chances of obtaining
the desired effect.
4.2.5 Individual Difference in Self Presentation

People strive to influence the images that others form of them during social
interaction has been found to be true even through research on self presentation.
Though everyone engages in such actions from time to time, there are important
differences in the extent to which they control their self presentation. Some people
engage in such actions from time to time, there are important differences in the
extent to which they control their self presentation and some people engages in
this tactics more often and with greater skill.
People differ in exercising control over their verbal and non-verbal cues of self
presentation and this is termed as self monitoring of expressive behaviour (Synder
1979). High self monitoring persons are particularly sensitivite to the expressions
and the self presentations of others in social situation and they use these as cues
in monitoring, their own self presentation for purpose of impression management.
High self monitoring persons are good at learning what is socially appropriate in
new situations, have good control of their emotional expression and effectively
use these abilities to create the impression they want to display. In fact they can
adapt themselves to any social situation, for example: they can adopt the
mannerism of a reserved, withdrawn and introverted person and then they can
abruptly do about face and portray themselves as equally convincing, friendly,
outgoing and extroverted person. In self-presentation situations, high self-
monitoring persons are quite likely to seek out social comparisons and information
about the appropriate patterns of behaviour. They put in considerable effort in
attempting to read and understand others and behave accordingly and guide their
self presentation so as to gain approval or power of an interaction. However self
presentation on impression management is not for deceptive purposes but is an
adaptive skill in environments where there is a complex mixture of people and
policies.
Self-presentation and Human Nature: Self presentation is a basic fact of social

life. People influence the images of their ‘selves’ that are projected to others but
where is the ‘real’ self in all this? As already known, each of us have multiple
selves which we present to different people in different ways but all of them are
many aspects of only one ‘true self’ self presentation factors is selecting certain
characteristics and omitting other. Therefore, presentation of self is an integral
part of everyday social interaction.
50
Cognitive Basis and
4.3 BIAS IN ATTRIBUTION Dynamics of Social
Perception and Person
Perception
Some biases represent cognitive shortcuts or heuristics. These methods of cutting
through masses of information quickly to reach a good explanation.
Other attribution biases come from peoples efforts to satisfy their own needs and
motives.
The self serving bias and false consensus biases enhance. Self esteem and the
perceptions that we can control our lives. In short our attributional bias comes
from a combination of cognitive and motivational needs. Attribution is a highly
rational process of identifying the causes of other’s behaviour and follows an
orderly cognitive process. But attribution is subject to several forms of bias or
tendencies that can lead to serious errors concerning the causes of other’s
behaviour. They are:
i) Fundamental attribution error: shows our strong tendency to explain
others actions in terms of dispositional (internal) rather than situation causes
(external). In short we tend to perceive others as acting as they do because
they are ‘that kind of person’ rather than because of ‘situational factors’ this
happens because, when it is other’s behaviour, we concentrate on their actions
rather than on context or situation, as a result potential impact of situational
causes get less attention.
ii) Actor observer bias: it is a tendency to attribute our own behaviour to
external or situational causes but that of others to internal cause.
Example: let us take an example where, a shop assistant have been rude to
you, so in line with the fundamental attribution error (actor-observer bias)
you would conclude a dispositional attribution, (internal) and decide that
the shop assistant was simply not a nice person. But imagine a time when
you were rude to others, do you give the same explanation and consider
yourself to be rude and unpleasant person? Probably not you would say that
you are a nice person who behaved rudely because of a specific (external)
and justifiable reason, for example – stress from work pressure. This tendency
to attribute other people’s behaviour to internal cause and our own behaviours
to external causes is called the actor-observer effect.
iii) Self serving bias: it is our tendency to take credit for positive behaviours
(internal cause) or outcomes but to the blame for negative results on external
causes or others.
Example: Imagine you do well in your social psychology exams. Are you likely
to attribute your success to luck or a fluke or are you likely to feel quite proud
and attribute. Your success to the effort you put in? According to the self serving
attribution bias it is the latter. Olson and Ross (1988) argue that we are more like
to make internal attribution for our success (ex: I am intelligent) and external
attributions for failures (ex: it was a hard paper) because making attributions in
this way protect and maintains our self esteem. Attributing success to one’s effort
boosts our feelings of self worth and protects us from feeling bad when we don’t
do well. This bias can also work group level i.e. we tend to attribute the group’s
success to internal factors and other groups success to external factors (Hawstone
it is a group serving attribution.)
51
Psychology 4.4 SCHEMAS
Interestingly, schemas, too, can produce such effects, which are sometimes
described as a self-fulfilling prophecy – predictions that, in a sense, make
themselves come true. Classic evidence for such effects was provided by Robert
Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson (1968) during the turbulent 1960’s. During that
period, there was growing concern over the possibility that teachers beliefs about
minority students – their schemas for such youngsters – were causing them to
treat such children differently (less favorably) than majority group students and
that, as a result, the minority-group students were falling further and further
behind. No, the teachers weren’t overtly prejudiced, rather their behaviour was
shaped by their expectations and beliefs – their schemas for different racial or
ethnic groups.
To gather evidence on the possible occurrence of such effects, Rosenthal and

Jacobson conducted an ingenious study that exerted a powerful effect on
subsequent research in social psychology. They went to an elementary school in
San Francisco and administered an IQ test to all students. They then told the
teachers that some of the students had scored very high and were about to bloom
academically. In fact, this was not true: the researchers choose the names of
these students randomly. But Rosenthal and Jacobson predicted that this
information might change teachers expectations and schemas about these children
and hence their behaviour toward them. Teachers were not given such information
about other students, who constituted a control group.
To find out whether this were true, Rosenthal and Jacobson returned eight months
later and tested both groups of children once again. Results were clear – and
dramatic. Those who had been described as “bloomers” to their teachers showed
significantly larger gains on the IQ test than those in the control group. In short,
teacher’s beliefs about the students had operated in a self-fulfilling manner: the
students that teachers believed would bloom academically actually did.
How did such effects occur? In part, through the impact of schemas on the teachers
behaviour. Further research (Rosenthal, 1994) indicated that teachers gave the
bloomers more attention, more challenging tasks, more and better feedback,
and more opportunities to respond in class. In short, the teachers acted in ways
that benefited the students they expected to bloom, and as a result, these youngsters
really did.
As a result of this early research, social psychologists began to search for other
self-confirming effects of schemas in many settings – in education, therapy and
business, to name just a few. They soon uncovered much evidence that schemas
do often shape behaviour in ways that lead to their confirmation. For example,
they found that teachers lower expectancies for success by minority students or
females often undermined the confidence of these groups and actually contributed
to poorer performance by them (Sadker & Sadker, 1994). In view of these and
many related findings, we now know that stereotypes not only may influence –
they may, through their self-confirming effects, shape social reality as well.
Schematic processing has the advantage of speed and efficiency of making events
comprehensible and predictable but it has disadvantage of leading to wrong
interpretations, inaccurate, expectations and inflexible models of responses.
52
Oversimplification is a tendency to be overly accepting of information that fits a Cognitive Basis and
Dynamics of Social
schema or theory. To fill in gaps in thinking by adding elements that does not Perception and Person
belong but are schema consistent. Unwilling to change schema when finding are Perception
contradictory.
Once schemas are formed, they exert powerful effects on several aspects of social
cognition and therefore on our social behaviour. Research finding suggests that
Schemas exert strong effects on three basic process of cognition – attention,
encoding and retrieval.
Attention refers to what information we notice

Encoding refers to the process through which information we notice gets stored
in the memory.
Retrieval refers to the process through which we recover information from

memory in order to use it in some manner – for example – making judgment
about people. Suppose you make a judgment about a person x as ‘good’. So with
respect to attention, schema acts as filter to filter and select information consistent
with our judgment and other information is often ignored. Turning to encoding,
here too it is information that is consistent with our schema are stored in memory
– for example – the judgment about x as good will remember the incident about
what good things he has done to other, than few bad things which are although
perceived are not stored in the memory hasty, retrieval from memory again,
information remembered is the information which is stored as consistent
information with our schema. So although schemas are based on our past
experience, which reflect knowledge we have extracted from our experience in
the social world are often helpful to us, they have a serious downside, too. By
influencing what we notice, remember and recall. Schemas can produce
distortions in our understanding of the social world and unfortunately, once
formed, schemas are often resistant to change.
Exercise-I
1) Write an example about a friend (boy or girl) whom you did not like at
the first instance (give reasons for the first), but subsequent interaction
with this person made you realise that you were wrong (give reasons
for this change)
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
53
Psychology 2) Take two instances
You were driving, and you have accidently hit some one (not seriously)
by someone:
You were accidently hit (although not seriously) then what will be your
reaction to this incident?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
4.5 ROLE OF EMOTIONS, MOTIVATION IN

INFORMATION PROCESSING
Emotions and information processing
The amygdale has a pivotal role in deciphering the emotional significance of
sensory stimuli enabling emotional memory formation. If sensory areas convey
signals pertinent to the state of the environment, they should issue feed forward
projections to the amygdala, arising mainly from the upper layers, consistent
with the flow of information from earlier to later processing sensory cortices.
The medial temporal pole, the entorhinal and perirhinal areas, and the agranular
and dysgranular insula had the densest connections with the amygdala, and the
lateral temporal pole, the parahippocampal region, and the granular insula had
sparser connections.
Emotion is a subject in psychology that also draws the attention of non-

psychologists, but a large difference exists between the popular concept and
psychological perspectives of emotion. Popularly, people tend to emphasise the
subjective aspects of emotion (Cornelius, 1996) and sometimes wonder whether
emotion is too personal to be a subject of scientific research. There are three
findings that are important for the study of emotion when we discuss the
relationship to its neural mechanisms. (i) First, emotion clearly includes
widespread responses. For example, emotions induce specific expressive
behaviours. (ii) Emotion generates physiological responses, and each type of
emotion generates a specific physiological response pattern (iii) The subjective,
physiological, behavioural, and cognitive responses of emotion are intimately
related. All these affect the information processing considerably.
Motivation and information processing

The quality of the decision making process depends on both the motivation to
search information in the long term memory of the decision maker, and the
motivation to ignore information. Not only do past experiences directly impact
on the emotional state during decision making but past experiences also represent
an important source of information to construct anticipations that will influence
the immediate emotion and the decision process.
54
Research has focused on the relationship between motivation and cognitive and Cognitive Basis and
Dynamics of Social
meta-cognitive strategy use (i.e. in which learning goals favour deep learning Perception and Person
strategies and performance goals favour superficial learning strategies) and on Perception
the relationship between cognitive or meta-cognitive strategy use and achievement
(in which it is assumed that deep level learning enhances achievement). Most
studies have examined the relationship between motivation and cognitive
processing with a cross-sectional design. Multitasking is the human ability to
handle the demands of multiple tasks. Multitasking behaviour involves the
ordering of multiple tasks and switching between tasks. People often multitask
when using information retrieval (IR) technologies as they seek information on
more than one information problem over single or multiple search episodes.
Studies have shown that apart from cognitive factors, motivation and emotion
are important factors in explaining variance in educational state. The question of
how motivation facilitates learning and how it enhances performance has been
an important point in educational researches. Motivation consists of three
components, namely (a) an expectancy-component, (b) a value-component, which
refers to the student’s goals and beliefs about the importance and interest of the
task, finally (c) an affective-component, which refers to the student’s emotional
responses to the task. Studies on the affective-component have shown that various
emotions influence both the quality of thinking and cognitive information
processing. Positive emotions, such as curiosity, generally enhance motivation
and facilitate learning and performance. Negative emotions, like mild anxiety,
can also enhance learning and performance by focusing the learner’s attention
on a particular task. However, intense negative emotions, like anxiety, panic,
insecurity and related thoughts, such as feeling incompetent, generally affect
motivation, interfere with learning and contribute to a lower performance. Studies
have examined the relationship between motivation and cognitive processing
and has shown that there is a positive and significant effect of motivation on
achievement. Thus the information processing gets affected by motivation and
in turn affects the performance.
4.6 MOTIVATED PERSON PERCEPTION

Although person perception is relatively rational process of taking in information
about others and organising it according to particular principles, our goals and
feeling about other feeling also influence the information we gather about them.
One factor that influences how we gather information about others is the goal
we have for interacting with them. The findings of various studies indicated that
Under ‘coherent impression’ goal conditions, people form more organised
impressions of other than when their goal is simply to remember the information
(Mathenson, Homes & Kristiansco 1991).
Example: Anticipating future interaction with the target in the future, produced
the, greatest recall of the target’s behaviour than simply being told to remember
the target’s attribution.
Example: When someone introduces you to a person and tell you ‘keep him in
mind’ he will be of lot of help to you, in future you might give then more attention
to that person’s behaviour.
55
Introduction to Social In comparing ‘dual processing’ distinction between rapid, heuristically based
Psychology
information processing vs more systematic, piecemeal use of information, it was
found that social perceivers often use rapid, heuristically based processing when
their interactions were not particularly important to them, but they were able to
switch to a more systematic style of processing when inferences are important.
The need to be accurate usually produces more extensive and less biased
information about a person. In a study by Neuerg (1989) half the students were
encouraged to form accurate impression about the target and the others were not.
It was found that the students who were encouraged to form accurate impression
lead to a more thorough and systematic processing of information about people
than in conditions where accuracy is not a goal. The above findings suggests that
when we want and the goal is carefully chosen to form accurate impression of
others we become more alert, mindful and do so. But if the stress is not on
‘accurate information’, we become more casual unmindful and form impression
of others in using shortcut ways you must have come across many parents who
complain to others about their child that I know if he wants, he can study and get
good marks, but he is lazy and doesnot take things seriously. It is the exact
mechanism behind this process ‘if we are required to’ or ‘when we should’.
Also the type of impression one forms of another person also depends on the
kind of interaction one anticipates (outcomes dependency) having with the
individual. The situation in which achievement of an individual’s own goals
depends heavily on the behaviour of the other person – typically leads the
individual to form a careful impression of the other (Vonk 1999).
Surprisingly many of these behaviours appear to occur without intention or

awareness.
4.7 EFFECT OF COGNITIVE AND EMOTIONAL

STATES
Many a times, we are doing 2 to 3 things at a given moment, preparing for the
meals, thinking about what happened at work, and forming an impression about
someone, are we accurate? It is usually seen that when one is preoccupied, one
is more likely to see other people’s personal qualities as stable and enduring
disposition. This bias occurs because people often fail to consider external
influences on another’s behaviour.
For example: one factor that influences how we react to others is whether we see
ourselves as similar to them. But same is not the case when we see the negative
characteristics which we have & we also see it in others, we may psychologically
distance ourselves from the person.
The perceiver’s impression is also influenced by his or her own specific emotional
state. Being in a bad mood might lead us to form a less positive impression of a
person, and when we are in a good mood, we tend to see another person more
positively. These biasing effects of mood are especially strong when the other
person is behaving neutrally.
So mood may influence not only the content of impressions we form of others
but also the process we use in forming them.
56
4.7.1 Emotion Mood and Social Influence Cognitive Basis and
Dynamics of Social
Many of our errors and biases share an important feature. They represent Perception and Person
Perception
evaluative beliefs. Often we form an emotional commitment to a particular theory
or belief that overrides the information as we see it.
However, emotions play a very vital role in decision making and when people
ignore their emotions, they may make decisions that work against their interest.
Ex: we pick our jobs, or even our college. The increasing researchers are realising
that emotion and cognitions are integrated and often work together (Gray 2009).
What is the effect of mood on behaviour? When we are in a good mood, we tend
to be sociable and more altruistic and when we are in a bad mood, we withdraw
and help people less, Mood also influences memory, judgement, perception, how
we make / check our judgements and how we evaluate our world.
People who are chronically in a good or bad mood also make decisions differently
for example – extroverted people are especially influenced by positive
information, whereas people who are high on neuroticism are more responsive
to negative information (Zalenski and Larsen 2002). Our judgements and
emotional reaction to situations are also heavily determined by our emotional
expectation for example – how much you think you will like a particular movie
may affect to how much you like it as much as, the actual experience of the
movie itself.
4.7.2 Automatic Evaluation

In recent years, social psychologist have provided compelling evidence that many
social cognition processes occur virtually automatically and without awareness
– essentially, the years of practice we have had in responding to positive and
negative cues in the environment have made our emotional, our cognitive and
even our behavioural responses to many situations automatic (Aarts and
Dijksterhuis 2003).
We respond to these evaluative cues without needing to attend to them or think

about it. It helps to explain how human beings accomplish the vast amount of
information processing that they seem to do so effortlessly. In a study John Bargh
and his associations (1996) gave students word puzzles to solve. Students were
told to circle words embedded in the figure. For some students the words were
related to aging Example: slowly, elderly etc and for others the words were related
to neutral topics (Corn and Classroom). It was assumed that for the students who
received the word puzzle with age related cues, the stereotypes of the elderly
would be automatically prime in such a way that it would effect future thoughts
and behaviours. After the experiment, those participants who had been primed
with the sterotype of the ‘elderly’ walked more slowly than did the participants
who had not been so primed.
4.7.3 Motivation and Inferences

How we process and put together the information can be heavily influenced by
the inferences we want to make. People often generate and evaluate information
in a self serving manner, constructing beliefs that good things will happen to
them and bad things will not.
57
Introduction to Social 4.7.4 Suppressing Thoughts and Emotions
Psychology
Suppressing one’s thoughts is difficult and many of these efforts not only fail but
also may actually produce a rebound effect (Foriester & Liberman 2001, Wegner
1994) many people find themselves thinking about exactly what they are trying
to forget.
Trying to suppress an emotional response to an event involves a lot of effort and

as a result not only people find it hard to suppress these feeling but also their
physiological processes are affected and they are more aroused. Research suggests
that suppression can become a chronic way of dealing with negative aspects of
life.
What is the alternative to suppressing negative events? Many people try to

reappraise negative experiences instead of suppressing them, which is better?
On the whole reappraisers experience more positive emotions, get along better
with other people and have better well being, whereas suppressors experience
more negative emotions, get along more poorly with others and have lower well
being (Gross and John 2003).

Exercise-II
1) Write down two instances from your life or someone else life (who is
close to you) wherein because of bad mood, event etc., your performance
in an exam, interview, assignment and meeting was affected – vely write
down 2-3.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
2) Self presentation tactics employed
Business men
Politician
Actor
Teacher
Parent
4.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have tried to cover the cognitive and motivational basis of social
and person perception. We tried to show how neural mechanisms do affect
perception etc. We also studied about the impression formation and the processes
involved thereof. A discussion in detail about the processes involved in impression
management was taken up. Following this a detailed analysis of how one presents
oneself was taken up. In these theories of self presentation was discussed and the
many tactics that are used in presenting oneself in the correct light were
58
considered. The attributional bias and the many processes involved were Cognitive Basis and
Dynamics of Social
considered. How does emotion and motivation affect the process of information Perception and Person
processing was taken up. As is known the individual’s cognitive functions do Perception
not perform at the peak when the person is in emotional distress, anxiety and
depression. It was pointed out as to how mood interferes in many cognitive
functions such as decision making, judgement etc. It was also pointed out as to
how motivation can make a person perceive quite distortedly and how the
inferences one makes under such conditions may be highly biased.

1) Explain the cognitive and motivational basis of social and person perception
and in detail describe the bias in attribution.
2) How the information gathered about a person in distorted and what emotional
factors influence it.
3) Describe the various self presentation tactics used to manage a favourable
impression.
4.10 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

Adorno and Colleagues quoted in Crisp, R.J, Rhianomon N Turner (2007)
Essential Social Psychology, Sage Publications, New Delhi.
Aronson E, Wilson T.D,and Akert R.M (1998) Social Psychology (third edition),
Longman Inc.
References
Aarts and Dijksterhuis 2003 quoted in Taylor, E.S, Letitia Anne Peplau, David
O.Sears (2006), “Social Psychology (12th edition.), Pearson Education, India.
Ajzen 1996 quoted in Crisp, R.J, Rhianomon N Turner (2007) Essential Social
Psychology, Sage Publications, New Delhi.
Anderson 1968 quoted in Crisp, R.J, Rhianomon N Turner (2007) Essential

Social Psychology, Sage Publications, New Delhi.
Baron.R, Byrne D (2003), Social Psychology, Prentice Hall of India Pvt Ltd.,
New Delhi.
Bond and Atoum 2000 quoted in Baron, R.A Donn Byrne (2006) Social
Psychology (10th edition.) Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi.
Carner and Glass 1978, quoted in Crisp, R.J, Rhianomon N Turner (2007)
Caroll 1996 quoted in Baron, R.A Donn Byrne (2006) Social Psychology (10th
edition.) Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi.
Chaube S.P Social Psychology (1986), Lakshmi Navayan Agarwal, Educational

Publishers, Agra. Pg-21-24.
Coffman 1967 quoted in Crisp, R.J, Rhianomon N Turner (2007) Essential Social
Psychology, Sage Publications, New Delhi. 59
Introduction to Social Cooley 1922 quoted in Crisp, R.J, Rhianomon N Turner (2007) Essential Social
Psychology
Cross and John 2003 quoted in Taylor, E.S, Letitia Anne Peplau, David O.Sears
(2006) Social Psychology (12th edition), Pearson Education, India.
Depaulo 1992 quoted in Baron, R.A Donn Byrne (2006) Social Psychology (10th
edition) Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi.
Ekman and Friesen 1975 quoted in Baron, R.A Donn Byrne (2006) Social
Psychology (10th edition) Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi.
Foriester and Liberman 2001 quoted in Taylor, E.S, Letitia Anne Peplau, David
O.Sears (2006), Social Psychology (12th edition), Pearson Education, India.
Gray 2009 quoted in Taylor, E.S, Letitia Anne Peplau, David O.Sears (2006),
Social Psychology (12th edition), Pearson Education, India.
Gross and Miller quoted in Crisp, R.J, Rhianomon N Turner (2007) Essential
Harding, Kunter, Proshanky & Chein 1954, quoted in Crisp, R.J, Rhianomon N
Turner (2007) Essential Social Psychology, Sage Publications, New Delhi.
Heider 1958 quoted in Crisp, R.J, Rhianomon N Turner (2007) Essential Social
John Bargh & Assou 1996 quoted in Taylor, E.S, Letitia Anne Peplau, David
O.Sears (2006), Social Psychology (12th edition), Pearson Education, India.
Jones and Davis 1965 quoted in Crisp, R.J, Rhianomon N Turner (2007) Essential
Jones and Pillman 1982 quoted in Crisp, R.J, Rhianomon N Turner (2007)
Kelley 1950 quoted in Crisp, R.J, Rhianomon N Turner (2007) Essential Social
Kelley 1967quoted in Crisp, R.J, Rhianomon N Turner (2007) Essential Social

Lindzey C and Aronson E (1992) The handbook of social psychology, Vol-I

Addison Wesley Publishing Company, California.
Mathenson, Homes and Kristiansco 1991 quoted in Taylor, E.S, Letitia Anne
Peplau, David O.Sears (2006), Social Psychology (12th edition), Pearson
Education, India.
Mead 1934 quoted in Crisp, R.J, Rhianomon N Turner (2007) Essential Social
Milgram 1963 quoted in Taylor, E.S, Letitia Anne Peplau, David O.Sears (2006),
60
Neuerg 1989 quoted in Taylor, E.S, Letitia Anne Peplau, David O.Sears (2006), Cognitive Basis and
Dynamics of Social
Social Psychology (12th edition.), Pearson Education, India. Perception and Person
Perception
Olson and Ross quoted in Crisp, R.J, Rhianomon N Turner (2007) Essential
Robert Rosenthal and Leonore Jacobson 1968 quoted in Crisp, R.J, Rhianomon
N Turner (2007) Essential Social Psychology, Sage Publications, New Delhi.
Rosenthal 1994 quoted in Crisp, R.J, Rhianomon N Turner (2007) Essential

Ruseel 1994 quoted in Baron, R.A Donn Byrne (2006) Social Psychology (10th
edition.) Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi.
Sadker and Sadker 1994 quoted in Crisp, R.J, Rhianomon N Turner (2007)
Scheier and Carver 1977 quoted in Crisp, R.J, Rhianomon N Turner (2007)
Schlenker 1980 quoted in Crisp, R.J, Rhianomon N Turner (2007) Essential

Sherif & Sherif 1953, quoted in Crisp, R.J, Rhianomon N Turner (2007) Essential
Sherif While and Harvey 1955 quoted in Crisp, R.J, Rhianomon N Turner (2007)
Solomon Asch 1956 quoted in Crisp, R.J, Rhianomon N Turner (2007) Essential
Tay Vank 1999 quoted in Taylor, E.S, Letitia Anne Peplau, David O.Sears (2006),
Tay Wegner 1994 quoted in Taylor, E.S, Letitia Anne Peplau, David O.Sears
(2006), Social Psychology (12th edition), Pearson Education, India.
Taylor S.E. Peplay L.A, Sears D.O (2006) Social Psychology, Pearson Education
Pg-2-96.
Turner R.N and Richard J.Crisp (2007) Essential Social Psychology-Sage

Publications, New Delhi Pg-39-71.
Zalenski and Larsen 2002 quoted in Taylor, E.S, Letitia Anne Peplau, David
O.Sears (2006), Social Psychology (12th edition.), Pearson Education, India.
4.11 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

Self Assessment Questions 1 (Exercise I)
1) Examine the changes in I and II reason. Now do you realise how quickly we
generalise the information which might be mislead.
61
Introduction to Social 2) Did it clarify the two different versions of the similar instance, which clearly
Psychology
indicate the difference between our attitude when we are involved in an
incident as an actor and when we are the onlooker or observer.
Self Assessment Questions 2 (Exercise II)
1) Example – 10 my grandmother expired, one day before my crucial exam,
and as I was close to her, I could do my 10th exam well.
2) Example – Business men
Politician – Intimidation, self promotion
Actor - Ingratiation
Teacher - intimidation
Parent – intimidation
62
Definition, Concept,
UNIT 1 DEFINITION, CONCEPT, Description, Characteristic
of Attitude
DESCRIPTION, CHARACTERISTIC
OF ATTITUDE
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Defining Attitudes
1.3 Attitudes, Values and Beliefs
1.3.1 Attitudes and Values
1.3.2 Attitudes and Beliefs
1.4 Formation of Attitudes
1.4.1 Classical Conditioning
1.4.2 Instrumental Conditioning
1.4.3 Observational Learning
1.4.4 Genetic Factors
1.5 Functions of Attitudes
1.5.1 Utilitarian Function
1.5.2 Knowledge Function
1.5.3 Ego-Defensive Function
1.5.4 Value-Expressive Function
1.5.5 Social Identity Function
1.6 Let Us Sum Up
1.7 SAQs- Possible Answers
1.9 Glossary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
“Oooh chocolate ice cream. I just love it!”, “I hate smokers”, “Black colour
looks really classy”, “Yuck! I can’t stand sea food”, “I love social psychology”,
and so on. All the above statements show that we react to our environment in an
evaluative manner. We are constantly making judgments about whether objects,
events, ourselves, and others are favorable or unfavourable, likeable or unlikeable,
good or bad. This falls in the domain of attitudes. Social psychologists who
study attitudes investigate factors involved in such evaluations; how they are
formed, changed, and so on.
In this unit, we will examine the concept of an attitude, how attitudes are formed,
and what functions are served by holding attitudes. When you have finished
learning this unit, you should have some understanding of attitude and its
relevance.
5
Attitudes and Behaviour
1.1 OBJECTIVES
• Define attitudes;
• Differentiate between attitudes, values and beliefs;
• Explain how attitudes are formed; and
• Describe the functions served by attitudes.
1.2 DEFINING ATTITUDES

The study of attitudes has been at the forefront of social psychology for many
years. Attitude field is vast and diverse accumulating over 80-plus years. The
study of attitudes has been a core topic in social psychology. Attitudes are involved
in practically every other area of the discipline, including social perception,
interpersonal attraction, prejudice and discrimination, conformity, compliance,
and so on. The chief reason why the concept of attitude is so central to psychology
is because the aim of psychology is to study behaviour, and attitudes are supposed
to influence behaviour (whether or not and how and when they will be discussed
in Unit 3).
Let us first try to understand what exactly an attitude is.
Early on attitudes were defined very broadly. Allport (1935) defined attitude as
“a mental and neural state of readiness, organised through experience, and

exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual’s response to
all objects and situations with which it is related” (p. 784).
With such a broad definition it is easy to see why attitudes were seen as the
central construct of social psychology.
Since Allport, the definition of attitude has evolved considerably and become
narrower. Attitudes are now looked as evaluative statements— either favorable
or unfavorable- concerning some aspect of the social world. For instance, Fishbein
and Ajzen (1975) define an attitude as
“a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favorable or

unfavorable manner with respect to a given object” (p. 6).
“Object” includes people, things, events, and issues. When you use such words
as like, dislike, love, hate, good, bad, yuck, etc. you are describing your attitudes.
In this view, attitudes then are evaluations of a particular person, group, action,
or thing.
A similar definition was proposed by Eagly and Chaiken (1993), according to

whom,
“Attitude is a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a

particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor” (p. 1).
Thus an attitude is focused on a particular entity or object, rather than all objects
and situation with which it is related.
6
Psychologists use specialized terms to describe certain classes of attitudes. For Definition, Concept,
Description, Characteristic
e.g., an attitude towards the self is called self-esteem, negative attitudes towards of Attitude
specific groups are called prejudice, attitudes towards individuals are called
interpersonal attraction, and attitude towards own job is called job satisfaction.
Simply defined, attitudes are generally positive or negative views of a person

(including oneself) place, thing, or event (the attitude object).
Self Assessment Questions

Define attitude in your own words.
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
Why is attitude considered the central construct of social psychology?
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
1.3 ATTITUDES, VALUES AND BELIEFS

There are two psychological constructs closely associated with attitudes: values
and beliefs.
1.3.1 Attitudes and Values

The most frequently cited definition of what constitutes a human value is offered
by Rokeach (1973) as an “enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or
end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or
converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence” (p.5). Values constitute an
important aspect of self-concept and serve as guiding principles for an individual.
Rokeach argued that, considered together, values form values systems where a
value system is “an enduring organisation of beliefs concerning preferable modes
of conduct or end-states of existence along a continuum of importance” (1973,
p.5). Thus the importance of different values should co-vary with the importance
of others in the value system. For e.g. you may value ‘honesty’ over ‘success’.
Human values are strongly prescriptive in nature and form the core around which
other less enduring beliefs are organised. As such they are important in a range
of other processes, like attitudes. It is contended that the formation of specific
attitudes is predicated upon more general values. Values indirectly influence
behaviour through their influence on attitudes.
7
Attitudes and Behaviour Although values can shape attitudes, it does not however mean that values shape
all attitudes. For e.g. your attitude towards say love versus arranged marriage is
probably shaped by your values, but your preference for one brand of toothpaste
over another is less likely to be influenced by important life goals. It is clear that
some attitudes are formed through the influence of long-standing values
internalized early in life. These are called symbolic attitudes, because the attitude
object is a symbol of something else. In contrast, there are some attitudes that
are based on utility, a direct benefits and costs of the attitude object. These are
called instrumental attitudes, because they are instrumental to meet those needs.
Interestingly the same attitude object could serve a symbolic or an instrumental
need. For e.g. your decision to eat only vegetarian food could be based on utility
(if you stay in a place like Europe or America where it is more difficult to get
vegetarian food) or taste-instrumentally based attitudes— versus considerations
of animal rights and right to live-symbolically based values.
Values are relatively more stable and enduring than attitudes, since they are basic
notions about what is right and wrong. Attitudes are less stable than values.
Further, if we know an individual’s values, we are better able to predict his
behaviour in a particular situation.
1.3.2 Attitudes and Beliefs

Beliefs are cognitions about the probability that an object or event is associated
with a given attribute (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). Some theorists regard belief as
one component of an attitude. However, there are differences between attitude
and belief. Attitude can be considered as the sum of beliefs. A person can have
many beliefs about a phenomenon (positive and negative). This person will have
an attitude toward that phenomenon based on the overall evaluation of her beliefs.
For e.g. I may believe that Pepsi is sweet; it contains preservatives; it is high on
calories (belief); I like Pepsi (Attitude).
According to Eagly and Chaiken (1993), it is possible to verify or falsify some

beliefs (at least) using external criteria. For e.g. the belief that water freezes at 0
degree Celsius can be verified either factually or even by agreement among many
individuals; yet few attitudes can be ‘tested’ using such interjudge consensus.
Most social attitudes, such as political, aesthetic, or consumer preferences are
largely variable across people. You may like Pepsi; your friend may not like it at
all!
Both beliefs and values are central to the dynamic forces that form and transform
existing attitudes.

Differentiate between attitudes and values.
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
8
Differentiate between attitude and beliefs. Description, Characteristic
of Attitude
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
Give examples of attitudes, values and beliefs and relate their importance.
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
1.4 FORMATION OF ATTITUDES

Right from our birth onwards, we are exposed to a wide variety of stimuli, both
directly and indirectly, which lead to our acquiring particular attitudes towards
the attitudinal object. It is believed that attitudes are by and large acquired as a
result of various life experiences, although a small but growing body of evidence
indicates that attitudes may be influenced by genetic factors, too.
A number of theories have been used to identify what lead to formation and
maintenance of attitudes (Refer Figure 1)
Classical
Conditioning
Genetic Formation of Instrumental

Factors Attitudes Conditioning
Observational
Learning
Fig. 1.1: Perspectives to attitude formation
Let us examine these factors one by one.

9
Attitudes and Behaviour 1.4.1 Classical Conditioning
The process of classical conditioning was first described by Pavlov. In his
experiments on dogs, he found that after repeated pairings of an unconditioned
stimulus (e.g. bell) with a conditioned stimulus (dog), the latter acquires the
capacity to evoke a conditioned response (salivation), similar to the old,
unconditioned response (salivation).
It has been suggested that in the same way that a bell can evoke a physiological
response, classical conditioning can produce a positive/negative attitude towards
a previously neutral object. Arthur and Carolyn Staats (1958) were two of the
first researchers who systematically studied the classical conditioning of attitudes.
They conducted an experiment in which the goal was to condition positive and
negative attitudes to the names of countries (Sweden and Holland) which
previously were regarded neither positively nor negatively. During 108
conditioning trials, two nationalities were always followed by a negative word
(e.g. failure), two were paired with positive adjectives (e.g. happy, gift), and two
others were paired with neutral words (e.g. table). At the end of the experiment,
it was indeed found that participants held more positive attitudes towards the
nationalities associated with positive words and more negative attitudes toward
those associated with negative words.
Classical conditioning could play a role in establishing some of the emotional

components of attitudes and prejudice. Further, through classical conditioning,
people may come to have powerful attitudinal reactions to social objects even in
the absence of firsthand experience. Hence, children who hear repeated pairings
of words in their parents’ conversations (such as say, Muslims-Aggressive,
Muslims-Fundamentalists) throughout their early years of development may come
to adopt such negative attitudes themselves— without even meeting them.
1.4.2 Instrumental Conditioning

Child: “Mummy, doesn’t Mausi look nice in her green dress? She really knows
how to carry herself.”
Mother: “You are absolutely right dear. I’ve felt that for some time now and was
hoping you would agree. Your dress sense is really getting evolved. You can now
suggest me what to wear the next time we go out.”
This kind of conversation illustrates quite clearly the role of reinforcement in

attitude formation. Following her mother’s agreement, it is likely that the child’s
initial responses of a positive attitude about Mausi will be reinforced. Of course,
had the child remarked that Mausi looks awful; the mother might have reacted
with displeasure, thereby punishing the remark. Following reward, the child’s
attitude is likely to be strengthened; whereas punishment would probably lead to
a weakening of the attitude.
This is the process of instrumental conditioning, a basic form of learning studied

by Thorndike (1911) and Skinner (1938). According to this, behaviours that are
followed by positive outcomes tend to be strengthened, while those that are
followed by negative outcomes are suppressed. The degree to which attitudes
are verbally or nonverbally reinforced by others will affect the acquiring and
maintenance of attitudes. For e.g. early in your life, if your parents and teachers
10
praised you for doing well in studies, you may have doubled your efforts and Definition, Concept,
developed a positive attitude towards studies. However if your friend’s parents of Attitude
did not acknowledge her achievements in studies, she would have probably
developed a negative attitude toward studies.
1.4.3 Observational Learning

In both classical and instrumental conditioning approaches to attitude formation,
the person has direct contact or experience (as in the case of Staats experiment)
with the attitudinal object. However, it is also true that people may acquire
attitudes simply by observing the rewards and punishments that others get for
their espousal of those attitudes. The phenomenon by which a person acquires
new forms of behaviour or thought simply by observing others is called
observational learning. For example, you might develop a negative attitude
towards the college canteen if you saw someone throwing up after having a meal
there. Although your friend’s newly formed dislike is due to instrumental
conditioning, your negative attitude is a result of observational learning.
The rationale behind commercials of say, Pizza Hut which show someone ordering
and then obviously enjoying a pizza is that the viewer will also form a positive
attitude vicariously and imitate such behaviour in the future.
1.4.4 Genetic Factors

Some research (Waller et al., 1990; Keller et al., 1992) indicates that our attitudes,
at least a tendency to develop certain views about various topics or issues, are
inherited. For instance, Arvey et al. (1989) studied the level of job satisfaction of
34 sets of identical twins separated from each other at an early age, and found
that approximately 30% of job satisfaction appears to be explainable by genetic
factors. Tesser (1993) has argued that hereditary variables may affect attitudes—
but believes that they may do so indirectly.
Additional research suggests that genetic factors play a stronger role in shaping
some attitudes than others. For e.g., attitudes involving gut-level preferences
(say a preference for a certain kind of food) may be more strongly influenced by
genetic factors than attitudes that are more cognitive in nature (say attitudes
towards environment conservation).
Self Check Exercises

Note: i) Tick mark the correct answer.
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the unit.
1) The psychological construct that deals with important life goals that go
beyond specific situations is:
a) Value, b) Attitude, c) Belief, d) Behaviour
2) Parents reward children with smiles, approvals, or hugs for stating the
‘right’ view— the ones that they themselves approve. Which type of
learning does this process represent?
a) Classical Conditioning
b) Instrumental Conditioning
c) Observational Learning
d) Insight Learning 11
3) Khushi and Ayush are two well-behaved and happy children who are
members of a loving family. During the course of their young lives they
have developed extremely negative attitudes toward various minority
groups. They have listened to their parents and other adults continuously
use negative words such as stupid, lazy, dirty in referring to minority
members. Which type of learning does this process represent?
a) Classical Conditioning
b) Instrumental Conditioning
c) Observational Learning
d) Insight Learning
4) What are the components of attitudes? Give an example to substantiate
your statement.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
5) Discuss the process of attitude formation.
...............................................................................................................
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...............................................................................................................
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...............................................................................................................
6) Put forward the 4 theories that help in explaining attitude formation.
...............................................................................................................
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...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
1.5 FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDES

From the above it is obvious that we hold many attitudes about almost all aspects
of the world around us. Are you wondering why we bother forming the many
attitudes that each one of us have? In this section, we will throw light on some
functions served by attitudes.
The functional utility of attitudes was pointed out by Allport (1935) in his classic
discussion of attitudes. According to him, attitude was social psychology’s most
indispensable concept. He stated, “Without guiding attitudes the individual is
12 confused and baffled…Attitudes determine for each individual what he will see
and hear, what he will think and what he will do…they ‘engender meaning upon Definition, Concept,
the world’; they draw lines about and segregate an otherwise chaotic environment; of Attitude
they are our methods for finding our way about in an ambiguous universe”
(Allport, 1935, p. 806).
This has been termed as the object appraisal function by Fazio (2000). According
to him, the mere possession of any attitude is useful to the individual in terms of
orienting him to the attitudinal object. This object appraisal function can be
regarded as the primary value of having an attitude. Fazio goes on to state, “Every
attitude, regardless of any other functional benefits that it may also provide,
serves this object appraisal function”. (p. 4)
Similarly both Katz (1960) and Smith, Bruner and White (1956) commented on
this object — appraisal function in their functional theory of attitudes. One of
the fundamental assumptions of functional theory is that we often hold or express
our attitudes and preferences in order to communicate something about ourselves
to other people. This implies that attitudes towards specific issues, products, or
ideas serve to convey broader information about us to those who are interested.
For e.g. Smith et al. (1956) said, “Attitudes aid us in classifying for action the
objects of the environment, and they make appropriate response tendencies
available for coping with these objects” (p. 41).
Katz (1960) takes the view that attitudes are determined by the functions they
serve for us. People hold given attitudes because these attitudes help them achieve
their basic goals. Katz distinguishes four types of psychological functions that
attitudes meet. Let us examine these four functions now.
1.5.1 Utilitarian Function (also Called Instrumental Function)

We develop certain attitudes towards objects that aid or reward us. We want to
maximize rewards and minimize penalties. Katz says we develop positive attitudes
towards those objects that are associated with rewards and develop negative
attitudes toward those that are associated with punishment. For e.g. if you are a
graduate looking for a job, if you belong to a minority community (say Other
Backward Classes) which has job reservations, you will favour the political party
that introduced such reservations. On the other hand, if you belong to the majority,
you might develop a negative attitude towards the same party because it ‘took
away some jobs from the general quota and reserved them for OBCs’. We are
more likely to change our attitudes if doing so allows us to fulfill our goals or
avoid undesirable consequences.
If you think this function seems close to instrumental conditioning, you are right.
It does come from a behaviourist perspective.
1.5.2 Knowledge Function

We all have a need to attain some degree of meaningful, stable, clear, and organised
view of the world (just as most of us have a need to maintain an organised
cupboard!) Attitudes satisfy this knowledge function by providing a frame of
reference for organizing our world so that it makes sense. Using such a cognitive
perspective, attitudes serve as schemas that help us in organizing and interpreting
social information.
For e.g. people who hold traditional gender stereotypes (such as ‘a woman’s
place is in the home’) will have greater satisfaction with the current status of
13
Attitudes and Behaviour women at work and will explain the low number of women in high positions in
office (glass ceiling effect) with traditional gender explanations. Via such attitudes
as stereotypes, we can bring order and clarity to the complexities of human life
(even if misplaced!)
1.5.3 Ego-Defensive Function

Some attitudes serve to protect us from acknowledging basic truths about
ourselves or the harsh realities of life. These can help a person cope with emotional
conflicts and protect self-esteem. As you would’ve noticed, this comes from a
psychoanalytic perspective, and assumes that attitudes serve as defense
mechanisms. For example, a new mother might feel bad about herself after
experiencing a sudden urge to hit her crying child, and to defend against this
threat to self-esteem, she might develop a positive attitude toward spoiling the
child. The rationalisation might be, ‘of course I don’t want her to get spoiled by
giving in to her whims every time.’
1.5.4 Value-Expressive Function

Value-expressive attitudes show who we are, and what we stand for. Hence they
serve to demonstrate one’s self-image to others and to express our basic values.
This function comes from a humanistic perspective. It seems logical to assume
that only important and strongly self-related (central) attitudes should serve the
value-expressive function.
For e.g. you may have a negative attitude towards homosexuals because your
religion considers homosexuality to be immoral (although I personally don’t
think any religion degrades homosexuality). The fact that you may never have
had a bad experience with anyone who was homosexual is irrelevant. Your
negative attitude satisfies your value-expressive function, allowing you to express
an important value associated with a religious group with which you strongly
identify. By extension, if you don’t strongly identify with your religious group,
your negative attitude towards homosexuals will not have much effect on your
self-esteem.
1.5.5 Social Identity Function

Other than the basic four functions served by attitudes suggested by Katz, Shavitt
(1989) added another social identity function of attitudes. This refers to the
informativeness of attitudes for person impressions, or how much attitudes appear
to convey about the people who hold them. Shavitt and Nelson (2000) suggested
that products tend to engage a utilitarian function to the extent that they are seen
as expressing identity and values, the product is generally displayed in public or
is visible to others, or the product is widely seen as symbolizing membership in
a particular group. For e.g. the purchase of an Indian flag on the Republic Day
may be driven primarily by social identity goals.
In addition to investigating how attitude functions vary among people, current

researches in the field also consider the possibility that different attitude objects
may actually serve different functions for different people. For e.g. people
purchase certain products to fulfill utilitarian needs (computers, television, etc.)
and other products to satisfy value-expressive needs (for e.g. a particular brand
of car). Further, an attitude changes when it no longer serves its function, and the
individual feels blocked or frustrated. Thus, those who are interested in changing
14
other people’s attitudes must first determine what functions those attitudes serve Definition, Concept,
for the targeted individuals, and then use an appropriate approach. of Attitude

1) What are the various functions of attitudes ? Discuss each of these
functions with an example from real life situation.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
Note: Tick mark the correct answer.
Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the unit.
1) Rahul is not performing well on his job and is unjustly blaming his
problems on his ‘difficult’ boss. Which function is served by holding
such negative attitudes towards his boss?
a) Value-Expressive
b) Knowledge
c) Utilitarian
d) Ego-Defensive
2) Roshni regards herself to be an enlightened feminist; and therefore
cultivates attitudes that she believes indicate such a core value. Which
function is served by such attitudes?
a) Value-Expressive
b) Knowledge
c) Utilitarian
d) Ego-Defensive
1.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have discussed the definition, concept, formation, and functions
of attitudes. Attitudes are generally positive or negative views of a person
(including oneself), place, thing, or event-the attitude object. They differ somewhat
from values and beliefs. Values are concerned with important life goals and may
shape attitudes; beliefs are one component of attitudes that can be verified (or
falsified) using external criteria.
Attitudes are formed by a number of mechanisms. In classical conditioning,
attitudes form when a previously neutral attitude object comes to evoke an attitude
response by being paired with some other object that naturally evokes the attitude
response. Another powerful way in which attitudes are formed is through
instrumental conditioning, using reward and punishment contingencies. Some
attitudes are also formed via observational learning by vicariously experiencing
rewards and punishments given to others. Finally, genetic factors play a role in
shaping some attitudes. The functional approach says that we hold attitudes that
fit our needs. All attitudes, regardless of any other needs that they fulfill, also
serve an object appraisal function. Early functional theorists proposed four
psychological functions that attitudes may serve: utilitarian, knowledge, ego-
defensive, and value-expressive. A social-identity function of attitude was added
later. 15
1.7 SAQS- POSSIBLE ANSWERS
1) a: Value
2) b: Instrumental Conditioning
3) d: Ego-defensive
4) a: Value-Expressive

1) Define attitudes. Explain the difference between attitudes, values and beliefs.
2) Discuss the theories that explain how attitudes are formed.
3) What functions are served by attitudes? Using the same example, discuss
how the same attitudinal object may serve different functions.
1.9 GLOSSARY
Belief : Any cognitive content held as true.
Classical Conditioning : Learning through association, when a neutral
stimulus (conditioned stimulus) is paired
with a stimulus (unconditioned stimulus)
that naturally produces a response.
Defense Mechanisms : Unconscious tactics used to safeguard the
mind against feelings and thoughts that are
too difficult for the conscious mind to cope
with, for instance, forgetting, rationalisation,
denial, repression, projection, etc.
Functional Theory of Attitudes: Attitudes are determined by the functions
they serve for us.
Glass Ceiling : Attitudinal or organisational bias in the
workplace that prevents women and other
minorities from advancing to leadership
positions.
Instrumental Conditioning : A type of learning in which behaviour is
strengthened if followed by reinforcement
and weakened if followed by punishment.
Schema : A cognitive framework that helps organise
and interpret information.
Values : Enduring beliefs about important life goals
that go beyond specific situations.

Baron, R. A., Branscombe, N. R., & Byrne, D. (2009). Social Psychology, 12th
Ed. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.
Franzoi, S.L. (2008). Social Psychology, 5th Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
16
UNIT 2 COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE Description, Characteristic
of Attitude
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 ABCs of Attitudes
2.2.1 Affect
2.2.2 Cognition
2.2.3 Behaviour
2.3 Properties of Attitudes
2.3.1 Attitude Strength
2.3.2 Attitude Accessibility
2.3.3 Attitude Ambivalence
2.4 Let Us Sum Up
2.5 SAQs-Possible Answers
2.7 Glossary
2.0 INTRODUCTION
We saw in the last unit that attitudes are favourable or unfavourable evaluations
of people, objects, or events — or just about anything in our environment.
Regardless of how you might evaluate, what exactly is an attitude made of? Is it
a feeling? Is it a thought? Is it an act? In this unit, we will examine the three basic
components of attitudes.
If I were to ask you, ‘What is your attitude towards lizards?’ your answer might
be quite clearly negative. If I were to now ask you, ‘What is your attitude towards
giving death penalty to kidnappers?’ your answer might not be as clear. Clearly
then, attitudes have several properties that are dynamic and have implications
for information processing, retrieval and behaviour. We shall also discuss some
such properties in this unit.
2.1 OBJECTIVES
• Name the three components of attitudes;
• Describe the affective, cognitive and behavioural components of attitudes;
• Explain the dimensions of attitude strength;
• Define attitude accessibility; and
• Define attitude ambivalence.
2.2 THE ABCS OF ATTITUDE

Favourable or unfavourable evaluations towards something that define a person’s
attitude can be exhibited in beliefs, feelings, or inclinations to act. This is known 17
Attitudes and Behaviour as the multidimensional or tricomponent view of attitudes (e.g., Breckler, 1984;
Katz & Stotland, 1959). These three components represent the basic building
blocks of attitudes.
Consider for example, my attitude towards swimming. Because I believe that it
is an excellent form of exercise, I feel liking towards it, and therefore intend to
swim every day (at least in summers!). These dimensions are known as the ABCs
of attitudes: affect (feelings), behaviour (tendency to act), and cognition (thoughts)
(Refer to Figure 2.1).
Affect
Cognition
Behaviour
Fig. 2.1: The ABCs of Attitudes (Adapted from Myers, 2005, p. 134)
Let us examine these three components more closely.
2.2.1 Affect
Affect refers to feelings or emotions that are evoked by a particular person, item,
or event — the attitude object, or the focus of our attitude, for e.g. fear, sympathy,
hate, like, pleasure. You may feel positively or negatively about your boss, the
painting in your office lobby, or the fact that your company just bagged a big
contract (it may mean a bigger bonus; it may also mean strict and deadlines and
hard work!).
Obviously, such feelings can vary in intensity. For example, I may very strongly
like classical music, but have only a casual dislike of carrots. Such feelings form
from our experiences (or observing experiences) and serve to guide our future
behaviour. I may be more inclined to go to a musical concert by Pandit Bhimsen
Joshi; and may be less inclined to avoid carrots.
Much of attitude research has emphasized the importance of affective or emotion

components. Emotion works hand-in-hand with the cognitive process, or the
way we think about an issue or situation. Emotional appeals are commonly found
in advertising, health campaigns and political messages. Any discrete emotion
18
can be used in a persuasive appeal; this may include jealousy, disgust, indignation, Components of Attitude
fear, humour, and anger. For e.g. a pack of cigarettes now contains a picture of
black lungs along with a message that says ‘Smoking Kills: Tobacco causes
cancer’ designed to arouse fear.
Research suggests that affect plays a very important role in attitude formation.
For instance, Kim, Lim, & Bhargava (1998) conducted two experiments, using
established conditioning procedures, to assess the impact of affect on formation
of attitudes about certain products. The results indicated that affect can influence
attitudes even in the absence of product beliefs (Experiment 1). Further, affect
plays as important or more important a role than the belief mechanism in attitude
formation, depending on the number of repetitions (Experiment 2).
Affect is a common component in attitude change, persuasion, social influence,
and even decision making. How we feel about an outcome may override purely
cognitive rationales.
2.2.2 Cognition
Attitudes involve more than just feeling— they also involve knowledge— what
you believe to be the case about an attitude object. For e.g. you might believe
that studying psychology will help you understand other people better and equip
you to deal with them. Whether it is completely accurate or completely false
(quite true in this case), this belief comprises the cognitive component of your
attitude towards psychology. When you form your opinion or judgment on the
basis of available information and decide whether you have a favourable or
unfavourable opinion on that, it is the cognitive part of an attitude we are talking
about.
The term cognition literally means ‘to know’, ‘to conceptualize’, or ‘to recognize’.
Hence the cognitive component of attitude is the storage component where we
organise information about an attitude object. It comprises of our thoughts, beliefs,
opinions, and ideas about the attitudinal object. As we saw in the last unit, beliefs
are cognitions about the probability that an object or event is associated with a
given attribute (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). When a human being is the object of
an attitude, the cognitive component is frequently a stereotype, for e.g. ‘Punjabis
are fun loving’.
It is suggested that the congruence between affective and cognitive components
may influence the intention to behave. For e.g. whether someone actually uses a
condom may depend upon the congruence between his feeling about it (pleasure
versus displeasure) and his belief that using a condom will prevent him from
AIDS.
2.2.3 Behaviour
As just mentioned, the things you believe about something (for e.g. ‘my boss is
corrupt and is misusing company funds’) and the way you feel about it (e.g. ‘I
can’t stand working for him’) may have some effect on the way you are
predisposed to behave (e.g. ‘I’m going to quit my present job’). Thus, attitudes
have a behavioural component— a tendency or a predisposition to act in a certain
manner. Note that behaviour is different from a behavioural tendency.
It may seem logical to assume that if we have a negative attitude for a particular
object— your boss in the above example— it is likely to be translated into a
19
Attitudes and Behaviour particular type of behaviour, such as avoidance of your boss and even looking
for an alternative job. However, such behavioural tendency may not actually be
predictive of your actual behaviour. Behaviours are typically defined as overt
actions of an individual. For e.g. although you may be interested in taking a new
job, you might not actually take it if a better one (with higher or at least similar
salary and designation) is not available. It is thus important to note that your
intention to behave in a certain way may or may not translate into how you
actually behave. It is more reasonable to assume that one’s behavioural intention,
the verbal indication or typical behavioural tendency of an individual, rather
than actual behaviour is more likely to be in tune with his affective and cognitive
components.
Consider this: You may believe that smoking is injurious to health; you may fear
that you may get cancer; yet you may continue to smoke. At the same time you
may have an intention to quit smoking. Hence, your behaviour towards an attitude
object may not be in line with how you feel about it (affect) and what you know
about it (cognition). We will examine the link between attitude and behaviour
more closely in the next unit.
Though most attitudes have all three components, they can be more strongly
rooted in either the cognitive or the affective component. It is also possible that
all three aspects are not always present in an attitude. Research indicates that not
all three of these components need to be in place for an attitude to exist (Eagly &
Chaiken, 1993). For e.g. you could develop a positive attitude towards a product
that you see on television (say a sauna belt) without developing any beliefs about
it (you may lack knowledge about it and hence don’t know if it will really work)
or ever engaging in any purchase behaviour.
In fact, research has demonstrated that we can develop a positive attitude towards
a product simply by repeatedly being exposed to it. This is known as the mere
exposure effect (Zajonc, 1968), the tendency to develop more positive feelings
towards objects and individuals, the more we are exposed to them. We seem to
naturally develop a liking for those things that are repeatedly presented to us, be
it a stranger in a neighbourhood or our own face! Don’t you start liking a song
and maybe even humming it after hearing it many times on the radio. Let me
give another quick demonstration.
Activity:
Answer the following question quickly, without giving much thought: What are
your favourite letters of the alphabet?
I am sure you would have answered with the letter with which your own name
begins? This demonstrates a well-demonstrated phenomenon in social
psychology: people of different nationalities, languages, and ages prefer the letters
appearing in their own name, and those that frequently appear in their own
language. This is line with the mere exposure effect.
The significance of the mere exposure effect regarding the three components of
attitudes is simple. It illustrates how sometimes affect can become associated
with an object independent of any knowledge about it. These feeling-based
attitudes represent a very powerful form of evaluation, though affective and
cognitive components tend to be intertwined. For primarily affect-based attitudes,
it is more difficult to produce cognitive counterarguments in the resistance to
20 persuasion and attitude change.
Components of Attitude
Consider the following three components of Rahul’s attitude towards his
friend Garv. Tick mark the correct component of attitude that is represented
by each statement:
Note: Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the unit.
I think Garv is kind, charming and humourous.
(a) Affective (b) Cognitive (c) Behavioural
I feel good when I am with Garv.

I try to hang out with Garv whenever I get the chance.

2.3 PROPERTIES OF ATTITUDES

For many years social psychologists have been interested in the structural
properties of attitudes. One way to examine structure of attitudes is look at its
three components— the ABCs of attitudes. Another way in which we can examine
the structure of attitudes is by exploring their dynamic implication for information
processing, retrieval and judgment. Attitudes have dynamic properties in addition
to the somewhat static ones, as discussed in the previous section. Let us examine
the dynamic properties of attitudes now.

Attitudes differ in strength. Strong, central attitudes are attitudes that refer to
important attitude objects that are strongly related to the self. These attitudes are
often related to important values. Attitude strength involves several dimensions,
such as
Certainty: How much the individual knows about the attitude object.
Intensity and extremity: Extremity refers to the degree of favorableness or
unfavourableness towards the attitude object. Intensity refers to the strength of
the feeling, i.e. how strong is the emotional reaction provoked by the attitude
object. For e.g. both Tanya and Vedika have a negative attitude towards dogs.
Tanya avoids touching a dog, while Vedika grows pale even at the sight of a dog.
Attitude origin: Attitudes formed through direct experience are generally stronger
than those formed without such experience. Vedika may have been bitten by a
dog herself, while Tanya may have just heard about her story.
Personal Importance: The extent to which an individual cares about the attitude.
One key determinant of personal importance is vested interest— the extent to

which the attitude is personally relevant to the individual who holds it, in that
the object or issue to which it refers has important consequences for this
individual. For e.g. if a new law is proposed that prohibits drinking below the
age of 25 years, you may react more strongly to it if you are around 22-23 years
as opposed to if you are 40 years old and thus unaffected by the change in drinking
21
Attitudes and Behaviour age Research shows that the greater such vested interest, the stronger will be the
impact of such an attitude on behaviour. Further, attitudes that are intense,
important, or held with great certainty are associated with clearer and more
univocal and accessible attitudinal cues.

Attitude accessibility refers to the ease with which attitudes can be retrieved
from memory, in other words how readily available is an attitude about an object,
issue, or situation. Some attitudes are characterized by clear, univocal, and highly
accessible cues in memory; whereas others are associated with weak, ambiguous
and inaccessible cues. Accessibility is assumed to reflect the strength of
association in memory between the representation of the attitudinal object and
the evaluation of the object along a dimension ranging from positive to negative.
Attitudes that are more accessible from memory are more predictive of behaviour,
influence what messages are attended to, and how those messages are processed,
and are more stable across time. Research has found highly accessible attitudes
to be more predictive of a wide variety of behaviours such as voting and selection
of consumer products than are attitudes low in accessibility.
Consider the following example. Suppose you see a cockroach. You might have
a very quick ‘yuck’ response. The fast yuck response indicates an accessible
attitude toward spiders. You do not have to think about whether you like
cockroaches (who does?), rather the mere presence of a spider results in the
activation of your attitude. Now imagine you are walking down a road with a
friend looking for a place to eat. Your friend points to a Thai restaurant and
suggests that you both eat there. Now you may have to think about whether you
like Thai food, because you are not really sure what you think of it, before deciding
that it is good/bad and that you are ready to eat there. The fact that you have to
ponder whether you like something suggests that either you have a relatively
inaccessible attitude or you have never formed an attitude toward that object.
Some factors are related to attitude accessibility: attitude importance, affect versus
cognitive evaluation, repeated expression of the attitude. Let us consider them
one by one.
Research has found that issue involvement, the relevance and salience of an
issue or situation to an individual, is not only correlated with attitude strength
(as we saw in the previous section), but also attitude access. Attitude importance
and attitude accessibility are also related. Importance can result in more active
seeking of attitude relevant information and more extensive elaboration of that
information, which can lead to greater accessibility.
Studies have shown that responses to affective evaluations are generally given
faster than responses to cognitive evaluations, suggesting that affect-based
evaluations are more accessible in memory than cognition-based evaluations.
For example, in a study examining 20 different attitude objects, a positive
correlation was found between the extent to which attitude objects were described
in affective terms and the accessibility of attitudes towards the object (Fazio,
1995).
22
Finally, repeated expression of an attitude tends to make that attitude more Components of Attitude
accessible in the future (Powell & Fazio, 1984). The more frequently we ask a
subject about his attitude towards an object or issue, the quicker will be his
subsequent responses to that same object or issue. Also, if an attitude object was
initially evaluated positively, repeated attitude expression will cause positive
object features to become more strongly associated with the object than negative
features, thereby leading to greater extremity. And lastly, reporting an attitude on
one issue facilitates subsequent reports of related or linked attitudes. For e.g. if I
am asked my opinion on whether I think smoking is harmful, I will also think
about tobacoo chewing.
Past studies conclude that accessible attitudes are more resistant to change.
Attitude accessibility has also been shown to predict behaviour. An accessible
attitude is more likely to result in attitudinally consistent behaviour than a less
accessible attitude of the same valence.
2.3.3 Attitude Ambivalence

People can also be conflicted or ambivalent toward an object, meaning that they
simultaneously possess both positive and negative attitudes toward the object in
question. Attitude ambivalence refers to the fact that our evaluations of objects,
issues, events, or people are not always uniformly positive or negative; our
evaluations are often mixed, consisting of both positive and negative reactions.
A very common object of ambivalence is food! Chronic dieters experience a

conflict between two incompatible goals: on one hand, they enjoy food and love
to eat (the eating enjoyment goal); on the other, in line with societal demands on
slimness, they want to lose weight (weight loss or control goal). As a result, they
experience difficulty reducing their calorie intake, because eating enjoyment, as
an affective reaction, is usually the food reaction to food stimuli. Don’t you go
glassy-eyed and look longingly at chocolate cakes?
Attitude ambivalence occurs when there is evaluative tension associated with

one’s attitude because the summary includes both positive and negative
evaluations. This is manifested in the person feeling mixed or torn about the
attitude object. Attitude ambivalence may also be the result of conflicting values.
For e.g. you may have an ambivalent attitude towards arranged marriages, because
on one hand you value obedience and adherence to parents; on the other, you
may value freedom and personal choice.
There is some evidence that as attitude ambivalence increases, attitude-behaviour

consistency decreases (for e.g. Conner et al., 2003). Further, ambivalent attitudes
are less accessible than non ambivalent ones. Individuals may recognize the
underlying conflict associated with their attitudes and thus be less sure of their
validity. This may lead people to conclude that they should try to avoid use of
attitude. Higher ambivalence is also related to less extreme attitudes. As a matter
of fact, research on attitude ambivalence originally came from interest in
individuals who held neutral positions on some attitudes.
Research also shows that there are individual differences associated with the
tendency for ambivalence. Individuals with high need for cognition (who enjoy
effortful cognitive processing and those who dislike ambiguity) tend to have
lower levels of ambivalence than individuals lower on need for cognition.
23
Note: Tick mark the correct answer.
Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the unit.
1) You have just watched a movie featuring young, slim girls. As you walk
out of the theater into the shopping mall, you notice a treadmill and go
and buy it. Your purchase behaviour has been influenced by which
property of the attitude:
(a) Attitude intensity (b) Attitude ambivalence (c) Attitude accessibility
(d) Attitude origin
2) You are out for a dinner with friends when the host asks you if you
would like to eat some dessert, you politely decline. When another
friend’s ice cream arrives, you look at it wistfully. When your friend
urges you to have some, you say, ‘I would love to. But I would feel very
guilty in the morning if I give in to my temptation now’. This is known
as:
(a) Attitude intensity (b) Attitude ambivalence (c) Attitude accessibility
(d) Attitude origin
2.4 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have discussed the components of attitudes. Attitudes can be
described in terms of three basic components: affect (feelings), behaviour (or at
least behavioural intentions), and cognition (thoughts, beliefs, opinions, etc.).
Though most attitudes have all three components, they can be more strongly
rooted in either the cognitive or the affective component. All three components
may not always be present in an attitude.
Attitudes have several dynamic properties that have implications for information
processing, retrieval and behaviour. Three such properties are attitude strength,
attitude accessibility and attitude ambivalence.
2.5 SAQS- POSSIBLE ANSWERS

1) b: Cognitive
2) a: Affective
3) c: Behavioural
4) c: Attitude accessibility
5) b: Attitude ambivalence

What are the three basic components of attitudes? Will all three aspects always
be present in an attitude? Discuss with the help of an example.
Explain the dimensions of attitude strength. Give a real life example of an attitude
that you hold strongly.
24
Define attitude accessibility. What are some implications of attitude accessibility? Components of Attitude
What is attitude ambivalence? Briefly explain the relation between attitude

accessibility and ambivalence.
2.7 GLOSSARY
Attitude accessibility : How quickly an attitude is activated from memory.
Attitude ambivalence : The ratio of positive and negative evaluations that
make up that attitude
Attitude extremity : The intensity of feeling on the object of the attitude.
Attitude strength : In its most general sense, it may be viewed as the
extent to which an individual’s attitude is formed.
Cognition : A faculty for the processing of information, applying
knowledge, and changing preferences.

Albarracin, D., Johnson, B.T., & Zanna, M.P. (2005). The Handbook of Attitudes.
New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Baron, R. A., Branscombe, N. R., & Byrne, D. (2009). Social Psychology, 12th
Ed. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.
25
UNIT 3 PREDICTING BEHAVIOUR FROM
ATTITUDE
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Relationship between Attitude and Behaviour
3.3 Attitudes Predict Behaviour
3.3.1 True Versus Expressed Attitudes
3.3.2 One Instance Versus Aggregate
3.3.3 Level of Attitude-behaviour Specificity
3.3.4 Self Awareness
3.4 Attitudes Determine Behaviour?
3.5 Behaviour Determine Attitudes
3.5.1 Role Playing
3.5.2 Foot in the Door Phenonmenon
3.6 Behaviour and Moral Attitudes
3.7 Let Us Sum Up
3.8 SAQs: Possible Answers
3.10 Glossary
3.0 INTRODUCTION
As you have seen in the previous units, every day we constantly form and use
attitudes. You have probably formed an attitude about this topic and me as the
author, and the use of that attitude may affect whether or not you choose to study
this unit or leave it. But, wait a minute. Does it really? May be not. Because if
you want to prepare well for your examination and score well, perhaps you will
study regardless of your attitude. In other words, even if you may have formed a
negative attitude towards this unit (I certainly hope that’s not the case), your
behaviour may not reflect your attitude. In this unit, we will examine the complex
relationship between attitudes and behaviour. Attitude and behaviour represent
the classic chicken-and-egg case. What came first? The chicken or the egg? What
comes first? The attitude or the behavior? We will attempt to find answers to
such questions in this unit.
3.1 OBJECTIVES
• Describe the inconsistency in the attitude-behaviour relationship;
26
• Describe the factors that determine the attitude-behaviour relationship; Predicting Behaviour from
Attitude
• Explain the theory of planned behaviour that explains how attitudes determine
behaviour; and
• List the instances where behaviour determines attitudes.
3.2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ATTITUDE AND

BEHAVIOUR
Attitudes were the corner stone of social psychology, right from its inception.
Much of the interest in attitudes came from the commonsensical belief that
attitudes determine behaviour, and behaviour after all, was the subject matter of
psychology. In fact, the earliest definitions defined attitudes largely in terms of
behaviour. For e.g. Allport (1924) defined attitudes as tendencies or
predispositions to behave in certain ways in social situations. Jung (1971) similarly
defined an attitude as “a readiness of the psyche to act or react in a certain way”
(p. 687). It turned out that this ‘common sense’ was actually ‘uncommon’. Despite
intuitive belief that attitudes determine behaviour, a large body of early research
indicated that attitudes are actually poor predictors of behaviour.
Let us look at some earliest researches that shook this faith. One of the earliest
classic studies to examine the relationship between attitudes and behaviour was
by LaPiere (1934). He spent two years traveling around the United States with a
young Chinese couple, at a time when prejudice against the Chinese was quite
open. During this travel, only one out of 184 hotels and restaurants refused them
service. However, when he wrote back to them after the trip and asked if they
would offer service to Chinese visitors, 91% of the 128 who responded said that
they would refuse service to Chinese! LaPiere concluded that there is a sizeable
gap between what people say and what they do-an inconsistency between attitudes
and behaviour.
A few decades later, Wicker (1969) in his seminal review of attitude-behavior

studies also found a lack of correspondence between expressed attitudes and
behaviour. Wicker found that the correlation between attitude and behaviour in
several domains rarely exceeded 0.30 and was often close to zero. He found
that:
• Student attitudes toward cheating had little relation to the likelihood of their
actual cheating;
• Attitudes toward the church were only modestly linked with actual church
attendance on any given Sunday; and
• Self-described racial attitudes were unrelated to behaviour in actual situations.
Wicker went on to say that the field had been largely wasting its time on attitudes,
because they do not strongly influence overt behaviour. Subsequent work over
next 35 years did little better. Our attitudes often do exert important effects on
our behaviour. For e.g. if you like Aamir Khan very much, chances are that you
would’ve watched every movie of his. A better question, then is, when do attitudes
determine behaviour or influence behaviour? Answer to this question is given in
the following paragraphs.
27
3.3 ATTITUDES PREDICT BEHAVIOUR
Let us take up the question as to when do attitudes predict behaviour and then
turn our attention towards the various factors that determine the attitude-behaviour
relationship. To put succinctly, some of the factors that are instrumental in making
attitude predict behaviour are:
i) True versus expressed attitudes
ii) One instance versus aggregate
iii) Level of attitude behaviour specificity.
The above are discussed in detail below:
3.3.1 True Versus Expressed Attitudes

Very often one does come across a person saying something which does not
express the person’s held attitude. As mentioned elsewhere, in the context of
many others watching the person or when a person against whom a negative
attitude is held is the person’s boss, true attitude will not be expressed. Thus a
measured or expressed attitude may not be a person’s true attitude especially
when dealing with sensitive issues, contexts and situations. In order to find out
the true attitude in such situations, a technique called “the bogus pipeline” is
used, in which every attempt is made to convince the person who holds an attitude
that there is a machine which would definitely measure the true attitude. If ther
person is convinced that his / her attitude would anyway be revealed by the
machine, he/she may tell the truth and thus their true attitudes will be more
consistent with their behaviour.
There is yet another technique that is used to get at the true attitude held by a
person and this is called the implicit association test, uses reaction times to
measure how quickly people associate a certain concept related to the true attitude.
In this technique if a person has a negative attitude towards a certain community
persons, many words are selected that are related to that community persons.
These words are mixed with many other unrelated words and the individual is
asked to respond with their attitude towards each of these words. The time between
presenting the word and the time the individual responds called as the reaction
time is noted. If the reaction time to certain words associated with particular
community persons is observed to be longer than to other words, then it may be
assumed that the person does have a negative attitude towards that community.
Only when true attitudes are measured using such techniques will they be
predictive of behaviour.
Activity:
Test yourself for hidden racial or gender biases with the help of the implicit
association test by logging on to http://www.understandingprejudice.org/iat/
index2.htm. You can take either the race test or the gender test and may end up
being surprised by the results!
3.3. 2 One Instance Versus Aggregate

Consider this. Sachin Tendulkar’s career batting average is 55.56 (1989–2010,
166 Tests, 13,447 runs). Does that mean he will score 55 runs in every inning?
28 Not at all. How much he will score in a particular game is nearly impossible to
predict, because it is affected by many factors such as the pitch, weather Predicting Behaviour from
Attitude
conditions, bowler he is facing, and so on (I’m not an expert in cricket, you may
know this better than I do!).
The point is simply this: predicting people’s behaviour from their attitudes is
like predicting a cricket player’s hitting. Just as we can predict the approximate
batting average of Sachin Tendulkar (but not individual game), similarly averaging
many occasions would enable us to detect more clearly the impact of our attitudes.
For e.g. research shows that people’s general attitude towards religion poorly
predicts whether they will go and worship next weekend. That’s because the
weather, their mood, their health, how far the temple is from residence, alternative
plans, etc. also influence attendance. However, religious attitudes do predict quite
well the total quantity of religious behaviours over time (Ajzen & Fishbein,
1974). This is known as the principle of aggregation: the effects of an attitude
become more apparent when we look at a person’s aggregate or average behaviour
rather than at an individual act.
3.3.3 Level of Attitude-behaviour Specificity

Too often in the past, researchers (e.g. Wicker, 1969) investigated correlations
between very broad and general issues like discrimination and a specific behaviour
such as taking a picture with an Afro-American. Attitude specificity, the extent
to which attitudes are focused on specific objects or situations (e.g. ‘Do you like
to eat Mexican food?’) rather than on general ones (e.g. ‘Do you like to go out to
eat?’) is clearly an important factor in the attitude-behaviour link. According to
Ajzen and Fishbein (1977), every single instance of behaviour involves four
specific elements: target, action, time and context. According to the principle of
compatibility, measures of attitude and behaviour are compatible to the extent
that these elements are assessed at identical levels of generality or specificity.
Target: I might have favourable attitudes toward the environment, but have a
negative attitude toward carrying paper bags because I find polythene bags more
convenient. In LaPiere’s case, the respondents may have viewed the target as a
devious oriental, rather than a well-dressed, soft-spoken oriental couple traveling
with a White man.
Action: I might support somebody’s right to have an abortion, while being opposed
to having an abortion myself.
Context: I might support the right to have an abortion under certain circumstances
(save the life of the mother, rape, or other tragic circumstances) while being
opposed to it in others.
Time: It might be all right for me to drink at night or on the weekends, but not in
the morning.
Thus, attitudes can predict behaviour if you both attitudes and behaviours are
measured at similar levels of specificity. For instance, Davidson and Jaccard
(1979) analysed correlations between married women’s attitudes towards birth
control and their actual use of oral contraceptives during the two years following
the study. When ‘attitude towards birth control’ was used as the attitude measure,
the correlation was 0.08, indicating low correspondence. But when ‘attitudes
towards oral contraceptives’ were measured, the correlation rose to 0.32, and
29
Attitudes and Behaviour when ‘attitudes towards using oral contraceptives’ were measured, the correlation
rose still further to 0.53. Finally, when ‘attitudes towards using oral contraceptives
during the next two years’ was used, it rose still further to 0.57. Clearly, the more
specific the question, the higher was the correspondence with behaviour.
3.3.4 Self Awareness

Another aspect that influences behaviour is the self awareness, that is, how far
the individual is aware of the attitudes that he or she holds. So ong as persons are
not aware of their attitudes , these attitudes will tend to influence the individuals’
behaviours all the more intensely. On the other hand if an individual is aware of
his attitude, he or she will be quite self conscious about it and may hesitate
showing it in their behaviours. Also when people are more attentive of their own
behaviour, and presumably of their internal States, their attitude behaviour
congruency increases. People who are self-conscious are usually in touch with
their attitudes. One way of making people self-conscious is to have them act in
front of a mirror (Carver & Scheier, 1981). Making people self-aware in this
way promotes consistency between words and deeds.
Thus, attitudes are more likely to guide behaviour if they are made salient (e.g.
ask people to consider their attitudes, make them more conscious of their
attitudes).

By now you should be able to guess that the stronger the attitudes are, the greater
their impact on behaviour. We saw in Unit 2 that attitude strength involves several
dimensions, such as how much the individual knows about the attitude object
(certainty), the intensity of the attitude (how strong is the emotional reaction
provoked by the attitude object), how the attitude was formed in the first place
(origin), and the extent to which the person is personally affected by the attitude
(importance). Thus, thinking more about something often results in greater
attitude-behaviour consistency. Attitudes formed through direct experience are
stronger, and as a result, are better predictors of later behaviour. The attitudes of
more personally involved individuals will be stronger predictors of behaviour
than attitudes of the less involved.

You may recall from the previous unit that attitude accessibility refers to the ease
with which attitudes can be retrieved from memory. Most modern theories agree
that attitudes are represented in memory, and that attitudes that are more accessible
from memory are more predictive of behaviour. According to Fazio (1990), more
accessible attitudes can be spontaneously and automatically activated without
our conscious awareness, and can guide our behaviour without us being
necessarily aware of them.
By definition, strong attitudes exert more influence over behaviour, because they
can be automatically activated. One factor that seems to be important here is
direct experience. For example, Fazio and Zanna (1978) found that measures of
students’ attitudes towards psychology experiments were better predictors of
their future participation if they had already taken part in several experiments
than if they had only read about them (remember the mere exposure effect that
we studied in Unit 2).
30
Predicting Behaviour from
3.4 ATTITUDES DETERMINE BEHAVIOUR Attitude
The most comprehensive answer to this puzzling question first came from the
theory of reasoned action proposed by Fishbein and Ajzen (1975). They suggested
that behaviour is primarily a function of an intention to carry out a particular act.
These intentions, in turn are determined by two factors: the attitude towards the
behaviour and the subjective norm. The attitude is a function of belief about
consequences and subjective evaluation of those consequences. Subjective norm,
on the other hand, is a person’s perception of whether others will approve of the
particular behaviour.
In a later modification of this theory, known as the theory of planned behaviour,

Ajzen, 1991) added a third factor that leads to behavioural intention: perceived
behavioural control (Refer Figure 3.1). Perceived behavioural control refers to
people’s appraisals of their ability to perform the behaviour in question. As a
general rule, the more favourable the attitude and subjective norm, and the greater
the perceived control, the stronger should be the person’s intention to perform
the behaviour in question.
Attitude
Towards a
Specific
Behaviour
Subjective Intention to Actual Behaviour

Norms Behave
Perceived
Behavioural
Control
Fig. 3.1: Theory of Planned Behaviour (Adapted from Baron & Byrne, 2003, p. 133)
Let us use an example to explain this theory. Rahul believes that smoking causes
cancer and that cancer is very bad (therefore he has a negative attitude towards
smoking). His fiancée wants him to quit smoking and he would like to please
her (subjective norm for smoking is low). He however realizes that this habit is
deeply ingrained and lacks confidence in his ability to become a nonsmoker
(low perceived behavioural control). Thus, despite his proper attitude and the
subjective norm, Rahul is unlikely to quit smoking.
It is also true that at times subjective norms will determine our intentions. Even
if we dislike something, we may do it anyway, because of subjective norms
(think of peer pressure). For instance, even if Rahul had a negative attitude toward
31
Attitudes and Behaviour smoking, had the will power to quit (high behavioural control), but thought that
his friends expect him to smoke and he wanted to please his friends (high
subjective norm towards smoking), he would have probably not have an intention
to quit smoking (at least with his friends, I am not sure what he would do in front
of his fiancée!).
This model has been quite accurate in relating attitudes to behaviour in areas
like voting, drug use, political and family planning behaviour. It is important to
note that this model will be accurate only in explaining behaviour based on
rational thinking and planning— hence the name ‘planned behaviour’.
The model has been criticized for suggesting that behavioural intentions are the
only direct determinant of behaviour. According to Fishbein and Ajzen (1975),
effects of any other kind of attitude will only be indirect, and relationship with
behaviour could be weak. This has, however, been questioned by critics. Many
have found that feelings (the affective component of attitudes) may be a better
predictor of what you will do than your intentions. Especially when intentions
are weak or ill-formed and other beliefs are strong, affective attitudes may be the
best predictor of behaviour. Often intentions are not even formed until
immediately before behaving. Sometimes people act without thinking. Many
habits for instance, not wearing seat belts, lowering the window of the car to
throw a wrapper, etc. — are performed in a relatively unthinking manner, and
thus are less influenced by conscious intentions. Some have even said that the
relationship between attitudes and behaviour is backwards- behaviour influences
attitudes, rather than the other way.

Note: i) Write your answer in the space provide after each question.
ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of the unit.
Ravi believes that global warming is a serious issue. He thinks that global
warming will lead to extreme weather events, temperature rise, rising sea
levels and decreased snow cover. If policy makers do not address it urgently,
the future will be very bleak for generations to come. He wants to use public
transport in order to lower gas emissions, but feels that public transport is
very crowded and inconvenient. None of his friends wants to use a car pool.
He has been thinking of switching over to a car that uses some alternative
fuel— CNG for instance, but doesn’t know how to go about it.
For the above, answer the following:
1) What is Ravi’s attitude towards global warming?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
2) What is the subjective norm towards car pool?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
32
3) What is the perceived behavioral control? Attitude
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
4) What is Ravi’s behaviour likely to be?
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
3.5 BEHAVIOUR DETERMINES ATTITUDES

We shall now turn our attention to a seemingly surprising idea that behaviour
determines attitudes. Consider this example. Suppose you went to watch a
brainless comedy movie with your friends one evening. You thought that the
gags were rather silly, but found your friends laughing. You also start laughing at
some of the jokes in the movie. Later another friend who didn’t go for the movie
asked you how it was. You thought to yourself, ‘Well, I did laugh at quite a few
places. It must be funny after all’ and you tell your friend ‘It was good. You
should’ve come’. This illustrates that at least in some circumstances, our behaviour
determines our attitudes.
Let us now consider some such instances where behaviour does determine our
attitudes.
3.5.1 Role Playing

The Oxford English Dictionary defines role-playing as “the changing of one’s
behaviour to fulfill a social role”. The act of role playing often results in changing
of the behaviour of the person who plays that role. Let us now consider a classic
experiment led by Zimbardo and his team of researchers in 1971, known as the
Stanford prison experiment that demonstrated the potent effect of role playing.
Twenty-four undergraduate males were selected out of 70 (on the basis of their
psychological stability and health) to play the role of either a guard or a prisoner
in a mock prison in the basement of the Stanford psychology building. Roles
were assigned based on a coin toss. Guards were given uniforms, batons, and
whistles and were instructed to enforce the rules. The prisoners were locked in
cells and made to wear humiliating outfits, complete with a chain around their
ankles. Prisoners and guards rapidly adapted to their roles, stepping beyond the
boundaries of what had been predicted and leading to dangerous and
psychologically damaging situations. One-third of the guards exhibited sadistic
tendencies, while many prisoners were emotionally traumatized and two had to
be removed from the experiment early. The experiment had to be terminated 33
Attitudes and Behaviour only six days after it began instead of the fourteen it was supposed to have lasted.
Zimbardo concluded that both prisoners and guards had become too grossly
absorbed in their roles—i.e. they internalized their roles. It seemed that the
situation caused the participants’ behaviour, rather than anything inherent in their
individual personalities.
Despite severe criticisms of the experiment as being unethical and unscientific,

it did demonstrate an important finding: behaviours (such as playing a role) can
quickly lead to attitudes. The effect of behaviour on attitude appears even in
theatre. The actor, at times becomes so absorbed in his role that he experiences
genuine emotions of the character that he is playing.
3.5.2 Foot in the Door Phenomenon

‘Papa, can I go over to Sunita’s house for an hour?’ After your father agrees, you
follow your request with (either after some time or after you have already gone
to Sunita’s house), ‘Can I please stay the night? Sunita is really insisting’.
Interestingly (and your father may not know this), but you have already carried
your nightclothes for the sleep over! If you have ever used this kind of technique,
you would know that it is quite an effective tactic. Known as foot in the door
technique, this involves getting the person to agree to a large request by first
setting them up by having that person agree to a modest request. This technique
works on the principle of consistency: once we have said yes to a small request,
we are more likely to say yes to subsequent and larger ones too, because refusing
them would be inconsistent with our previous behaviour. In other words, your
initial behaviour affects your attitude and affects subsequent behaviour!
3.6 BEHAVIOUR AND MORAL ATTITUDES

Actions also affect our moral attitudes— both negative and positive. Evil
sometimes results from gradually escalating commitments. In concentration
camps, for example, guards made to engage in cruel acts may be initially
uncomfortable, but later justify their behaviour.
Consider one of the most serious conflicts of our times: the Israel-Palestine
conflict. It may be argued that by legally engaging in discriminatory acts towards
Palestinians (for e.g. different roads for Jews and Palestinians, differential access
to water and other resources), Israelis have started believing that the ‘sleazy,
corrupt, and inferior Orientals’ deserve it. The earlier Zionist leaders ‘believed’
that the expulsion of the Palestinians was moral, ethical, and good for them.
Fortunately, the reverse is also true. Positive interracial behaviour has also been
found to reduce racial prejudice. For e.g. greater intergroup contact typically
corresponds with lower levels of intergroup prejudice. A meta-analysis of 516
studies (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006) obtained a mean effect size between contact
and prejudice of r =-.21. It also found that 95% of the 516 studies report a negative
relationship between contact and prejudices of many types. Pettigrew and Tropp
(2006) reasoned that contact reduces prejudice by (1) enhancing knowledge about
the out-group; (2) reducing anxiety about intergroup contact; and (3) increasing
empathy and perspective taking. Clearly, then whether good or bad, attitudes
have followed behaviour. As Myers (2005) says, “We not only stand up for what
we believe in, we also believe in what we have stood up for” (p. 150).
34
A number of theories have been proposed to help explain this attitude-follows- Predicting Behaviour from
Attitude
behaviour phenomenon. We shall discuss them in the next unit.
3.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have discussed the complex relationship between attitudes and
behaviour. Despite intuitive belief that attitudes determine behaviour, a large
body of early research (LaPiere, 1934; Wicker, 1969 among others) indicated
that attitudes are actually poor redictors of behaviour. Later research, however,
indicated that there are several factors that determine when attitudes will predict
behaviour. Such factors are (1) when true attitudes rather than expressed attitudes
are measured; (2) when we look at a person’s aggregate or average behaviour
rather than at an individual act; (3) when attitudes and behaviour are measured
at similar levels of specificity; (4) when individuals are self aware; (5) when
attitudes are strongly held; and (6) when attitudes are easily accessible from
memory. The theory of planned behaviour explains how attitudes determine
behaviour through behavioural intentions.
An alternate view is that our behaviour determines our attitudes, at least in some
circumstances. Such circumstances include role playing, the foot in the door
phenomenon, and moral attitudes. The attitude-follows-behaviour principle works
with both immoral and positive moral acts.
3.8 SAQS-POSSIBLE ANSWERS

1) Ravi has a negative attitude towards global warming, because he believes
that global warming will lead to extreme weather events, temperature rise,
rising sea levels and decreased snow cover (cognitive component).
2) The subjective norm for using car pools is low because none of his friends
want to use it.
3) The perceived behavioural control is low because Ravi doesn’t know how
or where to get CNG fitted in his car.
4) Despite his negative attitude towards global warming and positive attitudes
towards environmental protection measures (such as using car pools or
alternative fuels), his behaviour is likely to be unchanged. He may continue
to use his own car for travelling, contributing to global warming.

1) Is it fair to say that attitudes and behaviour are completely unrelated? Discuss.
2) Examine the factors that might help improve the attitude-behaviour
relationship.
3) Explain the theory of planned behaviour with the help of one real life
example.
4) Do you recall a time when taking an action changed your attitude? Describe
the experience underlining the psychological processes involved in it.
35
3.10 GLOSSARY
Behavioural intentions : The conscious decisions to carry out a specific
action.
Intergroup contact : Under appropriate conditions, one of the most

hypothesis effective ways to reduce prejudice between
majority and minority group members is through
interpersonal contact (Allport, 1954).
Meta analysis : A statistical procedure for combining the results

of several independent studies in order to estimate
the integrated effect of variables across these
studies.
Prejudice : A negative attitude towards members of a

particular group formed beforehand or without
knowledge of facts.
Role : A set of norms that define how people in a given

social position should behave.

Myers, D. G. (2010). Social Psychology, 10th Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Secord , P.F.and Bacman, C.W. ( 1974). Social Psychology, New York: McGraw-
Hill
36
UNIT 4 EFFECTING ATTITUDINAL CHANGE Attitude
AND COGNITIVE DISSONANCE

THEORY, COMPLIANCE OF SELF-
PERCEPTION THEORY, SELF-
AFFIRMATION
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Self Presentation
4.3 Cognitive Dissonance
4.4 Cognitive Dissonance and Attitude Change
4.5 Self Perception
4.6 Self Affirmation
4.7 Let Us Sum Up
4.9 Glossary
4.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit we examined the relationship between attitudes and behaviour.
We saw that not only do attitudes determine behaviour, but in some circumstances,
our behaviour too determines our attitudes. Let us now look at some theories
that explain why and how our behaviour affects our attitudes. In this unit, we
will examine four such theories: self presentation theory, cognitive dissonance
theory, self-perception theory, self affirmation theory. When you have finished
reading this unit, you should have some understanding of why we modify or
form our attitudes (some at least) in order to maintain consistency with our actions.
4.1 OBJECTIVES
• Know the theory of self presentation. In terms of impression management ,
how to use verbal and non verbal cues and the types of self presentation
instrumental and expressive;
• Describe the theory of cognitive dissonance, the process and how it creates
an imbalance etc.;
• Explain how cognitive dissonance effects attitude change;
• Describe how self-presentation theory explains attitude formation; and
• Know how self affirmations enable people to maintain the integrity of the
self.
37
4.2 SELF PRESENTATION
Some time back I was invited by a school to deliver a talk on promoting
environmental consciousness on World Environment Day. I wore a green cotton
sari, carried a folder of recycled paper and travelled in metro (instead of my car)
to the school. A part of why I did so was because I am fairly environment friendly,
but another important reason was that I wanted others to see my actions consistent
with my words.
The process mentioned above is self presentation (also called impression

management). It may be defined as the organisation of the presenting person’s
cues so as to elicit desired responses in others (Goffman, 1959). These cues may
be verbal, nonverbal (posture, gesture, eye gaze, etc.), stylistic (use of clothing,
arrangement of hair, household or even decorative items with which one surrounds
oneself, and even type of people with which one surrounds oneself). Goffman
uses the metaphor of the actor in a theater to explain this. An actor performs on
a stage with a back drop; the props direct his action; he is being watched by an
audience; but at the same time he is an audience for his viewers’ play. Any
individual, as a social actor, has the ability to choose his stage, props, and costume
he would put on in front of a specific audience. The actor’s main goal is to adjust
to the different settings offered to him and to create impressions that reflect well
upon him.
There are two main motives of self-presentation (Schlenker, 1980): (i)

Instrumental and (ii) Expressive. Let us see what these are.
i) Instrumental: We want to influence others and gain rewards. For instance,
we like to dress up very well and would like to be commented favourably
about it. Some will read up the latest in the field in which he or she is
involved so that they would talk about it and impress others as to how
knowledgeable he or she is. They hope to be complemented for their
knowledge. In a negative sense, we do try to impress others by flattering
them or threatening them so as to make them complement us amd allow us
to be part of their group. In certain other cases the person shows his
vulnerability and supplication by agreeing to do whatever the others ask so
that they allow the person to be retained on their company. Thus there are
many ways in which we try to impress others in order to gain some positive
strokes or rewards from others about whom we care and whose company
we want to continually keep.
ii) Expressive: We construct an image of ourselves to claim personal identity,
and present ourselves in a manner that is consistent with that image. For
example, image building by politicians who try to express what they are
and what all they can achieve and how they would achieve and how caring
they are about people’s concerns and greeting people on all festivals to show
that they care etc. Here the main motive is expressive motive. Through
expressing themselves they also act accordingly by putting up posters and
hoardings about how they greet people on festivals and also organise groups
and talk in groups about their plans and actions. There are others who use
certain status symbols such as “khadi kurta pajama” a sort of dress that
Indian politicians wear showing how they all are similar to the common
man, and convey the impression that they belong to this group and that
38 others should recognise them as belonging to that group.
These types ofusing status symbols and behaving in a certain manner in line Effecting Attitudinal
Change and Cognitive
with the image building, in course of time build in them the needed attitudes that Dissonance Theory,
go in line with the expressive motive. It is in this sense one can understand how Compliance of Self-
one’s actions affect attitudes. To look inconsistent would be to look foolish. To perception Theory, Self-
affirmation
avoid being treated differently, we express attitudes that matches our actions,
even if it means displaying a little hypocrisy. Impression management theory
states that individuals must establish and maintain impressions that are congruent
with the perceptions they wasn’t to convey to others. The others’ percepitons of
you then become the reality from which they form ideas and the basis for intended
behaviours.
As you might expect there are several factors affecting impression management,
including individual differences in self-monitoring (the process through which
people regulate their own behaviour in order to be perceived by others in a
favourable manner) and self verification (the act of conforming the audience to
the person’s self-concept).
Clearly then, the explanation of self presentation does not explain all instances
where attitudes follow behaviour. This is particularly true for those who express
their changed attitudes even without knowing how they have behaved; and those
who internalize their self-presentations as genuine attitude changes. Let us
consider other competing explanations that address this.
4.3 COGNITIVE DISSONANCE

One of the most influential approaches in social psychology having far reaching
implications is that human beings have a tendency to seek consistency in one’s
cognitions (attitudes, beliefs, self-perceptions). First introduced by Heider (1946),
this principle of cognitive consistency implies that our attitudes change because
we are motivated to maintain consistency among our cognitions.
This seemingly simple cognitive distance theory was proposed by Festinger

(1957). According to Festinger, we feel tension (‘dissonance’) when we become
aware of two simultaneous inconsistent cognitions. In order to reduce this
unpleasant arousal, we often adjust our thinking.
The classical example of cognitive dissonance can be found in the Aesop fable
The Fox and the Grapes, in which a fox sees some high-hanging grapes and
wishes to eat them. After several failed attempts at reaching the grapes, he decides
that the grapes are probably not worth eating anyway (that they are not yet ripe
or that they are too sour).
Dissonance theory addresses the discrepancies between behaviour and attitudes.

We are aware of both. Hence, if we sense some hypocrisy, we feel pressure for
change. In a classic experiment done by Festinger and Carlsmith (1959), students
were asked to spend an hour on boring and tedious tasks (e.g. turning wooden
knobs again and again). The tasks were designed to generate a strong, negative
attitude. After the subjects had finished, the experimenters asked some of them
to do a ‘simple favour’. They were asked to talk to the next subject (actually the
experimenter’s assistant) and lie that the tasks were interesting and that he will
enjoy it. Some participants were paid $20 (a huge amount back in 1959) for this,
another group was paid $1, and a control group was not asked to perform the
favour. In the end, the subjects were asked to actually rate the boring tasks. 39
Attitudes and Behaviour What do you think the results were? Answer the sentence given below as true/
false:
The group that was paid $20 for lying thought that the tasks were more interesting
than those paid $1. (True or False)
If you thought the above was true, you are wrong! Contrary to operant conditioning
principles that big rewards produce big effects, those in the $1 group rated the
task more positively than those in the $20 and control groups. This was explained
by Festinger and Carlsmith as evidence for cognitive dissonance: ‘I told someone
that the task was interesting’, and ‘I actually found it boring.’ When paid only
$1, students were forced to internalize the attitude they were induced to express,
because it is unpleasant to say something that you don’t feel. Those in the $20
condition, however, had an obvious external justification for their behaviour (‘I
lied because I was paid$20 to lie’), and thus experienced less dissonance. People
paid only small amounts of money have less justification for their inconsistency,
tend to experience more dissonance, and hence change their attitudes more. This
is referred to as the less-leads-to-more effect.
In 1969, Aronson reformulated the basic theory by linking it to one’s self concept.
According to this interpretation, cognitive dissonance does not arise because
people experience dissonance between contradictory cognitions. Instead, it occurs
when people see their actions as conflicting with their normally positive view of
themselves. Thus, in the original Festinger and Carlsmith study, the dissonance
was between the cognition, ‘I am an honest person’ and the cognition, ‘I lied to
someone about finding the task interesting’.
One real life example of cognitive dissonance is smoking. It is widely accepted

that cigarettes can cause lung cancer, yet virtually everyone wants to live a long
and healthy life. The desire to live a long life is dissonant with the activity of
doing something that will most likely shorten one’s life. Smokers therefore should
experience tension produced by these contradictory ideas. Such tension can be
reduced by quitting smoking, denying the evidence of lung cancer (‘only very
heavy smokers get lung cancer’; ‘my chances of dying in a road accident are
higher than that of dying from lung cancer’ etc.), or justifying one’s smoking (‘It
helps me control my weight’). Because it is often easier to make excuses than it
is to change behaviour, dissonance theory leads to the conclusion that humans
rationalize rather than be rational.
Dissonance theory has implications for parenting. It suggests that parents should
aim to elicit desired behaviour without threats, thus motivating children to
internalize the appropriate attitudes: ‘I am not watching television because it’s
more interesting to play outside’ as opposed to ‘I am not watching television
because my father will punish me if I do so’.
Another implication of the dissonance theory is after making decisions- post

decision dissonance. Let’s say you bought an expensive pair of sunglasses from
a store. You are feeling very happy because this is what you wanted to buy for a
long time. After buying it, you see a similar pair in another shop, priced at almost
half the price you paid for it. What would you feel now? If you feel upset or
anxious, you are experiencing post decision dissonance, dissonance experienced
after making a decision regarding the possibility of it being wrong. So what do
40
you do to reduce this dissonance? You might rationalize and change your Effecting Attitudinal
perceptions: find additional reasons or justifications to support your choice and Dissonance Theory,
make your decision seem more attractive (assuming that the shop will not permit Compliance of Self-
any return or exchange). You might decide that your sunglasses are better— ‘the perception Theory, Self-
affirmation
two are not really the same’, ‘the second shop might be selling fake sunglasses,
mine are real branded’ etc. This may not be true, but it would make you feel
better. After making important decisions, we usually reduce dissonance by
upgrading the chosen alternative and downgrading the unchosen one.
Some research suggests that dissonance can be used to generate hypocrisy as a

powerful tool for beneficial changes in people’s behaviour. When people fail to
practice what they preach, their act of hypocrisy can induce cognitive dissonance
and the motivation to change their behaviour. This has been demonstrated in
several areas regarding health and safety. For instance, Stone et al. (1997) asked
participants to prepare a videotape regarding the use of condoms to prevent
transmission of HIV. They were then asked to think about reasons as to why they
hadn’t used condoms in the past. When participants were brought face to face
with their own hypocrisy, it was found that they engaged in direct means of
reducing hypocrisy (by purchasing condoms at a lower price). Thus dissonance
induced through hypocrisy can result in change in behaviour- for the better.
One important caveat: cultural factors influence the operation of cognitive

dissonance. Although dissonance occurs all around the world, it is less likely to
influence attitudes in collectivistic cultures like ours as compared to individualistic
cultures like the United States. After all, if your marriage is based on your parent’s
choice, and you are not happy, you can say to yourself ‘I didn’t like him in the
first place. He was my parent’s choice’ as opposed to where your marriage is
based on personal choice. In case of latter, the possibility of making an incorrect
decision is perceived more as a threat to one’s own self: ‘How could I be so
stupid?” as opposed to ‘How could my parents be so stupid?’ Thus, the desire to
engage in cognitively consistent actions may not be uniform across cultures.

What do you understand by the term cognitive dissonance?
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
What was the experiment conducted by Festinger and colleagues in regard
to demonstrating cognitive dissonance? What was the result and why?
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
41
4.4 COGNITIVE DISSONANCE AND ATTITUDE
CHANGE
Attitudes as mentioned earlier are indeed difficult to change. But there are many
ways in which attitudes could also be changed. Many studies as for example that
of Veen et al (2009), demonstrated that attitude change also shows in the neural
changes. They found that when the person’s actions conflict with the prior
attitudes, these often change the persons attitudes to be more consistent with
their actions. This phenomenon, known as cognitive dissonance, is considered
to be one of the most influential theories in psychology. Using a Solomon four-
group design, they scanned participants with functional MRI while the subjects
argued that the uncomfortable scanner environment was nevertheless a pleasant
experience. They found that cognitive dissonance engaged the dorsal anterior
cingulate cortex and anterior insula; They also reported that the activation of
these regions tightly predicted participants’ subsequent attitude change. These
effects were not observed in a control group. Their findings elucidate the neural
representation of cognitive dissonance, and support the role of the anterior
cingulate cortex in detecting cognitive conflict and the neural prediction of attitude
change.
According to Festinger’s theory, there are basically two factors that affect the
strength of the dissonance, viz., (i) the number of dissonant beliefs, and (ii) the
importance attached to each belief.
Hence one can eliminate dissonance by the following methods:
1) reduce the importance of the dissonant beliefs
2) add more consonant beliefs that outweigh the dissonant beliefs.
3) change the dissonant beliefs so that they are no longer inconsistent.
As mentioned earlier, Dissonance occurs when an individual has to make a choice
between two incompatible beliefs or actions. The dissonance created is very
high when the two alternatives are equally attractive. This is akin to approach –
approach conflict which creates considerable tension. Attitude change is more
likely in the direction of less incentive as this results in lower dissonance. These
explanations could be very effectively used in attitude formation and change.
In regard to changing of attitude towards a certain community people, the

integrated housing scheme provides a good example of application of cognitive
dissonance. When people start living together, and have to interact with each
other for various reasons, they get to know each other and many ideas and beliefs
about the other person belonging to a certain community start changing
considerably as experience shows that these people are not as the individual
thought them to be. In course of time with the changes in beliefs and ideas getting
stronger the individual is able to get over the negative attitude and change to a
more positive attitude. This is one way of changing attitude. Here dissonance is
created by facts and figures and the individual reduces the dissonance by changing
his attitude.
To cite another example, consider someone who buys an expensive car but
discovers that it is not comfortable on long drives. Dissonance exists between
their beliefs that they have bought a good car and that a good car should be
42
comfortable. Dissonance could be eliminated by deciding that it does not matter Effecting Attitudinal
since the car is mainly used for short trips (reducing the importance of the Dissonance Theory,
dissonant belief) or focusing on the cars strengths such as safety, appearance, Compliance of Self-
handling (thereby adding more consonant beliefs). The dissonance could also be perception Theory, Self-
affirmation
eliminated by getting rid of the car, but this behaviour is a lot harder to achieve
than changing beliefs.
Thus the two most important principles of cognitive dissonance can be stated as
that (i) dissonance occurs when a person has to choose between contradictory
attitudes and behaviour. (ii) Another principle is that the dissonance can be
removed by changing the importance of conflicting beliefs and acquiring new
beliefs that change the balance or remove the conflicting attitude or remove the
conflicting behaviour.
4.5 SELF PERCEPTION

According to Wikipedia , Self-perception theory (SPT) is an account of attitude
change developed by psychologist Daryl Bem. It asserts that people develop
their attitudes by observing their behaviour and concluding what attitudes must
have caused them. The theory is counterintuitive in nature, as the conventional
wisdom is that attitudes come prior to behaviours. According to this theory,
attitudes come about without accessing the internal cognition and moods. The
persons logically reasons out and explain their overt behaviours rationally in the
same way they attempt to explain others’ behaviours. Bem was an early critic of
cognitive dissonance theory. He proposed self perception theory as an alternative
explanation of the results of Festinger and Carlsmith’s (1959) study. In other
words, people form and develop attitudes by observing their own behaviour,
much as they use other people’s behaviour to infer what their underlying attitudes
are.
Applying this principle to the Festinger and Carlsmith study, Bem argued that
the participants must be inferring their attitudes from their behaviour, without
necessarily experiencing any dissonance. Thus, when asked ‘Did you find the
task interesting?’ they decided that they must have found it interesting because
that is what they told someone. To test this hypothesis, Bem (1967) presented
participants a description of the original study (You would recall that a subject
performed a boring task and then was paid either $1 or $20 to tell another that it
was fun and interesting). He then asked the participants to guess the person’s
attitude towards the task. The participants did guess that subjects in $1 condition
would hold more of task being boring than those in the $20 condition. Their
reasons: the subject who was paid $20 to say the task was interesting really was
lyingn because he clearly did it for the money. However, the subject who was
paid $1 must have been honest, because such a small amount doesn’t justify
lying!
Thus, Bem’s theory and Festinger’s theory make identical predictions, but offer
different explanations. Dissonance theory predicts the presence of unpleasant
tension or arousal, while self perception theory suggests that no negative drive
state is involved in attitude formation— attitudes are inferred from behaviour
rather than the other way around. While dissonance theory addresses attitude
change, self perception theory explains attitude formation. Dissonance theory
explains what happens when we act contrary to clearly defined attitudes: we feel
43
Attitudes and Behaviour an unpleasant tension, so we modify our attitudes to reduce it. In situations,
where attitudes are not well formed, self-perception theory explains attitude
formation. As we act and then reflect, we develop attitudes in line with our
actions. A comparison between the two theories may be seen in Table 4.1 given
below.
Table 4.1: Comparison between Cognitive Dissonance and Self Perception

Theories
Cognitive Disssonance Theory Self Perception Theory
Attitudes directly known Attitudes are inferred from behaviour
Unpleasant affect necessary for No unpleasant affect involved in attitude
attitude formation formation
Applicable when attitudes are Applicable when attitudes are weak or
clearly formed vague
Dissonance most likely when Self perception of attitudes most likely
the attitude in question is when the attitude in question is less
important to the self or the important to the self or the attitude
attitude behavior discrepancy behaviour discrepancy is small
is substantial
Whether cognitive dissonance or self-perception is a more useful theory has

raised considerable debate. Based on a number of studies, it seems that both are
correct, but in different situations. Aronson (1969) suggests that the cognitive
dissonance theory explains attitude changes when people’s behaviours are
inconsistent with their original attitudes which are clear and important to them;
while the self-perception theory is used when those original attitudes are relatively
unclear and less important to the self (Refer Table 1). Since a large proportion of
our attitudes are vague, the self-perception theory is significant in interpreting
one’s own attitudes. Finally, it has also been demonstrated that both cognitive
dissonance and self-perception could co-exist (Fazio, Zanna, & Cooper, 1977).
Numerous studies support the self-perception theory, demonstrating that emotions

do follow behaviours. For example, when Laird (1974) asked college students to
enact different facial expressions, gazes and postures (to approximate happiness,
sorrow, anger, etc.), they did feel corresponding emotions. In the end of the
experiment, subjects inferred and reported their affections and attitudes from
their practiced behaviours, despite being previously told to act that way. This is
also consistent with the James-Lange theory of emotion: first we act, and then
the acting creates the feeling. We feel angry because we scowl; we feel sad because
we cry, and so on. Based on findings like these, Duclos et al. (1989) proposed
the facial feedback hypothesis. This view holds that people’s emotions— and
thus their attitudes— can be manipulated by changing their facial expressions,
body posture or other motor responses.
One interesting implication of the self perception theory is the overjustification

effect: rewarding people for what they like doing anyway decreases their internal
motivation for doing that task. According to the self-perception theory, people
pay more attention to the incentive, and less attention to the enjoyment and
satisfaction that they receive from performing the activity. An experiment to
demonstrate this was done by Greene, Sternberg and Lepper (1976). They played
44
mathematical games with schoolchildren, which the children seemed to enjoy. Effecting Attitudinal
After a while, they started giving rewards for success. When they took away the Dissonance Theory,
rewards, the children quickly gave up playing the games. Do you know why this Compliance of Self-
happened? Because playing became less about ‘fun’ and more about ‘work’. perception Theory, Self-
affirmation
Activity to do for the student
Try to recall a time when taking an action changed your attitude. Describe
the experience. Think of a friend towards whom you have a slightly negative
attitude and you would like to feel better about him/her. What action can
you take now that will help you change the attitude?
4.6 SELF AFFIRMATION

Another interpretation of dissonance theory with a focus on one’s self image is
Steele’s self affirmation theory. According to Steele (1988), people are motivated
to maintain the integrity of the self. The ultimate goal of the self is to protect an
image of its self-integrity, morality and adequacy. These two premises lead to
two implications:
We experience a self-image threat, after acting in a manner inconsistent with our

sense of honesty or integrity.
When our self concept is threatened, we often compensate by affirming another

aspect of the self. In other words, we can reduce ‘dissonance’ by affirming our
integrity in some other unrelated area of our lives.
As a result, these ‘self-affirmations’ enable people to deal with threatening events

and information in a more open and even-handed manner, without resorting to
defensive biases. For example, if you show me that I cannot sing, I’ll go and
dance even more, which I know I’m better at.
Besides reducing threats to the individual self, self-affirmations could also reduce
threats to the self at a collective level, i.e. when people confront some threatening
opinions or humiliating comments about the groups they belong to, such as nation
or gender. For example, when someone says ‘Women are lousy drivers as their
spatial ability is inferior to men’, I often cite evidence of women having better
verbal and interpersonal abilities.
Individual and cultural differences have been reported in self-affirmations. For

e.g. people with high and secure self esteem engage in less self-justification
(Holland et al., 2002). People with high self-esteem are more likely to rely on
self-affirmation than other defensive mechanism such as rationalisation. Culture
also imposes some effect on the process of self-affirmation. In individualistic
cultures, the self is more emphasized, and independence stands out; in collectivist
cultures, kinship and interdependence are emphasized. Collectivists are less likely
to be motivated to protect the self-integrity since self esteem is less emphasized
in their culture.
There are numerous applications of this theory. The technique of self affirmation
can also be used in multiple domains such as:
Personal relationship: When faced with an emotional upheaval in a personal

relationship, the affirmation process can be done by writing down positive 45
Attitudes and Behaviour statements about our partners, such as how they care about us and what we
appreciate in them (Sherman & Cohen, 2006).
Health: Self-affirmation is an effective tool in health interventions. In a group-

based cigarette cessation program for smokers, those who received a self-
affirmation intervention had a lower defensiveness towards graphic cigarette
warning labels than a control group. Moreover, these self-affirmed smokers also
had a stronger intention to quit smoking (Harris et al., 2007).
Research has found that providing people with affirmation opportunities on

alternative sources of self-integrity lead to a less biased evaluation to threatening
information. Self-affirmation thus increases the openness of people to ideas that
are difficult to accept.
4.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have discussed four possible reasons of why behaviour affects
attitudes. Self presentation theory suggests that we express attitudes that make
us appear consistent in order to fulfill two motives: instrumental and expressive.
We establish and maintain impressions that are congruent with the perceptions
we want to convey to others. This theory however does not explain genuine
attitude change. The other theories propose that our actions trigger genuine attitude
change, but offer different explanations of why this occurs.
Cognitive dissonance theory assumes that we justify our actions to ourselves

because we want to reduce the discomfort experienced due to inconsistency
between two or more of our attitudes or between our attitudes and our behaviour.
Dissonance theory contends that attitude change is effected because people are
motivated to reduce this unpleasant tension. Self-perception theory assumes that
we form and develop attitudes by observing our own behaviour, in a similar way
as we use other people’s behaviour to infer what their underlying attitudes are.
This is particularly true when our attitudes are weak and less important to the
self. Self affirmation theory explains how we reduce the impact of a threat to our
self-concept (after acting in a manner inconsistent with our sense of honesty or
integrity) by focusing on and affirming our competence in some other area.

1) What is meant by cognitive dissonance? How does it help to change attitudes?
2) What are the main tenets of self presentation theory?
3) Differentiate between cognitive dissonance theory and self perception theory.
4) Suppose that you are a non vegetarian and you are required to campaign for
animal rights. Describe this state and explain how you will reduce this
inconsistency.
5) Explain how self affirmations reduce the impact of threat to our self-concept.
6) Discuss self perception and self affirmation?
46
Effecting Attitudinal
4.9 GLOSSARY Change and Cognitive
Dissonance Theory,
Compliance of Self-
Cognitive Dissonance : An uncomfortable internal state that results perception Theory, Self-
when people realize that there is inconsistency affirmation
between two or more of their attitudes or
between their attitudes and their behaviour.
Hypocrisy : When an individual publicly advocates some

attitudes or behaviour, but acts in a way that is
inconsistent with them.
Individualism/Collectivism : One value dimension on which national

cultures differ (Hofstede, 1980). People are
individualists, when they take care only of
themselves and their families; they are
collectivists when they distinguish between
ingroup and outgroups and expect their
ingroups (relatives, clans, organisations) to
look after them, in exchange for being loyal
to them.
Post decision dissonance : A state of anxiety experienced after making a

decision regarding the possibility of it being
wrong. It is usually reduced by increasing the
importance assigned to the positive features
of the chosen alternative, and increasing the
importance assigned to the negative features
of the nonchosen alternative.
Self monitoring : The process through which people regulate

their own behaviour in order to ‘look good’ so
that they will be perceived by others in a
favorable manner.

Myers, D. G. (2010). Social Psychology, 10th Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
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Worcester, Mass: Clark University Press.
Zajonc, R.B. (1968). Attitudinal effects of mere exposure. Journal of Personality

and Social Psychology Monograph Supplement, 9(2 Part 2), 1-27.
Zimbardo, P.G. (1971). The psychological power and pathology of imprisonment.

A statement prepared for the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on the
Judiciary, Subcommittee No. 3; Hearings on Prison Reforms, San Francisco,
October, 25 (p. 141).
51
Introduction to Groups:
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO GROUPS: Definition, Characteristics
and Types of Groups
DEFINITION, CHARACTERISTICS
AND TYPES OF GROUPS
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Groups-Definition, Meaning and Concepts
1.2.1 Group Psychology
1.2.2 Concept of Social Group
1.2.3 Definition and Meaning of Groups
1.3 Characteristics Features of Group
1.3.1 Salient Features of Group
1.3.2 The Role of Groups
1.4 Types of Group
1.4.1 The Level of Intimacy
1.4.2 On the Basis of Relationship
1.4.3 Organised Vs. Disorganised
1.4.4 On the Basis of Tasks
1.4.5 Interest Groups
1.4.6 Friendship Groups
1.4.7 Reference Groups
1.5 Let Us Sum Up
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Social group is, “A group of two or more people who interact with one another
and who recognise themselves as a distinct social unit”. Further, social groups
play an important role in daily life. These groups are needed for our very survival,
as they fulfill one of the basic psychological needs for survival, belonging etc. A
social group is not always made up of friends, though friendships may develop
within a group. Families are a form of social group in which we relate with
parents, brothers and sisters and relatives. Social groups act as great support
system when needed. In this unit we are going to learn about what are groups,
describe their characteristics and learn the various types of groups and their
functions. All groups have certain roles to play and this will be taken up in this
unit.
We will also concern ourselves with the individual’s behaviour when alone and
when in group. Sometimes situation becomes complicated and interaction among
the members of the group depends on communication. The behaviour of the
person and the messages that the person sends by speaking are received by the
other person and he/she responds to that message by another message and so on.
Thus interaction and communication play a vital role among the group members..
5
Group Dynamics
1.1 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
• Define group;
• Explain the meaning of group;
• Describe the characteristics of the group;
• Elucidate the types of group; and
• Explain individual’s behaviour in groups.
1.2 GROUPS, DEFINITION, MEANING AND

CONCEPTS
From the very beginning of our life, humans are part of one group or the other.
From the moment a person is born he or she is a member of a family, which is a
group. Starting from mother-child relationship, we enter into the family group.
After that, we enter into the peer group, neighbourhood group, social class group,
religious group and so many. We always identify ourselves with a group and
other group members.
The same individual may be a member of different groups, as for example, two
brothers or sisters are not only members of the same family but they may also be
members of the same play group and of the same school group. Their behaviour
as individuals will vary according to the differences in the groups.
Each person’s behaviour is the product of a complex combination of personal

interests, attitudes, motives, beliefs and aptitudes with many formal and informal
group memberships, identifications and loyalties. Thus, the word group has many
meanings. Broadly speaking we can say that a group is the aggregation of human
beings. For instance, people who are sitting together in a railway platform to
catch the train is a group. The pilgrims who are walking towards a town or a city
to participate in a religious festival will also be called a group.
On the other hand, the members of a caste, the members of a club, and the members
of a state are also called groups. Since we use the same word “group” to refer to
various kinds of groups, so there exists misunderstanding. Not only this, we also
use the term group when we deal with mere classification.
When we do something in connection with a sample survey, we consider a number

of people with varying age, gender, education, socio-economic status, etc., so
that we can easily understand the overall picture of the sample and also classify
them in different groups. Actually these people have no relationship with each
other. They may never come together but the social scientists when take them up
for research they call them groups. Humans cannot think of themselves without
a group, in fact they have no existence apart from a group.
Humans, that is people live in a family, and so is a member of the family group.
They go to college and have some friends there, then they become one of the
members of college friend group. It also happens that sometimes they go to club
or parties and thus become a member of that group. Each and every group has
different types of activities and as people belong to different types of group in
6
different situations and time, their behaviour and activities become different Introduction to Groups:
Definition, Characteristics
considering the nature of the group. and Types of Groups
A group may have a strong influence upon the individual in that the individual
gladly accepts the activities of the group. Each and every human being has own
personal interest, attitudes, values etc. As the group consists of a number of
individuals with different background etc. there are differences in the
characteristic features of the various groups. Researchers try to find out the causes
for these differences in groups as well as try to find out the relationship of
individual’s characteristics to the characteristics of the group. The behaviour of
the individuals generally varies according to the differences and the diverse
characteristics of the groups. There are also many reasons for the differences
obtained in the group characteristics and also the differences in the responses of
the individuals in different groups. The behaviour of the individual is of a certain
type when the person is a member of a particular group and the behaviour varies
the moment the person moves to another group. For instance the individual in
the family will be uninhibited and behave in a relaxed way and express whatever
he or she wants to. On the other hand when the individual is in the school, the
behaviour changes to one of cautious expression of thoughts and behaves in a
way that the teacher wants. The same individual when with the peer group
behaves quite differently.
Sometimes the situation becomes so complicated that the interaction among the
members of the group depends on a type of communication. The behaviour of
the person and the messages that an individual sends by speaking are received
by the other person and the latter responds to that message by another message
which the first person receives and so on. Thus interaction and communication
play a vital role among the group members. Considering these two, that is
interaction and communication, acceptance and rejection also come about
depending on what is communicated and how.
1.2.1 Group Psychology

The study of groups, organisations and behaviours of the groups is the concern
of group psychology. It is a realm of psychology that explores the release of
individual control within a group setting. Social, organisational and group
psychology are all powerful areas of study that look at the many factors that
drive group behaviour and the decisions that a group makes. Depending on the
group’s influence, the personal wishes and desires of the individual are completely
given up for the greater good of the group. It is the role of group psychology to
uncover why this release occurs and what effects it has on society.
Many groups are formed based on strong religious or cultural tenets. Group
psychology studied these groups and have found that the beliefs these groups
hold have a finality about them that becomes inextricably linked in the minds of
the group members.. The concepts become both truth and reason. Individuals in
the group no longer question anything related to these beliefs. They merely
accept them without question. Group members will sometimes reach a point
where they will do anything to defend the ideas held to be unquestionable by the
group. However when this goes beyond a point, and becomes an obsession it
can be destructive.
7
Group Dynamics Terrorist groups typically start out as nothing more than a welcoming collection
of individuals who have similar beliefs concerning the world and a higher power.
Group psychology concerning terrorists has uncovered an unbreakable bond to
ideas and beliefs. Individual members of terrorist groups give up their
individuality for the purposes of the group. A collective identity is assumed rather
than individual personas, which becomes unhealthy.
1.2.2 Concept of Social Group

A social group consists of two or more people who interact with one another and
who recognise themselves as a distinct social unit. The definition is simple enough,
but it has significant implications. Frequent interaction leads people to share
values and beliefs. This similarity and the interaction cause them to identify
with one another. Identification and attachment, in turn, stimulate more frequent
and intense interaction. Each group maintains solidarity with in and keeps its
identity vis a vis all other groups and social systems.
Groups are among the most stable and enduring of social units. They are important
both to their members and to the society at large. Through encouraging regular
and predictable behaviour, groups form the foundation upon which the society
rests. Thus, a family, a village, a political party, a trade union etc., is all social
groups. These are different from social classes, status groups or crowds, which
not only lack structure but whose members are less aware or even unaware of
the existence of the group. These have been called quasi-groups or groupings.
1.2.3 Definition and Meaning of Groups

Now let us take up some of the formal definitions and meanings of group as
given by sociologists and social psychologists. Group may be defined in various
ways and each definition emphasises one or the other important features of the
group. Some of the important definitions are as follows:
R.M. Williams (1989)

The sociologist R.M.Williams (1989) defined group as a given aggregate of
people playing inter-related roles and recognised by themselves or others as a
unit of interaction. Here it can be stated that a group is an aggregate of some
people. The roles of the group members are inter related. The group is considered
as a unit.
R.M. MacIver (1954)

A renowned sociologist Mac Iver stated that “ By group we mean any collection
of social beings who enter into distinctive social relationships with one another.”
According to this definition, it is clear that there must be social relationships
between the individual members of a group.
David, E (1968)
A social psychologist, David defined group as follows: “ A social psychological
group is an organised system of two or more individuals who are interrelated so
that the system performs some functions, has a standard set of the role relationship
among its members and has a set of norms that regulate the function of the group
and each of its members.” In this definition group is structured and organised,
the people in the group inter relate and interact with each other, it has certain
8
rules and regulations and norms that must be followed by all the members of the Introduction to Groups:
group. and Types of Groups
Kretch, D., Crutchfield, R.S., and Ballachy, E.L. (1962)

Famous for their social psychological contribution, the three social psychologists
defined psychological group “ as two or more persons who meet the following
conditions , viz., (i) the relations among the members are independent (ii) each
member’s behaviour influences the behaviour of each of the others, (iii) the
members ‘share an ideology’ – a set of beliefs, values and norms which regulate
their mutual conduct.” This definition too focuses on not only interaction and
rules and norms but also menions a shared ideology amongst the group members.
Paulus , Paul, B.(1989)

A sociologist, Paulus Paul defined group in the following words, “ A group
consists of two or more interacting persons who share common goals, have a
stable relationship, are somehow interdependent and perceive that they are in
fact part of a group.” According to this definition, we can say that individuals
interact with each other, either directly or indirectly. Besides this, the group
members are interdependent in some manner, i.e., what happens to one must
affect what happens to the others. Not only this, their relationship must be
relatively stable. The members of the group involve to attain the goals and their
interaction will be in a structured form so that, each group member performs the
same or more or less similar functions each time they meet. Finally, it can be
said that the individuals involved in a group must recognise that they are part of
a group.
To know the meaning of the group more clearly one should think about all the
groups to which one belongs, viz., local friends, college friends, music and dance
group and so many. Generally people join in groups due to various needs, and
these needs are:
Need 1: Group members help to satisfy important psychological and social needs,
viz., receiving affection and attention, for attaining belongingness.
Need 2: Group members help to achieve the goal in a smooth and easy way. By
working with others, you can perform the task well than alone.
Need 3: Group members can provide each other knowledge and information
which is not available to collect independently.
Need 4: Group members help the individual to experience safety and security.
1.3 CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF GROUP

Suppose you belong to a group where you may observe some special features
which you can accept or not. It may be good or bad, it may be healthy or unhealthy,
it may be favourable or unfavourable, but some significant features exist there
which you can say are the characteristic features of the group. These include the
following:
A sense of we feeling: There is a feeling of belongingness among the members

of the group. The members of the group help each other in performing their
9
Group Dynamics duties. They work collectively against the harmful powers. They treat others as
outsiders. They always try to make the group self-sufficient.
Common interest: Each and every member of the group has a common interest.
There is a similarity among the members which promotes unity. The group
includes those persons who are related to each other in such a way that they
should be treated as one.
A feeling of unity: This is essential for every group. Each and every member of
the group treats each other as their own and there develops a sense of sympathy
among the family members.
Relatedness to each other: It is true that members of the group are inter-related
and this social relation is called group. There is a reciprocal communication
among the group members. Social relations are the fundamentals of the group
life.
Affected by group characteristics: Each and every group has some social
characteristics which separate it from similar and dissimilar groups. These
characteristics affect the members of the group. The nature may be different for
different persons, but still all the members are affected by the group.
Common values: The social values of the members of a family are common and
are traditionally respected and communicated to the succeeding generation. They
are expressed by the mutual behaviour of the members. Members of the social
group are bound together by common values.
Control of group: In each group there are some customs, norms and procedures
which are acceptable to everyone. In fact, without some norms, the existence of
group life is practically impossible. It can be said that the reasons behind the
similarity of behaviour in group life is that the actions of the members are
controlled by the group.
Obligation: In family situation, all the members have complementary obligations

to each other. Also, the relationships between the members of a group are
strengthened through their mutual obligation and heir common social values.
Expectations: Not only mutual obligation, the members of the group expect
love, sympathy, co-operation etc. from other members of the group. If mutual
expectation is fulfilled, the group members are maintained in tact. A group can
maintain its existence only if the constituent members fulfill their responsibility
by satisfying the desires among themselves.
Social organisation
Social organisation is the organisation of groups. The social groups are the
units of the social organisation. Therefore, the integration and disintegration of
social organisation are dependent upon the integration or disintegration of the
groups. In group, social relationship is a very important factor. The first and
foremost social relationship indicates the relationship among the family members.
Thus, it can further be said that family is a very important social group.
Every individual is one of the family members in his or her family. They interact
with other family members in the family. There is a reciprocal relationship between
10
the individual and others. Certainly the individual will have the sense of ‘we Introduction to Groups:
feeling’ as he or she belongs to that family. Among the family members of the and Types of Groups
family there are relationships such as husband-wife, father-son, brother-sister
etc. and they all work together for the interests of the family in a mood of mutual
co-operation. Each and every member of the family treats the other members as
his or her own and in spite of differences of opinion they have some common
ideals and values. It is mainly due to the common interest of the family which
works as a well-knit unit.
For example one can state that “school is a social group” whose significant
characteristics are :
• All children have common goal.
• The students and the teacher are motivated for the achievement of a common
goal.
• School has an organised structure.
• School offers excellent opportunities for group.
1.3.1 Salient Features of Group

In addition to the above, there are a few salient features regarding group which
are presented below:
• In group, one or more individuals come together and influence each other.
• There must be social relationships between the individual members of a
group.
• It sometimes happens that there exists some common motives, drives,
interests, emotions etc.
• There is also need for communication among the group members. It may be
verbal or non-verbal.
• Group has some common object of attention and group members stimulate
each other.
• Group members have common loyalty and participate in similar activities.
• A feeling of unity is essential for group. Group members treat each other as
their own and a sense of sympathy develops among them.
• Similarity of behaviour in group life indicates that the action of the members
are controlled by the group.
• There are some customs, norms and procedures which are acceptable to
everyone but if exception happens, then they will be criticized by the public.
1.3.2 The Role of Groups

As mentioned earlier, it is well known that every individual acts and behaves
differently in different groups. When a person is alone, the behaviour is different
and when the person is in a group, the behaviour is still different. This happens
because every individual is highly concerned with the social image that he or she
presents to people. Individuals are generally concerned about how and what other
people think about them and wants to put before them their best self. Hence the
difference in their behaviours.
11
Group Dynamics When alone, we tend to be more relaxed, less concerned with the outward
expression of our behaviour, and are basically ‘ourselves.’ Add just one other
person, even if we do not know that person, our behaviour tends to change.
This change can be in either direction that is positive or negative. Research has
found that when others are present, our level of arousal is increased. In other
words, we are suddenly more aware of what is going on around us. Because of
this, we tend to perform better at tasks that are well learned or simple When
completing a difficult or new task, however, our performance level decreases
and we tend to do more poorly. This type of behavioural change and betterment
at task when we are with people etc., is called social facilitation. This happens
because of group’s influence. In a group, when other members are watching, we
tend to be relatively more self conscious, and thus tend to make more mistakes.
On the other hand professional players perform far better and at their best when
being watched by large number of persons, because they have learned the game
to their best ability.
Also in a group, people tend to think alike like other members even though away
from the group, their thinking will be highly different. Also in a group with
which a person is able to identify self, and be happy in it, the tendency to think
like the group members emerges. This phenomenon is called group think. If this
identification with the group goes beyond a point, it may end up in destruction,
as is obtained in Klu Klux Klan etc.
We are all aware of people being mugged on the road, beaten up, raped etc. in
broad day light and large number of persons watch it without doing anything
about it. This kind of incidents happen more in big cities. The larger the group,
the less responsible one is towards the group. The internal push to help a person
decreases as the group gets larger.
1.4 TYPES OF GROUP

Groups can be classified in different ways and based on certain criteria. These
criteria are given below:
1) The level of intimacy
2) Basis of relationships
3) Basis of norms and rules
4) Organised vs disorganised
5) Basis of tasks to be accomplished
6) On the basis of functions
7) Interest based
8) Friendship based.
Let us deal with the above a little more in detail.
1.4.1 The Level of Intimacy

Based on this we can classify groups into primary and secondary group.
Primary group: There is an intimate face-to-face relationship among the members
and the members experience the ‘we feeling’ to the maximum. Family, play groups
12
and village community come under this category. If all groups are important to Introduction to Groups:
their members and to society, some groups are more important than others. Early and Types of Groups
in the twentieth century, Charles H. Cooley gave the name, primary groups, to
those groups that he said are characterised by intimate face-to-face association
and those are fundamental in the development and continued adjustment of their
members.
He identified three basic primary groups, (i) the family, (ii) the child’s play group,
and (iii) the neighborhoods or community among adults. These groups, he said,
are almost universal in all societies. They give to people their earliest and most
complete experiences of social unity. They are instrumental in the development
of the social life. They promote the integration of their members in the larger
society.
Secondary groups: These are characterised by anonymous, impersonal, and

instrumental relationships. People move frequently from one section of the
country to another and they change from established relationships to widespread
loneliness. Young people, particularly, turn to drugs, seek communal living groups
and adopt deviant lifestyles in attempts to find meaningful primary group
relationships. The social context has changed so much that the primary group
relationship today is not as simple as they were in the past.
In secondary groups, the relationships are more or less casual and marked by
common interest. Clubs, trade unions etc. are under this category.
The social groups other than those of primary groups may be termed as secondary
groups. They are a residual category. They are often called special interest groups.
Maclver and Page refer to them as great associations. Primary groups are found
predominantly in societies where life is relatively simple. With the expansion in
population and territory of a society people’s interests become diversified and
and differentiated.
The new range of the interests demands a complex organisation. Especially

selected persons act on behalf of all and hence arises a hierarchy of officials
called bureaucracy. These features characterise the rise of the modern state, the
great corporation, the factory, the labour union, a university or a nationwide
political party and so on. These are secondary groups. Ogburn and Nimkoff define
secondary groups as groups which provide experience lacking in intimacy.
Characteristics of the secondary group are the following:

i) Dominance of secondary relations: Secondary groups are characterised by
indirect, impersonal, contractual and non-inclusive relations. Relations are
indirect because secondary groups are bigger in size and members may not
stay together. Relations are contractual in the sense they are oriented towards
certain interests
ii) Largeness of the size: Secondary groups are relatively larger in size. City,
nation, political parties, trade unions and corporations, international
associations are bigger in size. They may have thousands and lakhs of
members. There may not be any limit to the membership in the case of
some secondary groups.
13
Group Dynamics iii) Membership: Membership in the case of secondary groups is mainly
voluntary. Individuals are at liberty to join or to go away from the groups.
However there are some secondary groups like the state whose membership
is almost involuntary.
iv) No Physical basis: Secondary groups are not characterised by physical
proximity. Many secondary groups are not limited to any definite area. There
are some secondary groups like the Rotary Club and Lions Club which are
international in character. The members of such groups are scattered over a
vast area.
v) Specific ends or interest: Secondary groups are formed for the realisation of
some specific interests or ends. They are called special interest groups.
Members are interested in the groups because they have specific ends to
aim at.
vi) Indirect communication: Contacts and communications in the case of
secondary groups are mostly indirect. Mass media of communication such
as radio, telephone, television, newspaper, movies, magazines and post and
telegraph are resorted to by the members to have communication.
vii) Nature of group control: Informal means of social control are less effective
in regulating the relations of members. Moral control is only secondary.
Formal means of social control such as law, legislation, police, court etc.
are made to control the behaviour of members. The behaviour of the people
is largely influenced and controlled by public opinion, propaganda, rule of
law and political ideologies.
viii)Group structure: The secondary group has a formal structure. A formal
authority is set up with designated powers and a clear-cut division of labour
in which the function of each is specified in relation to the function of all.
ix) Organised: Secondary groups are mostly organised groups. Different statuses
and roles that the members assume are specified. Distinctions based on
caste, colour, religion, class, language etc. are less rigid and there is greater
tolerance towards other people or groups.
x) Limited influence on personality: Secondary groups are specialised in
character. People involvement in them is also of limited significance.
Members’s attachment to them is also very much limited. Further people
spend most of their time in primary groups than in secondary groups. Hence
secondary groups have very limited influence on the personality of the
members.
American sociologist Talcott Parsons distinguished five factors that differentiate
primary groups from secondary groups:
That is, relations between members of primary groups, as contrasted with
secondary groups, tend to be
1) diffuse, rather than specific or delimited,
2) particularistic, rather than universalistic,
3) ascription-based (i.e., based on who or what you are), rather than
achievement-based (i.e., based on what you do or have done),
4) other-oriented or group-oriented, rather than self-oriented,
5) affective or emotion-laden, rather than emotionally neutral.
14
Secondary groups are those in which relations between members tend to fit the Introduction to Groups:
opposite poles of the five factors. and Types of Groups
1.4.2 On the Basis of Relationship

i) In-group/ we group vs Out group
In In-group or we group, we identify ourselves within that group wherein the
members have common object and common interest. They have a sense of we
feeling. The members of the in groups treat others as outsiders. These groups
can be formed on the basis of relationship, country, political interests, economic
interests etc.
Out-group is one in which the members are considered as outsiders by the in
group people. Groups other than ingroup are generally called out groups.
The opposite of in-group bias is out-group bias where, by inference, out-group
people are viewed more negatively and given worse treatment. This is the basis
of racial inequality.
In-group linguistic bias is where out-group people are described in abstract terms
(which depersonifies them) when they conform to the out-group stereotype. Out-
group people will be referred to in more specific, concrete terms when they act
in unexpected ways.
When people identify themselves with a group, they perceive themselves and
the group members as different from other groups. This can be explained in
terms of the social identity theory. According to this theory, a person has not
one, “personal self”, but rather several selves that correspond to widening circles
of group membership. Different social contexts may trigger an individual to
think, feel and act on the basis of his personal, family or national “level of self”
(Turner et al, 1987).
Also an individual has multiple “social identities”. Social identity is the
individual’s self-concept derived from perceived membership of social groups
(Hogg & Vaughan, 2002)..
Social Identity Theory asserts that group membership creates ingroup/ self-
categorization and enhancement in ways that favour the in-group at the expense
of the out-group.
Tajfel and Turner (1979) identify three variables whose contribution to the
emergence of ingroup favoritism is particularly important. A) the extent to which
individuals identify with an ingroup to internalise that group membership as an
aspect of their self-concept. B) the extent to which the prevailing context provides
ground for comparison between groups. C) the perceived relevance of the
comparison group, which itself will be shaped by the relative and absolute status
of the ingroup. Individuals are likely to display favoritism when an ingroup is
central to their self-definition and a given comparison is meaningful or the
outcome is contestable.
Social Identity Theory has a considerable impact on social psychology. It is tested
in a wide range of fields and settings and includes prejudice, stereotyping,
negotiation and language use. The theory has also implications on the way people
deal with social and organisational change. For example in a minimal group
studies, schoolboys were assigned to groups, which were intended to be as
15
Group Dynamics meaningless as possible. They were assigned randomly, excluding roles of
interpersonal discrimination such as history of conflict, personal animosity or
interdependence. The schoolboys assigned points to anonymous members of
both their own group and the other group. Conclusions were that even the most
minimal conditions were sufficient to encourage favouring the in group responses.
Participants picked a reward pair that awarded more points to people who were
identified as ingroup members. In other words, they displayed ingroup favoritism.
1.4.3 Organised vs Disorganised

Groups can be categorized into formal, informal group etc. Let us see what
these are:
i) Formal group: It is generally formed on the basis of specific norms, rules
and values. The group of students in a classroom comes under the category
of formal group. So, school is one of the formal group setting.
ii) Informal group: The nature of the group is not formal at all. The rules are
usually flexible. Play groups, peer group and social clubs etc. are examples
of informal groups.
In addition groups can also classified into various categories as organised
and spontaneous groups etc. Let us consider these below.
iii) Organised groups: The groups which are formed for specific purpose and
are carefully planned is called organised groups. The family, the school etc.
are called organised groups.
iv) Spontaneous groups: The groups are formed without any careful planning.
An example is the audience in a theater. Audience may be considered as
spontaneous group when they come to listen to a speech or watch a play.
v) Command groups: Command groups are specified by the organisational chart.
It consists of a supervisor and the subordinates who report to the supervisor.
1.4.4 On the Basis of Tasks

i) Task groups: This consists of a group of people who have come together to
achieve a common task. In many situations there is a specified time period.
This can be referred to as task forces.
ii) Functional groups: Functional group is generally created by the organisation
to accomplish specific goals within an unspecified time frame. Functional
group generally exists after achievement of current goals and objects.
1.4.5 Interest Groups

These groups usually continue over a period of time and may last longer than
general informal groups. It is seen that members’ interest may not be part of the
same organisational department but they are bound by some common interest.
1.4.6 Friendship Groups

These may be of different types. These groups are formed by the members who
enjoy similar social activities, political beliefs, religious values and other common
bonds.
16
1.4.7 Reference Groups Introduction to Groups:
This is the group against which other groups and group members as well as and Types of Groups
others evaluate themselves. Reference groups have a strong influence on members’
behaviour. According to Merton, sociologist, reference groups are those groups
which are the referring points of the individuals, towards which the person is
oriented and which influences the person’s opinion, tendency and behaviour.
The individual is surrounded by countless reference groups. Both the memberships
and inner groups and non memberships and outer groups may be reference groups.
1.5 LET US SUM UP

Group is a collection of individuals. Group refers to two or more persons who
interact with one another. They share common goals and recognise themselves
that they belong to a group. Group members interact with each other, either
directly or indirectly. Their relationship is relatively stable. Their interaction
should be structured in some manner so that they perform the same and similar
function when they meet.
Generally group members help to satisfy both psychological and social needs,
such as giving attention and receiving attention. Groups help persons to fulfill
their need for security. In contrast, one can think about a mere collection of
individuals, who are not part of a group, as for example, members of a crowd, as
in the case of disorganised group.
In a nutshell it can be said that the group has some kind of structure to hold it
together and attain the goals effectively. The structure is hierarchical where the
functions and powers are distributed. Group may be of different types, viz.,
primary and secondary group, formal and informal group, organised and
spontaneous group, command group, task group, functional group, interest group,
friendship group, reference group etc. Group structure is a pattern of relationships
among members that hold the group together. It can be interpreted in various
ways depending on group size, group roles, group norms and group cohesiveness.

1) What do you mean by the term ‘group’? Briefly discuss.
2) Define group. Write in brief about the characteristics of group.
3) Elucidate briefly about the different types of group.
4) Differentiate between formal and informal group with examples.

Hogg, M.A. & Vaughan, G.M. (2002). Social Psychology (3rd ed. ) London:
Prentice Hall.
Hare, A. P. (1962). Handbook of Small Group Research. New York: Macmillan
Publishers.
Bales, R. F. (1950). Interaction Process Analysis: A Method for the Study of
Small Groups. MA: Addison-Wesley.
17
Group Dynamics
UNIT 2 GROUP PROCESS: SOCIAL
FACILITATION, SOCIAL LOAFING ,
GROUP INTERACTION, GROUP
POLARIZATION AND GROUP
MIND
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Group Processes
2.2.1 Development of Group
2.2.2 Group ‘as a whole’ Processes
2.3 Social Facilitation
2.3.1 Drive Theory of Social Facilitation
2.4 Social Loafing
2.4.1 Characteristics of Social Loafing
2.5 Group Interaction
2.6 Group Morale
2.7 Group Polarization
2.8 Group Mind
2.9 Let Us Sum Up
2.11 Glossary
2.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we will be dealing with group dynamics, which refers to the attitudinal
and behavioural characteristics of a group. It concerns how groups form, their
structures and processes, and how they function in different situations. There are
mainly five stages of group development, viz., forming, storming, norming,
performing and adjourning. It will be taken up in detail. We will then deal with
group processes followed by development of group. Next we will take up social
facilitation which refers to the influence of the presence of others in improving
an individual’s interaction. Group mind will then be taken up and dealt in detail.
2.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:
• Define group processes;
• Describe the characteristic features of group process;
• Explain the factors involved in group process;
18
• Define social facilitation and the factors related to the same; Group Process: Social
Facilitation, Social Loafing,
• Define social loafing; Group Interaction, Group
Polarization and Group
• Describe the characteristic features of social loafing; Mind
• Explain the group interaction process; and

• Analyse group mind and group think.
2.2 GROUP AND GROUP FORMATION

The word ‘group’ has a variety of meaning. It refers to any aggregation of human
beings including the pedestrians on the road or gathering of people in any place.
A structured group has certain characteristics. Group development refers to the
concerns as to how groups form, their structures and processes, and how they
function in different situations, etc. There are mainly five stages of group
development, viz., forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning.
Forming is a stage which is characterized by some confusion and uncertainty.

Forming is actually an orientation period when members get to know one another
and share expectations about the group.
Storming is the stage where one can see the highest level of disagreement and
conflict. Members mainly voice concern and it is important to note that criticism
occurs in this stage.
Norming is characterized by the recognition of individual differences and shared

expectations. Responsibilities are divided among members and the group decides
how it will evaluate progress.
Performing occurs when the group has matured and attains a feeling of
cohesiveness. In this stage, members of the group make decision through a rational
process that is focused on relevant goals rather than emotional issues.
Adjourning indicates that members of the group often experience feelings of

closure and sadness as they prepare to leave.
Thus, group is a collection of individuals and as mentioned earlier it refers to

two or more persons who interact with one another, share common goals and
recognize that they belong to a group. It must be remembered that no person can
live in isolation. This is so because groups help us to satisfy important
psychological needs and social needs. Different persons perform different types
of tasks. Group may choose a person to serve as a leader and other persons as
followers. There is link among the members. Not only this, interaction among
the group members is a very important aspect for smooth running of the activities
of the group.
2.2.1 Development of Group

A very common question that is asked is that why and how groups develop.
There are several theories regarding group development. A classic theory,
developed by George Homans, suggests that groups develop mainly on the basis
of activities, interactions and sentiments. Basically, this theory indicates that
when individuals share common activities they will have more interaction and
19
Group Dynamics will develop attitudes (either positive or negative) toward each other. The main
element is the interaction of the individuals involved.
Another important theory is social exchange theory which offers an alternative

explanation for group development. According to this theory individuals form
the relationship on the basis of implicit expectation of mutually beneficial
exchanges based on trust and ‘felt’ obligations. Also it is a perception that
exchange relationships have to be positive if persons are to be attracted to and
affiliate with a group.
Besides this, another important theory is social identity theory which offers
explanation for group formation. This theory suggests that individuals get a sense
of identity and self esteem based on their membership in salient groups. The
group is demographically, culturally and organisationally based.
One of the most important activities that groups perform is decision-making.

This is the process through which individuals or groups combine and integrate
information from the several possible actions. Most people believe that the groups
by utilising the expertise and knowledge of their members and by avoiding
extreme courses of action usually reach better decisions than when decision is
taken by single individuals.
When groups begin to discuss any issue, it is seen that their members generally
express unanimous agreement. During the decision period, members convey a
wide range of views. Generally, social decision process happens in phases, that
is, the first phase is the discussion phase which helps to confirm or strengthen
the most popular view, which rarely gets reversed. The second phase is with the
correct situation or decision that will ultimately emerge in the forefront.
Besides the above, there are several aspects of the group’s procedure such as the
rules it follows in addressing management of the group, management of
interactions among members and so on. Some persons, knowing about the
opinions, especially the influential members, incline to join the majority and
thereby tilt the decision in the required direction.
2.2.2 Group ‘as a whole’ Processes

This refers to those behaviours and dynamics that apply to the group as a distinct
psychological construction. Cohesion is the most important factor in this process,
especially in the clinical, theoretical and empirical areas. While conceptual and
operational definitions of the term vary, cohesion generally refers to the emotional
bonding amongst members of the group as well as a shared commitment to the
group and its primary task.
Cohesion is often regarded as the equivalent of the concept of therapeutic alliance

in individual psychotherapy. It is the group process which is generally linked to
positive therapeutic outcome. This cohesion can range from massification (the
act of taking all people in a group together as a whole, without reference to their
individual characteristics or needs ), fusion (Greene, 1983), oneness (Turquet,
1974), deindividuation (Deiner, 1977), contagion (Polansky et al., 1950) and
groupthink (Janis, 1994) at one extreme, to aggregation (Hopper, 2003),
fragmentation (Springmann, 1976), individuation (Greene, 1983) and the anti
group (Nitsun, 1996) at the other extreme.
20
In extreme form, cohesion in group may divert the group from meaningful work. Group Process: Social
Hence there is a need for the leader to monitor the nature of the emotional bonds Group Interaction, Group
and commitment of the members and help the group attain a dialectic balance Polarization and Group
between needs for relatedness and communion on one hand, and needs for Mind
autonomy and differentiation on the other.
Cohesion generally refers to the emotional bonds among members for each other
and for a shared commitment to the group and its primary task. It is often regarded
as the equivalent to the concept of therapeutic alliance in individual psychotherapy
and is the group process variable generally linked to positive therapeutic outcome.
Beyond the level of cohesion, the group as a whole can be perceived, experienced
and represented in the minds of the members with a range of positive (e.g.,
engaging) and negative (e.g., conflictual) attributes. The leader must take into
account these attributes understand them as positive or negative and as these
can affect task accomplishment.
The group may be experienced in a positive way as being protective, and

containing capacities to help the group grow and develop. Or the group may
also be negatively experienced which may annihilate the group or engulf it and
not allow it to grow or develop in a positive way. These contrasting images of
the group are formed from socially shared projections.
Other negative group processes and formations have been identified that can
serve defensive and work avoidant needs. Where the group is a dependent group,
or where a group takes a stand of confrontation or has the tendency to run away
or escape from conflicting situation, members within such groups develop or
show anxiety. This regressive process needs to be dealt with on a priority basis
through the process of interpretation or confrontation. This would in turn allow
the group to shift towards more task oriented and less defensive behaviour.
Splits and subgroups: To cope with group induced anxieties, as mentioned above,
members of one group can take an approach of ‘us versus them’, or ‘in versus
out’ polarities. These internal arrangements are typically seen as defensive
arrangements that can subvert task accomplishment and ultimately need to be
managed by the group leader.
The Pair or Couple: The pair or couple in a group can represent a re enactment
and recapitulation of Oedipal or neurotic level wishes and tensions. This can
also represent primitive group level defensive processes, which may manifest in
the form of certain disorders such as depression etc.
Such dynamic process can be acted out via extra group liaisons (sexual or
otherwise). Or it can be enacted by the group in such a manner it may affect the
development process itself. The leader or the group therapist has to then take
care of the potentially destructive processes through exploration, interpretation
or confrontation.
The Individual Member and Leader Roles

In certain groups there may be a scapegoat on whom all negative aspects are
transferred. The formation of scapegoat and other non rational restrictive,
delineated roles such as the spokesperson, hero, and difficult person or member
are prominent group phenomena. It is important to understand that these roles
21
Group Dynamics emerge not only from the needs and personalities of the individuals filling them,
but also from collusive enactments, co-constructions etc., between the individual
and the group. Such unique roles are not “all bad” or destructive. They may
serve important functions for the entire group, including speaking the unspeakable,
stirring emotions and revitalising the group, carrying unacceptable aspects of
others, and even creating a sense of hope (Shields, 2000).

1) What are the five stages of group development?
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2) What theories are associated with group development?
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3) What is meant by “Group as a whole Process”?
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4) Describe the various aspects related to the “Group as a whole Process”
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22
Group Process: Social
2.3 SOCIAL FACILITATION Facilitation, Social Loafing,
Group Interaction, Group
Social facilitation may be defined as the improvement in performance produced Mind
by the mere presence of others. It indicates that the persons perform the same
task independently. The basic idea behind Zajonc’s drive theory of social
facilitation is the presence of others which produces increments in arousal.
Allport (1920) defined the term social facilitation as one of the improvements in
performance produced by the mere presence of others, either as audience or as
co-actors that is the persons performing the same task, but independently. Some
basic principles are as follows:
1) When arousal increases, the tendency to make dominant responses also
increases.
2) Dominant responses may be correct or incorrect for any given task.
3) The presence of other person will facilitate performance when an individual’s
dominant responses are the correct ones in a given situation or vice-versa.
4) Learning to perform a new task has a significant role in this context.
5) Social facilitating was not always facilitating, sometimes it appears to be
misleading.
6) Individuals sometimes believe that their performance may be observed and
evaluated by others.
7) There are large individual differences with respect to basic form of group
influence.
8) Evaluation apprehension takes an important role in social facilitation.
9) Good sense improves the performance.
10) Mere presence of others is arousing and influences performance, but that
the possibility of being evaluated by others increases even more, and produces
even stronger social facilitation effects.
11) When individuals have little reason to pay attention to others present on the
scene, social facilitation fails to occur, when they have strong reasons for
paying attention to others, social facilitation occurs.
12) Social facilitation is the ‘simple type of group influence’.
2.3.1 Drive Theory of Social Facilitation

The basic idea behind Zajonc’s drive theory of social facilitation is that the
presence of others produce increments in arousal, which affect our performance.
Thus, it can be said that the presence of others will facilitate performance when
a person’s dominant responses are the correct ones in a given situation but the
presence of others will impair performance, when a person’s dominant responses
are incorrect in a given situation. When individuals have little reason to pay
attention to others present on the scene, social facilitation fails to occur, but
when have strong reason for paying attention to others, social facilitation occurs.
23
Group Dynamics
1) Define social facilitation.
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2) What are the basic principles of social facilitation?
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3) Discuss the drive theory of social facilitation.
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2.4 SOCIAL LOAFING

One may observe in many situations that there are some persons in a group who
work hard while others may work little, doing less than their share of what they
might do if they work alone. Social psychologists want to see the effects giving
the term as ‘social loafing’. This is a very common feature in many situations.
The effect of this is known as social loafing.
Thus social loafing is the reduction in motivation and effort when individuals
work collectively in a group compared to when they work individually or as
independent co actors. Social loafing seems to be a basic fact of social life. The
activities of sports teams, committees, juries etc. are under the category of social
loafing.
24
2.4.1 Characteristics of Social Loafing Group Process: Social
The important characteristics of social loafing are: Group Interaction, Group
• As group size increases, each member feels less and less responsible for the Mind
task being performed. Each person exerts decreasing effort on it.

• According to Expectancy-Valence theory it can be said that individuals will
work hard on a given task only to the extent that
i) hard work will lead to better performance (expectancy),
ii) better performance will be recognised and rewarded (instrumentality)
and
iii) the rewards available are ones they value and desire (valence).
• Expectancy – the perception that increased effort will lead to better
performance.
• Instrumentality – the belief that good performance will be recognised and
rewarded, may also be weaken when people work together in groups. Social
loafing occurs and within the framework of the collective effort model.
When individual works together with others, the relationship between their
own effort and performance and rewards is more uncertain than when they
work alone.
• Collective effort – Perceived links between individuals’ effort and their
outcomes are weaker when they work together with others in a group.
• Social loafing is a serious problem. It is most likely to occur under conditions
in which individuals’ contributions can’t be evaluated, when people work
on task they find boring or uninspiring and when they work with others,
they don’t respect and don’t know very well.
• In many situations social loafing poses a threat to performance in many
settings.
• Groups can reduce social loafing by increasing group members’ commitment
to successful task performance.
• Social loafing is reduced when individuals consider their contributions to
the task as unique rather than merely redundant with those of others.
• Social loafing can be reduced by strengthening group cohesiveness.
• Social loafing is not an unavoidable feature of task-performance groups. It
can be reduced especially when appropriate safe guards are built into the
situation.
2.5 GROUP INTERACTION

Group interaction is a two-way process where each individual or group stimulates
the other and in varying degrees modifies the behaviour of the participants. The
personality characteristics and behaviour of the individual members of a group
affect the behaviour of others and make a significant impact over the functioning
of a group as a whole. Social psychology is concerned with the interactions
between individuals and between individuals and groups. Interaction can take
25
Group Dynamics place in a face-to-face situation as and when two friends or a parent and a child
are interacting with each other. Interaction refers to a set of observable behaviours
which takes place where there are two and more persons. When a person is in a
class and a lecturer makes some interesting remarks, this is automatically followed
by interaction amongst students as well as interaction with the lecturer. In the
process one would also find certain degree of interpersonal influence.
Interpersonal influence is that in which there are simultaneous effects of two or
more persons on each other, that is, there exist reciprocal effects. Human
interaction is based on communication. It is communication of the information
that is most vital for the survival and promotion of culture. Sharing of information
will make information of the common property of the whole group, and thus
enhances the cultural life of the group.
Individual has his own motives and attitudes when he enters into interaction
process. On the other hand, each group has its own shared rules or norms which
affect the interaction process. As a result of the interaction, the motives and
attitudes of the individual may be affected and some change brought in him.
Lastly, it is seen that the changes in the individuals who are interacting may
bring about changes in the characteristics of the group. Not only this, the concept
of interaction helps us to understand the problem.
Sherif (1956) has described that there are four properties which are essential in
the formation and functioning of small informal groups. These are:
a) Common motives conducive to interaction among individuals: Informal
groups may arise only through the interaction of individuals with common
motives. Common motives are conducive to interaction. The individuals
perceive, the others also face the same problem and that co-operation with
them has some relevance to solve the problem. By this in-group feeling
develops. The sense of belongingness may provide a sense of security and
importance.
b) Differential effects of intercommunication of members: When we interact
with each other, we perceive the other people as unique individuals with
certain abilities or disabilities. The individuals in the course of their
interaction understand in a more or less definite way of intelligence and
maintain more or less same character qualities with each other.
c) Formation of group members: The differential way of interaction will bring
about certain expectations and if those expectations are fulfilled by the
individuals, there will be hierarchical status within the group. One individual
may become the leader of the group because of his talents and courage. He
may assume leadership and group may accept him as a leader.
d) Formation of group norms: In connection with the emergence of group
structure, there will be an emergence of group norms too. Norms may also
develop regarding the behaviour of the members of the group towards those
who are not members. This makes for social distance. Time is an important
condition for the formation of the group. Actually group formation occurs
after a series of episodes. When the individuals join together at varying
intervals and engage themselves in the group activities the group is
undoubtedly knit together.
26
Besides this, it can further be said that the effectiveness of the group depends Facilitation, Social Loafing,
upon its structural characteristics like the size, status, channels of communication Group Interaction, Group
etc. Satisfaction is greater for the individuals in small groups. There seems to be
Mind
indication of sense of belongingness which ultimately contributes to group
effectiveness. It may further be stated that the basis of attraction of the group
may lie in the interaction itself because of the mutual satisfaction of needs.
According to Cartwright and Zander (1968) group cohesiveness includes such

factors as attraction of individual members to each other interpersonally, the
attraction of the members do the activities and functions of the group. These two
factors enable the group to become organised as a system. A structured group
has certain characteristics. There will be norms regulating the activities and
behaviour of members. On the other hand, we can say about another group,
known as, “reference group”. This group takes as a basis for self-evaluation and
attitude formation. The normative function involves the setting of standards for
attitude, belief and behaviour. One individual can compare self with other
individuals and evaluate self in terms of reference group.

1) Define social loafing.
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2) What are the characteristics of social loafing?
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3) What is meant by group interaction?
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4) Describe the properties for functioning of the small groups.
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27
Group Dynamics
2.6 GROUP MORALE
This implies that individuals by being members of a group, have self control
and a sense of discipline. Individuals by being member of a group, recognise the
presence of a positive goal for the group to achieve. They experience a feeling
of togetherness by being members of the group, awareness of a danger to the
group (which they are able to sense as a member of the group) and also have the
conviction that conditions can be improved so that the goal can be reached.
Participation in the activities of a group with high morale is stimulating as well

as gratifying to the members of the group. It may thus be stated in this context
that significance of social control depends not only on the nature of the group
norm but also on the state of the group morale. One can study the group as a
whole and the various changes that occur in the behaviour of the members of
the group and also how these changes are transmitted to all the individuals, so
that the behaviour of the group is altered. The group behaviour can be understood
only if both the personality of the individual and the character of the social
situation are taken into consideration. Thus, it can be said that group behaviour
is a function of both individual and social situation. Psychological effects take
an important role in this regard.
2.7 GROUP POLARIZATION

The tendency of group members to shift towards more extreme position than
those they initially held as a result of group discussion. Groups are actually more
likely to adopt extreme positions than individuals making decision alone. It is
seen that sometimes a group may show a pronounced tendency to shift towards
certain views that are more extreme than the ones with which they initially began
considering many different kinds of decisions and many different contexts. This
is group polarization. It is remarkable to note that group polarization does not
refer to a tendency of groups to split apart into the opposite poles, on the contrary,
it refers to a strengthening of the group’s initial preferences.
The occurrence of polarization may lead many decision making groups to adopt
positions that are increasingly extreme. Research evidence suggests that social
comparison may be relatively more important in some context, especially where
group polarization plays a significant role. It is seen that many important decisions
are taken by the group and group decisions can be predicted by social decision
schemes which are the simple rules relating to individual views held by members
in regard to the group’s final decision.
Group polarization does not refer to a tendency of groups to split apart into two
opposing camps or poles. On the contrary, it refers to a strengthening of the
group’s initial preferences. Social comparison is an important factor for group
polarization. The occurrence of polarization may lead many decision making
groups to adopt position that are increasingly extreme.
2.8 GROUP MIND

Group is not a mere sum of the individual minds, but that a group has certain
characteristics of its own and influences the individuals who are members of the
group. Social psychology is concerned not only with the behaviour of the groups
28
and with social situations but also with collective behaviour of groups. Group Process: Social
Marx(1818-1883) had stressed the fact that social structure determines the Group Interaction, Group
individual’s belief, attitudes etc. Some of them also stressed the fact that social Polarization and Group
groups have a continuity and unity that each group manifest certain uniformities Mind
of behaviour through their custom and institutional practices. McDougall (1920)
used the term “group mind” and the term is used mainly on the following factors:
• The members of the group must be aware of the origin of their group and its
various characteristics which indicates the continuity.
• Every member must feel that he is a part of the group which means self-
consciousness.
• There must be free exchange of ideas between the members of the group
and there must be a common body of thought which indicates interaction.
• The group must have certain traditions which are shared by each other.
Any individual is a member of a certain group. They may behave in a particular

way. But such behaviour can be explained without positing a mysterious “group
mind” which compels people to behave in certain ways. In crowd, with the loss
of individuality, a form of group consciousness develops, a fusion of mind with
mind, a sympathetic participation of each with each on the emotional level which
is common to all of the participants.
In this context, we can use another term “group think”. Group think is the tendency
of high cohesive groups to assume that their decisions can not be wrong. In
other words, all members are expected to support the group’s decision and ignore
information contrary to it. Group think is a strong tendency for decision-making
groups to close ranks and support the decision strongly, and also neglect or ignore
any information contrary to it. Once the collection of state of mind develops, the
group becomes unwilling to change its course of action. The first and foremost
factor for the group mind is that there exists a very high level of cohesiveness
among the group members. The second factor is the kind of emergent group
norm which suggests that group is correct and normally superior.

1) Define Group morale.
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2) Describe Group Polarizatrion.
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29
Group Dynamics
3) What is Group Mind?
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4) What factors are involved in group mind?
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2.9 LET US SUM UP

Groups are the products of interaction. Evevery one deals with groups and is
part of groups, which are already well established, as for instance, such as the
family, the church, the political party and so on . When individuals with common
motives interact with each other for a fairly long time, group structure emerges.
The differential effects of interaction will bring about certain expectations and if
these are fulfilled by the individuals there will be hierarchical status within the
group. Differences in ability and character bring about differences in expectations.
Thus status forms with the group, as well as, in the taking up of definite roles.
When this group structure emerges and the group formation is successful, there
will be solidarity within the group making it strong. The effectiveness of the
group depends upon its structural characteristics like the size, structure, channels
of communication etc. Generally, satisfaction is greater for the individuals in
small groups. There is a sense of belongingness to the group and this contributes
to group effectiveness.
Presence of a positive goal for the group to achieve, a feeling of togetherness in

the members of the group, awareness of a danger to group, a conviction that
conditions can be improved so that the goals can be reached and finally, there
lies an awareness of advancement towards the group goals. The tendency of
highly cohesive groups is that they assume that their decisions can not be wrong
and that all members must support the groups’ decisions and ignore information
which are contrary to it. Once groupthink takes hold in a decision-making group,
pressure toward maintaining high levels of group consensus overrides the
motivation to evaluate all potential courses of action as accurately as possible.
30
2.10 UNIT END QUESTIONS Facilitation, Social Loafing,
Group Interaction, Group
1) What do you mean by the term ‘group interaction’? Briefly discuss. Polarization and Group
Mind
2) What is the relationship between group mind and group polarization?
3) Briefly discuss about the steps regarding ‘group formation’.
4) What is social loafing? Elucidate with examples.
2.11 GLOSSARY
Group : Two or more people who interact and influence
one another.
Group dynamics : The way in which changes take place in the

behaviour of other members of the group. Groups
can mobilise powerful force which may be
constructive or destructive.
Group structure : The differences of roles and status relations

within a group.
Group thinks : The tendency of highly cohesive groups to

assume that their decisions can not be wrong.
Group polarization : Group produced enhancement of members’

preexisting tendencies, a strengthening of the
member’s average.
Group-decision process : A procedure in which a group is presented with

a problem and communication giving the various
alternatives, followed by a discussion and
decision regarding the solution of the problem.
Society : The complex type of human group composed of

many subgroups.
Social change : Alteration in structure of a society.
Social cohesion : Degree to which group members share common

beliefs, practices and values and thus act as
united.
Social conflict : The clash which arises between two groups in a

society in order to obtain control over scarce
resources.
Social distance : Degree to which individuals are willing to

interact with people from different social
backgrounds.
Social facilitation : The tendency of people to perform simple or

well-learned tasks better when others are present.
31
Group Dynamics Social loafing : The tendency for people to exert less when they
pool their efforts toward a common goal than
when they are individually accountable.

Baron, R.A. and Byrne, D. (2000). Social Psychology, 8th Edition, Prentice Hall
of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi – 110001.
Kuppuswamy, B.(2002), Elements of Social Psychology, 7th Revised Edition,

Konark Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Kuppuswamy, B.(1980), An introduction to Social Psychology, 2nd Revised

edition, (reprinted,2004), Asia Publishing House, Mumbai.
32
Group Behaviour: Influence
UNIT 3 GROUP BEHAVIOUR: INFLUENCE of Norms, Status and Roles;
Introduction to Crowd
OF NORMS, STATUS AND ROLES; Behavioural Theory, Crowd
Psychology (Classical and
INTRODUCTION TO CROWD Convergence Theories)
BEHAVIOURAL THEORY, CROWD

PSYCHOLOGY (CLASSICAL AND
CONVERGENCE THEORIES)
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Human Behaviour in Groups
3.3 Influence of Norms, Status and Roles
3.3.1 Salient Features of Norms
3.4 Roles
3.4.1 Types of Roles
3.4.2 Salient Features of Roles
3.5 Status
3.5.1 Salient Features of Status
3.5.2 Status and Position
3.6 Crowd Behavioural Theory
3.7 Crowd Psychology
3.7.1 Crowd Behaviour
3.7.2 Classical Theory of Crowd Behaviour
3.7.3 Convergence Theory of Crowd Behaviour
3.7.4 Group Mind
3.8 Let Us Sum Up
3.10 Glossary
3.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit you will learn about how the behaviour of individuals in a group is
governed by norms. We will learn about the definition of norms, influence of
norms, definition of Status and Roles and all of their influence on the behaviour
of individuals especially in group situations. There will be a description about
the important features related to norms, role and status and how these in turn
affect the human behaviour in groups. The unit will describe crowd as a group
and the individual’s behaviour in a crowd situation. Here we will understand
how the individual’s thinking gets dominated by the crowd’s thinking. The unit
will deal with crowd psychology and individual’s behaviour as explained by
certain theories related to crowd behaviour.
33
Group Dynamics
3.1 OBJECTIVES
• Define norms and describe its characteristic features;
• Define status and role in group behaviour;
• Describe how the status and role affects behaviour in groups;
• Explain crowd behaviour; and
• Elucidate the major theories related to crowd behaviour.
3.2 HUMAN BEHAVIOUR IN GROUPS

Human beings behave differently in different situations. When alone the human
being’s behaviour will be different as compared to the individual’s behaviour
when in a group. Thus the behaviour of an individual differs from the individual’s
behaviour in group situations. Generally, in a group situation, a person is expected
to behave according to the norms of the group. Group often exerts powerful
effects on human being and, accordingly, human being behaves following the
norms of the group. Group interaction is a two-way process whereby each
individual member in the group stimulates the other and also in varying degrees
and thereby modifies the behaviour of the group members. The behaviour and
personality characteristics of individual members of a group affect the behaviour
of others in the same group. Thus there is a significant impact of each of the
members in a group over the functioning of the group as a whole.
We may consider a school situation where all children have a common goal and
the students and the teachers are motivated for the achievement of the common
goal. School offers excellent opportunities for group dynamics. Now the question
may arise how a child behaves in school setting considering the functioning of
the school as a social group. The answer is:
i) Encouragement in group work: Group activities should be encouraged which
may provide opportunities to the students to participate in the affairs of the
group.
ii) Project work: Different types of project work may help the students for the
development of group consciousness and cooperation.
iii) Social service: Social service will help the students to get into direct contact
with the community members and to understand the problems of that
particular setting.
iv) Hostel life: This is an important way of training the students in the art of
living together.
From the above four situations one can easily understand the behaviour of human
being in individual and group levels. In this context, an important term we can
use is ‘group dynamics’, which implies an interactive psychological relationship
in which members of a group develop a common perception based on feelings or
emotions. Behaviour of human being is not static. Thus, it can be said that group
dynamics means the change of behaviour through interaction in the group.
34
Generally group dynamics is influenced by sympathy, suggestion and imitation. Group Behaviour: Influence
of Norms, Status and Roles;
Sympathy enables the member of a group to perceive the psychological state of Introduction to Crowd
other members. He begins to feel as others feel. On the other hand, suggestion Behavioural Theory, Crowd
plays a big role in influencing individual’s group behaviour. It happens that Psychology (Classical and
Convergence Theories)
suggestions put forward by the leader of the group are readily accepted. Not only
this, the behaviour of the leader of the group is initiated by the members of the
group. Thus, it can be said that the influence of norms, status and roles has an
important role on group behaviour. In fact, in group behaviour an individual
may act in a manner which as an individual he would not like to act, i.e., an
individual may be ready to do the meanest of actions if the group wishes him to
do.

1) Discuss human behaviour in groups.
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2) What are the underlying dynamics of human behaviour in groups.
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3) What is group dynamics?
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4) What factors influence group dynamics?
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35
Group Dynamics
3.3 INFLUENCE OF NORMS, STATUS AND ROLES
Norms are generally unwritten, unstated rules that govern the behaviour of the
members of a group. Norms often just evolve and are socially enforced through
social sanctioning. Norms are often passed down through time by a culture or
society. Norms are intended to provide stability to a group and only a few in a
group will refuse to abide by the norms. A group may hold onto norms that are
no longer needed, similar to holding on to bad habits just because they have
always been part of the group. Some norms are unhealthy and cause poor
communication among people. Often groups are not aware of the unwritten norms
that exist. New people to the group have to discover these norms on their own
over a period of time and may face sanction just because they did not know a
norm existed. At the end of the exercise, I give some actual examples of norms
that I have encountered in groups.
The term ‘socialisation’ is the process by which individuals learn the culture of
their society. The first and primary socialisation process takes place during infancy,
generally within the family. Child learns the language and basic behaviour from
the parents and other family members. Then comes the peer group, the young
child, by interacting with others and playing childhood games, learns to conform
to the accepted ways of a social group. Actually social life is based on some
specific rules. Each and every culture contains a large number of guidelines. A
norm is a specific guide to action which defines acceptable and appropriate
behaviour in particular situations.
Norms are standards of group behaviour. An essential characteristic of group life

is that it consists of a set of values and principles which regulate the behaviour
of individual members. Groups are the products of interaction among individuals.
When a number of individuals interact, a set of standards develop that regulate
their relationships and modes of behaviour. The standards of group behaviour
are called social norms. “A norm is a standard of behavioural expectation shared
by the group members against which the validity of perception is judged and the
appropriateness of feeling and behaviour is evaluated” (Secord and Backman,
Social Psychology, p.323).
Social norms are those that regulate behaviour of individuals in a group and
also act as informal social controls. Certain degree of consensus is present in
these norms in that the members of the group follow these norms even though
there is nothing written. The norms are maintained by informal social control
and are usually based on some degree of consensus and are maintained through
social sanctions.
Norms are in another sense rules of behaviour. They exist as both formal and
informal norms, but often the latter is found to be more strong and reinforced
from time to time and thus are more effective. These informal norms are divided
into two:
• Folkways: These are expected to be followed, though there is no formal
sanction except some kind of reprimands. It’s a kind of adjusting,
accommodating type of habits.
• Mores: These are also informal rules that are not written, but violation brings
severe punishments and sanctions.
36
There are certain terms that are related to social norms and these include the Group Behaviour: Influence
following: (a) Descriptive norm, (b) Prescriptive norm, (c) Proscriptive norm Introduction to Crowd
(d) Deviance, (e) Looking glass self. These are described below. Behavioural Theory, Crowd
a) A descriptive norm refers to people’s perceptions of what is commonly done Convergence Theories)
in specific situations. This is typically related to a culture.
b) A Prescriptive Norm refers to the unwritten rules understood and followed
by society. We do these every day with out thinking about them.
c) A Proscriptive Norm refers to the unwritten rules known to society regarding
the individual’s behaviour in terms of the do’s and don’ts. These norms can
vary from culture to culture.
d) Deviance refers to violation of the norms or non conformity to norms by
some people or even a single individual. Briefly stated it refers to behaviours
that go against norms.
e) Looking Glass-Self: This is how one sees oneself based on how others
perceive the person. This comes about in terms of interacting with others
and understanding how others perceive them, what they expect from them
and how they should behave etc.
Norms affect the way one behaves in public. For instance, when a person enters
an elevator (lift), it is expected that you turn around to face the doors. An example
of a social norm violation would be to enter the elevator and remain facing the
rest of the people.
Human behaviour changes based on social situations that they encounter since
the age of 1 or 2 years old.(toddler onwards). Individuals learn to adapt to society
by changing their behaviour in order to fit in with the rest of the crowd.
Norms represent value judgments about appropriate behaviour in social situations,

and also have powerful influence on individual’s behaviour especially in a group
situation. Norms in a way guide individual’s behaviour and reduces ambiguity
in groups.
Groups do not establish norms about every conceivable situation but only with
respect to things that are significant to the group. Norms might apply to every
member of the group or to only some members. Norms that apply to particular
group members usually specify the role of those individuals. Norms vary in the
degree to which they are accepted by all members of the group: some are accepted
by almost everyone, others by some members and not others. For example,
university faculty and students accept the faculty norm of teaching, but students
infrequently accept the norm of faculty research. Finally, norms vary in terms of
the range of permissible deviation; sanctions, either mild or extreme, are usually
applied to people for breaking norms. Norms also differ with respect to the amount
of deviation that is tolerated. Some norms require strict adherence, but others do
not.
Understanding how group norms develop and why they are enforced is important
to managers. Group norms are important determinants of whether a group will
be productive. A work group with the norm that its proper role is to help
management will be far more productive than one whose norm is to be antagonistic
37
Group Dynamics to management. Managers can play a part in setting and changing norms by
helping to set norms that facilitate tasks, assessing whether a group’s norms are
functional, and addressing counterproductive norms with subordinates.
Norms usually develop slowly as groups learn those behaviours that will facilitate
their activities. However, this slow development can be short-circuited by critical
events or by a group’s decision to change norms. Most norms develop in one or
more of four ways: (1) explicit statements by supervisors or coworkers; (2) critical
events in the group’s history; (3) primacy, or by virtue of their introduction early
in the group’s history; and (4) carryover behaviours from past situations.
Why are group norms enforced? The most important reason is to ensure group
survival. They are also enforced to simplify or make predictable the expected
behaviour of group members. That is, they are enforced to help groups avoid
embarrassing interpersonal problems, to express the central values of the group,
and to clarify what is distinctive about it.
3.3.1 Salient Features of Norms

Some salient features of ‘norms’ are as follows:
• Norm is a pattern of setting limit on individual behaviour.
• Norms are related to factual world.
• Norms are the important factor in any society.
• Norms are chosen by society.
• Norms influence individual’s attitude.
• Norms are formed in matters of consequences to a particular group.
• Norms of some group may pertain to ethical matters.
• Norms implies a sense of obligation.
• Conformity to norms is normal.
• Norms sometimes create conflict.
• Norms are not learned by all persons even in the same society.

1) What are norms? Discuss the types of norms.
...............................................................................................................
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2) How do norms influence the behaviour of individuals in group?
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38
3) What are the characteristic or salient features of norms? of Norms, Status and Roles;
............................................................................................................... Behavioural Theory, Crowd
............................................................................................................... Convergence Theories)
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3.4 ROLES
Another important term we can consider in the context of group is the ‘Role’.
Roles help to clarify the responsibilities and obligations of the persons / members
belonging to a group. Depending on what kind of a group a person belongs, the
role assigned to members will also vary. We find that individuals differ not only
in such attributes as sex, height, age, etc. but also differ in respect of their
occupations. An individual can not perform all the jobs nor can all the individuals
be given the same job.
Thus, role is a pattern of behaviour expected from an individual in a certain

group or situation. According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, a role is “a set of socially
expected and approved behaviour patterns, consisting of both duties and
privileges, associated with a particular position in a group.”
3.4.1 Types of Roles

Some of the types of roles played by the members of the group include the
following:
• Information seeker or giver
• Opinion seeker or giver
• Listener
• Harmoniser
• Compromiser
• Analyser
• Standard setter.
3.4.2 Salient Features of Roles

Some salient features regarding ‘role’ are as follows:
• Role refers to the obligations which an individual has towards his group.
• Generally roles are assigned in a formal manner.
• Roles are acquired, people often internalise them.
• People link their roles to key aspects of their self-concept and self-
perceptions.
• Roles help to clarify the responsibilities and obligations of the persons
belonging to a group. 39
Group Dynamics • Although roles serve an important function in the effective functioning of
groups, they can sometimes exert negative as well as positive effects.
• Group members sometimes experience role conflict – sometimes there seems
to be indication of incompatibility between the roles they play.
• Roles are a series of rights and duties – they represent reciprocal relations
among individuals.
• Roles in modern society are numerous, complex and highly diversified.
• Social roles regulate and organise our behaviour.
• Roles provide social life with order and predictability.
• Interacting in terms of the respective roles, teacher and student know what
to do and how to do it.
3.5 STATUS
Besides norms and roles, another significant term we can use in this context, i.e.,
“status”. Status is used to designate the comparative amount of prestige, difference
or respect accorded to persons who have been assigned different roles in a group
or community. It is well known that the status or social standing or ranking
within a group is a serious matter for many persons. Status is an important factor
in the functioning of groups.
3.5.1 Salient Features of Status

Some salient features of ‘status’are as follows:
• Different roles or positions in a group are associated with different levels of
status.
• Status is the worth of a person as estimated by a group or a class of persons.
• Status is a position recognised and supported by the entire society.
• Status is a position in a social group or grouping.
• Status means the location of the individual within the group.
• Status is the social network of reciprocal obligations, privileges, rights and
duties.
• Status is the social position that determines for its possessor.
• Status refers to an individual’s total standing in society.
• Status and role are two sides of single coin, viz., a social position, rights and
duties and actual behaviour expressing them.
• Status system is a universal characteristic of human society.
• Group often confer or withhold status as a means of influencing the behaviour
of the members.
3.5.2 Status and Position

Status is the honor attached to one’s position in a society. It may also refer to a
rank or position that one holds in a group, for example son or daughter, playmate,
pupil, etc. This social status can be determined in two ways: (i) Earn social
status by one’s own achievement (ii) by inheritance. As for the latter, that is
40
status through inheritance it may be stated that a person may be given high status Group Behaviour: Influence
because he or she has been born and belongs to a very renowned family in a Introduction to Crowd
society. At the same time another may have a low status because he or she is Behavioural Theory, Crowd
born in a minority group which is considered poor from all aspects, economic, Psychology (Classical and
Convergence Theories)
education, gender and culture. Occupation of a doctor, Engineer and educationist
is higher than occupations of a mechanic, sweeper, shop keeper of a small shop
etc. Thus occupations also decide the status that an individual will have in a
society.
Norms are influenced by the status of the group. If all members in the group
have equal status the norm formation will be smooth and unanimous. Differential
status of group members will lead to conflicts and one-up-manship and thus
affect adversely the unanimous decision regarding norms.
3.6 CROWD BEHAVIOURAL THEORY

Crowd is a physically compact organisation of human beings brought into direct,
temporary and unorganised contact with one another. If some people stand together
for a short time at any place, then it may be called crowd. The crowd is the most
transitory and unstable of all the social groups. Actually crowd exhibits no
patterns, no characteristic expressions. The collection of human beings in the
market or in the open space is also designated as crowd.
MacIver defines crowd as “A physically compact aggregation of human beings

brought into direct, temporary and unorganised contact with one another”.
According to Kimball Young, “A crowd is a gathering of a considerable number
of persons around a centre or point of common attraction”. According to
Majumder, “ A crowd is an aggregation of individuals drawn together by an
interest without premeditation on the part of any of them and without even
tentative provision of what to expect”.
Crowd behaviour involves three aspects:
i) psychological continuity,
ii) polarization of interest and attention and
iii) transition and temporary character.
A crowd collects because of some particular curiosity, interest and other temporary
causes and dissolves as many as its cause vanishes. If two people start fighting
on the road, a crowd will collect and when they stop their struggle, it will break
up.
Crowd can be divided into two classes:
a) Active and
b) Inactive.
a) Active crowd can be further classified into four classes, viz., aggressive,
panicky, acquisitive, and expressive crowd. Let us see what these are.
1) Aggressive crowd: It is a crowd of people in an aggressive and destructive
frame of mind, capable of any and every act of destruction and irrationality,
brutality and inhumanity. This kind of crowd exhibits a tremendous
excitement.
41
Group Dynamics 2) Panicky crowd: Panicky crowd is the panicky or fear-stricken crowd whose
constituent members are almost overwhelmed with fear to a point where
they can no longer think and find reason. They are almost frightened out of
their wits, so that thinking is for the time being suspended. They are
concerned with the prime quest of saving their lives.
3) Acquisitive crowd: The aim and objective of each of its members is to obtain
or acquire something. Acquisitive crowd is composed almost entirely of
individuals whose objectives is to gain or obtain something, be it a cinema
ticket, kerosene oil etc.
4) Expressive crowd: In this kind of crowd some people gathered to give
expression or to manifest their demands or sentiments. Desire of violence
is relatively less pronounced and dominant in the members of an expressive
crowd.
b) Inactive crowd: No crowd is completely inactive. The difference between
an active and inactive crowd is only relative. The inactive crowd even
resembles an audience.
You may join in a crowd, where you can find some special characteristics:
• Crowd has no predetermined aim.
• There is no definite time and place for crowd.
• It is a congregate group of individuals who have temporarily identified
themselves with common interest.
• It seems that members are motivated by emotions and soon become
uncontrollable.
• The behaviour of crowd is not certain.
• People within the crowd stimulate each other.
• Members of the crowd are generally uncontrolled, unorganised and
disordered.
• Members are motivated by emotions and soon become uncontrollable.
• The curiosity, values and emotions are temporarily identical and which arises
because of common interest.
Immersed in the crowd, the individual loses self-control and may engage in
different types of activities. Crowd behaviour arises as a result of the three
mechanisms, namely anonymity, contagion and suggestibility (Le Bon, 1895).
Dollard (1939) used the frustration-aggression hypothesis to explain the violent

behaviour of crowds.
Turner (1964) explained crowd behaviour in terms of “emergent norms”. The

contagion, the spread of the feelings and actions is facilitated by the process of
mixing, the close proximity, the jostling like the sheep in the herd.
Generally in crowd people of varying interests and abilities converge because

they share some common quality like hostility, aggressiveness etc.
42
3.7 CROWD PSYCHOLOGY of Norms, Status and Roles;
Behavioural Theory, Crowd
Crowd psychology mainly refers to the studies and theories regarding the Psychology (Classical and
behaviour of the crowd and also the psychological causes and effects of crowd Convergence Theories)
participation. In a study entitled, “The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind
(1895)”, Le Bon suggested that when people become part of a crowd they lose
almost all of their individuality, autonomy and personal judgment and morality.
According to Carl Jung, it is called “collective unconscious”. Convergence theory
emerged during the twentieth century, thinking that acts of the crowd is in unified
way, not because of the collective ‘mind’ of the crowd but because they tend to
be composed of like minded people who are attracted into the crowd situation
because of a shared interest or objective.
3.7.1 Crowd Behaviour

Neither the socio-psychological processes that take place within the crowd nor
the techniques employed by the crowd leader provide an adequate understanding
of the peculiarities of crowd behaviour. Some of them are as follows :
In the crowd, with the loss of individuality, a form of group consciousness
develops, a fusion of mind with mind, a sympathetic participation on emotional
level which is common to all the participants. Appeals, slogans are the common
features.
Crowd behaviour is the release of repressed drives. The suggestibility, the
exaltation, the lack of self-consciousness, the egoistic expansion and spontaneity,
exhibited by the members of the crowd are phenomena susceptible to this kind
of explanation.
We may think of the crowd as a temporary collectivity within which thwarted
impulses are afforded an outlet. The close connection between the underlying
characteristics of the cultural conditions and the types of crowd those are apt to
mark the community life.
The manifestations of crowd feeling deserve study not only because they reveal
the significance of this transitory form of aggregation, but also because they
throw light on other social phenomena.
3.7.2 Classical Theory of Crowd Behaviour

The minds of the group would merge to form a way of thinking. Le Bon’s idea is
that crowd foster anonymity and sometimes generate emotion. Different
individuals in a group do not think individually but they think, experience and
act through the group mind. When individuals collect in a crowd, their individual
mind becomes a part of the collective mind. The collective mind thinks in its
own way and formulates its own ideas and thoughts which the individual minds
do not formulate their individual capacities. Emphasis was given on unconscious
motives. According to him, in a crowd these unconscious motives get more active.
The individual is influenced by these unconscious motives and his own conscious
motivation sinks into the background.
3.7.3 Convergence Theory of Crowd Behaviour

Crowd behaviour is not a product of the crowd itself, but is carried into the
crowd by particular individuals. According to convergence theory people who
43
Group Dynamics wish to act in a certain way come together to form crowds. There is no
homogenous activity within a repetitive practice. This theory states that crowd
itself does not generate racial hatred or violence. Actually, crowd arises from
convergence of people who oppose the presence of particular group of neighbours.
Generally people in crowd express existing beliefs and values so that mob reaction
is the rational product of widespread popular feeling.
Actually, Group-mind theory has been advocated by Lebon, Espinas, Trotter,

Durkheim, Mc. Dougall and Allport.
According to this theory, the individual in the crowd loses his / her individuality
and becomes a part of the crowd which goes on to develop its own crowd
consciousness. The mentality of the individual member becomes de-
individualised and he begins to act on an emotional level which is common to all
the participants. Its working is based on emotions, slogans, appeals and
suggestions. Its actions are less rational and more emotional. It becomes easily
excited and acts in a hypnotic way.
3.7.4 Group Mind

Lebon was the first writer to put forward the theory of group-mind in 1892.
According to him, the sentiments and ideas of all the persons in the gathering
take one and the same direction and their conscious personality vanishes. Different
individuals in a group do not think individually but think, experience and act
through the group mind. When individuals collect in a crowd, their individual
minds become a part of the collective mind. Lebon has laid great emphasis on
the unconscious motives. The individual is influenced by the unconscious motives
and his own conscious motivation sinks into the background.
Espinas calls group mind as social consciousness. According to him, there is a

sort of self-consciousness in every group. Collective consciousness is formed
out of the collection of many individuals consciousness taken together.
According to Trotter, everyman is possessed of the instinct of gregariousness.

Man’s gregariousness activates his mental system as a result of which he accepts
the command of the group without any argument and acts according to the
command given.
Durkheim has sought to explain group behaviour in terms of collective

consciousness. According to him, when people collect in a group, a collective
consciousness is created by the mutual exchange of ideas and notions. Actually
mind is another name for the flow of consciousness. Social consciousness is a
compound of several individual consciousness but its qualities are different from
the qualities of the consciousness of the individual.
According to Mc.Dougall, every group has a mind of its own. The group mind is
not a mere collection of the minds of all the individual members of group. The
group mind has the power of influencing the mind of the individuals. It is because
of this power of the group mind that the thinking of the individual changes when
he becomes a member of the group.
According to Allport, the behaviour of the individual in the crowd is influenced

by two processes of social facilitation and inter-stimulation. Members of the
44
group motivate each other. Social facilitation and inter-stimulation curb the Group Behaviour: Influence
reasoning capacity of the individuals and increase their suggestibility. Introduction to Crowd
Behavioural Theory, Crowd
Sometimes crowd behaviour may be the expression of impulses repressed or Psychology (Classical and
thwarted by the conditions and social controls of everyday life, but it may not be Convergence Theories)
true of all the crowds. In a crowd all the differences of high and low, rich and
poor are submerged and all act as one man. We can say that crowd behaviour is
learned. In a crowd the individual responsibility is blotted out. De-
individualisation of the individuals in the group leads to reduction of inner restraint
and to move expressive behaviour.
Public and Crowd : The public and the crowd have something in common. Both
are collectivities of people and are generally organised. But there exists some
differences. First, there is physical contact among the members of a crowd, where
as public is scattered at several places. Second, public is much bigger group than
the crowd. Third, the stimulus in the crowd is simultaneous; on the other hand,
stimulus in the public is diffused. The crowd is more suggestible than the public.
Thus, we can say that the behaviour of the crowd and public vary in different
way.
3.8 LET US SUM UP

It is true that group often exerts powerful effects upon their members. In this
context three important aspects are role, status and norms. Different persons
performed different tasks and they were expected to accomplish different things
for the group. They fulfill different roles. Generally roles are assigned in a formal
manner. Group may choose a person as leader and others as follower. Roles are
acquired and people internalise them. They link their roles to key aspects to their
self-concept and self-perception. A role may exert profound effects on a person’s
behaviour. Besides role, another important factor in functioning of group is status.
It is social standing or rank within a group. Different roles or position in a group
is linked with wide range of desirable outcomes. Group often confer or withhold
status, as a means of influencing the behaviour of their members. Another
powerful factor which has significant impact on group is norm. The rules may
be implicit or explicit, established by groups to regulate the behaviour of their
members. In many situations, norms tell group members how to behave or how
not to behave. Generally group insists upon adherence to their norms as a basic
requirement for membership. Groups influence their members through roles,
i.e., members’ assigned functions in the group; status, i.e., their relative standing
in the group and norms, i.e., rules concerning appropriate behaviour for members,
and lastly, cohesiveness, i.e., all the factors that cause members to remain in the
group. In this context another important term we can use, i.e., “crowd”. A crowd
is a gathering of a considerable number of persons around a centre or point of
common attraction. Crowd is a temporary, direct and unorganised group of
individuals whose curiosity, values and emotions are temporarily identical and
which arise because of common interest or common stimuli. According to the
“group-mind theory”, the individual in the crowd loses his individuality and
becomes a part of the crowd which comes to develop its own crowd consciousness.
Like-minded people, who are attracted into the crowd situation, have a shared
interest or object, which is based on convergence theory.
45
Group Dynamics
1) What do you mean by the term crowd? Discuss its characteristics.
2) Elucidate briefly about the influence of roles on group behaviour.
3) Briefly discuss about the classical and convergence theory.
4) What do you mean by the term “norm”? Describe its impact on group.
5) Elucidate briefly the relationship between status and group.
3.10 GLOSSARY
Communication : The exchange of meaning and mutual influence.
Cohesiveness : With respect to conformity, the degree of
attraction felt by an individual toward an
influencing group.
Crowd : Aggregation of people in close proximity who
share some common interest
Crowd psychology : Crowd psychology mainly refers to the studies
and theories regarding the behaviour of the crowd
and also the psychological causes and effects of
crowd participation.
Group : A collection of individuals who are in
interdependent relationship with one another
sharing common norm of behaviour and attitude.
Group structure : The difference of roles and status relations within
a group.
Group decision process : A procedure in which a group is presented with a
problem and communication giving the various
alternatives, followed by a discussion and
decision regarding the solution of the problem.
Roles : The sets of behaviour that individuals occupying
specific position within a group are expected to
perform.
Role expectations : Anticipations that is associated with a role
category.
Role strain : Difficulties in attempting to enact a role.
Social norm : An expectation shared by group members which
specifies behaviour considered appropriate for a
given situation.

Baron, R.A. and Byrne, D. (2000), Social Psychology, 8th Edition, Prentice Hall
of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi – 110001.
Kuppuswamy, B. (1980), An Introduction to Social Psychology, 2nd Revised
edition, (reprinted, 2004), Asia Publishing House, Mumbai.
46
Crowd Psychology:
UNIT 4 CROWD PSYCHOLOGY: Collective Consciousness
and Collective Hysteria
COLLECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS
AND COLLECTIVE HYSTERIA
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Crowd: Definition and Characteristics
4.2.1 Crowd Psychology: Definition and Characteristics
4.3 Collective Behaviour
4.3.1 Mass Society
4.3.2 Audience
4.3.3 Mob
4.3.4 Fashion
4.4 Collective Hysteria
4.5 Let Us Sum Up
4.7 Glossary
4.0 INTRODUCTION
The crowd is the most transitory and unstable of all the social groups. Crowd
belongs to the category of unorganised groups. This does not indicate that crowd
exhibits no patterns, no characteristic expressions but in relation to other organised
groups, the units in it are not organised. In this unit we will be dealing with the
concept of crowd, its definition, its characteristics, the manner in which it is
formed, etc. We will also learn about what happens to an individual when the
person is part of a crowd. How does the behaviour of individual in a group
differs from that of the behaviour of the same individual in a crowd. We will
also learn about the active and inactive crowds and the typical crowd behaviour
exhibited.
4.1 OBJECTIVES
• Define crowd;
• Describe crowd characteristics;
• Explain crowd psychology;
• Analyse crowd behaviour;
• Describe collective behaviour in terms of crowd behaviour; and
• Analyse collective hysteria in terms of crowd psychology.
47
Group Dynamics
4.2 CROWD: DEFINITION AND
CHARACTERISTICS
Crowd is defined as a large number of persons gathered together. It is a group of
people united by a common characteristic, as age, interest, or vocation.
Examples of different types of gathering which are called crowd:
1) A group of people attending a public function.
2) An audience attending theatre witnessing a play.
3) A large number of things positioned or considered together.
It is the physically compact aggregation of human being where direct, temporary
and organised contact with one another exists. This relationship is quickly created
and quickly dissolved. Numbers are necessary to make a crowd, though there is
variation from crowd to crowd, and numbers are only randomly thrown together
in physical proximity. Not only this, crowd differs from such groups as the
assembly, public meeting, reception etc. where the participants fall into a
predetermined order and are arranged to some principle of selection.
There are mainly two types of crowd:
a) The ‘like interest’ crowd and
b) The ‘common interest’ crowd.
The ‘like interest’ crowd has no common purpose. There is a common external
focus of interest but not a common interest. The like interest crowd can do nothing
as a crowd. On the other hand, the crowds of this sort are not necessarily
antagonistic to the established order. It also differs from the general crowd which
has certain characteristics such as certain unique psychological qualities. Crowds
also differ greatly on the psychological level according to the character of the
interest which pervades them. The full significance of crowd sentiment is seen
more clearly in the behaviour of the ‘common interest’ crowd, wherein there is
always a “cause” that leads the person concerned to identify himself with all the
rest.
The aggregation of individuals becomes a crowd only when the sentiments and
ideas of all the persons in the gathering take one and the same direction, and
their conscious personality vanishes. Crowds are not premeditative, they are
impulsive and mobile. The causes which determine the appearance of the
characteristics of the crowd are:
a) sentiment of invisible power
b) suggestion and
c) contagion.
Once the crowd is assembled, there grows a spontaneous accumulation of
excitement and a “sympathetic induction”. The symptoms and expressions of
emotions come to each constituent member as a collective influence and heighten
the feeling in each individual.
Crowds are defined by their shared emotional experiences, but masses are defined
48
by their interpersonal isolation.
Crowd is the most transitory and unstable group among the other social groups. Crowd Psychology:
Collective Consciousness
Crowd exhibits no pattern, no characteristic expression, but the unit in it is not and Collective Hysteria
organised in relation to one another.
Crowd differs from other types of gatherings. There are myriads of casual meetings
of friends, acquaintances or strangers taking place at all times in every society,
on the street, on the train, in the office, in the market place and so forth. These
unorganised meetings differ from crowds because they are, sociologically as
well as psychologically face to face meetings and they take place on a much
smaller scale. Numbers are necessary to make a crowd although there are
variations. Besides this, crowd differs from such groups as the assembly, public
meeting, reception and so on, where the participants fall into a pre determined
order and are arranged according to some principle of selection.
Characteristics of a crowd
• A human being acts in a very different manner when in a crowd as compared
to when the individual is alone in isolation. The conscious individuality
vanishes in the unconscious personality of the crowd.
• Material contact is not absolutely necessary.
• Passions and sentiments, provoked by certain events, are often sufficient to
create it.
• The collective mind, momentarily formed, represents a very special kind of
aggregate.
• Its chief peculiarity is that it is entirely dominated by unconscious elements.
• It is subject to a peculiar collective logic.
• Possesses infinite credulity and exaggerated sensibility.
• There is a certain degree of shortsightedness amongst the members of the
crowd.
• There is also some degree of incapacity to respond to the influences of reason.
• Affirmation, contagion, repetition, and prestige constitute almost the only
means of persuading the members in a crowd.
• Reality and experience have no effect upon them.
• The crowd will admit anything.
• Nothing is impossible in the eyes of the crowd.
• The sensibility of crowds, their sentiments, good or bad, are always
exaggerated. These characteristics show that a person in the crowd descends
to a very low degree in the scale of civilisation.
• In the intellectual domain a crowd is always inferior to the isolated unit.
• A crowd will commit a crime as readily as an act of abnegation.
• Personal characteristics vanish in the crowd. For example in a crowd, a
miser becomes generous, the skeptic a believer, the honest man a criminal,
the coward a hero.
49
Group Dynamics • One of the most notable consequences of the influence of a crowd is the
unification of their sentiments and wills. This psychological unity confers a
remarkable force upon crowds.
• In a crowd, gestures and actions are extremely contagious. Acclamations of
hatred, fury, or love are immediately approved and repeated.
• They are propagated by contagion, but a point of departure is necessary
before this contagion can take effect.
• Without a leader the crowd is an amorphous entity incapable of action.

1) Define crowd and put forward the various definitions and concept of
crowd.
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2) Describe the characteristic features of a crowd
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3) How is crowd behaviour of an individual different from the behaviour
of the individual when alone.
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4) Discuss how crowd is different from other types of social gatherings?
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50
4.2.1 Crowd Psychology: Definition and Characteristics Crowd Psychology:
Crowd psychology refers to studies and theories in connection with the behaviour and Collective Hysteria
of crowds and of the people within them. It also studies the psychological
causes and effects of crowd behaviour. Neither the socio psychological processes
that take place within the crowd nor the techniques employed by the crowd leader
provide, in themselves, an adequate understanding of the peculiarities of crowd
behaviour.
• Crowds are spontaneous

The most common myth about crowds is that they are spontaneous and in quite
a few cases they are the places from violence erupts. In a crowd there is generally
a chaos.
Mixed crowds, which we normally come across in public matches, sports etc.,
are in fact usually peaceful and only engage in stereotypical crowd behaviour, as
for instance whistling and clapping, face painting, singing and shouting depending
on the occasion.
In reality most people will go to almost any length to avoid actual violence,
whether they are in a crowd or not.
• Crowds are suggestible

People in crowds have heightened suggestibility. They are said to copy each
other, they look for a leader, etc. They are open to the suggestion of others.
If there is some truth to the idea that people in crowds are suggestible, no one has
managed to demonstrate it empirically.
• Crowds are irrational

Most crowds react without thinking. They are basically irrational. One type of
irrationality frequently attributed to crowds is panic. When there is an emergency
situation like fire in an auditorium, the individuals in that crowd suddenly behave
in the most selfish manner almost like animals and in the process of trying to
escape first, they cause considerable harm to other people and to property.
Sometimes in their panic stricken stage , they may even neglect their own children
Faced by emergency situations people are thought to suddenly behave like selfish
animals, trampling others in the scramble to escape.
Research studies are innumerable in this area, namely in real emergency situations,
but the findings from these studies do not support the above idea. Two examples
are studies on underground station evacuations and the rapid, orderly way in
which people evacuated the World Trade Center after the 9/11 terrorist attacks.
Many lives were saved that day because people resisted the urge to panic. Resisting
the urge to irrationality, or panic, is the norm.
• Crowds increase anonymity

A less common myth, but still popular is the idea that people become more
anonymous when they are in a crowd. This anonymity is said to feed into
spontaneity and even destructiveness, helping to make crowds violent, dangerous
places in which society’s laws are transgressed.
51
Group Dynamics Everyday experience, though, is that people usually travel in groups, with their
family or friends, and so are not anonymous at all. Research confirms this, for
example one study from the 70s found that most people at a football match were
with one or more friends. Later research has repeated this finding.
• Crowds are emotional

Less widespread myth is that the crowds are thought by some to be particularly
emotional. It is argued that increased emotionality is linked to irrationality and
perhaps violence.
Modern psychological research, though, does not see the emotions as separate
to decision-making, but rather as an integral part. To talk about an ‘emotional
crowd’ as opposed to a ‘rational crowd’, therefore, does not make sense. People
in crowds make their decisions with input from their emotions, just as they do
when they’re not in a crowd.
• Crowds are unanimous

Few of the sociology textbooks endorse the myth of unanimity, but the idea does
appear that when people are together they tend to act in unison. Research suggests,
though, that this is rarely the case and that people remain stubbornly individual.
• Crowds are destructive

The least common myth in the sociology textbooks, but quite a strong cultural
stereotype of crowds, is that they are destructive. This is closely related to the
myth of spontaneity and is often connected to violence.
Again Schweingruber and Wohlstein find that research shows violence in crowds
is extremely rare. And what violence does occur is normally carried out by a
small minority, that is, these are the people that make it on to the news
Crowd psychology is a phenomenon that is understood to be a part of the broader

study of social psychology. The basic concept of crowd psychology is that the
thought processes and behaviour patterns of the individual often vary from those
of a larger group, although these same individuals often adapt to the expectations
of the surrounding culture and modify individual traits in order to identify with
the crowd. Different theories of crowd psychology focus on both the conscious
and subconscious ways that individuals align with the crowd mentality.
Most theories of crowd behaviour agree that the peculiar manifestation of crowd
is the expressions of impulses repressed or thwarted by the conditions and social
controls of everyday life. The close connection between the underlying
characteristics of the cultural conditions and the types of crowd that is apt to
mark to community life. The manifestation of crowd feeling deserve study not
only because they reveal the significance of this transitory form of aggregation,
but also because they throw light on other social phenomenon. Crowd offers a
special opportunity for the emergence of herd sentiment. Communication is an
essential process in social life. Tremendous increase of the technical facilities of
communication, in recent times, in conjuncture with other changes, has brought
into the modern scene new problems and new potentialities in the area of
collective behaviour.
52
Crowd Psychology:
Self Assessment Questions Collective Consciousness
1) Define crowd psychology and indicate the components of crowd and Collective Hysteria
psychology
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2) What are the characteristic features of crowd psychology?
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3) Why does an individual behave differently in a crowd situation?
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4) What is meant by herd sentiment?
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4.3 COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOUR

All social interaction is collective behaviour. When two or more persons behave
in the same way, it may be termed as ‘collective behaviour’. Any religious
congregation may be called collective behaviour. Collective behaviour brings
people into contact with others in situations where conventional guidelines and
formal authority fail to afford direction and supply channels for action. Social
unrest may be both the cause and effect of collective behaviour. It may sometimes
lead to the emergence of new norms and generally accepted policies. The agitated
crowds can develop into disciplined association. Collective behaviour may act
as an agent of flexibility and as a forerunner of social change.
53
Group Dynamics Some special features of collective behaviour are:
• It takes place in occasional episodes rather than regularly or routinely.
• It is not regulated by any particular set of rules or procedures.
• It is generally guided by unreasoning beliefs, hopes, fears or hatreds.
• It is unpredictable.
Generally we can say that social life is a system of well-structured and stable
relationships. It is characterised by change rather than stability, uncertainty rather
than predictability, disorganisation rather than equilibrium. Collective behaviour
entails a crisis or a break in regular routines. Collective behaviour may be an
agent of flexibility and social movements and revolutions fall under the category
of collective behaviour. A crowd may be said to be more stable than a mob.
Under conditions of stress or danger, a crowd may quickly turn into a mob.
Crowd may include mob behaviour as well as audience behaviour. Casual crowd
is short in time, has loosely organised collectivity that may be motivated by the
attraction of the movement. A group of people may collect together when there
is an accident on the road. On the other hand, there is a conventional crowd
which is directed by conventional rules like collection of people in religious
festivals.
4.3.1 Mass Society

Mass society is characterised by rationality, impersonal relations, extreme
specialisation of roles and loneliness for the individual in spite of concentration
of sheer numbers and loss of sense of intimacy and security. In such gatherings,
society’s suggestion, persuasion, propaganda and other aspects of crowd behaviour
are common. (Young, 1948). The modern cities are changing rapidly. It consists
of millions of human beings. Personal contacts among the people are reducing
day by day. The loss of personal relationship creates a sense of insecurity,
loneliness and incompleteness. To overcome these problems, they engage in
voluntary organisation, associations and clubs etc. and also affiliate themselves
with one or the other of the ashrams. Another significant feature of mass society,
with its desire for crowd contacts, is irrationality, susceptibility to propaganda
and advertisement. Technological progress and impersonality are based on rational
grounds. The sense of insecurity and sense of loneliness makes the individual
irrational. In the mass society there is a mixture of rational and irrational thing.
4.3.2 Audience
Audience is a polarized crowd which assembles in one place. It is an index of
mental unity. There may be two types of audience, viz., (i) casual audience and
(ii) scheduled audience. A number of people may congregate and become
polarized by seeing a street quarrel and it is called casual audience. On the other
hand, the crowd which assembles in a lecture hall or cinema hall, may be called
scheduled audience. In the audience situation several psychological processes
are involved in the interaction of people. This interaction may be of two types,
viz., i) between audience and speaker or actor, and ii) among the member of the
audience themselves.
The aim of audience is varied.. One of the aims is to get facts and interpretations.
We can also observe some emotional appeals among audience. Sometimes it
may be conversational. As for example we can say that the dramatic troupe or
54
the musician will have to build up rapport with the audience so that the audience Crowd Psychology:
appreciates and enjoys the music or the program. If it is unfavourable, then it the and Collective Hysteria
audience can or may become aggressive depending on the theme and performance
at the theater. Group singing breaks down the individual isolation, removes
differences in social status and helps to build up common emotions and feelings.
4.3.3 Mob
The term “mob mentality” is used to refer to unique behavioural characteristics
which emerge when people are in large groups. It is also referred to as herd
behaviour and crowd hysteria. The term ‘mob’ refers to a disorganised, aggressive
or panicked group of people who are rather irrational and illogical in their thinking.
It appears as if they have lost the capacity to think rationally. Social psychologists
who study group behaviour tend to study the mob mentality as the subject is
quite fascinating. The data obtained is an analysis of situations which range
from evacuations gone awry to the moment when demonstrations turn violent.
Social psychologists and animal psychologists do study behaviours related to a
group or herd as the term refers to. Psychologists have been studying and observing
amongst animals the behaviour of flocks, herds, gaggles, pods, kindles, and other
assortments of animals for thousands of years. However only in the early part of
the 20th century, the observers started applying scientific approach and theories
to such behaviours of animals and also humans.
Mob mentality refers to the behaviour of a group of people which has got out of
control. We have been hearing about Kumbh Mela where year after year large
numbers of people get trampled and this kind of behaviour of humans is referred
to as mob mentality. The rational human being suddenly turns very selfish and
becomes only concerned with self and thus unmindful of what is happening to
others, he tries to escape the situation by causing considerable harm and damage
to other humans. Such instances are typical examples of the desperate actions of
people who involve themselves during a period of intense arousal. Such persons
may mob trucks with relief supplies, trample each other at some ‘mela’ or theater,
or riot in the streets in response to resource scarcity or a perceived scarcity.
However, “mob mentality” is about more than just crowds which have gotten
out of control. The field of psychology is very interested in the ways in which
human behaviour changes in response to new social situations. People behave
very differently in small groups of individuals than they do in big crowds, and
their behaviour in crowds is affected by a wide variety of factors.
The study of group behaviour can analyse situations to see where, when, and
why they went wrong. Stock market crashes, for example, can be precipitated by
mob mentality, as people start to panic in response to fluctuating markets.
The study of crowds has also been used to study grim topics like the rise of anti
sikh riots that erupted when Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was assassinated.
Similarly immeidatley following partition in India, the riots between Muslims
and Hindus which broke out when India was partitioned. Psychologists hope
that by studying mob mentality and crowd behaviour, they can prevent such
events from recurring.
Mob is again another type of crowd. Generally, the members of a mob tend to
show a similarity in feelings, thoughts and actions irrespective of the variation
55
Group Dynamics in education, occupation and intelligence. The members of the mob are attending
to and reacting to some common object in a common way. Sometimes heightened
emotionality is a characteristic feature of mob behaviour. The significant features
are anger, fear, joy etc. Sometimes they become unreasonable, intolerant and
fickle-minded. Most common characteristic of the mob behaviour is the
diminished sense of responsibility. They are generally irresponsible in their
behaviours. For instance, an aggressive mob may do some unfortunate things
such as breaking or damaging public property and damaging buses, trains and
burning things which they will not do at an individual level. Being part of the
mob they indulge in all those activities and happenings. Not only this, they get
a sense of autonomy which is a typical characteristic feature of the mob.
Suggestion, imitation and sympathy are the three mechanisms of interaction which
we can observe in the mob behaviour. It can further be said that mob behaviour
is due to the operation of a number of factors, some of which depend upon the
predisposition of the individuals and characteristics of the situation in which the
collectivity finds itself. Mob behaviour is conditioned by so many factors
including past as well as present facgtors, social as well as individual factors.
4.3.4 Fashion
Fashion is an important example of collective action and it is common with
crowd behaviour. Fashion is a variation that is permissible within limits of custom.
Fashion as well as fads and crazes are based on the desire for change, the desire
for something new. There is a psychological reaction and it is part of the outgrowth
of emotional and irrational tendencies. It can further be said that fashion
sometimes furnishes the desire of conformity, security and social solidarity. Social
movements are collective efforts to change the society. Some movements are
local, some are national and others are international. The term ‘collective
behaviour’ is now used as ‘audience behaviour’, ‘mob behaviour’, ‘social
movement’ etc.
4.4 COLLECTIVE HYSTERIA

Collective hysteria is a phenomenon in which a group of people simultaneously
exhibit similar hysterical symptoms. It involves some physical effects, such as
headache, nausea, dizziness etc. Actually the term is mainly used to refer to any
mass delusion, in which a group of people become governed by some irrational
belief or panic. Collective hysteria is most common in small, close knit
communities, specially the group who are isolated. Actually, collective hysteria
has been documented since ancient times, though it was not understood until
recently as a socio psychological phenomenon rather than a supernatural one.
Throughout history, collective hysteria has frequently been the cause of moral
panics that resulted in widespread rioting and even torture and executions. It
remains mysterious and disturbing and those who have been subject to collective
hysteria do not always find the modern psychological explanation sufficient.
Sometimes it happens that only a single man or woman can induce fear and
anxiety in many of the other male or female group members, even if there is no
apparent cause. If only when a person becomes upset or stressed, some of the
other members of the group will begin to show tremendous amount of anxiety
and fear such that they respond in a like wise manner.
56
Another aspect of collective e hysteria is the rumours that start floating. Rumors Crowd Psychology:
start from simple facts or suppositions and as they spread become elaborated and Collective Hysteria
into stories of great emotional significance. Gossip is one of the chief ways in
which rumors spread in rural as well as urban areas. It has been found that rumors
spread very rapidly in times of crisis. When there is a threat of war many rumors
break out. Sometimes these rumors may be deliberately created; the motive is to
create a crisis and social unrest. Generally rumors have two characteristics, viz.,
its importance and its ambiguity. When it concerns some events or deeds of
important individuals or important groups then there is a great amount of ego-
involvement. The aroused anxiety in the individual gets transmitted to the other
individuals whom the person meets. Another important characteristic of rumor
is that the whole situation is vague and ambiguous. Rumors will not spread if
people have factual information in which they have full confidence.
4.5 LET US SUM UP

Generally, in a crowd, individuals excite the thoughts and actions of their fellow
beings and are influenced by them. It can also be said that self confidence of
individuals increases manifold because they have a sense of mass strength. One
essential characteristic of a crowd is the gathering of sufficient persons at one
place. It is the psychological characteristics of crowd that distinguishes and
differentiates its behaviour from that of an individual in isolatgion. It is due to
them that emotion, rather than thought, circulate rapidly through a crowd. In a
crowd due to increased suggestibility, the experience of mass strength etc., people
do not retain their sense of responsibility and behave differently which is quite
different from their personality and usual behaviour. People lose their capacity
for reflection, their emotions grow excited and powerful, and they tend to do or
say what they are told by another, without thinking about it. According to Freud
and other psychoanalysts, the conduct of the crowd is governed by the unconscious
impulses of persons. Due to absence of inhibitions the repressed tendencies are
excited and persons behave like insane beings. The emotions and the ideas of the
crowd change rapidly. Every thought and excitement moves through the crowd
like a contagious disease. Fear, anger, sorrow, delight etc., circulate very rapidly
in a crowd because of the increased suggestibility of its members. A crowd loses
its capacity to differentiate between moral and immoral or good or bad. It can be
said from the psychological analysis of the behaviour of crowd that man’s
behaviour in a crowd is driven or governed by instincts, sentiments and emotions.
The person’s suggestibility, sentimentality and emotionality are heightened and
intensified and his unconscious impulses are given free reign. A crowd is
excessively emotional, impulsive, fickle, inconsistent and extreme in its actions,
extremely suggestible, careless in deliberation, hasty in judgment, suffers from a
lack of self consciousness, is devoid of self respect and a sense of responsibility.
In this context it can be said that collective bahaviour is that type of social
behaviour which is unpredictable, which is not regulated by any set of rules or
procedures and is guided by unreasoning belifes, hopes, fears and hatreds. It can
further be said that collective hysteria is a phenomena in which a group of people
simultaneously exhibit similar hysterical symptoms. It is a mass delusion, in
which a group of people become governed by irrational beliefs or moral panic.
57
Group Dynamics
1) Define crowd and bring out its characteristic features.
2) What are the various characteristics of crowd behaviour?
3) How is crowd different from other gatherings?
4) What do you mean by the term crowd psychology?
5) Describe the significant features of crowd psychology with suitable examples.
6) What is collective behaviour? How is it different from individual behaviour?
7) What is collective hysteria? Elucidate this concept with suitable examples.
8) Write in detail about the mass society highlighting its characteristic features.
4.7 GLOSSARY
Attitude : An enduring system of evaluations or feeling
in favour of or against a person or group.
Audience : A group of persons who have assembled to
see a picture or to listen a lecture.
Cohesiveness : The social force which keeps the group
together. It is a product of the attractiveness
to the interaction with group members.
Collective behaviour : Social behaviour that does not follow an
organised pattern of conventions and
expectations like group behaviour.
Collective behaviour is unstructured and
therefore unpredictable.
Communication : The exchange of meaning and mutual
influence.
Crowd : Aggregation of people in close proximity
who share some common interest.
Crowd psychology : Crowd psychology mainly refers to the
studies and theories regarding the behaviour
of the crowd and also the psychological
causes and effects of crowd participation
Group : A collection of individuals who are in
interdependent relationship with one another
sharing common norms of behaviour and
attitude, i.e., two or more people interact and
influence one another.
Group- decision process : A procedure in which a group is presented
with a problem and communication giving
the various alternatives, followed by a
discussion and decision regarding the
solution of the problem.
58 Group dynamics : The way in which changes take place in the
behaviour of other members of the group.
Definition of Norms,
UNIT 1 DEFINITION OF NORMS, SOCIAL Social Norms, Need and
Characteristics Features of
NORMS, NEED AND Norms
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF
NORMS
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Norms
1.2.1 Meaning of Norms
1.2.2 Types of Norms
1.2.3 Violation of Social Norms
1.3 Need and Importance of Social Norms
1.4 Characteristic Features of Social Norms
1.5 Let Us Sum Up
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Social norms are the informal, often unspoken rules, guides and standards of
behaviour which people in that society follow with great care. These social norms
are generally internalised during the process of socialisation and produces guilt,
shame etc when they are violated. Though there is no identifiable formal authority
who will enforce compliance to norms, the communal sanction for violation of
norms can be swift and harsh. These norms are followed and fulfilled in general
because failure to do so induces feelings of guilt or shame, gossip, shunning,
ostracism, and at times violence. While compliance to norms brings with it
tangible and intangible rewards such as increased esteem, trust and, most
importantly, cooperation, non compliance brings with it a disparaging glance or
expression of disapproval or disgust, often as a prelude to shunning, ostracism
etc. Norms typically have strong roots in the soil of small groups and communities.
The feeling of guilt or shame may make the external enforcement of internalised
norms unnecessary. In this unit 1, we will be defining the norms in general, the
social norms and give a description of the different types of norms etc. Emphasis
will be laid on the need for such norms and the typical characteristics of the
norms.
Some social norms are universal (e.g., the prohibition of incest), while others
are more localised. Social norms, as such, are neither good nor bad, but rather
become benefit or burden in so far as they facilitate or constrain behaviour guided
by moral values, practical reasons or instrumental ends. The behaviour guided
by these norms may be strongly reinforced by self-interest. Furthermore,
universalistic norms without dyadic sanctions or enforcement are often
comparatively weak, as would be a norm of trustworthiness in a large society.
5
Culture and Norms The operation of social norms often takes place, when a subcultural group, such
as a gang, draws attention to itself through its regular and flagrant violation of
popular or culturally predominant norms. While the internalisation of social norms
may take place below the surface of consciousness, it is worth noting that at
times social norms can get internalised to the extent that they do not need social
enforcement. In fact they are adhered to by individuals of their own accord.
Social norms are in fact omnipresent and they resemble tradition and customs
which are generally not violated. Violation brings severe sanctions of which the
social ostracisation makes people think twice before they break the norm.
1.1 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
• define social norms;
• enlist various types of social norms;
• elucidate the needs and importance of social norms;
• explain the characteristic features of social norms; and
• describe the influence of norms on individual’s behaviour.
1.2 NORMS
It is a mutually agreed fact that our behaviour is guided by the norms of the
society we live in and we like to do the things which we think and believe that
other people will approve of. Similarly, we try to avoid those behaviours which
we think and believe that other people will disapprove of. That’s why, everybody
smiles while wishing somebody happy birth day and nobody laughs during
somebody’s funeral. We use social norms that is the socially established
behaviours, as information about what behaviour is appropriate in a given
situation. Let’s have a closer look at the word norm before entering this interesting
field.
The word norm comes from the Latin word ‘norma’ which means a carpenter’s
square (see picture below), a pattern or a rule. You might have seen a carpenter’s
toolkit having
this tool. Stopping for a while, have you ever seen him using it? Can you just
describe how and why he uses this tool? This tool is used as a guide to create
6
true, standard lines for cutting the lumber. Thus, norma is used by the carpenter Definition of Norms,
Social Norms, Need and
to know how to “go on”, and if he systematically follows the guidance, it results Characteristics Features of
in a well made, beautiful structure. And, the credit for this goes to the carpenter Norms
and not to the norma or square as such. Isn’t it? OK, let’s now move on to the
meaning of norms in psychological terms in social context.
1.2.1 Meaning of Norms

Here we shall look into various definitions of norms and shall try to know the
norms we are going to study in this unit.
Sherif (1936) explained norms as the jointly negotiated rules for social behaviour,
the “customs, traditions, standards, rules, values, fashions, and all other criteria
of conduct which are standardised as a consequence of the contact of individuals”
(p. 03).
Granovetter (2004) defines norms in simple terms as the “shared ideas about the
proper way to behave”.
Postmes, Spears and Cihangir (2001) defined group norm as “a standard or a

rule that is accepted by members of the group as applying to themselves and
other group members, prescribing appropriate thought and behaviour within the
group”.
According to Critto (1999), “social norms are shared ways of thinking, feeling,
desiring, deciding and acting which are observable in regularly repeated
behaviours and are adopted because they are assumed to solve problems”.
It is also worth sharing a widely accepted definition of social norms: “socially

shared definitions of the way people do behave or should behave” (emphasis
added, see Paluck, 2009, p. 596).
On the basis of the above definitions of norms, group norms and social norms,
what do you conclude? We may say that, having a unique characteristic of being
shared, norms are attitudes and behaviours of people which we expect them to
show uniformly when they are in their group and/or society and these norms are
learned, established and utilised when a person comes in contact with others.
Let us take a few situation examples which can make these definitions more
explicit. Ane exercise is given in the box. Try it before proceeding further.
A small exercise. Let’s live the following situations for a short while. First,
tell us about the dress and possible behaviour of Mr. A in three different
situations when: (a) he has to go to park for morning walk; (b) he has to go
to celebrate the birth day party of a colleague’s kid; and (c) he has to attend
a funeral. Write at least one paragraph on each of these three situations
mainly describing what types of dress would Mr. A wear in these three
situations and what type of behaviour he might exhibit in these situations.
Second, Ms. B is coming to the regional center to attend her psychology

counseling session. On the road, she hears the siren of an ambulance van
coming near from behind. What would she do after listening to that siren?
Imagine the situation, take your time and write a few lines describing your
probable response. Well, now, go through your descriptions of these four
7
Culture and Norms
situations in which Mr. A and Ms. B found themselves. Do you see
something unique to each of these situations? Do one more thing here.
Ask some of your other co-learners to take these exercises as above and
now, compare your descriptions with theirs. Do they also think on the
grounds similar to you? Are there any similarities in the response pattern
of all of you? If yes, what are these and why did these similarities, if any,
appear in your descriptions under the circumstances that the above exercise
was not your planned test, you were not given any fixed syllabus or study
material few days back to understand such social situations which we may
face and face in our lives, and you were not prepared at all to take this quiz
today. Despite this, you all might be confident about the correctness of
your descriptions of the above situations.
You might have described the above example situations as follows: Mr. A would
go the park in the morning in casual wear and would do some jogging and light
exercises to remain fit; he would go to the colleague’s house in formal wear
congratulating the parents and giving good wishes to the kid with some attractive
gift to celebrate his birth day and share happiness; and, in somebody’s funeral,
he would go in rather plain, simple and white cloths and would empathetically
condole the aggrieved family members and relatives of the deceased; and Ms. B
would leave the way taking her extreme left to let the ambulance van go first,
keeping in mind that it might be carrying somebody in emergent conditions for
seeking immediate medical care and attention for saving his/her life. What you
and others had imagined and described for Mr. A and Ms. B covered certain
behaviours which are considered “proper” under given situations in our society
and are known as social norms. We shall study about these social norms in this
unit.
1.2.2 Types of Norms

In the above few paragraphs of the previous section, we have just read up a few
important definitions of norms and realised that these are something highly crucial
and integral part of our life which influence almost each and every domain of
our behaviour as the backbone of our social life. You might be wondering here
that how many types of norms are there. Let’s us have a look at some of the
major types of norms.
1) Group norms vs. social norms

Group norms may be situationally and locally defined, and hence may be quite
independent and distinct from social norms that exist at the levels of communities
and societies (see Postmes, Spears and Cihangir, 2001).
2) Explicit vs. implicit norms

This is a very important distinction between two types of norms. Many times,
we have clear, detailed and explicitly stated rules of behaviour and usually cover
the written constitutions and laws. A general example is “No parking” or “No
Horn” designated areas, and while traveling in public transport, it is explicitly
prohibited to carry weapons, explosives or the things which may be dangerous
to the health and life of others.
8
On the other hand, we also have norms which are unspoken or implicit which Definition of Norms,
usually develop in informal manner. Why do we usually go the parties or social Characteristics Features of
meetings late? Because we apply our past experiences to the specific situations Norms
and think (rather, know) that it would not start in time and others would also
have not yet arrived. Similarly, how many of us leave the hotel/restaurants without
giving a tip for the waiter who served us?
3) Injunctive norms vs. descriptive norms

When we are concerned about what others think we should do or should not do
in a given situation in order to either get others’ approval or to avoid their
disapproval, it is regarded as injunctive norms or also as subjective norms.
Injunctive norms are based on one’s perception of what others believe to be

appropriate behaviour. Taking cognisance of few contemporary researches,
Deutsch and Gerard (1955) remarked that individual psychological processes
are subject to social influences. They described two different types of social
influences, viz., (i) Normative social influence (ii) Informational social influence.
Normative social influence refers to an influence to conform with the positive

expectations of others and is based on our fundamental need to be accepted by
others, making us follow injunctive norms.
On the other hand, informational social influence is one in which we accept

information obtained from another as evidence about the reality., These are
descriptive norms which are concerned with individuals’ perceptions and beliefs
about the prevalence of others’ behaviour or about what others do in a specific
situation. (Deutsch and Gerard, 1955).
4) Consensus norms vs. critical norms

Postmes, Spears and Cihangir (2001), made a distinction between consensus
norms and critical norms while studying the impact of group norms on the quality
of decisions taken by them.
In consensus norms, they ascribed devotion of groups to initial decisions and the
inclination to ignore disconfirming evidence in order to strongly tilt toward
reaching a consensus.
On the other hand, critical norm group members, adopting critical thought,
invested their energy in the critical examination of decision alternatives before
reaching a consensus.
The researchers found that the groups with a consensus norm made poorer
decisions than the groups with critical norms. Critical norms improved the quality
of decisions, whereas consensus norms did not. This revealed the importance of
critical thinking and independence in certain group situations.
5) Reciprocity norms vs. social-responsibility norms

Myers (1990) discussed about the above two types of norms: The reciprocity
norm, as the name suggests, guides us to return help to those who have helped us
at the appropriate time, that is when they also need help.
And, the social-responsibility norm makes us help the needy, who deserve help
even if they have never helped us when we were in need of some type of help.
9
Culture and Norms 6) Situational norms
Norms are also situation dependent and are known as situational norms. For
example, when you in a library, you either remain silent or do not speak in loud
voice. Instead, you whisper. Similarly, whenever a Hindu devotee goes to temple,
he/she removes the shoes to enter the temple. He/she takes care that temple is a
sacred place and does everything, expected of him/her, to maintain its sanctity.
Thus as is seen above, there are various types of norms. Law is always in written
format. Norms need not always be in written form. There are also verbal norms
which are nowhere written and we learn as well as teach them during the course
of interaction and in the process of socialisation. For example, it is a written
norm you usually find pasted at the railway stations and in the trains warning
people and forbidding them from taking eatable from strangers because earlier
some innocent passengers have been drugged and looted. It is usually in verbal
form that we teach the norm to our children not to talk to strangers on road or in
park or else they may get kidnapped. Regardless of the type of norm, we all
respect, follow and obey them.
1.2.3 Violation of Social Norms

“The right of life of women in Pakistan is conditional on their obeying social
norms and traditions.” - Hina Jilani, an advocate of the Supreme Court of
Pakistan and human rights activist (emphasis added).
While shame and guilt are minor forms of punishment for norm violation, there
can be more serious punishment such as murder also if one deviates from and
violates the social norms. Take for instance, the honour killings. Honour killing,
in general terms, refers to the brutal murder/killing of the youngsters who marry
against their prevailing caste norms. A broad meaning to honour killings, which
are not just observed in India alone, was given by Human Rights Watch (2001),
“Honour crimes are acts of violence, usually murder, committed by male family
members against female family members, who are held to have brought dishonour
upon the family”.
A woman, victim of honour killing, may be targeted by her family members if

she refuses to enter into an arranged marriage with the person of their choice.
They may kill her if she had been raped or had become a victim of sexual assault,
etc. In certain cases women who proceed to seek divorce on the grounds of
spouse abuse or if she had allegedly committed adultery, the woman can be
killed which is the most severe form of punishment.
During June 2010, the Supreme Court of India issued notices and sought responses
from the Central Government and states of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab,
Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh where the
instances of honour killing appeared in one form or the other. A vacation bench
of Justices R M Lodha and A K Patnaik issued notices to the Union of India and
the ministries of Home Affairs and Women and Child Development. The chief
secretaries of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand and Bihar have been directed to likewise respond after
they were allegedly found to show a high propensity to honour crimes.
Even in Delhi, the capital of the country, two such cases were reported during
those times. Taking a lead in the matter, an NGO ‘Shakti Vahini’ had filed a PIL
10
in the Supreme Court against the killings of couples for honour who fell in love Definition of Norms,
and got married violating their social norms (The Times of India, June 22, 2010). Characteristics Features of
Although the criminals and killers are punished by the Law of the land, yet it is Norms
too late if two innocent lives are lost. It is worth mentioning here what considered
was a landmark judgement for such honour killings, a court in Karnal district of
Haryana in March 2010 awarded the death sentence to five persons and life
imprisonment to one for murdering Manoj and Babli, members of the same clan,
who had eloped from their village and got married in Chandigarh in April 2007.
The couple was later abducted and murdered. Their bodies were found in a canal
in June 2007 (Hindustan Times, March 30, 2010).
Here, we need to stop for a while and think: what is wrong here? Do we have a
wrong social norm, are we interpreting it wrongly or are we applying it wrongly?
And, most importantly, do we need to change this norm? If yes, how?
1.3 NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL NORMS

The social norms perform important functions and serve our specific purposes,
even our being unaware of these most of the time, which highlight their need
and importance in our daily life. Various experimental studies have revealed that
social norms can influence and determine one’s perception, evaluation and
behaviour (e.g., Sherif, 1936 and Asch, 1955) about which we shall study in
detail in the third and fourth units. In one study, the research found that despite
being rated by participants as less motivating, descriptive norms were stronger
predictors of activity behaviour and healthy eating intentions than other well
established non normative reasons (Priebe, 2009).
Critto (1999) remarked that social norms function as shared ways of thought and
action due to which we may expect some predictable courses of action when we
observe them appropriately in a given specific situation. So, we may guess what
others might do under certain social circumstances and accordingly we may
choose our course of action also.
Importance of norms
Norms especially group norms are important because, besides controlling the
group behaviour, they also control the behaviour of its members, and provide
stability and a socially desired orderliness to the groups. In the absence of norms,
the behaviour of group members will become chaotic and the group and its
members will not be able to survive for long. Norms are also important for as
they facilitate and foster interaction between and among the group members.
It is because of these social norms that we see the predictable similarities in the
behaviour of group members. At the same time, it is these group norms which
make the groups different from each other because they follow different norms
and traditions. The effect of these norms on one’s behaviour is not necessarily
dependent on his/her being in the group. Rather, these norms affect the behaviour
even when he/she is not a part of a group and remains alone. Thus, the norms
regulate the social behaviour. If one’s behaviour is in conformity with the group
norms, he/she may get the acceptance and praise. On the contrary, if there is non-
conformation or breaking of social norms, the non-conformist or violator person
may have to face criticism or be subjected to punishment as decided by the
particular group.
11
Culture and Norms Another important function performed by the norms, which makes them important
for us, is that they provide us solutions to common problems by offering available
possible alternatives. Also, norms promote mutual respect and service for others
which ultimately give rise to harmony in the social relations and a sense of social
well-being. So, norms perform an important function of linking people to people,
people to the society and society to society.
Norms, in addition to the above also help us fulfill one of our basic psychological
need, viz., to belong to others. Being social beings, humans need to be associated
with others, they require love, self-esteem and belongingness. Following norms,
all these needs of the individuals will be satisfied. This otherwise is neither
possible nor persistent.
Thus, norms play a very important and fulfilling role in human lives. However
the norms are to be framed by the society in order the its members have a better
life the society also advances in a positive direction. The society by formulating
the norms encourages its members to follow the norms for their own benefit and
the benefit of the society in which they live..
1) Define social norms with examples specific to your socio–cultural set-up.
................................................................................................................
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................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) Why do you think it is necessary to follow social norms?
................................................................................................................
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................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) Describe various types of norms.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
4) Enlist the dangers of violating social norms.
................................................................................................................
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12
1.4 CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF SOCIAL Social Norms, Need and
NORMS Norms
By now, it is clear that behaviour of humans is guided by the prevailing social

norms which interact with human environment and societal factors and affect
the social well being of people in the society. These norms have certain features
unique to them which are as follows:
1) Serve as guiding principle

The norms, (as the norma guides and help a carpenter) show the group members
ways to behave in a socially appropriate manner which all the other members
approve of. Coming back to the examples of Mr. A and Ms. B, your responses
exactly reflect the prevailing norms specific to the given social situations like
attending somebody’s birth day party or funeral.
2) Develop as a result of interaction and communication

Norms are formed as a result of human interactions and communication in the
society. Hence, due to the vast size of a society and interaction as well as
communication being a complex process, norms are not formed so easily and
quickly. Once formed, they are not susceptible to change in any short or long
time unless there is a dire need to change the norms in the interest of the society
and the individuals who live in it.
3) Culture – specificity
That the norms are culture specific seems to be obvious by the occurrence of the
same phenomenon at two places differently. Take for instance child marriage.
The Hindu (August 04, 2010) reported that the State Minister for Social Welfare
Damodar Rawat saying, “Bihar is one of the hotspots for child marriages in the
country and on an average marriages of 67 percent girls are below the age of 18
years.
Earlier this very year (February 20, 2010), The Hindu had published a study
prepared by the Population Council of India and was released by Union Health
Minister Ghulam Nabi Azad, which was conducted in six states of India including
Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu and
surveyed over 58,000 youths in the age group of 15 – 29 years. The main findings,
as published by The Hindu showed that one-fifth of the young women surveyed
were married off before the age of 15, half before they turned 18 and two-thirds
before the age of 20. In this context, Zaman (2008), while presenting an appraisal
to the marriage system of the Karbis of Assam, pointed out that Child marriage
is an unknown system among the Karbis. Thus it appears that the culture decides
the norms in a society and thus norms are culture specific.
While the above research on the topic of child marriage was across cultures, let
us see if within the same culture such differences in the norms exist. Take for
instance widow remarriage. A Hindu widow is expected to live a life of prayers
and noble endeavors by the society she lives in. The expectation does not extend
to Hindu widowers. Interestingly, a man who loses his wife is usually pressurised
to marry for the sake of ‘companionship’ and so on. The obvious gender
discrimination begins from within the society and percolates to the people who
13
Culture and Norms are a part of it. Those who question it are disapproved of or alienated tacitly and
those who abide by these social norms are labeled as respectable” .
4) Keep control over violators

Social norms help keep control over the behaviour in direct as well as indirect
fashion. Each society has its own measures to ‘punish’ the violators (direct control)
who deviate from the established social norms and people also ‘feel shame and
guilt’ when they violate those norms (indirect control). Be Can you imagine the
consequent embarrassment you might face if you go to attend somebody’s birthday
party ‘without gift’ or what will your reaction when you find a person laughing
during somebody’s funeral?
5) Social norms are dynamic

Social norms are an integral part of social systems like gender disparities. If the
society and groups strive for changing the social norms, such existing inequalities
would be greatly reduced to improve the human well being and raise the quality
of life of all. This dynamic nature of norms has witnessed many major normative
changes in Indian history as for example the Sati-pratha in which a widow used
to willingly burn herself with her deceased husband on his funeral pyre.
Similarly, Falomir-Pichastor, Munoz-Rojas, Invernisze and Mugny (2004) noted

that strengthening norms against discrimination can lead to lessening of prejudice
and discrimination which have been traditionally explained by the influence of
social norms. This in turn would help to improve the integration of immigrants
into the larger society. Norms are generally considered as injunctive and indicative
of what is socially approved or disapproved, and they are often related to social
influence processes. Similarly, Zitek and Hebl (2007), focusing on the role of
social psychology in studying the attempts to reduce or eradicate people’s
prejudices, noted that prejudices may be altered through social influence.
6) Norms teach two way cooperation

There are studies which indicate the existence of a norm of conditional cooperation
in social settings. For example, if other group members cooperate with us in any
endeavour, the norms also require us to cooperate in return (Fehr and Fischbacher,
2004). Thus, norms teach us to be cooperative with other helpers.
7) Norm is not a single entity

Norms also encompass prevailing traditions, folkways, mores, fashion, religion,
and laws which are dominant and in use in the society. Laws are a binding force
on the people to accept and follow the legal requirement, and fashion also is an
exception but other types/forms of norms are more or less conservative in nature
and require mammoth efforts for change.
1.5 LET US SUM UP

Let us sum up this unit with a question. As per Corruption Perceptions’ Index
released by Transparency International on October 26, 2010, India has got 87th
rank out of 178 countries in its perceived levels of corruption for the year 2010.
Whereas India got 84th rank out of 180 countries last year. See the table given
below.
14
Year Rank Out of Countries Rank indicates Social Norms, Need and
2010 87 178 Countries with low rankings are perceived Norms
2009 84 180 as less corrupt and countries with higher
rankings are perceived as more corrupt.
(Source: http://www.transparency.org/, data downloaded on Oct. 26, 2010).
This means that there is an increase in corruption (or in the perception of

corruption) since last year in India. Do you remember that in Section 1.3, we
read that social norms can influence and determine one’s perception, evaluation
and behaviour? Is the perception of corruption in India, as reflected in Corruption
Perceptions’ Index, a result of any specific norm? Can we relate the problem of
corruption to norms as well? Has corruption obtained the status of a socially
approved norm for getting the work done which otherwise would be difficult or
impossible to accomplish without giving or taking bribe? Think in psychological
terms.
As a student of social psychology and social behaviour, in this unit you have
studied social norms which you now know that are integral part of our social life
and whether or not we know about it per se, and whether or not we like it in its
present form, these affect us and too much of our behaviour. Applying our
knowledge of social norms for the betterment of human social life requires a lot
of factual analysing, personal understanding, and social convincing. In the
following units, you will further progress towards it by studying conformity.

1) Describe the role of social norms in maintaining harmony in the society.
2) Give five examples each of the behaviours which your society do approve
and do not approve in your own specific socio – cultural set – up.
3) How do social psychologists utilise their knowledge and understanding of
social norms to reduce/remove prejudice against any special target group
e.g., ex-convicts?
4) Can you imagine “a society without norms” and write a critical essay on it?

Hechter, M. and Opp, K. D. (2001). Social Norms. New York: Russell Sage
Foundation.
Sherif, M. (1936). The Psychology of Social Norms. New York: Harper and Row.
References
Asch, S. (1952). Social Psychology. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall)
Asch, S. E. (1955). Opinions and social pressure. Scientific American, 193, 31-
35.
Cialdini, R. B., Reno, R. R. and Kallgren, C. A. (1990). A focus theory of

normative conduct: Recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public
places. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 1015 - 1026.
15
Culture and Norms Critto, A. (1999) Choosing Models of Society and Social Norms: Improving
Choices and Quality of Life. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
Deutsch, M. and Gerard, H. B. (1955). A study of normative and informational
social influences upon individual judgment. Journal of Abnormal and Social
Psychology, 51, 629 – 636.
Falomir-Pichastor, J. M., Munoz-Rojas, D., Invernisze, F., and Mugny, G. (2004).
Perceived in-group threat as a factor moderating the influence of in-griup norms
on discrimination against foreigners. European Journal of Social Psychology,
34, 135 – 153.
Fehr, E. and Fischbacher, U. (2004). Social norms and human cooperation.
TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences, 8(4), 185 – 190.
Granovetter, M. (2004). The Impact of Social Structure on Economic Outcomes.
Journal of Economic Perspective, 19(1), 33 – 50.
Hindustan Times (March 30, 2010). Five ‘honour killers’ get death. Retrieved
from http://hindustantimes.com/StoryPage/Print/525002.aspx, on October 25,
2010.
Human Rights Watch (2001). Integration of the human rights of women and the
gender perspective: Violence Against Women and “Honor” Crimes. Retrieved
from http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2001/04/05/item-12-integration-human-rights-
women-and-gender-perspective-violence-against-women, on October 25, 2010.
Legal Era (2010). Anti-Khap bill: Death penalty to dis-honour killing. Retrieved
from http://legalera.in/newsdetails.asp?id=1516/, on October 25, 2010.
LIG Reporter (April 14, 2010). Widow remarriage under Hindu laws. Retrieved
from http://www.lawisgreek.com/widow-remarriage-under-hindu-laws/, on
October 25, 2010.
Paluck, E. L. (2009). What’s in a Norm? Sources and Processes of Norm Change.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(3), 594 – 600.
Postmes, T., Spears, R. and Cihangir, S. (2001). Quality of decision making and
group norms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(6), 918 – 930.
Sherif, M. (1936). The psychology of social norms. New York: Harper and Row.
The Hindu (February 20, 2010). Child marriage rampant in India, finds study .
Retrieved from http://beta.thehindu.com/news/national/article110333.ece?css=
print, on October 25, 2010.
The Hindu (August 04, 2010). Bihar is hotspot of child marriage. Retrieved
from http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/other-states/article551652.ece?css
=print, on October 25, 2010.
The Times of India (June 22, 2010). Honour Killings: SC demands answers.
Retrieved from http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/6077004.cms?
prtpage=1, on October 25, 2010.
Zaman, A. An appraisal to the marriage system of the Karbis of Assam. Student
Tribes Tribals, 6(2), 93 – 97.
Zitek, E. M. and Hebl, M. R. (2007). The role of social norm clarity in the
influenced expression of prejudice over time. Journal of Experimental Social
Psychology, 43, 867 – 876.
16
UNIT 2 NORM FORMATION, FACTORS Social Norms, Need and
INFLUENCING NORMS, Norms
ENFORCEMENT OF NORMS,
NORM FORMATION AND SOCIAL
CONFORMITY
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Norm Formation
2.3 Factors Influencing Norm Formation
2.3.1 Social Learning
2.3.2 Cost of Individual Learning
2.3.3 Adoption by Group Members
2.3.4 Cooperative Group Behaviour
2.4 Enforcement of Norms
2.5 Social Conformity
2.5.1 Factors Affecting Conformity
2.5.2 Factors for Conformity
2.5.3 Factors of Non Conformity
2.6 Let Us Sum Up
2.0 INTRODUCTION
One of the minimum features in the rise and functioning of small groups is a set
of standardised norms which regulate the relations and activities within the group
and with non-members and out-groups . ( Sherif, Harvey, White, Hood and Sherif,
1961).
All human beings have various types of needs which demand fulfillment. You
might recall here that in the second unit (Theories of human development) of
first block of your BPC – 002 course, you have read about Maslow’s hierarchy
of needs. And, on the basis of your experiences, you might have perceived that
there is an established order in the society for the fulfillment of these needs
which helps in maintaining harmony and peace in the society. If you have to buy
something from a shop, there is a particular set behaviour. You provide your list
to the shop keeper. He gives you the desired things. You pay for it. You do not
take the things without making the payments. If you have to travel by train, there
also is a set order. You go to the ticket window, stand in queue till your turn
comes, buy a train ticket and board the train again respecting other passengers’
comfort. There also you are expected to follow some norms.
If you are taking the things forcibly from the shop, without making the due
payments and if you are breaking the queue at the ticket window at railway 17
Culture and Norms station, you are violating certain norms and are creating chaos which other
members of the society definitely do not like and do not permit you to act as per
your own free will and against the established order or norms. You may have to
face the music as per the nature and gravity of your act. Thus, you can well
imagine the role these norms play in maintaining the discipline in and the stability
of the society.
This feature of having a set of standardised norms is applicable on society at

large in specific instances besides small groups as Sherif and others said. In the
previous unit, we have studied in detail the meaning of norms, why the social
norms are required and what are the main features of norms. In this unit, we are
further going to study the formation of norms, various factors that affect norms,
the enforcement of norms and social conformity.
2.1 OBJECTIVES
On completing this unit, you will be able to:
• describe the formation of social norms;
• enlist factors influencing social norms;
• explain the ways the norms are enforced in society; and
• elucidate peoples’ conforming behaviour to their social norms.
2.2 NORM FORMATION

If you have to play a game with your small group of three or four friends, it is
quite simple and an easy task to form your own rules of the game and implement
them. It is also an easy task to monitor that each group member follows these
rules and norms. While prescribing the frame of reference, rewards and
punishments are also defined at the same time for the violators of norms. But,
when it comes to a larger context such as the society, the formation of new
norms does not remain such a comparatively simple or easy task. This is because
people in the society belong to various backgrounds, have their set patterns of
thinking and beliefs and, most important, have a critical mind. It might not be so
easy to convince them over the given matter.
That’s why, the social norms are formed slowly and accepted gradually, which is
also based on the experiences of the people concerned or affected. Some of the
factors that influence norm formation are presented in the succeeding paragraphs.
Experience with peers, parents and authorities: Swiss psychologist Piaget (1932)
conducted important experiments on children to study the development of the
sense of morality and the concept of justice in them. He observed children playing
with marbles and found that learning of the social standards of right and wrong,
conscience and the concept of justice progressed gradually in children, largely
as a result of their experiences with their peers, parents and other authorities.
Social interaction also plays an important role in the formation of norms. The
social comparison theory of Festinger (1954) posits that interpersonal interactions
and agreement among group members are fundamental to the formation of group
norms. A famous experiment to study the development of norms in laboratory
was conducted by Sherif using autokinetic effect. In a totally dark room, a point
18
of stationary light is presented and the subjects perceive motion in it. When they Norm Formation, Factors
Influencing Norms,
are asked to judge the distance the light traveled, they guess for themselves first Enforcement of Norms,
when alone. But when they are in a group, they look at others for information Norm Formation and Social
and follow the norms set by the group. Conformity
You might have by now observed that the norms are learned in a social set up.
Because we have grown up in a particular society, we also imbibe the norms
prevailing in that particular society. The norms give an indication of cultural
differences on certain normative behaviours as well. For instance a Chinese child
might be following different norms other than a Japanese child. In a given nation
itself where there are cultural diversity like India, there may be certain norms
followed by people of northern parts which differ from the norms followed by
people of southern states.
Observational learning: Even in a given culture itself, the norms followed by

groups are learned and followed by other group members of the same culture.
Hogg and Reid (2006) have remarked that “People in groups use other members’
behaviour as information to construct a group norm”. It also gives an impression
of observational learning. What we see around us, we learn (e.g., Bandura, 1997).
Communication is another important factor in the formation of social norms. It

is not necessary always that the norms should be in written form for others to
study and follow. A lot many norms are verbal in nature and travel across
generations.
Utility of the norms: One highly crucial determinant of the formation of social
norms is its relative utility for the members of the group. The norm under
development, in its true sense, must lead to the betterment of the social life,
enhancement of social well being, and fulfillment of needs (general and/or
specific) of its members. Only those norms that are valued and reinforced by the
group or society, and that which lead to the fulfillment of group goals, will be
formed successfully and followed strictly by the people.
2.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING NORM FORMATION

We are now well aware that much of our day to day behaviours is guided by
what we believe others will approve or disapprove. We do many things and do
not do many other things because we evaluate and judge those behaviours on the
social scale of acceptance - rejection and the correspondingly associated rewards
and punishments. On the basis of the discussions so far, we might be able to
enlist many factors that influence the norm formation.
2.3.1 Social Learning

Social learning plays a very significant role in the formation and administration
of social norms. Whatever norms are prevailing in a given society at a given
time are learnt by people and are followed in the given shape or sense. Once
upon a time, sati-pratha was in practice in India. So, people used to follow it and
behave accordingly. Now, it has no place in the present day Indian culture and
societies, so people neither expect any widow burn herself on her husband’s
funeral pyre nor punish any widow for not following this (abandoned) pratha.
Rather, towards a positive end, the social norms are witnessing reforms for their
re marriage. 19
Culture and Norms 2.3.2 Cost of Individual Learning
It is a well established fact that human social life advances and becomes better
due to learning. However the question is whether individuals learn each and
everything, new or old, by themselves. No, certainly not. Whatsoever, our elders
have learnt by their actions and experiences, they teach us. So, we do not have to
learn those things putting in fresh efforts. Following the established norms reduces
the cost of individual learning and brings efficiency by reducing errors.
2.3.3 Adoption by Group Members

You might have also noticed by your own experiences or the media news that to
be a member of a group, you are supposed to adopt the rules, regulations and
norms of that group and/or society. If somebody does not adopt the norms, the
community might punish the offenders in a predetermined way. To kill in the
name of honour, or honour killing, which we read earlier, is the extreme form of
punishment given to those young boys or girls or both who, the community
perceives, did not adopt and also violated the prevailing group norms related to
the institution of marriage.
2.3.4 Cooperative Group Behaviour

Humans, being social animal, tend to form groups and to achieve personal or
group goals, cooperate with each other. Depending upon the particular situation,
sometimes, this cooperative behaviour itself may take the form of a rule or a
norm. Each group member shows here such cooperation and group belongingness,
that the group becomes high cohesive and the members of the group maintain a
good coordination with other group members in various endeavours of the group.
Those who either do not cooperate or cheat, are subjected to punishment as

decided by the group or as per the group norms. Some examples of punishment
may include for instance, termination of membership or being temporarily or
even permanently expelled from that group etc. Such practice of expulsion is
still prominently popular in traditional village communities in which the village
Panchayats socially boycott those who violate the norm by pronouncing
punishment for them as ‘hookah – pani band’ (Smoking in group with a pipe
and drinking water from a common pot not allowed). In this punishment of
temporary exclusion, the offenders are barred from sharing social life and available
facilities with other equals in the village or society. So, to be considered as part
of the in-group and to maintain the group membership, one has to follow the
group norms.
In order to further clearly understand the factors influencing norms, we may

have a close look at what Birenbaum and Sagarin (1976) defined as norms. They
said that norms are legitimate, socially shared standards against which the
appropriateness of behaviour can be evaluated. For this
i) The norms must be genuine, justifiable and valid for the given group or
society, leading to a lawful order to bring harmony and stability to the group
or society.
ii) Secondly, these standards are to be shared by the members of the society.
This is the most basic characteristic of norms and highlighted by most of
the authors in their writings on this topic.
20
iii) The third characteristic is again very important that once a standard is set Norm Formation, Factors
Influencing Norms,
and shared, the behaviour of all is evaluated in light of those norms. Enforcement of Norms,
Norm Formation and Social
Those groups do not face any conflict where the behaviour of the group members Conformity
is found in conformity and run smoothly towards the achievement of their set
targets. These groups make progress and their members too. However, where
the behaviour of the group members is not in conformity with the group norms,
their progress and achievement of goals are hampered, negatively affecting their
social well being. They have to find out the reasons for the conflicts and non
conformity and to take remedial measures which may range from appropriately
punishing the offenders to suitably changing the norms.

1) Describe the main factors responsible for the formation of norms.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) Explain the relationship between social learning and social norms.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) Enlist the factors influencing social norms.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
4) What is the importance of cooperative social behaviour?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
21
Culture and Norms
2.4 ENFORCEMENT OF NORMS
It would not be an exaggeration to say that human social life is not possible
without social norms. This is the unique characteristic of the humans to form
and enforce such normative standards of behaviours. Actually, the very existence
of norms is inseparable from their enforcement. Now the issue is that once formed
how these norms are enforced. It is well known that the social norms are shared
by people. Some norms are shared by all the members of the society and some
norms, being group specific, are shared by only the particular group members.
This is called the social nature of the norms. Also, because these are social, they
are enforced by other people through appropriate rewards and punishments.
Here, we can see that norms carry some emotional values also because the
violation of norms brings negative emotions of shame and guilt to the violators.
To avoid these negative emotions, people follow these enforced norms as they
understand that if they violate any norm they may be punished by the group or
the society they live in. This is perhaps the emotional value of the norms that
people follow the group members and norms, even sometimes against their own
perceptions and judgements, so as to avoid shame and guilt associated with the
tag of non-conformist.
Another important aspect is that social norms are also defined as informal rules
of behaviour which are followed by people for some reason other than the fear
of legal sanctions (see Herfeld, 2008). Hence, these social norms are not enforced
by any formal agency just like legal norms. Rather, they are enforced by the
society through social pressures and forces like hookah – pani band system of
the panchayats earlier.
As the norms are shared by the group members, it also depends upon the society
as to what it considers as right and wrong, what the society approves or
disapproves. These are in turn function as shared value and plays significant role
in the enforcement of social norms in a given society. It is evident that norms
cannot be enforced unless shared and accepted by the members of a group or the
society.
It is also true that sometimes individual goals are in line with group goals and
sometimes they are not. In the former conditions (the individual goals being in
line with group goals), the individuals will voluntarily follow the group norms.
But in the latter (the individual goals being different from group goals), there are
chances of norm violation by the individual member(s). In such cases, the groups
have to adopt appropriate mechanisms to save the sanctity of their norms from
damage and violation. Also it depends upon the relative cost of the goal or norm.
If the importance of the goal is more and cost of the given norm is higher then
there are also the chances of the break down of the norm in favour of the goal.
Since human beings are intelligent and have critical minds, it becomes obligatory
for the group also, in the case of norm violations, to exhibit their unbiased, non-
selfish punishment mechanism against the offenders. If they are perceived as
biased or enforcing any norm in a selfish manner, they might lose their authority
or power, given to them by the group, to enforce the norms. Their motivation to
enforce the norms must be seen as pious by others.
22
However, it is also evident that once a norm is formed and established, it does Norm Formation, Factors
Influencing Norms,
not require the people to pressurise others to follow these norms. The members Enforcement of Norms,
of the group or society internalise these norms in due course and follow them Norm Formation and Social
even when others are not present there. Let us take a simple example of the rule Conformity
of the road for driving on the left side in India. Even when there is no traffic
controller, we drive on the left because the society has internalised this norm and
now we need nobody to pressurise us to keep to the left on the road.
Here, we should also understand that if there is no punishment associated with

violation of norms, it would be nearly impossible to enforce them for regulating
social behaviour. The process of the formation of norm itself implies the
enforcement of norms in group or society through suitable rewards to the followers
and punishment in suitable form to the offenders. This is made clear by Fehr and
Gächter (2000) in their definition of norms. According to them, a social norm is
a behavioural regularity that is based on a socially shared belief of how one
ought to behave. This triggers the enforcement of the prescribed behaviour by
informal social sanctions. Further, we simply cannot transfer the responsibility
of enforcing the social norms onto others or any other external agency. Rather, it
is the shared responsibility and task of each one of us, that is each member of the
group and society.
2.5 SOCIAL CONFORMITY

Go carefully through the below given two paragraphs and find out what is the
similarity therein:
When I came to this country at the age of eight, one of the first things my parents
taught me in order that I might fit in to my new environment was that “when in
Rome, you do as the Romans.” This is something I have adhered to all my life
and to a great degree allowed me to flourish here and operate effectively in
many different cultures during my career. - Joe Navarro (2010).
While the accommodation was comfortable, cleaning standards were below what
she was used to but she agreed with the adage, when in Rome do as the Romans
do. - Michele Nugent (2010, accommodation here refers to the Commonwealth
Games Village built for national/international athletes and team officials and she
here is Pam McKenzie, Australian shooter and a silver medal winner in the 10m
women’s air pistol pairs event at the Delhi 2010 Commonwealth Games).
Yes, you are right. Both have a common proverb: When in Rome do as Romans
do. Secondly, can you highlight a significant meaning this proverb carries either
in the above specific examples or in general?
It gives us an impression that an early conformation to the prevailing
circumstances helps us in early adjustment which further helps us concentrate
on our main goal. Think of Pam. Sticking to the cleaning standards which she
was used to, if she would have been continuously complaining about the
cleanliness of the games village, could she focus on bull’s eyes and win silver?
Similarly, this very mantra, helped Navarro to fit to his new environment, flourish
there and perform effectively in many different cultures during his career. This
conformity, in psychological terms, refers to “a change in behaviour or belief …
as a result of real or imagined group pressure” (Kiesler and Kiesler, 1969).
23
Culture and Norms A world famous study on conformity was conducted by Solomon Asch in which,
unlike Sherif’s ambiguous stimulus where the light stimulus was not clear to the
subjects (you have read about Sherif’s study in Section 2.2 of this unit), he used
unambiguous stimuli consisting one card having a standard line on it and a second
card having three comparison lines on it. The subjects were asked to compare
the standard line with the comparison lines and to tell the number of the
comparison which best matched the length of the standard line. The task and
stimuli were clear and the subjects had to tell what they were perceiving in this
perceptual judgement task. When the subjects were alone, there were no errors
in their perceptual judgments.
Then, Asch introduced group conditions in which, along with a subject (critical
subjects), a group of few more subjects (actually confederates or associates of
the experimenter) was also there giving their responses on the same task. But,
these confederates were actually pre-instructed to give wrong judgments on some
pre-selected trials. Asch was surprised to find the influence of the group on the
critical subjects’ judgments when they were also seen giving wrong judgements
in tune with that of the confederates because they wanted to give the response
which had the group’s approval.
2.5.1 Factors Affecting Conformity

As you have just seen in Asch’s study above that the group pressure leads one
towards conformity, but as you shall see in the next unit not all subjects conform
to the group. Why is this so? Some factors seem to affect the conformity behaviour.
These factors are given below:
Cohesiveness is one such factor which many researchers have found to influence
conformity to a great extent. According to Baron, Byrne and Branscombe (2006),
“Cohesiveness refers to all of the factors that bind group members together into
a coherent social entity”. When the relative importance of a group is high, we
tend to conform more than when the cohesiveness is low. The group which we
admire and to which we feel a sense of belongingness, we also feel like following
them. On the other hand, if any group we find low in prestige or social status and
we do not like, we do not conform to their manners and methods.
Group size is also one of the main factors that influence our conformity behaviour.
In the experiment conducted by Asch he also found that the group up to three
members had a great influence on the subjects and more than three had no more
influence. But later researchers found that up to eight members and beyond in a
group had greater effect on the subjects. So, it gives an impression that the larger
the group the more is its effect. Is it the scenario of elections in India? Are we
affected by the number of followers of a particular political party or group? Do
we feel inclined towards a particular party because more people were with this
party?
2.5.2 Factors for Conformity

In the experiment conducted by Sherif, he used ambiguous stimulus (autokinetic
effect) and Asch in his experiment used clear and unambiguous line-judgement
task. Both studies are attributed to different social influences.
In informational social influence, we have the desire to be correct and look at
others’ behaviour as a source of information. In Sherif’s study, the subjects had
24
no actual information about the distance the light traveled. They looked at others’ Norm Formation, Factors
Influencing Norms,
responses and conformed to them in order to be correct. Whereas, in normative Enforcement of Norms,
social influence, we have the desire to be liked and accepted by other group Norm Formation and Social
members so we conform to their behaviour. Conformity
In Asch’s experiments, despite having correct information, the subjects conformed

to the wrong responses of other group members because they were affected by
normative social influence and wanted to be liked or accepted by other group
members. By conforming, they were maintaining their place in the good books
of others besides avoiding rejection. So, they were doing just like Romans.
2.5.3 Factors for Non Conformity

Psychology is the study of individual differences and psychologists here are also
interested in the people who do not conform and do not go along with the group.
In each group there are found few members who maintain their individuality and
independence, and do not conform to the group norms just in the name of
following. They use their senses, judge the situations and think independently.
Asch was equally interested in independence along with conformity and valued
independence more. Some people also do not conform and resist social pressure
many times as they wish to have control over their lives and do not let others
lead their lives. They give more value to their personal control and personal
freedom and do not yield to the social pressure easily. Besides these few persons
who do not conform at will are also few persons who cannot conform due to
their psychological, physical or legal reasons.
We may conclude here by mentioning that besides certain social situations (like
some ambiguous or uncertain situations), certain psychological characteristics
of the individual like confidence level, inferiority complex, attitudes, intelligence
levels, etc. also affect the conformity behaviour. Although independence and
critical appraisal of the norms and social situations is a must for the development
of society, yet the importance of conformity is almost paramount.
2.6 LET US SUM UP

We all, up to some extent, yield to the social pressures in our daily routine life.
What we wear, what we eat, which car we prefer, and on and so forth, indicate
that most of our behaviours, whether we know or not, whether we agree or not,
are influenced by others and social norms. The study of social norms is essential
because of their inherent benefits like regulating social behaviours and satisfying
individual needs. Studying the formation and development of social norms can
give new insights to the society. That’s why, social psychologists have been
studying social influence, norms and conformity since long. After reading about
the norms and conformity in detail in the first two units of this block now, we
shall move on to the next unit wherein we will study two specific experimental
studies conducted by Sherif and Asch.

1) Explain the effect of social norms on an individual’s behaviour with
examples.
25
Culture and Norms 2) How are the norms enforced in a given social setting?
3) Is the compulsory enforcement of norms beneficial for the society?
4) Critically explain the quotation of Warner.
5) Conformity has certain advantages. Write a note on its disadvantages.

Hechter, M., and Opp, K. D. (2001). Social Norms. New York: Russell Sage
Foundation.
Ullmann-Margalit, Edna. 1977. The Emergence of Norms. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.
References
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.
Baron, R. A., Byrne, D., and Branscombe, N. R. (2006). Social Psychology.

New Delhi: Pearson Education, Inc.
Birenbaum, A., and Sagarin, E. (1976). Norms and human behaviour. New York:
Praeger.
Fehr, E. and Gächter, S. (2000). Fairness and retaliation: The economics of

reciprocity. Journal of economic perspectives, 14(3), 159 – 181.
Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations,

7, 117 – 140.
Herfeld, C. (2008). Role of Normativity for the Explanation of Norm-Conformity.

Retrieved from http://www.illc.uva.nl/Publications/ResearchReports/X-2009-
02.text.pdf on Nov. 01, 2010.
Hogg, M. A. and Reid, S. A. (2006). Social identity, self-categorisation, and the

communication of group norms. Communication Theory, 16, 7 – 30.
Kiesler, C.A. and Kiesler, S.A. (1969). Conformity, Reading, Mass.: Addison-
Wesley.
Leone, T. (2010). Does conformity make us more liked? Perceptions of conformist

and non-conformist behaviour. Retrieved from https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/
bitstream/1807/24809/1/Leone_Tullia_201006_PhD_thesis.pdf, on Oct. 14,
2010.
Navarro, J. (2010). Benjamin Franklin & Nonverbal Communications: Lessons

on nonverbal communications from America’s foremost entrepreneur. Retrieved
from http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/spycatcher/201010/benjamin-
franklin-nonverbal-communications on Oct. 31, 2010.
Nugent, M. (2010). Pam’s silver lining. Retrieved from http://

www.inmycommunity.com.au/news-and-views/local-sport/Pams-silver-lining/
7573249/ on Oct. 31, 2010.
26
O’Gorman, R., Wilson, D. S., and Miller, R. R. (2008). An evolved cognitive Norm Formation, Factors
Influencing Norms,
bias for social norms. Evolution and Human Behaviour, 29, 71 – 78. Enforcement of Norms,
Norm Formation and Social
Piaget, J. (1932). The moral judgment of the child. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Conformity
Trubner.
Sherif, M., Harbey, O.J., White, B.J., Hood, W.R., and Sherif, C.W. (1961).
Intergroup conflict and cooperation: The Robers’ cave experiment. Norma,
Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Book Exchange.
27
Culture and Norms
UNIT 3 AUTOKINETIC EXPERIMENT IN
NORM FORMATION
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Muzafer Sherif – The Pioneer Social Psychologist
3.3 Autokinetic Experiment in Norm Formation
3.3.1 Autokinetic Effect
3.3.2 Sherif’s Experiment
3.3.3 Salient Features of Sherif’s Autokinetic Experiments
3.3.4 Critical Appraisal
3.4 Related Latest Research on Norm Formation
3.5 Let Us Sum Up
3.0 INTRODUCTION
“Social psychologists like to trace the origins of their subdiscipline to texts of
that name published by William McDougall (1908) in psychology and E. A. Ross
(1908) in sociology. But a psychological social psychology in continuity with
the field we know today emerged only in the 1930s and 1940s with figures such
as Otto Klineberg, Muzafer Sherif, Gardner Murphy, and Kurt Lewin” – Smith
(2005, page 334, emphasis added).
After having elucidated the meaning and characteristics of norms in the first unit
of this block and after describing the way the norms are formed in the second
unit, we shall now discuss about an interesting experiment on norms’ formation.
In this unit, we shall study the autokinetic effect and the ground breaking
autokinetic experiment conducted by Muzafer Sherif which has been considered
to have played a significant role in the formation of social psychology and
contributed substantially to the field of sociology as well.
You might remember that you have studied social interaction in the first unit
(Introduction to social behaviour – concept, perceiving and behaving, social
interaction) of the forth block (Social Behaviour) of your BPC-001 (General
Psychology) course. And, you might have also gone through social influence in
the second unit (Intention, attitudes and interest: Development and Management)
of the same block of your BPC-001 course. Whether you have yet realised or not
from your own life experiences, one fundamental aspect of group or society is
the interaction with others which starts even since birth and has influence on
one’s attitudes and behaviour. Whether we like it (or not) and if we have to live
in this society (and that we have to), we shall be exposed to interaction with
others and it is this interaction through which we see all colours of the society –
be it co-operation, competition or conflicts. One more thing we should notice
that what we are today has been largely shaped/determined by the society we
28 live in through social interaction and a process called “socialisation”.
Still having some difficulty in visualising the importance of society and social Autokinetic Experiment in
Norm Formation
interaction for a person? Then, you need to know about feral humans (Lane,
1976) who have grown up without social interaction. In 1920, Kamala and Amala,
two feral girls of 8 years and 18 months of age respectively, were found in the
jungles of Midnapore district, Calcutta, West Bengal and were given to The
Reverend Joseph Amrito Lal Singh, rector of the local orphanage. Both girls
seemed to be abandoned by their parents and were reported by Father Singh to
be raised by wolves. When these girls were “captured,” they were exhibiting all
signs of animal behaviour including walking on all four. Amala died one year
later on 21 September 1921. Although Father Singh tried to educate Kamala, she
could never fully develop language skills, intelligence and other skills required
to lead a normal social life. She could develop about 100 words only in her
vocabulary but used, for the most part, the nonverbal mode of communication
such as bringing dishes whenever she needed food and pulling Mr. Singh’s sleeves
for seeking his attention. Four years later, she also died at the age of 12 on 14
November 1929.
In another case, Isabelle was found confined to a small room with her mute
mother for the first 6 and a half years of her life. As can be expected, she could
also not learn how to speak. Marie Mason, head of the Speech Correction
Department at the Colombus State Hospital in Ohio, took the responsibility to
educate Isabelle. Fortunate enough than Kamala and Amala, she could
successfully rehabilitate as Mason took her to the normal levels of communication
in about 20 months of training.
Few doubt the authenticity of and rationality behind the case of Kamala and
Amala yet there are some more similar examples a brief account of which,
including Isabelle’s, can be seen in Hisama (2000) and to learn more about more
than 125 such isolated, confined, wolf and wild children found world-wide, you
may visit FeralChildren.com. At the end of the road, however, every such case
highlights the crucial role and importance of social influence and social interaction
in one’s life even though they suffered the lack of it.
Going carefully through this present unit, you shall see the effects of social
influence and social interaction on the formation of social norms studied through
autokinetic effect experiment by Muzafer Sheriff.
3.1 OBJECTIVES
On completing this unit, you will be able to:
• outline the contribution of Muzafer Sherif;
• describe the concept of autokinetic effect;
• explain autokinetic experiment in norms’ formation;
• elucidate the salient features of Sherif’s experiment; and
• discuss the importance of social informational influences in norms formation.
29
Culture and Norms
3.2 MUZAFER SHERIF – THE PIONEER SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGIST
Before proceeding further as per our unit plan and objectives, it seems pertinent
to know a bit about the world-famous social psychologist, Muzafer Sherif who
is the main focus of this present unit.
Sherif was born on July 29, 1906 in Ödemiþ, Ýzmir

Turkey (the Ottoman Empire at that time). He received
his B.A. at the Ýzmir International College in Turkey
and earned M.A. at Harvard University. Doing his
research work on group norms, he earned his Ph.D. with
Gardner Murphy in 1935. Studying the social influence
in perception, he wrote his dissertation titled, “Some
Social Factors in Perception”, and made an Intelligent
use of “autokinetic effect” experiments. His ideas and
research work laid the basis for his first classic world
famous book “The Psychology of Social Norms”. He
married Carolyn Sherif and they were genuinely good company for academic
advancement of their field by doing various research projects and writing scholarly
books. Father of three daughters, Ann, Sue and Joan, he spent most of his life as
Professor at the University of Oklahoma besides enjoying academic positions at
Princeton University, Yale University and Pennsylvania State University. He died
of a heart attach at the age of 82 on October 16, 1988 in Fairbanks, Alaska, USA.
3.3 AUTOKINETIC EXPERIMENT IN NORM

FORMATION
Recapitulation of few related terms is essential here which have direct bearing
on various aspects of autokinetic effect experiment.
Conformity: Kiesler and Kiesler (1969) defined conformity as “a change in
behaviour or belief … as a result of real or imagined group pressure”. So, when
we go along with the group pressures, it means we are conforming.
Social norms: In general terms, these are rules for behaviour which is acceptable
in our particular group/social setting and therefore norms define the accepted,
expected and proper behaviour in a social group.
Social influence and norms: Social influence is the pressure exerted on a person
or group in order to change his/her attitudes or behaviour. Two types of social
influences have been suggested by researchers through which people learn
different norms.
Normative social influence: This is based on one’s fundamental need to be
accepted by other members of the group; and it is associated with subjective
norms or injunctive norms which mean that we are concerned about what others
think we should do or should not do in a given situation or about what behaviour
others approve/disapprove or it is the norm of “ought”.
Informational social influence: This refers to people seeing others’ behaviour as
a potential source of information to help them define reality and maximise the
efficiency of their social behaviour. Here, we are concerned with what majority
30
others are doing in a specific situation. This norm of “is” is known as descriptive Autokinetic Experiment in
Norm Formation
norms.
Subject: He/she is a person in the tests or experiments of psychology in whose
behaviour the psychologist is interested to test/study/observe. When we call him/
her a naïve subject, it generally means that the subject is unaware of the
experimental manipulations, if any. An inevitable part of research study, it is the
behaviour of the subject which is scientifically measured / observed by the
researcher to reach any conclusion.
Confederate: Although part of the experiment just like other subjects, this person
is working actually for the experimenter / researcher as his / her associate and
performs secretly those tasks as per the instructions of the experimenter during
the experiment which are required to achieve the specific objectives of the
experiment and are pre-defined by the experimenter.
3.3.1 Autokinetic Effect

Also known as autokinesis, the autokinetic word is a combination of two words
wherein auto means self and kinetic means motion and it is a phenomenon of
human visual perceptual illusion of movement. Here two words need further
elaboration: perception and illusion.
Perception, in simple words means giving some meaning to sensations. For
example if I ask you what you are holding in your hand and you reply – a book.
The book is told by your brain after the instant cognitive analysis process in
which, the first process was sensation wherein your eyes saw the thing in hand
and its image was passed onto your brain where the second process, your past or
prior knowledge / experience gave it a meaning / name as you have already been
taught in your childhood by your parents/siblings/teachers that this type of a
thing is called a book. So, for replying my question you took advantage of two
things: your sensation combined with your prior knowledge/experience.
What if any of these two goes missing? If visual sensation goes missing, being
blind we shall not be able to see anything. But if we do not have any past
knowledge/experience of any particular object, despite seeing it we shall not be
able to give it a meaning or name and we shall have just the visual sensation of
it. We may then simply try to describe the attributes/dimensions of that thing on
the basis of our sensations.
Illusion refers to a mistaken or distorted perception. Have a look on the following
two lines and tell which one is longer?
31
Culture and Norms Well, if you say the B line is longer than A, then you are under illusion. Although
the B line, having outward arrow flaps, appears to be surely longer than A, there
actually is no difference between the two and both the lines are identical in length.
This is known as Muller-Lyer optical illusion.
As discussed above, the autokinetic effect is visual perceptual illusion of
movement. Under this effect, a stationary, small point of light in an otherwise
completely dark visual field or featureless environment “appears to move”. So,
under this illusion of motion of a spot of light, we perceive motion in light
which actually is stationary.
It happens because of small, nearly imperceptible eye movements, known as
saccades. Since our eyes constantly move by nature and by default and even
without our conscious efforts, our brain compensates for this movement in order
to create a stable image of the outside world. In this process of compensation,
our brain makes use of prior knowledge of background, particularly the knowledge
about what moves and what does not.
But, when the brain finds itself in otherwise dark or featureless environment,
with no frame of reference or in other words, in an impoverished background, it
mistakes these small eye movements for the movement in the appearing
“otherwise stable” object.
And, once our brain “perceives” the object as moving, this effect of movement
is persistent and very realistic. Hence, when only a single light is visible under
the above defined environmental conditions, or say in a completely dark room,
this light appears to move in unpredictable directions and at variable speeds.
This illusion of movement of otherwise stable objects was first noted by
astronomers while staring at a single star in the sky on a very dark night and the
first ever records of autokinetic effects have been noticed to be presented by
Adams (1912). But the credit of using the autokinetic effect to study the influence
of suggestion and formation of social norms goes to Sherif through his world-
famous experiment which we are going to study in the next section.
3.3.2 Sherif’s Experiment

Is it not interesting that in library, your voice is automatically lowered while
talking to others and you keep the level of noise down even when nobody has
directly asked you to do that? Who has then influence on us there? Under the
mental representation that others in the library expect us to behave like that in
order not to disturb them, your behaviour is guided by the social norm that is
prevalent in a library setting.
These norms provide you with particular frames of reference which guide your
thoughts, attitudes, emotions, actions and behaviour in specific social situations.
These situational norms represent generally accepted beliefs about how to behave
in particular situations and are learned by associating normative behaviour to
these situations (Aarts and Dijksterhuis, 2003).
Studying social influence and conformity has always been close to the heart of
social psychologists which Allport (1985) defined as, “an attempt to understand
and explain how the thoughts, feelings and behaviours of individuals are
influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others”. One such
highly influential now classic study on conformity and formation of social norms
32 was conducted by Sherif (1936) making use of the autokinetic effect.
Sherif conducted his experiments at the psychological laboratories of Columbia Autokinetic Experiment in
Norm Formation
University. The participating subjects were graduates and undergraduate students
from either Columbia or New York University. Due care was taken that none of
the subjects had previous knowledge of the autokinetic effect phenomenon. A
pinpoint of light was presented in all trials in front of the subjects at a distance of
about 5 m, in the completely darkened room to produce autokinetic effect. Since
there was no external frame of reference, the light appeared to move erratically,
even though it was perfectly still. Sherif (1936) writes that this novel, ambiguous
stimulus provided “objectively unstable situations that would permit themselves
to be structured in several ways, depending upon the character of the subjectively
established reference points” (p. 91).
Sherif carried out his work in two experimental conditions: an individual situation
and a group situation. For individual situation, there were nineteen subjects and
forty subjects participated in group situation of the experiment. The subjects
were informed that a light would appear and as soon as they saw the light starts
moving, they had to press the “signal button”. After the few seconds, the light
would again disappear and the subjects were to estimate and tell the extent of the
movement of the light.
Half of the subjects took their first 100 trials alone and on three subsequent days,
the subjects underwent three more sets of trials, but in groups of two to three.
The results indicated that when the subjects were alone, they made their standard
estimates (personal norms) in the initial trials around which their remaining
judgements fluctuated. They perceived the light moving usually about 2-4 inches
but few reported as even 10 inches also. But, when they were in groups, and the
group members loudly called out their estimates, the subjects gradually inclined
towards the estimates given by other group members including the confederates
who, as per the instructions of the experimenter, gave unrealistically exaggerated
estimates of the light’s movement. The subjects’ responses were observed to be
converged with other group members until a consensus was reached despite the
fact that all the estimates were obviously false. Illustrating the powerful effect of
conformity in group settings, the subjects accepted the socially shared estimate leaving
their self set idiosyncratic standards. It shows that the group norms were formed in
the due course of the experiment and conformed by the subjects (Figure 3.1).
8
Inches of perceived movement
5 Subject 1
4
Subject 2
Subject 3
3
0
Alone Group Group Group
Session I Session II Session III
Time of Judgement
Fig. 3.1: Gradual convergence of subjects’ estimates in Sherif’s experiment (Based on Sherif,
1936)
33
Culture and Norms For the half of the subjects, the order of the experimental procedure was reversed.
First, they faced the group situations and then were tested alone. The findings
here reflected that the norms were developed in the initial group sessions which
were persisted in the later session and were carried along with when the subjects
were tested alone – in the absence of others with whom he/she had developed
these norms, showing that the norms were internalised by the subjects.
Sherif’s experiments scientifically studied the social informational influences

and internalisation. Summarising his main findings, Sherif (1937) writes as
follows:
1) “When an individual perceives autokinetic movement which lacks an
objective standard of comparison, and is asked during repeated stimulation
to report in terms of the extent of movement, he subjectively establishes a
range of extent and a point (a standard or norm) within that range which is
peculiar to himself, differing from the range and point (standard or norm)
established by other individuals.
2) When individuals face an unstable, unstructured situation as members of a
group for the first time, a range and a norm (standard) within that range are
established which are peculiar to the group. When a member of a group
faces the same situation subsequently alone, after once the range and norm
of his group have been established, he perceives the situation in terms of
the range and norm that he brings from the group situation.
3) The ranges and norms established in the above cases are not prescribed
arbitrarily by the experimenter or by any other agent. They are formed in
the course of the experimental period and may vary from individual to
individual, or from group to group, within certain limits.” (p. 90 – 91).
3.3.3 Salient Features of Sherif’s Autokinetic Experiments

With the detailed reading and minute understanding of the above, we are now in
a position to perform an academic postmortem of the autokinetic effect experiment
and norm formation. The following crucial characteristic features emerge out of
the Sherif’s autokinetic experiments:
1) Ambiguity and Uncertainty: It has been clearly demonstrated by Sherif and
other later studies that when there is ambiguity of situational cues and people
are uncertain about the right or wrong answer or appropriateness of the
behaviour in a given situation or when they are not in a position to judge
what and how to respond, they are more likely to conform and follow others
and available norms because they do not want to be wrong. Sherif (1936)
concluded that unstable situations produce uncertainty and confusion and
people assume that “the group must be right” (p. 111) and look to the group
for the formation of a common norm. On the contrary, when a person is
certain about the information he/she has about the situation, there definitely
is no need for him/her to conform to what others say or to conform to others’
behaviour.
2) Power of Communication: In a study, quoted by Yanovitzky and Rimal
(2006), the role of informational and normative influence was explored in
the context of political communication and it was found that when the group
opinions are expressed then the personal opinions are definitely affected. In
Sherif’s experiments also, the subjects altered their estimates when they
34
were exposed to others’ estimates. So, when we are in communication with Autokinetic Experiment in
Norm Formation
others, we form perceptions of the group norms, and (because we are
uncertain about the situation and have no information) then we conform to
the group norms.
3) Agreement: Many situations in life are equivocal when we do not have any
information about them or logical explanation for them. Then, the group(s),
depending upon the situation, interacts in order to enact the agreement which
may or may not be based on any rational basis. For example, we take our
left side on the road without having any specific rationale behind it. We do
not know the reason of taking left side, but we all agree to it in India and
many other countries and we all follow it. In Sherif’s experiment also, the
subjects conformed and agreed to others’ judgments.
4) The Reference-Group Effect: While dealing with an approach to study
psychology and culture, the tendency to conform in group situations with
those of the same culture/nationals has also been studied and explained as
the ‘reference group’ effect (Heine, Lehman, Peng, and Greenholtz, 2002).
Although broad comparisons on conformity involving cultures or nations
are yet to be examined and validated it was however clearly depicted by
Sherif that his subjects perceived the movement of light in the dark room
largely on the basis of their perception of how their group (their reference
group) was viewing it.
5) Knowledge convergence: Jeong and Chi (2007) defined knowledge
convergence as an increase in common knowledge where common
knowledge referred to the knowledge that all collaborating partners had.
The researchers found that collaborative interaction led to the increase in
common knowledge. So, knowledge is believed to be constructed through
the process of knowledge convergence in which two or more people share
mutual understanding through social interaction. Understand this in the light
of Sherif’s experiment who demonstrated that interaction led to the
convergence on a shared norm.
6) Nonconscious Influences on Behaviour: Last but not the least, one interesting
phenomenon has been found in conformity experiments. The subjects mostly
deny being influenced by the judgment or responses of others despite the
evidence that their attitudes and behaviours were influenced by relevant
others. In Sherif’s experiments also, the social influence either went
unnoticed or was not acknowledged by the subjects as his subjects denied
the influence of others’ judgments on their estimates given in the presence
of their group. Sherif, on the basis of his findings concluded that when
objective structure is not available to the individual, “the spoken judgments
of other persons have pronounced effects, even though no deliberate attempt
is made to exert influence. The individual comes to perceive the situation in
line with the views of others, and is frequently unaware that he has been
influenced” (Sherif and Sherif, 1969, p. 119, emphasis added). Interestingly,
they detect this influence in others.
On the basis of the latest researches and findings, an attempt has been made to
describe a few salient features seen in autokinetic studies/experiments which,
up to some extent, explain the nature of conformity and norm formation,
sometimes leaving some questions unanswered and sometimes generating new
questions.
35
Culture and Norms As a student of psychology, you should keep exploring scientifically and
explaining logically. In an interesting piece of demonstration to show how norms
emerge in groups, Desrochers tried to replicate Sherif’s autokinetic experiment
in a classroom but found no norms emerged. Why? The consensus of the students
was that the room was not dark enough to produce an autokinetic effect. You
might wonder what was the benefit then of this endeavor? Well, Halpern and
Desrochers (2005) took it positively while explaining unexpected findings that,
“sometimes even a failure to demonstrate a principle can result in a more in
depth understanding of a well known experiment”.
3.3.4 Critical Appraisal

Generally social psychology experiments suffer from a more or less common
criticism that being conducted in artificial conditions and in laboratory, these do
not necessarily represent real social life situations. But, to minutely and
scientifically study any given psychological phenomenon, it becomes inevitable
for the social psychologists to conduct experiments in lab under carefully
controlled conditions. Sherif’s contribution cannot and should not be undermined
on the grounds of this criticism.
It was this experiment which significantly contributed to the formation of social

psychology as a separate discipline. Moreover, Sherif’s contributions are not
acknowledged and referred to in cultural and cross-cultural psychology books,
which needs to be corrected (Kaðitçibaþi, 2006).
And, it is also important to note that Friedkin, 2001 quoted Festinger (1950)
suggesting that “Sherif’s mechanism of norm formation is not merely one of a
number of theoretically possible mechanisms that might be studied in laboratory
settings, but the key mechanism by which persons validate their attitudes under
conditions of uncertainty and conflict.”
Over and above all, Sherif succeeded in forming a social norm in the experimental
setting.
If any student is still curious that how many of life situations resemble the ones
studied by Sherif in laboratory, and what did the later scholars and psychologists
learn from Sherif, the next section (3.4) is for you in which some of the latest
research studies have been discussed which are motivated and guided by Sherif’s
experiments and findings, and are corroborating with his conclusions on norm
formation.

1) What are the prerequisites to conduct an autokinetic experiment in the
laborator?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
36
Autokinetic Experiment in
2) Which governs and influences the autokinetic effect in Sheriff’s Norm Formation
experiment? Discuss in the context of normative influence and
informational influence.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3) What is the role of social influence in autokinetic effect?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
4) Identify and describe the role of social influence in group norm formation
in school students and school settings.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
3.4 RELATED LATEST RESEARCH ON NORM

FORMATION
Asch’s experiment
Asch’s studies of group pressure. Asch believed intelligent people would not
conform when they could readily see the truth for themselves. Showed people
lines - a third of the time subjects were willing to go against their better judgment
and agree with the group. About 75% went with the group at least once!
Asch found that three different kinds of reactions had contributed to the
conformity.
1) Distortion of perception:. A number of subjects said they were not aware
their estimates had been distorted by the majority. They came to see the
rigged majority estimates as correct.
2) Distortion of judgment: Most of the subjects who yielded to the majority
concluded their own perceptions were inaccurate. Lacking confidence in
their own observations, they reported not what they saw but what they felt
must be correct. 37
Culture and Norms 3) Distortion of action. A number of subjects admitted that they had not reported
what they had in fact seen. They said they had yielded so as not to appear
different or stupid in the eyes of other group members.
Crutchfield did a similar study with military officers. 46% of the time they voted
with the group!
One foremost task of any scientific discovery and discipline is to generate further
research. As a learner of psychology, you will gradually witness the use and
applications of different concepts and constructs by various researchers world
wide in the study of a wide variety of psychological phenomena as per their
particular research interests.
The above presented scholarly work of Sherif in general and its role in explaining
the formation of social norms in particular has led not only psychologists but
also experts of allied disciplines like sociology and anthropology throughout the
world to examine the applicability of Sherif’s findings and conclusions to their
respective research objectives. In this section, we have given a brief overview of
a few of the latest research studies and findings so that you may have an exposure
to the broader applications of any single behavioural principle or the power of
any psychological phenomenon in explaining and predicting behaviour in different
life domains and social settings.
Uncertainty and self concept

Early studies showed how uncertainty translates into conformity and connection
to groups (e.g., Sherif, 1936; Sherif & Harvey, 1952). In particular, when
individuals felt uncertain about some task, they became increasingly likely to
comply with the norms and behaviours of the group, presumably as a means to
diminish this uncertainty.
The mechanism by which groups can reduce uncertainty was, first promulgated
by Deutsch and Gerard (1955). These authors delineated the concept of
informational influence, in which individuals accept and internalise the norms
and beliefs of their group to reduce uncertainty and behave appropriately.
Subjective uncertainty reduction theory, however, recognises a broader range of

sources that provoke uncertainty. Such states, for example, could derive from
decline in the economy, insecurity in relationships, limited clarity about the self,
uncertainty about social interactions, etc. To overcome these feelings of
uncertainty, individuals conform to the norms of their group. Such conformity
and identity with a group not only clarifies which behaviours or beliefs to embrace
but also delineates a definition of self in relation to the social collective.
Sherif’s (1936) study has been a good example of testing the role of uncertainty
in social influence which was basically caused by an ambiguous stimulus. It has
been conceptualised that when we shall face an ambiguous stimulus, it shall
affect not only our perception but also judgment. Widening the scope of
uncertainty beyond stimulus, Smith, Hogg, Martin and Terry (2007) produced
uncertainty related to self conception and found a powerful base of conformity
to self defining (ingroup) norms. When induced with academic uncertainty,
relationship uncertainty and uncertainty about life decisions, the increased
conformity was observed to ingroup norms.
38
Group norms and excessive absenteeism Autokinetic Experiment in
Norm Formation
In their study on group norms and excessive absenteeism, Bamberger and Biron
(2007) explained that in a workplace, the norms and attitudes of peer referents
cast a powerful effect on one’s attendance behaviour. To examine the effect of
reference group norms in shaping one’s ‘absence’ behaviour, they studied various
socio-psychological processes. The social influence theory was regarded here as
one of the possible explanations of excessive absenteeism and found to have its
roots in the early studies like the one conducted by Sherif (1936).
Pro-environmental behaviour and norms

In their meta-analysis of psycho-social determinants of pro-environmental
behaviour, Bamberg and Möser (2007) assumed in line with the Sherif’s classical
study on the informational influence of social norms that it is not the fear of
social pressure due to which people follow social norms. Rather, they regard the
social norms as information about the appropriateness of a given behaviour.
Hence, in addition to the information whether a given behaviour is right or wrong
in a specific situation, the social norms also tell us about the potential benefits of
this particular behaviour and whether it would be easy for us to perform it.
Descriptive norms and pro-environmental actions

Goldstein, Griskevicius and Cialdini (2007) noted that the behaviour of others
in social settings remarkably influences one’s interpretations of and responses to
various situations and applying social psychology’s theory based research of
descriptive norms to hotel operations (hotels’ linen reuse programmes), they
reported that applying the norm of reciprocation and the descriptive norm for
pro environment action improved the guests’ participation in one hotel’s towel
reuse programme.
Stock markets’ share price and social influence

Siddiqi (2006), as per Sherif’s findings, concluded that even in stock market
share prices, other people’s judgments affect the judgment of an investor. The
persons who invest in the market very minutely follow what others think and
revise their beliefs in the light of the information about what other investors and
market experts believe. This market sentiment is visible with the sudden and
significant rise and fall of the market share prices that is many times based on
the information about others beliefs and behaviour than the fundamentals of the
company/market.
Norms and drinking behaviour

Neighbors et al. (2006), in their study on (1) the stability of normative
misperceptions and (2) temporal precedence of perceived norms and drinking,
reported that perceived frequency and perceived quantity norms were found to
be associated with later drinking. In other words, they supported the basic concepts
of conformity that overestimates of drinking norms influence students to drink
more (Lewis and Neighbors, 2004).
Using other members’ behaviour as information

Hogg and Reid (2006) emphasised that the people, when in groups, observe and
take others’ behaviour as information so that they may construct a group norm.
In the Sherif’s study (1935, 1936), the subjects adjusted their estimates of the
39
Culture and Norms movement of light in order to conform and converge on the estimates made by
other members of their group.
Rights and duties as group norms

Louis and Taylor (2005) focused on the rights and duties in group based social
norms and defined them as the behavioural demands which are rooted in one’s
social relationships. Hence, they viewed them as, prototypic group norms which
are powerful enough to influence the person’s behaviour as was illustrated by
Sherif (1936).
Journalists’ professional behaviour and norms

Describing the causal explanations for the way journalists report the news,
Donsbach (2004) noted that journalism was a highly risky business where
journalists had to “immediately” decide for most of the time - what was true
from the truth point of view, what was relevant from the point of view of the
value of the news and what was good or acceptable. It leads the journalists to
make factual and evaluative decisions about the news item.
Giving an account of journalists’ dilemma in news decisions, Donsbach further

lists their four additional problems (time pressure, pressure of competition, lack
of objective criteria and publicness) and concludes that the journalists often find
themselves in uncertain or undetermined situations just like the subjects of Sherif’s
experiment. Interestingly, what do journalists do under such uncertain or
undetermined situations? Well, they too make decisions in these undetermined
situations. According to Donsbach, “the decision about reality, therefore,
represents group dynamics and group norms rather than reality. As journalists
have similar values and attitudes, more than members of most other professionals,
it is rather easy for them to develop a shared reality” (page 143).
However, the group decisions also have quality subject to certain conditions. In
a separate work, it has been reported that critical norms improved the quality of
decisions whereas consensus norms did not (see Postmes, Spears and Cihangir,
2001).
Crowd sociality and norms

Reicher (2001), while studying the psychology of crowd dynamics, discussed
the emergent norm theory of Turner and Killian (1987) who found that collective
behaviour often occurs in unusual situations where “redefining the situation,
making sense of confusion, is a central activity” as was found in the experiments
of Sherif (1936) where uncertainty led to the search/formation of norms.
3.5 LET US SUM UP

The latest trends in research on the classic study of social norms show that the
findings of Sherif’s experiment have been applied and tested in a wide variety of
social and professional settings. Although it is highly important to study individual
behaviour but when in groups, the group processes cast their influence on the
individual’s behaviour. Being associated with this or that group, we have to follow
the group norms for various social purposes and psychological benefits.
40
You would appreciate that the positive aspect of all research is the development Autokinetic Experiment in
Norm Formation
and betterment of life. Once we understand the role of social influence and norms
in human social life, we may be able to take full advantage of that knowledge for
designing various socio-economic developmental programmes which may shape
our life and the society in positive and desired directions.

1) What is autokinetic effect?
2) What were the bases of Sherif’s autokinetic experiment?
3) Critically elaborate the findings of Sherif’s autokinetic experiment.
4) How did Sherif explain the formation of norms with the help of autokinetic
experiment?
5) If you have to study the social influence, what behavioural aspects would
you study and how?

Baron, R. A. and Byrne, D. (2003). Social Psychology (10th ed.). New Delhi:
Prentice-Hall of India.
Sherif, M. and Sherif, C. W. (1956). An Outline of Social Psychology (2nd ed.).

New York: Harper and Raw.
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Empirical contributions and normative commentaries (pp. 105 – 134).
Washington, DC: APA Press.
Neighbors, C., Dillard, A. J., Lewis, M. A., Bergstrom, R. L., and Neil, T. A.
(2006). Normative misperceptions and temporal precedence of perceived norms
and drinking. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 67(2), 290 – 299.
Postmes, T., Spears, R. and Cihangir, S. (2001). Quality of decision making and
group norms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(6), 918 – 930.
Reicher, S. D. (2001). The psychology of crowd dynamics. In M. A. Hogg & R.
S. Tindale (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of social psychology: Group processes
(pp. 182 – 208). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Sherif, M. (1935). An experimental study of stereotypes. Journal of Abnormal
and Social Psychology, 29, 371 – 375.
Sherif, M. (1936). The psychology of social norms. New York: Harper and Row.
Sherif, M. (1937). An experimental approach to the study of attitudes. Sociometry,
1, 90 – 98.
Sherif, M. and Sherif, C. W. (1969). Social Psychology. New York: Harper and
Row.
42
Siddiqi, H. A. (2006). Belief merging and revision under social influence: An Autokinetic Experiment in
Norm Formation
explanation for the volatility clustering puzzle. MPRA Paper No. 657, Retrieved
from http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/657/ on Oct. 09, 2010.
Smith, J. R., Hogg, M. A., Martin, R., and Terry, D. J. (2007). Uncertainty and
the influence of group norms in the attitude-behaviour relationship. British
Journal of Social Psychology, 46, 769 – 792.
Smith, M. B. (2005). “Personality and Social Psychology”: Retrospections and
Aspirations. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9(4), 334 – 340.
Turner, R. and Killian, L. (1987). Collective Behaviour (3rd edition). Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Yanovitzky, I. and Rimal, R. N. (2006). Communication and normative influence:
An Introduction to the special issue. Communication Theory, 16, 1 – 6.
43
Culture and Norms
UNIT 4 NORMS AND CONFORMITY:
ASCH’S LINE OF LENGTH
EXPERIMENTS
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Solomon E. Asch – A Leading Social Psychologist
4.3 Line and Length Experiments
4.3.1 Asch’s Conformity Experiment
4.3.2 Asch’s Experiment in Detail
4.4 Alternatives Available with Probable Consequences
4.4.1 Variables
4.4.2 Procedure
4.4.3 Results
4.5 Explanation of the Yielding Behaviour
4.6 Variants in Asch’s Experiments
4.7 Salient Features
4.8 Critical Appraisal
4.9 Related Research on Asch’s Experiments
4.10 Let Us Sum Up
4.0 INTRODUCTION
In the title and structure of this unit, there is a name. Asch. A social psychologist
expert he conducted experiments on norm formation. This unit will be considering
all the works of Asch and his experiments which might be of particular interest
to you because you might be surprised to see that, under certain experimental
conditions, what Asch’s subjects said was not in line with what actually they
were seeing right in front of them and, further more interestingly, nobody had
instructed them not to tell what they were actually seeing. This unit will present
the Line and Length experiments conducted by Asch and point out how people
knowing fully well what they are perceiving decide to say the contrary which is
in line with the groups member’s thinking. In addition this unit will present the
different experiments with a number of variations from the Asch’s experiment.
There will also be a critical appraisal of the experiments and the conclusions
thereof with regard to norm formation.
4.1 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
• explain the experiments of Asch;
44 • identify the salient features of Asch’s experiment;
• elucidate the concept of conformity and independence; Norms and Conformity:
Asch’s Line of Length
• Analyse the importance of conformity and independence in social settings; Experiments
and
• Describe Asch’s line and length experiments.
4.2 SOLOMON E. ASCH – A LEADING SOCIAL

PSYCHOLOGIST
Solomon E. Asch, who also worked with Max Wertheimer at the New School
for Social Research (yes, the same Wertheimer who
along with Koffka and Kohler founded Gestalt
Psychology about which you have read in the third
unit [Systems and theories of psychology] of the first
block [Introduction to psychology, objectives, goals]
of your BPC-001 [General Psychology] course), is
believed to extend the Gestalt theory to social
behaviour and social psychology. When he joined the
Swarthmore college he worked with another famous
Gestalt Psychologist, Wolfgang Koehler.
Besides Swarthmore College, he also taught at Brooklyn College and the New
School for Social Research and held visiting posts at MIT and Harvard. In 1952,
he published a book on social Psychology which gave a new direction to the
study of social behaviour throughout the world.
Prof. Asch also served as President of the Division of Personality and Social
Psychology of the American Psychological Association . Between 1966 to 1972,
he held the position of Director of the Institute for Cognitive Studies at Rutgers
University and from 1972 to 1979 served as Professor of Psychology in the
University of Pennsylvania.
From 1979 onwards, he served at the University of Pennsylvania as Emeritus
Professor of Psychology.
He died at the age of 88 years, on February 20, 1996
Asch is also credited for giving directions and new insights to another great
psychologist, Milgram in his highly influential research on obedience and
authority. He inspired & supervised Milgram’s Ph.D research also at Harvard
University. He is considered a pioneer of gestalt as well as social psychology
and his experiments still give inspiration to social psychology researchers
worldwide. Let us have a glance at his classic work.
4.3 LINE AND LENGTH EXPERIMENTS

Sherif’s work paved the way for experiments of Asch also as he was interested
to see whether the subjects would conform even if the situation involved an
unambiguous task. For this purpose, Asch chose line judgement task to conduct
his experiments. This series of his studies was published in the 1950s (1951,
1952, 1955, 1956, 1957) and his work is also popularly known as the Asch
Paradigm which is the main theme of this unit which you are just going to read
in the following sub-sections. 45
Culture and Norms 4.3.1 Asch’s Conformity Experiment
Solomon Asch, with experiments originally carried out in the 1950s highlighted
a phenomenon now known as “conformity”. In the classic experiment, a subject
sees a puzzle like the one in the above diagram. The question is, Which of the
lines A, B, and C is the same size as the line X? Take a moment to determine
your own answer.
Normally there should be no difficulty to give the answer. However Asch made
the subject concerned who was to respond alongside many others who were also
looking at the diagram. All these people were confederates of the experimenter.
These other “subjects” in the experiment, one after the other, say that line C
seems to be the same size as X. The real subject is seated next to last. How
many people, placed in this situation, would say “C” giving an obviously incorrect
answer that agrees with the unanimous answer of the other subjects? What do
you think the percentage would be?
Three-quarters of the subjects in Asch’s experiment gave a “conforming” answer
at least once. A third of the subjects conformed more than half the time.
Interviews after the experiment showed that while most subjects claimed to have
not really believed their conforming answers, some said they had really thought
that the conforming option was the correct one.
It is not a trivial question whether the subjects of Asch’s experiments behaved
irrationally. Robert Aumann’s experiment 20 years later proved Asch’s
experiments, thjough it formalised and strengthened an intuitively obvious point,
that is, other people’s beliefs are often legitimate evidence.
If you were looking at a diagram like the one above, but you knew for a fact that
the other people in the experiment were honest and seeing the same diagram as
you, and three other people said that C was the same size as X, then what are the
odds that only you are the one who’s right? In terms of individual rationality,
you will perhaps.
The conforming subjects in these experiments are not automatically considered
as irrational, but according to a meta-analysis of over a hundred replications by
Smith and Bond (1996), it was observed that conformity increases strongly up to
3 confederates, but does not increase further up to 10-15 confederates. If people
are conforming rationally, then the opinion of 15 other subjects should be
substantially stronger evidence than the opinion of 3 other subjects.
Adding a single dissenter reduces conformity very sharply, down to 5-10%. If
the subjects undergoing the experiment are emotionally nervous about being the
odd one out, then it’s easy to see how a single other person who agrees with the
subject or even a single other person who disagrees with the group as a whole ,
would make the subject much less nervous.
46
People are not generally aware of the causes of their conformity or dissent. For Norms and Conformity:
instance, in the hypothesis that people are socially and rationally choosing to lie Experiments
so that they are not the odd one out, it appears that subjects in the one dissenter
condition do not consciously anticipate the conscious strategy that they would
employ when faced with unanimous opposition.
When the single dissenter suddenly switched to conforming to the group, subjects’
conformity rates went back up to just as high as in the no dissenter condition.
Being the first dissenter is a valuable (and costly!) social service, but one has to
keep it up.
Another interesting finding was that consistently within and across experiments,
the group which hasd only female subjects, conformed significantly more often
than the group which had all male participants. Around one half the women
conformed more than half the time, versus one-third of the men. In group and
out group manipulations (e.g., a handicapped subject alongside other handicapped
subjects) similarly show that conformity is significantly higher among members
of an in group.
Conformity is lower in the case of blatant diagrams as compared to those diagrams

wherein the errors are more subtle.
Another interesting aspect is that when subjects can respond in a way that will
not be seen by the group then the conformity drops.
4.3.2 Asch’s Experiment in Detail

Asch’s main aim was to experimentally study the effect of group pressure on
conformity behaviour in an unambiguous situation. Asch used extremely simple
perceptual material but exposed the naïve subject to an apparently wrong
judgement given by a group of subjects before his turn to reply came. This was
done mainly to find out whether he (the naïve subject) reports what he himself is
(correctly) seeing or yields/conforms to what the group is (wrongly) saying.
Carefully observe the figure given below wherein you will find two cards
displaying lines (a Standard Line and three Comparison Lines), and a group of
eight persons watching these lines. Here, the seventh person from left (S7, where
S stands for Subject) is naïve or critical subject and rest all other seven subjects
(S1 to S6, and S8) are the experimenter’s pre-instructed confederates.
47
Culture and Norms In the following paragraphs, you will find many terms which are frequently used
in psychological researches, tests and experiments. An understanding of these
related terms and their corresponding information about Asch’s experiment is a
must to get the gist of his work.
Subjects
Critical Subjects: A total of 123 male college students, between the ages of 17 to
25 (with a mean age of 20 years), drawn from three nearby educational institutions
excluding Asch’s own College, served as critical subjects. They were naïve and
knew nothing about the actual purpose of Asch’s study.
Asch was interested in the behaviour of the ‘focal’ subject that is S7 in the group.
As this subject was being exposed to the group and social pressure or influence
during experimental manipulations. Generally the subject (S7) was seated at the
end or at second last position in the row so that they may well hear what the
earlier participants are saying. By the time the subject’s turn comes to respond,
the responses of the other members of the groups are already known to the subject
and the possibility of his being influenced by their responses is also quite high.
To find out if this is so, the experiment was conducted.
Confederates: These subjects were actually the associates of Asch. They (S1 to
S6 and S8) were also called the majority and were there to cooperate with the
experimenter in the experimental plans. They were all pre instructed to give
either right or wrong answers on already fixed trials. They were also told to do
this job very cleverly and carefully so that the critical subjects do not come to
detect ‘their plan’. Their unanimity even in giving wrong judgements was also a
unique feature of the experimental plan.
Task
The main task was tomatch the lengths of lines (few inches) under optimal
conditions and announce the judgement. The subjects were told in the experiment
that it is a psychological experiment in visual judgement and that they would be
shown two cards: one bearing a standard line and other having three comparison
lines: numbered 1, 2, and 3. The subject was given the task of (i) to select the
line from among the three comparison lines that was equal to and matched in
length with the standard line. (ii) After that they have to speak loudly and announce
publicly its number (1st, 2nd or 3rd line). In each trial, a new set of standard and
comparison lines was used. Asch used a very simple discrimination task with
easily perceivable difference in length of the comparison lines. Actually, Asch
was not interested in confusing his critical subjects over the length of lines.
Trials
Total 18 trials were taken in a series with each group consisting of two trials,
viz., (i) Neutral trials and (ii) Critical trials.
Neutral Trials: Out of 18, 06 trials, introduced at different serial numbers as

tabled below, were those neutral trials on which the confederates also gave
“correct” judgements.
48
Critical Trials: Rest 12 were the critical trails on which the confederates publicly Norms and Conformity:
announced “pre-decided” wrong answers. Experiments
The following was the sequence of a particular trail in Asch (1956) experiment:
Sl. Trial Type of Type of answer of the
No. Code Trial confederates
01 A Neutral Trial Correct Judgement
02 B Neutral Trial Correct Judgement
03 1 Critical Trial Majority responds incorrectly
05 C Neutral Trial Correct Judgement
10 D Neutral Trial Correct Judgement
11 E Neutral Trial Correct Judgement
14 F Neutral Trial Correct Judgement
You might perhaps note that first nine trials (a – 6) have been repeated (d – 12)
and there was no break in between anywhere. As per column number four, the
confederates were pre-instructed to give set responses. But, the critical subjects
were also independent to give any answer as per their perception or as they
wanted it in any or all the 18 trails. Actually, this was the thing in which Asch
was interested that in clearly conflicting 12 critical trials, whom or what will the
critical subjects follow: their own perception or the majority group giving
unanimously incorrect responses. No discussion was allowed during the trials
and the subject was to give any response he liked/disliked. After the
experimentation, the subjects were interviewed also wherein they were given
the details of the experiment and experimental procedure and asked about their
experiences.
4.4 ALTERNATIVES AVAILABLE WITH

PROBABLE CONSEQUENCES
If you were in a situation like the above as a critical subject where there is clear
conflict in your perceptual judgement and the judgement of the majority, what 49
Culture and Norms possible alternatives you think were available with you for giving any judgement
on a particular critical trial. If you think as given in the table below, you are
right.
Table: Nature of pressure and available alternatives
Nature of Force Possible alternative Perceived/imagined
available probable consequences
The evidence of one’s Announce what you are You are contradicting the
senses (you are seeing seeing or give judgment group and declaring that
the stimulus right there based on your own the unanimous majority
in front of you). perception of the stimulus has given wrong
(Independence). judgement.
The unanimous opinion Follow the majority even You are suppressing the
of a majority group if they are wrong and give testimony of your own
(giving wrong answers judgement in line with perceptual experience, but
on pre-defined trials as theirs (Conformity). you will not be considered
instructed by Asch). odd man out.
4.4.1 Variables
Independent Variable: If Asch was not concerned with the varying lines of his
stimuli in various trials, then what else was it? As you have just read above, it
was the responses of the confederates on critical trials (wrong answers) which
he intelligently manipulated as independent variable.
Dependent Variable: Asch was interested in exploring/studying whether subjects

conform or yield to the wrong answers of the unanimous majority or stand
independent in giving their responses on the critical trails.
4.4.2 Procedure
Keeping in mind the seating arrangement of subjects in the psychology lab and
the sequence of the trials, let us proceed further to see how the experiment was
progressed.
Trial 01: A pair of cards carrying standard and comparison lines was presented
before the group and was asked to announce their respective judgements in the
order they were sitting. Their responses were noted. All gave similar judgment.
Trial 02: Another pair of cards, again carrying standard and comparison lines
was presented and the group was asked to announce their respective judgements
as pervious trial. Their responses were again noted and found that all gave similar
judgment.
Trial 03: Remember that the first two trails were neutral trials. This was followed
by the 3rd trial which was ‘critical’ trial. Here again, a new set of cards was
presented before the subjects but S1 (the confederate) gave wrong answer. Then,
S2 (again, the confederate) too gave the same but wrong answer. Third subject,
S3 (the confederate) followed the first two accomplices. So, did the fourth, fifth
and the sixth. By the time his turn came, the startled subject S7 (the critical,
naïve subject) was totally confused and disturbed. What his group members had
responded was not correct and he knew the correct answer. But, what to tell?
That, what he is perceiving right in front of him OR that, what the group members
50
had just announced one by one before him? Well, what ever he replied was Norms and Conformity:
noted by the experimenter. Experiments
This way, the remaining trials were completed as per experimental design, and
with all the critical subjects. The results of the experiment are presented below.
4.4.3 Results
The main findings of Asch are summarised below:
1) When the same task was conducted with the Control Group (N = 37), without
any misleading majority, without any experimental manipulation, the
perceptual or judgmental errors occurred less than 01% of all the judgements.
So, more than 99% accurate judgments were found under controlled
conditions.
2) Taking the results of all 123 subjects together, the naïve subjects yielded to
the group pressure and conformed to the misleading majority’s wrong
responses in 36.8% of the judgements showing that the unanimous majority
distorted one-third of the reported estimates.
This is a serious matter of concern because the task was, as you have seen, very
simple, easy and matter of fact, and most importantly, the subjects were free to
given their actual responses, yet they conformed to the group pressure and gave
the replies in the direction of the group’s wrong judgement.
Towards a positive explanation of the findings, however, we can say that

approximately two third (63.2%) of the responses were independent, correct,
beyond group pressure and were not distorted in the direction of wrong majority.
And, this is important.
However, individual differences were also noted in the experiment. For instance
• About 25% of the subjects were completely independent throughout the
experiment.
• About 5% subjects always went with the wrong majority ‘without exception’,
nearly all the time.
• Internal consistency was obtained in the responses and judgement of the
subjects in the experiment.
• Those who were independent in the initial trials remained independent later
also, and those who conformed from the starting were always yielding to
the group judgements.
4.5 EXPLANATION OF THE YIELDING

BEHAVIOUR
The post-experiment interviews helped Asch to further understand why did the
minority subjects yield to the apparently wrong judgements of the majority. Their
conformity and yielding to the wrong majority was explained as given below:
1st Level: Yielding at the perceptual level

Although occurred rarely and in the subjects who had low levels of self confidence
and lack of trust in themselves, the subjects felt that they had actually seen the
51
Culture and Norms lines the way the majority announced their judgements. These subjects were not
aware of the conflict and believed their group to be right.
2nd Level: At the judgmental level

This occurred rather frequently. That is, the subjects yielded to wrong majority
in giving incorrect answers either because they could not ensure themselves as
to whether they had understood their task or the experiment properly or because
they did not want to spoil the experiment. They were aware of the conflict but
also believed their group to be right.
3rd Level. Yielding at the action level

This category of subjects were very much aware of their yielding to the wrong
majority and felt highly uncomfortable while yielding but yielded because they
feared being considered odd man out or considered an eccentric person and being
excluded from the group. Thus, they were aware of the conflict and also knew
that their group was wrong.
4th Level: Explaining the independence

Asch (1955) also explained the reasons of observed independence where his
subjects did not conform to the wrong majority and maintained their independence
and enjoyed their freedom to speak the perceived truth. Few subjects had this
committed confidence in themselves that led them to report their own perceptual
judgements and they had the capacity to recover the doubts caused by the wrong
majority. Few others reported that they sometimes believed that the majority to
be correct but they preferred to tell what they actually perceived.
4.6 VARIANTS OF ASCH’S EXPERIMENTS

Studying the aspects of influence of group further, Asch was interested in few
other variables which he thought might influence the respondent’s behaviour.
He modified his experiments by (i) changing the size of majority, (ii) bringing
variations in the unanimity of wrong answers, etc. The results found are given in
the table below.
i) Variations in Size of majority
Asch was also interested to see if the size of the majority had any influence on
the respondents’ behaviour. He varied the size of the majority from 01 to 15 and
with each condition, of course, new critical subject was required. He found:
Number of Number of Effect/Findings
critical subjects confederates
01 01 Very little effect, and the subjects
continued to respond independently.
01 02 Substantial pressure was found and 13.6
% wrong answers were obtained.
01 03 Errors jumped to 31.8%. Found fullest
possible effects of majority.
01 04 – 15 Further increase in size of majority had
no further substantial increase of pressure
on subjects.
52
These findings led Asch to conclude that the size of the opposing majority was Norms and Conformity:
important only up to a certain number in influencing the subjects. Beyond that, Experiments
the size did not matter.
ii) Variations in Unanimity

By now, we have seen only one critical subject, all alone, in Aschs’s experiments.
What, if we have two critical subjects (minority of two) against the majority of
seven to nine?
In this variation, the findings revealed that the presence of a supporting partner
reduced the group pressure to one fourth and the critical subjects exhibited a
high level of independence.
But, what if this another dissenter joins the majority after six trials? Asch found
that there was an abrupt increase in the yielding to the erring majority and there
was a sudden increase in subjects’ errors. This shows that the presence of another
dissenter, that is a supporter brings the strength and confidence of the critical
subjects back and help them maintain their independence. And, that is perhaps
the reason for that the number of errors of the critical subjects increased suddenly
after the departure of the dissenter.
4.7 SALIENT FEATURES

A minute reading of the above experiments brings out some unique features
which further clarify the phenomena of conformity and independence. Let us
have a close look on few of these.
Character of the task

Unlike Sherif’s autokinetic experiment as seen in the previous unit, the task in
the Asch’s work was clear, unambiguous and obvious, an easily perceivable matter
of fact. The standard and comparison lines were right there in front of the eyes of
the subjects. They had to simply see and compare the readily perceivable lines
and to tell what they saw while giving their judgment.
Nature of subjects
There was no manipulation in the stimulus lines but with the confederates who
cooperated with the experimenter and produced an apparent conflict between
the actual matching line and the reported one, the manipulation was with the
confederates’ responses which the critical / naïve subject (minority) was free to
copy or not to conform.
Discussion
There was no discussion amongst the subjects during the experimental trials and
there was no direct persuasion from the side of confederates. Each subject was
independent to give the answer of his choice in all the trials.
Public announcement
The loud pronunciation of confederates’ judgement had a crucial effect on most
of the subjects. This was clearly more evident in the experimental condition
when they were allowed to give their judgements in writing.
53
Culture and Norms Immediacy
When we hear others around us saying their views loudly, we are certainly
influenced most of the times to give similar responses or views, particularly
when we are in such a situation that requires us to respond immediately.
Uneasy disagreement
When there was a clear conflict in what they saw to be actually right, but not
spoken by the group members and also they were going to conform (though
unwillingly), this condition was not an easy one for the subjects . Thus they
exhibited the symptoms of uneasiness because they were just going to reply
against their perception under group pressure.
Public disagreement
Most of the persons resist and do not conform or yield to wrong group pressure.
They publicly disagree and maintain their individuality for whatsoever the reasons
may be.
Number matters, but not as a rule

In Asch’s experiment, another interesting finding revealed that up to a certain
extent the number of persons in a group had influence on an individual’s behaviour
but beyond a given limit, too big group was found to have no effect.
4.8 CRITICAL APPRAISAL

Very recently, Dalal and Misra (2010) rightly stated that Asch’s work had a clear-
cut message that conformity is bad as it produces wrong judgements (p. 146 –
147). We can sense this when we read Asch (1955, p. 34), “That we have found
the tendency to conformity in our society so strong that reasonably intelligent
and well-meaning young people are willing to call White Black is a matter of
concern. It raises questions about our ways of education and about the values
that guide our conduct.” Thus, concerned with the ill effects of conformity in
polluting the social process, Asch advocated the fostering the values of
independence in the social beings.
After minutely analysing 99 social psychology textbooks that got published in

US between 1953 and mid-1984, it was found that the authors had often distorted
Asch’s findings, accentuated the role of conformity and underestimated that of
independence.
However, one issue raised by Leyens and Corneille (1999) seems pertinent to be
presented here, “… Asch did not pursue the reasoning when he dealt with social
relations, at least in his famous “conformity studies.” There, he tried to show
independence rather than interdependence, and his experimental manipulations
prevented any interaction between participants.
Contrary to Lewin, who focused on interactions, Asch never studied them even if
he briefly wrote about them. The paradox is that his conformity studies are usually
presented in the group section of contemporary textbooks, when it may well be
that Asch influenced social psychology by leading the researchers away from
“real” interactions” (p. 354 – 355).
54
The issue raised by Leyens and Corneille needs to be adequately addressed because Norms and Conformity:
interaction is a unique and characteristic feature of any social situation and a Experiments
group, and if there is no discussion and/or interaction permitted among the group
members even on the demands of the experiment, can the mere proximate physical
presence of few persons be safely termed as a group?
If we look at the psychological description of a group, Shaw (1981) finds one

thing common in all groups: their members interact. He therefore defined a group
as two or more persons who interact and influence one another. Also, according
to Turner (1987), the members of groups have feelings of “we” and perceive
themselves as “us” in contrast to “they”. More than fifty years ago, Bales (1950)
also says, “A small group is defined as any number of persons engaged in
interaction with each other (emphasis added) in a single face-to-face meeting or
a series of meetings, in which each member receives some impression or
perception of each other member distinct enough so that he can, either at the
time or in later questioning, give some reaction to each of the others as an
individual person, even though it be only to recall that the other person was
present.”
Whether you call the Asch’s subjects a group per se or not, there are definite
psychological studies, revealing that even mere presence of others influence and
enhance one’s performance, under the term social-facilitation. However, the same
is not always true and some researchers have also found that the presence of
others can hinder the performance as well.
What actually matters the most here, however, is that we need to learn and take
lessons from Asch and his work for the advancement of social psychology like
Rozin (2001), who had been the colleague of Solomon Asch at the University of
Pennsylvania for eight long years before Asch’s retirement. Secondly, if we are
convinced that independence should be preferred over conformity, we should
find and foster the ways to (a) combat the pressures to conform and (b) promote
independence.

1) What were the bases of Asch’s research?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2) Describe the importance of confederates of Asch’s experiments.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
55
Culture and Norms
3) Explain the reactions of the subjects when they had to give judgements
contrary to their perceptions.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
4) Comparatively analyse the variants of Asch’s line and length experiment.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
4.9 RELATED RESEARCH ON ASCH’S FINDINGS

Working with a group of chimpanzees, Whiten, Horner and de Waal (2005)
reported evidence of a conformity bias that has been identified in human studies
by researchers like Asch (1956) as a powerful tendency to discount personal
experience in favour of adopting perceived community norms.
The credit for doing the first ever study of brain activity and finding the biological
evidence associated with perceptual and emotional processes during social
conformity and independence goes to Berns, Chappelow, Zink, Pagnoni, Martin-
Skurski, and Richards (2005).
To investigate the neural basis of individualistic and conforming behaviour while

facing wrong information, they used functional magnetic resonance imaging
(fMRI) technology and a task of mental rotation in group pressure situations
(with a modification of the Asch paradigm). They reported that conformity was
associated with functional changes in an occipital–parietal network and activation
of the amygdala in independence or, in other words, when the participants went
against the group opinion.
In order to study the relationship between conformity and culture, a meta analysis
was performed by Bond and Smith (1996) utilising 133 studies, drawn from 17
countries, that used Asch’s line judgement task. They found that motivations to
conform were weak in Western societies than elsewhere and collectivist countries
revealed conformity more than individualist countries. In another work, while
Perrin and Spencer have been reported by Amir (1984) to unable to replicate the
‘Asch effect’, he found the ‘Asch effect’ replicable in Kuwait with Kuwait
University students.
To explain the conformity behaviour of the subjects of Asch’s experiments,

Noelle-Neumann, who formulated the spiral of silence theory in 1974, later used
56
the fact that “the subjects in Asch’s experiment saw ‘with their own eyes that the Norms and Conformity:
line selected by majority as the best match is not the best match’ as evidence that Experiments
fear of isolation is the dominant factor influencing conformity (quoted in
Scheufele and Moy, 2000).
In order to apply teach the social psychology in their classroom settings, Stephan
Desrochers (see Halpern and Desrochers, 2005) used Asch’s line comparison
task for tardy students. He made the classroom seating arrangement in a way that
the two late comer two students naturally get the last two seats after coming late
to the class. Other students who used to be in time formed a small group to act as
confederates and Desrochers told them their role to give wrong perceptual
judgement about the matching lines. The tardy students arrived late by five minutes
while the sheet carrying standard and comparison lines was being passed. The
students were informed that in that basic perception experiment, they were to
tell the comparison line matching with the standard line. After listening to other
students’ responses, the late comer students stared at the lines thinking about
other students’ responses. One of them even said loudly that other’s response
did not seem to be correct at the first glance, but, being so different from others’
judgment, she doubted her own perception. After some apparent struggle, both
of them conformed to the class. This practically taught the students in general
and the tardy ones in particular the power of social influence.
As we saw in the previous unit also that research further generates research and
leads to advancement of knowledge and understanding of a given phenomenon.
The same applies here also. Finding possible explanations for the behaviours of
the critical subjects of Asch where they had altered their responses (perceptual
judgements) in conformity with the group, you might also say … following
Cronback (1946) that, they deliberately or intentionally altered or distorted their
responses to appear more socially favourable. Well, this impression management
is a factor of socially desirable responding. In addition to studying the personality
correlates of conformity, the conformity behaviour may also be studied and
explained in terms of social desirability by the interested social psychologists to
further understand the underlying dynamics of conformity.
4.10 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have learned about another great social psychologist, Solomon
E. Asch and his experiments on conformity and independence. Using the clear,
unambiguous stimulus, he has been able to show that under group pressure and
social influence, many people give responses contrary to their apparently correct
perception conforming to the group’s wrong perceptual judgements.
His findings, like Sherif’s, have inspired social psychologists worldwide to study
group processes from a new perspective. Although we have also found that they,
for the most part, have been found to divert the main assertion of Asch, or, at
least, have avoided independence highlighted equally by Asch in his experiments
and writings. With just one book and a few articles to his credit, he gave a new
line of thought to all. Even recently researchers focused and studied the biological
basis of conformity and independence, and found separate brain areas working
for these distinct social processes.
57
Culture and Norms Ending this unit here, we present a new starting point for further research: Coming
back to the original experimental situation of Asch, nothing personal of the critical
subjects was on stake. What would the persons do in actual social life situations
if they well–perceive the possible future consequences of their behaviour of
conformity and/or independence on themselves and their lives? If their behaviour
is going to actually affect their real personal life, will they still conform to what
the others are saying but they are perceiving it different, something contradictory
and not matching with their previous learning or the social reality?

1) What is comparatively more important: conformity or independence, and
why?
2) Write a brief note on the Galileo’s saying that ‘sun was stationary and the
earth revolved round the sun’ in light of Asch’s paradigm.
3) From a fresher student’s point of view, can ragging in educational institutions
be explained in terms of conformity and independence?
4) If you have to study conformity on similar lines with Asch, what experimental
study would you plan in a given social setting of your choice? Give complete
details in terms of variables, experimental controls and proposed procedure.

Baron, R. A., Byrne, D. and Branscombe, N. R. (2008). Social Psychology (11th
ed.). New Delhi: Pearson Education, Inc..
McDavid, J. W. and Harari, H. (1994). Social Psychology: Individuals, Groups,

Societies. New Delhi: CBS.
References
Amir, T. (1984). The Asch Conformity Effect: A study in Kuwait. Social
Behaviour and Personality, 12(2), 187 – 190.
Asch, S.E. (1951). Effects of group pressure upon the modifications and distortion
of judgments. In H. Guetzkow (Ed.), Groups, leadership, and men. Pittsburgh,
PA: Carnegie Press.
Asch, S. (1952). Social Psychology. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall)
Asch, S. E. (1955). Opinions and social pressure. Scientific American, 193, 31-
35.
Asch, S. E. (1956). Studies of independence and conformity: A minority of one

against a unanimous majority. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied,
70, 1–70 [whole no. 416].
Asch, S. E. (1957). An experimental investigation of group influence. In

Symposium on Prentative and Social Psychiatry. Symposium conducted at the
Walter Reed Army Institute of Research. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office.
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Asch, S. E. (1987). Social psychology. New York: Oxford University Press. Norms and Conformity:
(Original work published, 1952). Experiments
Bales. R. F. (1950). Interaction process analysis: A method for the study of small
groups. Cambridge, Mass: Addison – Wesley.
Asch, S. E. (1956). Studies of independence and conformity: A minority of one

against a unanimous majority. Psychological Monographs, 70.
Berns, G.S., Chappelow, J.C., Zink, C.F., Pagnoni, G., Martin-Skurski, M.E.,
Richards, J., 2005. Neurobiological correlates of social conformity and
independence during mental rotation. Biological Psychiatry, 58, 245–253.
Bond, R. and Smith, P. B. (1996). Culture and conformity: A meta-analysis of

studies using Asch’s line judgement task. Psychological Bulletin, 119(1), 111 –
137.
Cronbach, L. J. (1946). Response sets and test validity. Educational and

Psychological Measurement, 6, 475-494.
Dalal, A. K. and Misra, G. (2010). The core and context of Indian psychology.
Psychology and Developing Societies, 22(1), 121 – 155.
Friend, R., Refferty, Y., and Bramel, D. (1990). A puzzling misinterpretation of

the Asch ‘conformity’ study. European Journal of Social Psychology, 20, 29 –
44.
Halpern, D. F. and Desrochers, S. (2005). Social psychology in the classroom:

Applying what we teach as we teach it. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology,
24(1), 51 – 61.
Leyens, J-P. and Corneille, O. (1999). Asch’s social psychology: Not as social as
you may think. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 3(4), 345 – 357.
Rozin, P. (2001). Social psychology and science: Some lessons from Solomon
Asch. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5(1), 2 – 14.
Scheufele, D. A. and Moy, P. (2000). Twenty-five years of the spiral of silence: A

conceptual review and empirical outlook. International Journal of Public Opinion
Research, 12(1), 3 – 28.
Shaw, M. E. (1981). Group dynamics: The psychology of small group behaviour.

New York: McGraw-Hill.
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norms of tool use in chimpanzees. Nature, 437, 737 – 740.
59

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Social Psychology

Block-1 Introduction to Social Psychology [4]

Unit-1 Definition, Concept and Research Methods in Social Psychology

Block-2 Attitudes and Behaviour [4]

Unit-1 Definition, Concept, Description, Characteristic of Attitude

Unit-2 Components of Attitude

Unit-3 Predicting Behaviour from Attitude

Block-3 Group Dynamics [4]

Unit-1 Introduction to Groups: Definition, Characteristics and Types of Groups

Block-4 Culture and Norms [4]

1.2 DEFINITION AND CONCEPT OF SOCIAL

The various definitions of social psychology are given:

1.2.1 Concept of Social Psychology

Psychology studies behaviour which is a result of individuals thoughts and

There is another category of behaviour. Behaviour which is result or caused by

1.2.2 Concept of Social Behaviour

1) Social interaction requires a social contact or social relationship: Every

2) Social interaction involves communication: Social interaction between

1.2.4 Concept of Social Influence

1.2.5 Scope of Social Psychology

Self Assessment Questions 1

1.3 RESEARCH METHODS IN SOCIAL

1.3.2 Sources of Research in Social Psychology

1.4 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

The experimental method could further be divided into two sub-categories

1.4.1 Laboratory Method

1.4.2 Field Method

The Advantage and Disadvantage of Field Method are:

1.5 NON-EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

1.5.1 Observation Method

1.5.2 Archival Method

1.5.3 Case Study Method

1.5.4 Correlation Method

The hallmark of an experimental design is intervention – with putting people in

The Advantages and Disadvantage of Correlational method are:

1.6 OTHER RESEARCH METHODS

1.6.1 Cross Cultural Method

1.6.2 Research Through Internet

1.7 RESEARCH ETHICS

1) Participant Welfare: It is essential that the physical and psychological

2) Deception: In order to avoid the problem caused by ‘demand characteristics’

3) Confidentiality: Participants in social psychology research is often required

1.8 LET US SUM UP

Lastly you were provided with a detailed understanding of various experimental,

1.9 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

2.2 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

2.2.1 Social Philosophers

2.2.2 Pioneer Anthropologists

2.2.3 British Evolutionists

2.2.4 Early Sociologists

Max Weber, a German sociologist-economist-historian, influenced later social

2.3 LANDMARKS IN THE HISTORY OF SOCIAL

2.4.1 Levels of Analysis of Behaviour

The societal level of analysis is used by sociologists, economists, political

The individual level of analysis is typically used by clinical and personality

Social psychologists adopt a different level of analysis: The interpersonal level.

2.4.2 Social Psychology and General Psychology

General psychology, in a way, independently carries out the study of human