EEE241

Digital Logic Design

CHAPTER NO. 1
DR. RIAZ HUSSAIN
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & COMPUTER ENGINEERING
COMSATS UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD
Review 2

 Introduction to course and course material

 Why DLD?
 What is DLD?
 Abstraction

 Divide and conquer

 Build upon previous work
 Digital Systems
 Advantages
Outline 3
 Digital Systems
 Binary Numbers
 Number-Base Conversions
 Octal and Hexadecimal Numbers
 Complements of Numbers
 Subtraction with complements
 Signed Binary Numbers
 Binary Codes
 Binary Storage and Registers
 Binary Logic
Must Reading 4

 Chapter No. 1: Digital Systems and Binary Numbers

Digital Systems 5

 Digital Vs. Analog

+5 +5

1 0 1
V V
Time Time

–5 –5

Digital: Analog:
only assumes discrete values values vary over a broad range
continuously
Digital Systems …continued 2 6
 Signal examples over time

Time

Continuous in
Analog value & time

Digital
Discrete in
Asynchronous
value &
continuous in
time
Synchronous Discrete in
with the clock value & time
Digital Systems …continued 3
 Advantages: 7
 Cheap electronic circuitry
 Easier to calibrate and adjust
 Immunity to noise
 Noise margin

Noise added

Sender Receiver

Signal Signal

✓ Thus digital systems have

captured the market
 Digital Systems 8
• Discrete Data
– Examples:
• 26 letters of the alphabet (A, B … etc.)
Analog Discrete
• 10 decimal digits (0, 1, 2 … etc.)
– Combine together
• Words are made of letters (University … etc.)
• Numbers are made of digits (4241 … etc.)
• Binary System
– Only ‘0’ and ‘1’ digits
– Can be easily implemented in electronic circuits
 Decimal Number System 9
• Base (also called radix) = 10
– 10 digits { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 }
• Digit Position 2 1 0 -1 -2

– Integer & fraction

• Digit Weight 100 10 1 0.1 0.01
Position
– Weight = (Base)
• Magnitude
500 10 2 0.7 0.04
– Sum of “Digit x Weight”
d2*B2+d1*B1+d0*B0+d-1*B-1+d-2*B-2
• Formal Notation
(512.74)10
Binary Systems 10
 Review, how the decimal system is designed?
 Base(Radix) 10
 Symbols: 0, 1, 2, … 8, 9
 What if quantity greater than 9?
 Add more significant digits to the left
 Each position carries a weight
 Example: 7392
7 × 103 + 3 × 102 + 9 × 101 + 2 × 100 = 7392
 Seven thousand three hundred and ninety two
 Weightage increases as the digit placement moves to left and vice
versa
Binary Systems …continued 2
11
 What if weightage is less than 100
 We use the symbol point (.) and write the number to the
right
 MSD → 103 102 101 100 . 10-1 10-2 ← LSD
 Base-10 is default base for numbering system
 But, we can generalize the rule for any base-r
system from the base-10 (decimal) number system
 Base (Radix) is “r”
 Symbols: 0 → (r – 1)
 Weightage of each number increases by a factor of “r”
as its placement moves to the left
r3 r2 r1 r0 . r-1 r-2
Binary Systems…continued 3
12
 Example: .
an…a5a4a3a2a1a0 a-1a-2a-3…a-m
an × rn +…a5 × r5 + a4 × r4 + a3 × r3 + a2 × r2 + a1 × r1 + a0
× r0 + a-1 × r-1 + a-2 × r-2 + a-3 × r-3 + … a-m × r-m
 Simplified:
 aj = {0 → (r – 1)}
j is the location of digit “aj” of the quantity in decimal
numbers is: n
D= a
j =− m
j
j
r
Binary Systems …continued 4 13

 As we know the general rule, now we can understand

how the binary (base-2) would work
 Base (Radix): “2”
 Symbols: 0, 1
 Weightage of each number increases by a factor of “2” as
its placement moves to the left
 Example:
 (11010)2 (Don’t call it eleven thousand and ten, but one, one, zero,
one, zero; we are not in decimal system)
 (11010.11)2
 Special Powers of 2 14

210 (=1024) is Kilo, denoted "K"

220 (=1,048,576) is Mega, denoted "M"

230 (1,073, 741,824) is ? Giga, denoted "G"

240 (1,099,511,627,776 ) is Tera, denoted “T"
Note: 8 bits (b) are also called a byte (B)

Exercise: what is (1111 1111)2 equal to in decimal?

Also, what is the maximum number (in decimal) a two bytes long word can represent?
Range of Binary Numbers 15

• Binary number: ex. a 3-bit number: n=3

– 000, 001 … ,111 or in decimal system: 0, 1 … 7
• Total of 8 numbers (=23)
• Range: from 0 to 7 (0 to 23 – 1)
– In general an n-bit number represents:
• 2n different numbers
• Min: 0
• Max number: 2n-1
• For fractions: m bits after the radix point:
– Min: 0
– Max number: (2m -1)/2m
 The Power of 2
n 2n n 2n
0 20=1 8 28=256
1 21=2 9 29=512
2 22=4 10 210=1024 Kilo

3 23=8 11 211=2048
4 24=16 12 212=4096
5 25=32 20 220=1M Mega

6 26=64 30 230=1G Giga

7 27=128 40 240=1T Tera

Examples of Binary Numbers 17

• 16 Gbyte (= 16 GB) of memory

–How many (address) bits are
required to address each byte?
• Digital camera has 2048x2048
pixels, and each pixel stores 8 bits of
information:
a. How many Mega pixels?
b. How many bits are stored per frame?
c. How many different intensity levels can be represented
by each pixel?
Base-5 Systems 18

 Quinary System
 Base (Radix): “5”
 Symbols: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
 Weightage of each number increases by a factor of
“5” as its placement moves to the left
 Example:
 (4021.2)5 (Don’t call it four thousand and twenty one,
but four, zero, two, one, point two)
Base-8 Systems 19

 Octal System
 Base (Radix): “8”
 Symbols: 0, 1, 2, … 6, 7
 Weightage of each number increases by a factor of
“8” as its placement moves to the left
 Example:
 (127.4)8(Don’t call it one twenty seven point four, but
one, two, seven, point four)
Base-16 Systems 20

 Hexadecimal System
 Base (Radix): “16”
 Symbols: 0, 1, 2, … 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
 Weightage of each number increases by a factor of “16” as
its placement moves to the left
 Example:
 (B65F)16

 Hexadecimal numbers are used to represent long

strings of bits in addresses, instructions and data
Conversion between Number Systems 21
 Conversion of decimal integer
 Repeated division
 Examples:
 57
 Binary
 Quinary
 Octal
 Hexadecimal

57/2 = 28: rem= 1=a0 57/5=11: rem=2 57/8=7: rem=1

28/2 = 14: rem= 0=a1 11/5 = 2: rem=1 (71)8
14/2 = 7: rem= 0=a2 (212)5
7/2 = 3: rem= 1=a3 57/16=3: rem=9
3/2 = 1: rem= 1=a4 (39)16
1/2 = 0: rem= 1=a5
(111001)2
Conversion between Number Systems 22
…continued 2

 Conversion of decimal fraction

 Repeated multiplication 0.625 x 2 = 1.250: a-1 = 1
0.250 x 2 = 0.50: a-2 = 0
 Examples: 0.500 x 2 = 1.0: a-3 = 1
(0.101)2
 0.625
0.625 x 5 = 3.125: a-1 = 3
 Binary
0.125 x 5 = 0.625: a-2 = 0
 Quinary 0.625 x 5 = 3.125: a-3 = 3
(0.303)5
 Octal
 Hexadecimal 0.625 x 8 = 5.0: a-1 = 5
0.0x 8 = 0.0: a-2 = 0
(0.50)8

0.625 x 16 = A: a-1 = A
0.0x 16 = 0.0: a-2 = 0
(0.A0)16
Conversion between Number Systems 23
…continued 3

 Conversion of mixed decimal numbers

 Convert the integer part using repeated division
 Covert the fraction part using repeated
multiplication
 Combine the integer and fractional components in
the new base
 Example:
 (48.5625)10
Conversion between Number Systems 24
…continued 4

 Conversion to binary number system:

 (48.5625)10 = (?)2

 Repeated division Repeated multiplication

48/2 = 24: a0 = 0 0.5625 x 2 = 1.1250: a-1 = 1

24/2 = 12: a1 = 0 0.1250 x 2 = 0.2500: a-2 = 0
12/2 = 6: a2 = 0 0.2500 x 2 = 0.5000: a-3 = 0
6/2 = 3: a3 = 0 0.5000 x 2 = 1.0000: a-3 = 1
3/2 = 1: a4 = 1 (0.1001)2
1/2 = 0: a5 = 1
(110000)2

 (48.5625)10 = (110000.1001)2
Conversion between Number Systems
…continued 5
25
 Conversion to quinary number system:
 (48.5625)10 = (?)5

 Repeated division Repeated multiplication

48/5 = 9: a0 = 3
0.5625 x 5 = 2.8125: a-1 = 2
9/5 = 1: a1 = 4 0.8125 x 5 = 4.0625: a-2 = 4
1/5 = 0: a2 = 1 0.0625 x 5 = 0.3125: a-3 = 0
(143)5 0.3125 x 5 = 1.5625: a-4 = 1
(0.2401)5

 (48.5625)10 = (143.2401)5
Conversion between Number Systems 26
…continued 6

 Conversion to octal number system:

 (48.5625)10 = (?)8

 Repeated division Repeated multiplication

48/8 = 6: a0 = 0 0.5625 x 8 = 4.5000: a-1 = 4
6/8 = 0: a1 = 6 0.5000 x 8 = 4.0000: a-2 = 4
(60)8 0.0000 x 8 = 0.0000: a-3 = 0
(0.440)8

 (48.5625)10 = (60.44)8
Conversion between Number Systems 27
…continued 7

 Conversion to hexadecimal number system:

 (48.5625)10 = (?)16

 Repeated division Repeated multiplication

48/16 = 3: a0 = 0 0.5625 x 16 = 9.000: a-1 = 9
3/16 = 0: a1 = 3 0.0000 x 16 = 0.000: a-2 = 0
(30)16 (0.90)16

 (48.5625)10 = (30.90)16
Conversion between Number Systems
…continued 8
28

 Conversion from base-A to base-B can be carried

out by repeated division and repeated
multiplication
 Make sure you do the division and multiplication using
the correct base
 Base-A → Base-B
 Itis easier (generally) to covert base-A to base-10
and then to base-B
 Base-A → Base-10 → Base-B
Number Base Conversions 29

Evaluate
Magnitude Octal
(Base 8)

Evaluate
Magnitude
Decimal Binary
(Base 10) (Base 2)

Hexadecimal
Evaluate (Base 16)
Magnitude
Conversion between Number Systems 30
…continued 9

Conversion between binary and octal

Each octal digit corresponds to three (3)
bits
Examples:
(101 110 010 . 011 001 )2 = (562.31)8
(010 011 100 . 101 001 )2 = (234.51)8
(745.32)8 = (111 100 101 . 011 010)2
(306.05)8 = (011 000 110 . 000 101)2
Conversion between Number Systems 31
…continued 10

Conversionbetween binary and

hexadecimal
Each hexadecimal digit corresponds to four(4)
bits
Examples:
 (1001 1010 0110 . 1011 0101 )2 = (9A6.B5)16
 (1100 1011 1000 . 1110 0111 )2 = (CB8.E7)16
 (E94.D2)16 = (1110 1001 0100 . 1101 0010)2
 (1C7.8F)16 = (0001 1100 0111 . 1000 1111)2
Conversion between Number Systems
…continued 11
32

 Conversion octal to hexadecimal and vice versa

using binary
 Convert 2138 into an hexadecimal number:

2138

10001011

8 B16
Decimal, Binary, Octal and Hexadecimal 33
Decimal Binary Octal Hex
00 0000 00 0
01 0001 01 1
02 0010 02 2
03 0011 03 3
04 0100 04 4
05 0101 05 5
06 0110 06 6
07 0111 07 7
08 1000 10 8
09 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F
 Arithmetic 34
• Decimal Addition

1 1 Carry
5 5
+ 5 5

1 1 0
= Ten ≥ Base
Binary Arithmetic 35

Binary Addition

11 1 1
101101 ← augend
+1 0 0 1 1 1 ← addend
1010100
 Binary Addition 36
• Column Addition

1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 1 = 61
+ 1 0 1 1 1 = 23

1 0 1 0 1 0 0 = 84

≥ (2)10
Binary Arithmetic 37
…continued 2
Binary Subtraction

101101 ← minuend
−1 0 0 1 1 1 ← subtrahend
000110
 Binary Subtraction 38
• Borrow a “Base” when needed
1 2 = (10)2
0 2 2 0 0 2
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 = 77
− 1 0 1 1 1 = 23

0 1 1 0 1 1 0 = 54
Binary Arithmetic 39
…continued 3
 Binary Multiplication

1011 ← multiplicand
× 101 ← multiplier
1011
0000
1 0 1 1_____
110111
 Binary Multiplication 40
• Bit by bit
1 0 1 1 1
x 1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1

1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
Binary Arithmetic 41
…continued 4
 Binary Division

Dividend Divisor
↓ ↓
1000001/1100=?

101 . ← Quotient
1100/1000001
1100↓↓ ← shift, if divisor is bigger and write 1 in quotient
010001 ← subtraction
1100 ← since brought down two bits write 01 in quotient
0101 ← Remainder
Complements of Numbers 42

Complements are used to simplify

subtraction operation
 Diminished Radix Complement
 Given an “n” digits number “N” in base “r” the (r-1) complement is:
 (rn – 1) – N
 Examples:
9’s complement of 546700 = (106 – 1) – 546700 =
999999 – 546700
= 453299
9’s complement of 012398 = (106 – 1) – 012398 =
999999 – 012398
= 987601

i.e. each digit is subtracted from 9

Complements of Numbers 43
…continued 2
 For binary numbers:
 r = 2 and (r – 1) = 1
 For “n” = 4
 24 = (10000)2
 24 – 1 = (1111)2

 So, 1’s complement is

 24 – 1 – N = 1111 – N
i.e. each digit is subtracted from 1
 However:
 1–1=0 and 1 – 0 = 1
 So, 1’s complement of binary numbers are formed by changing 1’s to 0’s and 0’s to
1’s
 Examples:
 1’s complement of 1011000 = 0100111
 1’s complement of 0101101 = 1010010
Complements of Numbers 44
…continued 3
 Radix Complement
 Given an “n” digits number “N” in base “r” the “r’s” complement is:

r n − N ; N  0

0; N = 0
 Examples: for a six digit decimal number (i.e. n=6)
10’s complement of 012398 = (106) – 012398 = 1000000 – 012398 = 987602
10’s complement of 246700 = (106) – 246700 = 1000000 – 246700 = 753300
 However, r’s complement is (r-1)’s complement + 1
 Obtaining (r-1)’s complement is easy
 each digit is subtracted from 9

10’s complement of 012398 = (999999 – 012398) + 1

= 987601 + 1 = 987602
10’s complement of 246700 = (999999 – 246700) + 1

= 753299 + 1 = 753300
Complements of Numbers
…continued 4
45
 For binary numbers:
 r = 2 and
 2’s complement is obtained by adding 1 to 1’s complement
 Example: 7 digits number (n=7)
2’s complement of 1101100 = 0010011 + 1
= 0010100
2’s complement of 0110111 = 1001000 + 1
= 1001001
i.e. The 2’s complement is obtained by leaving the least significant 0’s and the first
1 unchanged and then replacing 1’s with 0’s and 0’s with 1’s

“Complement of the complement restores the number”

(rn – 1) – [(rn – 1) – N] = N
rn – [rn – N] = N
Subtraction with Complements 46

M–N=?
1. Add the minuend “M” to the r’s complement of subtrahend
“N”
➢ M + (rn – N) = M – N + rn
2. If M ≥ N, the sum will produce an end carry and will be
discarded
3. If M < N, then there will be no end carry in the sum and the
sum will be
➢ rn – (N – M), which is r’s complement of (N – M)
➢ So, take the r’s complement of the sum and place negative sign in front
Subtraction with Complements
…continued 2 47
Examples:
1. 72532 – 3250 = ? (M ≥ N)

M = 72532
10’s complement of N = + 96750
169282
Discard the end carry M – N = 69282

2. 3250 – 72532 = ? (M < N)

M = 03250
10’s complement of N = + 27468
30718
No end carry, so take
r‘s complement of the sum = 69282 and
place negative sign
M – N = – 69282
Subtraction with Complements
…continued 3
Examples for binary numbers (same principle): 48
1. 1010100 – 1000011= ? (M ≥ N)

M= 1010100
2’s complement of N = +0111101
10010001
Discard the end carry M – N = 1 0 0 0 1

2. 1000011 – 1010100 = ? (M < N)

M = 1000011
2’s complement of N = + 0101100
1101111
No end carry, so take
r‘s complement of the sum = 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 and place
negative sign
M–N=–10001
Subtraction with Complements
…continued 4 49
Subtraction of unsigned numbers can also be done using (r – 1)’s complement
(r – 1)’s complement is 1 less than r’s complement,
So, the sum of minuend and the complement of subtrahend is
1 less than correct difference, when an end carry occurs
So, to get the correct difference remove the carry and add 1,
i.e. end around carry
1. 1010100 – 1000011= ?
An example of (M ≥ N) M = 1010100
1’s complement of N =+0111100
10010000
If carry, end around carry
0010000
+ 1
M–N=0010001
Subtraction with Complements
…continued 5 50
Subtraction of unsigned numbers can also be done using (r – 1)’s complement
When the sum of minuend and (r – 1)’s complement has no end
carry then take (r – 1)’s complement of the sum and place
minus sign
1. 1000011 – 1010100 = ?
An example of (M < N)

M = 1000011
1’s complement of N = + 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
1101110
No end carry, so take
(r – 1) ‘s complement of the sum = 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 and
place negative sign
M–N=–10001
Signed Binary Numbers
 Positive integers (0, 1, 2, . . . ) can be represented as
51
unsigned numbers
 For negative numbers in ordinary arithmetic, we use minus
sign
 However, Computer hardware has to represent everything in
bits
 So, the left most bit is used to represent the sign
 It is important that representation is known in advance
 Unsigned
(01001)2 = (9)10 (11001)2 = (25)10
 Signed:
(01001)2 = (9)10 (11001)2 = (– 9 )10
Signed magnitude convention: i.e. magnitude and the symbol (+ or –) or (0 or 1)
Signed Binary Numbers
…continued 2
 Signed magnitude convention is the one used in ordinary arithmetic52
 However, in computers, arithmetic operations are implemented using
signed complement system
Magnitude of
 Convenient
9
 Signed 1’s complement (relatively difficult)
 Signed 2’s complement (Easier, more common) 1’s
 (– 9)10 represented in three systems (using 8 bits) complement
of 9
 Signed magnitude representation: 10001001
 Signed 1’s complement representation: 11110110 2’s
complement
 Signed 2’s complement representation: 11110111 of 9
 In all three systems
Sign bit:
 Left most bit represents (positive or negative sign) representing
 The remaining part represents magnitude or complement –ve number
 Signed Binary Numbers…continued 3
53
 4-bits (Left most for sign and 3 bits for magnitude or complement)
 0–7

Positive numbers have

same representation in
all three systems

Left most bit (i.e. Most

{
significant bit) represents
sign in all three systems

Supplementary Reading:
http://ecse.bd.psu.ed
u/cse271/twoscomp.
pdf
Signed Binary Numbers…continued 4
 Arithmetic addition
54
 Ordinary arithmetic (sign magnitude system) requires comparison of
signs and magnitudes
 Signed complement system does not require comparison or
subtraction

The addition of two signed binary numbers with negative

numbers represented in signed‐ 2’s‐complement form is
obtained from the addition of the two numbers, including
their sign bits. A carry out of the sign‐bit position is
discarded.
Signed Binary Numbers…continued 5
55
 Arithmetic addition using signed-2’s complement
 Negative numbers must be in the form of signed-2’s complement
 The result is also obtained in the signed-2’s complement form
+ 6 0000 0110 – 6 1111 1010
+ 13 0000 1101 + 13 0000 1101
+19 0001 0011 + 7 10000 0111
Carry discarded
+ 6 0000 0110 Ans: 0000 0111
– 13 1111 0011
– 7 1111 1001 – 6 1111 1010
– 13 1111 0011
– 19 1 1 1 1 0 1101
Carry discarded
Ans: 1110 1101
Signed Binary Numbers…continued 6
56
 Arithmetic addition
 Buffer overflow
Overflow is a problem in computers because the number of bits
that hold a number is finite, and a result that exceeds the finite
value by 1 cannot be accommodated.
 If we start with two n‐bit numbers and the sum occupies n + 1 bits, we
say that an overflow has occurred
 Example: (4 bit signed number addition using signed-2’s-complement)
+ 4 0100
+ 5 0101
+ 9 1001
BUT, 1 0 0 1 is the representation of – 7 and not 9
 In order to obtain a correct answer, we must ensure that the result has a
sufficient number of bits to accommodate the sum.
Signed Binary Numbers…continued 6
57
• Arithmetic subtraction using signed-2’s complement
Take the 2’s complement of the subtrahend (including the
sign bit) and add it to the minuend (including the sign bit). A
carry out of the sign‐bit position is discarded.
( A) − (+ B) = ( A) + (− B);
( A) + (− B) = ( A) + (− B);
– i.e. we, change the subtraction operation to addition and
– Subtrahend positive number is changed to negative and negative to
positive by taking the 2’s complement
– Example: (–6) – (–13) = (–6) + (+13) – 6 1111 1010
+ 13 0000 1101
+ 7 10000 0111
Carry discarded
Ans: 0000 0111
Signed Binary Numbers…continued 7
58
Why Signed-Complement System?
It is worth noting that binary numbers in the signed‐complement
system are added and subtracted by the same basic addition
and subtraction rules as unsigned numbers. Therefore,
computers need only one common hardware circuit to
handle both types of arithmetic.

Why Signed-2’s Complement is preferred over signed-1’s

complement?
Please read the article on
http://ecse.bd.psu.edu/cse271/twoscomp.pdf
and answer in next class.
Binary Codes 59

 An n-bit binary code is an n-bit word which can

represent up to 2n different elements.
 Example: 3-bit code can represent up to 8 different
elements”

All quantities in a PC needs to be expressed as a binary

number: e.g. the digits 0, 1, …9; characters, control
characters, etc. This can be done using a “Code”
 Binary Codes
60

• Example: A
binary code Color Binary Number
Red 000
for the seven Orange 001
colors of the Yellow 010
rainbow Green 011
• Code 100 is Blue 101
not used Indigo 110
Violet 111

• Given n binary digits (called bits), a binary code

is a mapping from a set of represented elements
to a subset of the 2n binary numbers or elements.
 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
61

• The BCD code is the 8,4,2,1 code.

• This code only encodes the first ten
values from 0 to 9.
• Each decimal digit is coded separately by
4 bits
• Example:
– (325)10 = (0011 0010 0101)BCD
3 2 5

• Exercise: (856)10 = ( )BCD

 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
…continued 2 62
4 0100
+ 5 0101
• BCD Addition: 9 1001
4 0100
+ 8 1000
12 1 1 0 0 not a valid BCD number
0 1 1 0 for correction add 6
10010
= (0001 0010)BCD

8 1000
+ 9 1001
17 1 0 0 0 1 end carry
0 1 1 0 for correction add 6
10111
= (0001 0111)BCD
 Other Decimal Codes
63
• Wighted Codes:
• Each bit has associated weightage
• e.g.
• BCD (8421)
• 2421 Codes:
• Left most bit has weightage of 2
• Right most bit has wieghtage of 1
• Self complementing Codes:
• 9’s complement of the decimal code is directly obtained by
changing 1s to 0s and 0s to 1s
• e.g.
• 2421 Codes
• Excess-3
• Binary value + 3
 ALPHANUMERIC CODES - ASCII Character
Codes 64
• American Standard Code for Information
Interchange
• This code is a popular code used to represent
information sent as character-based data. It
uses 7-bits to represent:
– 94 Graphic printing characters.
– 34 Non-printing characters
• Some non-printing characters are used for text
format (e.g. BS = Backspace, CR = carriage
return)
ASCII Code: B7B6B5 B4B3B2B1
65
H=(1001000)
 PARITY BIT Error-Detection Codes
66
• Redundancy (e.g. extra information), in the form of extra
bits, can be incorporated into binary code words to detect
and correct errors.
• A simple form of redundancy is parity, an extra bit
appended onto the code word in the most significant position
to make the number of 1’s odd or even. Parity can detect all
single-bit errors and some multiple-bit errors.

A code word has even parity if the

number of 1’s in the code word is even. 7
A code word has odd parity if the TX RX
number of 1’s in the code word is odd. Parity bit
 ASCII Parity Code Example
67

7
TX RX
At the receiver side:
If an even parity is
Parity bit
detected, send an ACK
Transmit Ha in ascii: control = 00000110
1001000 1100001 If error was detected
Transmit with even parity:
send negative
01001000 11100001 acknowledge NAK =
10010101

added parity bit

 GRAY CODE – Decimal
68

Binary Gray

000 000
001 2 bit changes 001
010 011
011 2 bit changes 010 Only 1 bit changes
100 110
101 2 bit changes 111
110 101
111 100
As we “count” up or down in decimal, the code word
for the Gray code changes in only one bit position as
we go from decimal digit to digit including from 9 to 0.
Binary Storage and Registers
69
 Register:
0000
 Device for holding data 0001
0010
 Most common device for holding data 0011
0100
 Array of binary cells 0101
 Cell is capable of storing a bit (0, 1) information 0110
0111
 Can be set to one of two states 1000
1001
 An “n” cell register can be one of 2n states 1010
 0 → 2n – 1 1011
1100
 Example: n=4 1101
1110
1111
Binary Storage and Registers
…continued 2 70
 Register Transfer
register transfer operation is
a basic operation that
consists of a transfer of
binary information from
one set of registers into
another set of registers.
Binary Storage and Registers …continued 3
71
 Example of binary
information processing
Binary Logic
72
 Deals with variable that can take on two discrete values
 1, 0
 True, False
 Yes, No
 Variables are designated as
 A, B, C, x, y, z, etc.
 Binary logic or Boolean algebra has three basic logical
operations
 AND
 OR
 NOT
Binary Logic …continued 2
73
 AND operation:
 Represented by dot “∙” operator or absence of operator
 Read as “x AND y = z”
 x ∙ y = z; (x, y, z are binary variables)
 Truth table
x y z=x.y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
 z = 1; iff x = 1 and y = 1
 Symbol
Binary Logic …continued 3
74
 OR operation:
 Represented by plus “+” operator
 Read as “x OR y = z”
 x + y = z; (x, y, z are binary variables)
 Truth table
x y z=x+y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

 z = 1; if x = 1 or y = 1 or if both x=1 and y=1

 Symbol
Binary Logic …continued 4
75
 NOT operation:
 Represented by prime “’” operator or overbar operator
 x’ = z
 x=z

 Read as “NOT x = z”
 X’ = z; (x, z are binary variables)
 Truth table x z = x’
0 1
1 0

 Also called complement

 z is what x is not
 Symbol
Binary Logic …continued 5
76
 Binary logic should not be confused with binary arithmetic
 Operators used are also identical
 Dot “.” for multiplication and also for AND
 Plus “+” for addition and also for OR
 Prime “’” for complement and also for NOT

Arithmetic variables designates number that may consist of many digits,

whereas,
Logical variable is always 1 or 0
Binary Logic …continued 6
77
 Logic Gates:
 Electronic circuits operating on one or more input signals to produce
an output signal
 Switching Circuits 78

AND OR
Recommended Reading 79

 http://www.mathsisfun.com/binary-number-
system.html
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_number
 http://www.basic-mathematics.com/base-
five.html
 http://www.facstaff.bucknell.edu/mastascu/elessonshtml/Log
ic/Logic1.html
 http://ecse.bd.psu.edu/cse271/twoscomp.pdf
 http://www.williamson-labs.com/480_logic.htm