arihant

GENERAL
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KNOWLEDGE nc
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2024
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Manohar Pandey
 GENERAL

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KNOWLEDGE nc
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2024
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Manohar Pandey

ARIHANT *arihant
PUBLICATIONS
(INDIA)LTD.
 e
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arihant
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Arihant Publications (India) Ltd.
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jm

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CONTENTS
Current Affairs 5-32

INDIAN HISTORY 1-123

Ancient India
The Early Man (1), Indus Valley Civilisation (3), The Aryan and the Vedic
Age (7), Pre-Mauryan Age (12), Magadha Empire (14), Jainism (17),

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Buddhism (19), The Mauryan Empire (22), Post-Mauryan Period (25), The Age
of the Guptas (28), Gupta Administration (30), The Harsha Period (33), Sangam
Age (37)

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Medieval India
The Rajputs (40), The Delhi Sultanate (4), Vijayanagara Kingdom (AD 1336-1580)
(51), Religious Movements (54), The Mughal Empire (57), The Maratha Age (67)
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Modern India
Advent of the Europeans (70), Phases of Economic Policy (75), Revolt of 1857
(76), Governor-Generals of Bengal (78), Growth of Modern Education in India
(83), Social and Cultural Uprisings (84), The Indian National Movement (89),
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Important National Leaders (102)

Art and Culture of India

Religion (110), Literature (111), Music (112), Dance (114)
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World History
Important Wars of the 20th Century (121)
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GEOGRAPHY 124-229
World Geography
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Universe (125), Solar System (126), The Moon (130), The Earth (131),
Earthquakes (139), Volcanism (140), Rocks (142), Landforms (143),
Atmosphere (144), Climate and VWeather (154), Hydrosphere (158),
Movements of Oceanic Water (161), Continents of the World (164)
Indian Geography
Drainage System of India (181), The Climate of India(186), Forest and
Natural Vegetation (189), Agriculture in lIndia (192), Green Revolution (193),
Mineral Resources (195), Energy (198), Transport (199), Major Tribes of
India (204), States/UTS of India (208)

Ecology and Environment

Pollution (221), Biodiversity (222), Biosphere Reserves of India (225),
Glossary (227)

INDIAN POLITY 230-288

Constitution of India (230), The Preamble (238), Union and Its Territory (239),
Citizenship (240), Fundamental Rights (241), Directive Principles of
 State Policy (246), Fundamental Duties (248), Union Executive (249),
President (249), Prime Minister (255), Union Councilof Ministers (256),
Members of Parliament (258), Supreme Court (263), States Executive (266),
State Legislature (268), Panchayati Raj (275), Municipalities (Articles 243P-243ZG)
(275), Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) (278), Constitutional
Amendments (282), Glossary (286)

INDIAN ECONOMY 289-347

Introduction of Economics (289), National Income of India (290),
Methods of Measuring National Income (291), Strategies of Planning (295),
Demography (300), Poverty (302), Unemployment (304), Rural Development

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Programmes (306), Agriculture (314), Industry (319), Insurance Sector (332),
Indian Financial System (334), Union Budget (338), Finance Commission (340),

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International Economic Organisations (341), Glossary (344)

GENERAL SCIENCE 348-477

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Physics
Units (348), Newton's Laws of Motion (351), Work, Energy and Power (354),
Gravitation (355), Satellite (356), General Properties of Matter (35 7),
Density and Relative Density (358), Wave Motion (361), Sound Wave (362),
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Heat (363), Light (366), Electricity (370), Atomic and Nuclear Physics (374),
Radioactivity (375), Nanotechnology (376)

Chemistry
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Matter and Its States (382), Atomic Structure (386), Radioactivity (389), Acids,
Bases and Salts (398), Electrochemistry (400), Battery (401), Carbon and Its
Compounds (402), Energy Resources (404), Air, Water (408), Important
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Points (413)
Biology
The Cell (414), Biomolecules (417), Biological Evolution (420), Systems of
Human Body (424), Diseases (440), Genetics (449), Biotechnology (451),
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Botany (454), Agriculture (458), Animal Hustbandry (462)

Computer
Types of Computer (466), Components of Computer (467), Networking (470),
Internet (471), Glossary (476), Abbreviations (477)

GENERAL KNOWLEDGE 478-559

First in World (Male) (478), Superlatives of the World (480), Countries with
Capitals and Currencies (482), Geographical Epithets (483), Major Newspapers
of the World (486), First in India (Male) (488), UNESCO World Heritage Sites in
India (494), Famous Tourist Spots of India (495), Important Dates and Days of
the Year (503), Abbreviations (505), Books and their Authors (509), United
Nations (515), Sports (520), Other Sports (526), Principle Languages of
India (531), National Insignia of India (532), Indian Defence (533) Defence
Research in India (535), India's Atomic Research (539), Space Programme
of India (540), Awards and Honours (545), National Awards (550),
Film Awards (555)
 Current
Affaris
• A capital outlay of ? 2.40 lakh crore
NATIONAL

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has been provided for the Railways.
• This highest ever outlay is about 9
UNION BUDGET 2023-24

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times the outlay made in 2013- 14.
Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman
presented Union Budget 2023-24 on increased allocation to Defence Budget
February 1, 2023. to ? 593537.64 crore for 2023-24 fronm
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7 Priorities of Budget last year's allocation of 5.25 lakh crore.
1.Inclusive Development • For 2022-23, the budgetary allocation
2. Reaching the Last Mile for capital outlay was 1.52 lakh crore
3. Intrastructure & Investment but the revised estimate showed the
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4. Unleashing the Potential expenditure at 1.50 lakh crore.

5. Financial Sector
• A separate amount of 138205 crore
has been allocated for defence
6. Green Growth
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7. Youth Power
pensions.
• one-time new smallsavings
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Highlights scheme, Mahila Samman Savings

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• The capital expenditure is almost 3 Certificate, will be made available for a

times of the capital expenditure in FY two-year period up to March 2025.
2019-20. • This will offer deposit facility upto
• Fiscal Deficit estimated to be 5.9% of 72 lakh in the name of women or girls
@

GDP in BE 2023-24. for a tenor of 2 years at fixed interest

• Tax exemption up to 7 lakh/year is rate of 7.5% with a partialwithdrawal
under new tax regime. option.
• Agriculture Credit Target to be • 157 new nursing colleges to be
increased to ? 20 lakh crore. established in colocation with existing
PM Vishwa Karma Kaushal Samman: For 157 medical colleges set-up since
the first time package of assistance for 2014.
• National Digital Library for Children and
traditional artisans and craftspeople
has been conceptualised. Adolescents to be set up for facilitating
• New sub scheme of PM Matsya availability of quality books across
Sampada Yojana, with targeted languages, geographies and genres.
•
investment of ? 6000 crore, to further For business establishments required
enable activities of fishermen, fish to have Permanent Account Number,
vendors and micro and small the PAN will be used as a common
entrepreneurs, improve value chain identifier for all Digital Systems of
efficiencies and expand the market. specified government agencies.
 6 Current Affairs

• Aspirational Blocks programme ECONOMIC SURVEY 2022-23

Covering 500 blocks has been The Economic Survey 2022-23 was tabled
launched for saturation of by Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman in
government programmes; PM Parliament on January 31, 2023.
Primitive Vulnerable Tribal Groups
Key Features
Development Mission is being •India's GDP growth is expected to remain
launched to improve conditions of
vulnerable tribal groups. robust in FY23 at 7% (in real terms).
•
• Outlay for PM Awas Yojana is being The GDP forecast for FY24 to be in the

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range of 6-6.8%.
enhanced by 66% to over R 79000
Crore.
•
The Gross Tax Revenue registered a

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• 100 labs for developing applications Year-on-Year (YoY) growth of 15.5%
from Aprilto November 2022.
using 5G services to be set-up in • Central & State Government's budgeted
engineering institutions, to realise
new range of opportunities, business expenditure on health sector touched
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2.2% of GDP in FY22 (RE).
models and employment potential. •
•
Social sector expenditure increases to
National Green Hydrogen Mission R21.3 lakh crore in FY23 (BE) from 9.1
with outlay of ? 19700 crore will lakh crore in FY16.
facilitate transition to economy to
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• India declared the Net Zero Pledge to

low carbon intensity, our target is to
achieve net zero emissions goal by
reach annual production of 5 MMT 2070.
by 2030.
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• India achieved its target of 40%

Phase 3 ofe-courts project to be
installed electric capacity from
launched with outlay of ? 7000 crore, non-fossil fuels ahead of 2030.
for efficient administration of justice.
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• National Green Hydrogen Mission to

•
Government to provide higher limit enable India to be energy independent
of 2 lakh per member for cash
by 2047.
deposit and loans by Primary • Private investment in agriculture
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Agricultural Credit Societies. increases to 9.3% in 2020-21.

•
Some Notable Achievements InstitutionalCredit to the Agricultural
• 11.7 crore
household toilets under Sector continued to grow to 18.6 lakh
crore in 2021-22.
Swachh Bharat Mission
• Overall Gross Value Added (GVA) by the
• 9.6 crore LPG connections under
Uijawala Industrial Sector (for the first half of
FY 22-23) rose 3.7%.
• 220 crore Covid vaccination of • The services sector is expected to grow
102 crore persons
. 47.8 crore PM Jan Dhan at 9.19% in FY23, as against 8.4% (YoY) in
bank FY22.
accounts • India's share in world commercial
• Insurance cover for
44.6 crore services exports increasing from 3% in
persons under PM Suraksha Bima
2015 to 4% in 2021.
and PM Jeevan Jyoti Yojana • India is the largest recipient of
.
Cash transfer of ? 2.2 lakh crore to remittances in the world receiving
over 114 crore farmers under $ 100 bn in 2022.
PM Kisan Sammarn Nidhi
Current Affairs 7

74th Republic Day 2023 Celebrated and Union Territory. It is the programme
India celebrated its 74th Republic Day to digitise India's Universal
on 26 Jarnuary, 2023. This year's parade Immunisation Programme (UIP).
was special with many events taking
Moidams' Nominated for
place for the first time. UNESCO World Heritage Site
It was the first time that
the President of PM Narendra Modi has selected the
the Arab Republic of Egypt, Abdel 'Pyramids of Assam' as the country's sole
Fattah el-Sisi, had been invited as the nomination for the UNESCO World
chief guest on the Republic Day.

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Heritage Site out of 52 heritage sites on
For the first time, 12 women riders were January 24, 2023.

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part of the Border Security Force's (BSF) The Ahom-era 'Moidams' (cemetery of
camel contingent and 16 march the royal family) in Assam's Charaideo
contingents of the armed forces. The district will be India's only nomination
formations like 'Bheem' and Vajrang' for recognition as a UNESCO World
showcased over the Kartavya Path for
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Heritage Site.
the first time.
21 Andaman Islands Named after
During the Beating Retreat Ceremony
2023, 3D anamorphic projection was Param Vir Chakra Awardees
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held for the first time on the facade of Prime Minister Narendra Modi on
North and South Block January 23, 2003 named the 21 largest
unnamed islands of the Andaman &
World's First Intranasal Nicobar Islands after 21 Param Vir
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COVID19 Vaccine Unveiled Chakra awardees.

Union Health Minister Dr. Mansukh The 21 Param Vir Chakra winners named
Mandaviya unveiled world's first after these islands are: Major Somnath
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intranasal COVID-19 vaccine, Sharma, Subedar and Honorary Captain

INNCOVACC in New Delhi on
(then Lance Naik) Karam Singh, MM,
January 26, 2023. Second Lieutenant Ram Raghoba Rane,
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It is
developed by Bharat Biotech Naik Jadunath Singh, Company Havildar
International Limited (BBIL) in Major Piru Singh, Capt GS Salaria etc.
collaboration with Biotechnology
Industry Research Assistance (BIRAC). Brand Guardianship Index 2023
iNCOVACC has been priced at ? 325 per
Released
Billionaire Mukesh Ambani ranked No.1
dose. Bharat Biotech's intranasal
COVID-19 vaccine is a recombinant
among Indians and second globally on
replicating adenovirus vectored vaccine. the Brand Guardianship Index 2023,
published on January 20, 2023.
Government Launched U-WIN He has overtaken the likes of Satya
After the success of the Co-WIN Nadella of Microsoft and Google's
platform, the government has now Sundar Pichai to be ranked No.1 among
replicated it to set-up an electronic Indians and 2nd globally in this Index.
registry for routine vaccinations U-WIN Nvidia CEO Jensen Huang and Reliance
on January 25, 2023.
Industries Ltd's Mukesh Anmbani are
Named U-WIN has been launched in a ranked first and second respectively in
pilot mode in two districts of each state the Index (BGI).
 8 Current Affairs

Indian Scientists made First of its World's Longest River Cruise

Kind Discovery on Mars MV Ganga Vilas Launched
The first instance of solo Prime Minister Narendra Modi
electromagnetic waves has been flagged-off the world's longest river
discovered by Indian researchers on cruise, MV Ganga Vilas, and inaugurated
January 16, 2023. the Tent City in Varanasi via video
The results were established using conference on January 13, 2023.
information from the Mars Atmosphere MV Ganga Vilas has three decks with all
luxury amenities, 18 suites with a

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and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN) mission
of the National Aeronautics and Space capacity of 36 tourists. MV Ganga Vilas
travel about 3200 km in 51 days to

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Administration.
Using high-resolutiorn electric field data reach Dibrugarh in Assam via
from MAVEN'S captured by Langmuir Bangladesh,crossing 27 river systems in
Probe and Waves sensors, scientists India and Bangladesh.
have detected the lone waves in the
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National Youth Festival-2023 Held
Martian magnetosphere.
Prime Minister Narendra Modi
112-ft Tall AdiyogiShiva inaugurated the National Youth
Statue Unveiled Festival-2023 on January 12, 2023 on the
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The 112-ft face of Adiyogi,the source of Birth Anniversary of Swami Vivekananda.

Yoga, was unveiled at the Sadhquru Itwas organised in the twin cities of
Sannidhi in Chikkaballapura near Hubballi – Dharwad in Karnataka from
ie

Bengaluru on January 15, 2023. January 12 to 16, 2023. Theme of this

Statue unveiled by Karnataka Chief year's Youth Festival was Vikasit Yuva,
Minister Basavaraj Bommai in the Vikasit Bharat'.
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presence of Sadhguru, founder of Isha Successful Test Launch of Prithvi ll

Foundation. Adiyogi Divya Darshanam, DRDO successfully carried out a training
a unique 14-minute video imaging
launch of a Short-Range Balistic Missile,
show mapped on the 112-foot Adiyogi,
@

Prithvi-ll on January 11, 2023.

followed the unveiling.
launched from Integrated Test
It is
'Aarogya Maitri Project Announced Range, Chandipur off the Odisha coast.
Prime Minister Narendra Modi has The user training launch successfully
announced a new 'Aarogya Maitri validated all operational and technical
project on January 14, 2023. parameters of the Prithvi-ll missile,
Under this project India will provide which has a range of around 350 km.
essential medical supplies to
Joshimath Declared as
developing countries affected by
'Landslide-Subsidence Zone'
natural disasterS or humanitarian crises.
PM proposed to set-up a 'centre of
Joshimath (a city in Chamoli district in
Uttarakhand) has been declared a
excellence' to facilitate development
landslide-subsidence zone by respective
solutions to these countries.
authorities on January 9, 2023. Joshimath
PM announced this at the Concluding is
the gateway to Hemkund Sahib and
Session of the two-day virtual Voice of Badrinath. Bigcracks are being seen
Global South Summit'. between people's houses and roads.
Current Affairs 9

17th Pravasi Bharatiya Divas The targets by 2030 are likely to bring in

Convention Held Over 8 lakh crore investments and

Prime Minister Narendra Modi Create over six lakh jobs.
inaugurated the 17th Pravasi Bharatiya India took over Leadership of the
Divas Convention in Indore, Madhya Asian Pacific Postal Union
Pradesh on January 8, 2023. India has taken over the leadership of
The 17th PBDC organised from the Asia Pacific Postal Union (APPU) on
January 8-10, 2023 in collaboration with January 3, 2023.

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the Government of Madhya Pradesh. Dr. Vinaya Prakash Singh will take over
The theme of the conference was
the charge of Secretary General of the

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"Diaspora: Reliable Partners for India's
Union for a tenure of 4 years. This is the
Progress in Amrit Kaal".
result of the elections during the
India Surpassed Japan to become 13th APPUCongress held in
3rd Largest Auto Market Globally August-September 2022.
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India has surpassed Japan on January &, India's Largest Single Unit of
2023 in terms of auto sales in 2022 to Women Peacekeepers
become the 3rd-largest auto market It is mentioned on January 6, 2023 that
globally for the first time. India's new
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India will deploy a platoon of women

vehicle sales were at least 4.25 million
peacekeepers to UN Mission in Sudan.
units, ahead of the 4.2 million sold in
This will be India's largest single unit of
Japan, based on preliminary results.
women Peacekeepers in a UN Mission
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DRDO Developed Unmanned since it deployed the first-ever

Vehicle all-women contingent in Liberia
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The Defence Research & Development in 2007.

Organisation (DRDO) has developed an The deployment in Abyei (Sudan) will
unmanned aerial vehicle on January 7, also herald India's intent of increasing
2023 with the aim of targeting logistics significantly the number of Indian
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operations on the Himalayan border. women in Peacekeeping contingents.

This aircraft has been displayed by 3 More Sites Added to
DRDO at the 108th Indian Science
UNESCO's Tentative List
Congress held in Nagpur, Maharashtra.
This UAV can fly with a load of 5 to Three more sites in India have made it
25 kg. and is also capable of dropping
to the tentative list of UNESCO's world
bombs in enemy territory. heritage sites on December 2 1,2022.
Sun Temple at Modhera, historic
National Green Hydrogen
Vadnagar town in Gujarat, and rock-cut
Mission Approved relief sculptures of Unakoti in Tripura,
The Union Govemment has approved have been added to the tentative list of
the NationalGreen Hydrogen Mission, UNESCO world heritage sites.
with an initial outlay of ? 19744 crore on The Sun Temple in Modhera, Gujarat, is
January 4, 2023. The Mission aims to dedicated to Surya Dev and is situated
make India a Global Hub for the on the left bank of the Pushpavati River,
production, utilisation, and export of a
tributary of the River Rupan.
Green Hydrogen.
 10 Current Affairs

Social Progress Index Released Punaura Dham in Sitamarhi District of

The SPI for States and Districts of India Bihar has been selected for
as mandated by the EAC-PM was development under the PRASHAD
released on December 20, 2022. It was Scheme of the Government of India.
released by the Economic Advisory INSMormugao Commissioned by
Councilto Prime Minister (EAC-PM)
Defence Minister in Mumbai
along with Institute for INS Mormugao commissioned by Union
Competitiveness and Social Progress
Defence Minister Rajnath Singh on the
Imperative. The top three performing

e
eve of the Goa Liberation Day 2022 on
districts are Shimla in Himachal Pradesn,
December 19,2022.
Solan in Himachal Pradesh, and Aizawl

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in Mizoram. INS Mormugao is the second ship of the
Visakhapatnam-class stealth quided
Millet Food Festival Held missile destroyers of the Indian Navy.
Prime Minister Narendra Modi has Named after the port city in Goa, this
ra
called upon the Members of the stealth destroyer is 163 metres long and
Parliament to make the International 17 metres wide, with a displacement of
Year of Millets 2023, a mass movement. 7.400 tonnes
Mr. Modi informed this while
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India Successfully Tested

addressing the BJP parliamentary party
meeting in Parliament House Complex
Nuclear-Capable 'Agni-5' Missile
on December 20, 2022. India successfully carried out the night
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trials of the Agni-5 nuclear-capable

PM Modi along with other attended a
ballistic nmissile on December 15, 2022.
lunch in Parliament where millet dishes
were served as India prepares to mark Agni-5 is developed by the DRDO.
jm

2023 as the International Year of Millets. Agni5 missile capable of striking targets
at ranges up to 7000 kilometres with a
New National Food Processing very high degree of accuracy.
Policy
Indian Navy Gets 5th Scorpene Class
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The Centre has conmpleted the

Submarine INS Vagir
consultation process on the new
National Food Processing Policy on The fifth Scorpène submarine, Vagir of
December 20, 2022. MoS for Food Project- 75 Kalvari Class submarines has
Processing Industries Prahlad Singh been delivered to the Indian Navy by
Patel saicd that the Ministry has Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Limited
(MDL) Mumbai.
approved 41 Mega Food Park, MFP,
projects for assistance under Pradhan INS Vagir can undertake anti-surface,
Mantri Kisan SAMPADA YOjana, PMKSY. anti-submarine, intelligence gathering,
mine laying, area surveillance missions.
Gaya and Nalanda Selected for
Swadesh Darshan 2.0 Scheme Central Bank Digital Currency
Central government informed on Launched
December 19, 2022 that Gaya and The RBI has launched the pilot for a
Nalanda in Bihar has been included by central-bank-backed digital rupee for
the Government of India under the the wholesale segment.
Swadesh Darshan 20 scheme.
Current Afairs 11)

announced this in a statement on

RBI India's First Private Space
Operationalisation of Central Bank Vehicle Inaugurated
Digital Currency-Wholesale (e?-W) Plot. Aanikul Cosmos launched India's first
The 9 banks selected for the pilot are private launchpad and mission control
State Bank of India, Bank of Baroda, centre at the Satish Dhawan Space
Union Bank of India, HDFC Bank, ICICI Centre (SDSC) in Sriharikota on
Bank, Kotak Mahindra Bank, Yes Bank,
November 28, 2022.
IDFC First Bank and HSBC.
Agnikul Cosmos is Chennai-based space
tech startup company. The facility was

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Prime Minister Modi flagged off
6th Vande Bharat train inaugurated by ISRO Chairman

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PM Narendra Modi, inaugurated 6th S. Somanath.
Vande Bharat Express train on Yak Approved as 'Food Animal'
December 11, 2022. This Vande Bharat
The Food Safety and Standard Authority
Express will run on Bilaspur
of India (FSSAI) has approved the
ra
(Chhattisgarh)-Nagpur (Maharashtra) Himalayan Yak as a Food Animal' on
route. Government proposes to run 75
November 26, 2022. The move is
Vande Bharat express trains in the expected to help check decline in the
country by 15 August 2023, which will
population of the high-altitude bovine
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give a big boost for the Country's animal by makingit a part of the
Transportation Network. conventional milk and meat industry.
India Assumed G20 Presidency Indo-Pacific Regional Dialogue
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As India assumed G20 Presidency on

2022 Held
December 1, 2022, 100 centrally
The Indo-Pacific Regional Dialogue 2022
protected monuments, including
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(PRD-2022) the annual apex-level

UNESCO world heritage sites spread
across the country were lit up bearing regional strategic dialogue of the
Indian Navy in New Delhi from 23
the G20 logo. November, 2022 to 25 November, 2022.
The monuments that were lit up
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included Red Fort (Delhi), Royal Palace India took over Chair of
(Mandu MP), Sanchi Stupa (MP), Global Partnership on Al
Kumbhalgarh Fort (Rajasthan), India has taken over the chair of Global
Shankracharya Temple (Srinagar), and Partnership on Artificial Intelligence
Five Rathas (Mahabalipuram, (GPAI) from France on November 21,
Tamil Nadu). 2022. The Minister of State for
Electronics and Information Technology
India Assumed Presidency of
Rajeev Chandrasekhar will represent the
the UNSC country at the GPAlmeeting in Tokyo.
India has assumed the Presidency of the
UNSC on December 1, 2022 for the India Ranked 61st on
month of December 2022. India will be Network Readiness
the President of the UNSC for one India has been ranked 61st in the
month as the 2 year term of India as a Network Readiness Index 2022 released
non-permanent member of the UNSC on November 19, 2022. The index was
ends on December 31, 2022. prepared by a US-based Portulans
 (12 Current Affairs

Institute, an independent non-profit demonstration flight to showcase the

research and educational institute. capabilities of the company. The rocket
India's overall score improved from will help validate the technologies that
49.74 in 2021 to 51.19 in 2022. willbe used in the subsequent Vikram-1
orbital vehicle of Skyroot.
Kashi Tamil Sangamam Held
The PM Narendra Modi inaugurated President Attended Janjatiya
'Kashi Tamil Sangamam' -a month-long Gaurav Diwas Programme
programme organised in Varanasi (UP) President Droupadi Murmu attended

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on November 19, 2022. the state-level program of Madhya
The objective of the programme is to Pradesh on the occasion of Janjatiya

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celebrate, reaffirm and rediscover the Gaurav Diwas on November 15, 2022 at
age-old links between Tamil Nadu and Shehdol. This day is celebrated
Kashi- two of the country's most nationwide to mark the birth
important and ancient seats of learning. anniversary of Adivasi icon Birsa Munda.
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Power System Operation SC Announced Forced Conversion
Corporation Limited Renamed as a Very Serious Issue
India's nationalgrid operator 'Power The Supreme Court on November 15,
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System Cperation Corporation Ltd. 2022 described forced conversion as a

(POSOCO) has announced that it has very serious issue that affects the
changed its name to 'Grid Controller of security of the nation. The observation
India Ltd.!' on November 18,2022. was made by a bernch of Justices
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MR Shah and Hima Kohli.

The name has been changed to reflect
the critical role of grid operators in The SChas directed the center to take a
ensuring integrity, reliability, economy, stand on the matter and file a response
jm

resilience and sustainable operation of in aweek about steps being taken to

the Indian electricity grid. prevent it.

4th Phase of Digital Shakti 2022 Declared as ASEAN-India

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Campaign Launched Friendship Year

The National Commission for Women The year 2022 has been declared as the
launched the 4th phase Digital Shakti ASEAN-Hndia Friendship year, as ASEAN
4.0 on November 16, 2022. It is a and India commemorate 30 years of
pan-lndia project on digitaly partnership on November11, 2022. A
empowering and skilling women and series of events has been planned to
girls in cyberspace. celebrate the occasion throughout the
year.
India's First Private Rocket
Vikram-S' Launched 19th ASEAN-India Summit Held
India's first privately developed rocket in Cambodia
Vikram-S launched on November 15, The Vice-President of India led the
2022 from the ISRO at the Sriharikota Indian delegation at the 19th
launchpad. The launch of Vikram-S ASEAN-India Summit in Phnom Penh,
Rocket by ISRO is a historic moment. Cambodia on November 12, 2022. The
The launch of India's first privately Vice-President hailed the deep cultural,
developed rocket was a technology economic and civilisational ties that
Current Affairs 13

have existed between India and citizenship to Minorities from

South-East Asia from time immemorial. Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Pakistan.
India and ASEAN adopted a joint Centre to grant citizenship to Hindus,
statement announcing the evaluation of Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parsis and
the existing Strategic Partnership to Christians and currently living in two
Comprehensive Strategic Partnership. districts of Gujarat.
Logo, Theme and Website of PM Attended 'Mangarh Dham
India's G20 Presidency Unveiled kiGaurav Gatha'

e
Prime Minister Narendra Modi unveiled The PM Narendra Modi attended a
logo, theme and website of lndia's G20 public programme 'Mangarh Dham ki

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presidency on November 8,2022. Gaurav Gatha' on November 1, 2022.
The logo and theme of G20 reflects He paid homage to the sacrifices of
India's message and overarching priorities unsung tribal heroes and martyrs of
to the world. The G20 logo is created with the freedom struggle. As part of Azadi
ra
four colours of India's national flag and ka Amrit Mahotsav, the government
represents sitting has initiated several steps to celebrate
atop lotus. unsung tribal heroes of the freedom
struggle.
nt

SC Upholds 10% Quota for EWS

The Supreme Court (SC) upheld the 10%
reservation on November 7, 2022 for the INTERNATIONAL
Economically Weaker Section (EWS)
ie

among forward castes in govemment jobs International Day of Education

and colleges. A Bench comprising CJI 2023 Dedicated to Afghan Girls
jm

UU Lalit and Justices Dinesh Maheshwari, The UNESCO has decided to dedicate
S. Ravindra Bhat, Bela M. Trivedi, and JB
the International Day of Education to
Pardiwala delivered the judgment. be celebrated on January 24, 2023, to
UDISE+ Report Released Afghan girls and women.
@

Currently around 80% of Afghan girls

The number of children entering
pre-primary classes in 2021-22 has and young women of schoo-age are
out of school under Taliban rule, as
declined by 30% as per UDISE+ report
released on November 3, 2022.
they are denied access to secondary
A
schools and universities.
total of 94.95 lakh students entered
preprimary school in 2021-22, registering World Economic Forum Meet 2023
a drop of 10%, as compared to 1.06 crore The annual meeting of World
in the previous years. Enrolment in Economic Forum (WEF) 2023 held in
primary school, classes to 5,
1
saw a drop Davos, Switzerland, from January 16 to
from 12.20 lakh in 2020-21 to 12.18 lakh in 20, 2023. The theme for this year's
2021-22. meeting was 'Cooperation in a
Fragmented World.
Centre to Grant Citizenship to
Minorities of Gujarat The goal of the WEF was to promote
innovative solutions and encourage
The Union government has decided on
COoperation bettween governments
November 1,2022 to grant Indian
and the busineSS sectorS.
 14 Current Affairs

Chris Hipkins Sworn-in as Prachand will become the prime

New Zealand Prime Minister minister for the third time. In the recently
Labour leader Chris Hipkins was held parliamentary election no party got
any clear majority.
sworn-in as New Zealand's Prime
Minister in a formal ceremony on Sitiveni Rabuka became the PM of Fiji
January 20, 2023.
Sitiveni Rabuka became Fiji's Prime
Hipkins was Minister for police, Minister on December 24, 2022 after a
education and public service, as well as coalition of parties vOted narrowly to

e
leader of the House. Chris replaced install him as leader of the country.
Jacinda Ardern. It also signals the end of the former

nc
UNICEF Report on Prime Minister Frarnk Bainimarama's
Child Mortality Rate 16 years in power. In the 55 member
'Levels and Trends in Child Mortality' Parliament of Fiji, Sitiveni Rabuka secured
report was published by United 28 votes against Bainimarama's 27 votes.
ra
Nations (UN) on January 14,2023. Taliban Banned University Education
Another global reports on stillbirths for Afghan Girls
(Never Forgotten)) was also released by The Taliban government has passed an
nt

UN Inter-agency Group for Child

order to Suspend university education
Mortality Estimation (UN IGME). for all female students in Afghanistan on
As per the report released, an December 20, 2022.
estimated 5 million children died
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The education ministry under Taliban

before their Sth bithday and another Regime said that the decision was made
2.1 million children and youth aged in acabinet meeting and the order will
between 5-24 years lost their lives go into effect immediately.
jm

in 2021.
Resolution on 'Education for
UN Report on Ozone Hole Democracy' Adopted
According to a UN-backed report The United Nations General Assembly
@

created by an international body of (UNGA)adopted a resolution titled

experts on January 9, 2023, the Earth's Education for Democracy' that reaffirms
ozone layer is on track to completely the right of everyone to education on
recover within 4 decades. January 18, 2023.
Ozone is a special form of oxygen with The resolution, which was co-sponsored
the chemical formula O. The oxygen by India, recognises that 'education for
we breathe and that is so vital to life on all' contributes to the strengthening of
earth is O,. Ozone layer depletion leads democracy. The resolution encourages
to an uptick in the incidence of skin member states to integrate education
cancer and cataracts in humans. for democracy into their education
Pushpa Kamal Dahal 'Prachanda' standards.
Appointed as the PM of Nepal Leo Varadkar Elected as the
President Bidya Devi Bhandari of Nepal PM of Ireland
has appointed Pushpa Kamal Dahal Indian origin Leo Varadkar was elected as
'Prachanda' as the new prime minister the Prime Minister of the Republic of
of Nepal on December 25, 2022.
Current Affairs 15

Ireland for the second time on sex outside marriage punishible by a year
December 17, 2022. He took over from in jail and cohabitation by 6 months.
Michael Martin under an arrangement
'Goblin Mode' is the Word of the
struck between their two parties under
a 2020 coalition pact. Leo Varadkar was Year 2022 of Oxford Dictionary
earlier Prime Minister of lreland from Oxford dictionary chosen 'Goblin Mode'
as word of the year 2022 on December 6,
2017 to 2020.
2022. It isa "slang term" means 'a type of
USPresident Joe Biden Signed Gay behaviour which is unapologetically

e
Marriage Legislation self-indulgent, lazy, slovenly, or greedy,
United States (US) President Joe Biden typically in a way that rejects social

nc
signed gay marriage law on noms or expectations".
December 14, 2022. On the occasion,
Forbes the World's 100 Most
the President said that "the law that
protects love strikes a chord against Powerful Women
ra The 2022 list of the World's 100 Most
hate in all its forms".
Powerful Women was released on
This law establishes statutory authority
December 6, 2022. European
for same-sex and interracial marriages.
Commission President Ursula von der
The House of Representatives passed
nt

Leyen is ranked at the top, while Iran's

the law on December 8 by a vote of
Mahsa Aminiis ranked at 100.
258-169-1.
Ranked at number 36, Nirmala
US Prints First Banknotes with Sitharaman has made it to the list for the
ie

Women's Signatures fourth time in a row.

The US the Treasury (United States of The other Indians to feature on the list are
America's Finance Ministry) has printed
jm

• HCL Tech Chairperson Roshni Nadar

the first US banknotes (currency notes) Malhotra (rank:53),
with two women's signatures on SEBIChairperson Madhabi Puri Buch
December 11,2022.
(rank 54) and
The new Curency notes of $ and $5
@

1
• Steel Authority of India Chairperson
value carry the signature of the Soma Mondal (rank:67).
Secretary of Treasury (American
Finance Minister) Janet Yellen and 'Gaslighting' is Merriam-Webster
Lynn Malerba. Word of the Year 2022
•
When British playwright Patrick
Indonesia's Parliament Passed Law
Criminalising Adultery Hamilton wrote Gas Light in 1938, little
did he know how often the word
Indonesia's parliament passed a would be used in the 21st Century.
long-awaited and controversial revision Merriam-Webster, America's oldest
of its penal code on December 6, 2022 dictionary publisher, has just chosen
that crinminalises extramaritial affairs. 'gaslighting' as its Word of the Year.
The new criminal code must be signed
by the President, according to Deputy EIU's Worldwide Cost of Living 2022
Minister of Law and Human Rights London-based Economist Intelligence
Edward Hiariej, Indonesia's amended Unit (EIU) released the Worldwide Cost
criminal code includes articls that make of Living 2022 report on Dec. 6, 2022.
 16 Current Affairs

The report compares the prices of more US-based consulting firm Morning
than 200 goods and services in 172 Consult. The Indian PM is followed by
countries. Moscow and St. Petersburg Mexican President Andrés Manuel
witnessed a drastic increase in the rank López Obrador at 69% and Australian
Moscow has been ranked 37th in 2022 PM Anthony Albanese at 56%, on the
as compared to 72nd in 2021. second and third spots, respectively.
Voting Age of 18 Changed in Russian Parliament Passed Law
New Zealand Banning 'LGBT Propaganda'

e
New Zealand's Supreme Court ruled The Russian Parliament approved a Bill
that the country's current voting age of to prohibit LGBT Propaganda' on

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18 is discriminatory on November 30, November 24, 2022.
2022. New Zealand's minimum voting The Billvwidens a prohibition of 'LGBT
age of 18 was inconsistent with the Propaganda' and restricts the
country's Billof Rights, mentioned 'demonstration' of LGBT behaviour,
ra
the court. making any expression of an LGBT
Great Barrier Reef to be Listed as a lifestyle almost impossible.
World Heritage Site Anwar lbrahim Sworn-in as the
nt

UN panel has recommended on Prime Minister of Malaysia

November 28, 2022 that Australia's Malaysia's opposition leader Anwar
Great Barrier Reef should be listed as a Ibrahim was sworn-in as the country's
World Heritage site that is in danger. tenth Prime Minister on November 24,
ie

The UN also informed that the world's 2022. The new leader was appointed by
biggest coral reef ecosystem was King Al-Sultan Abdullah.
significantly impacted by climate
jm

With this, the political uncertainty that

change and the warming of oceans. continued for several days after the
Powerful Earthquake on Java general elections with a fractured
Killed at Least 162 mandate in Malaysia has come to an
@

A powerful earthquake struck

end.
Indonesia's main island of Java on New York Became First US State to
November 21, 2022. 162 people lost Restrict Cryptocurrency Mining
their lives and hundreds mnore were New York is the first nation to sign
injured when a building collapsed in legislation to resist the spread of
the capital Jakarta. cryptocurrency mining on November 23,
The earthquake of magnitude 5.6 struck 2022. This new development happened
Cianjur town in West Java, at a shallow in the light of the collapse of the FTX
depth of 10 km according to the US exchange. The legislation which was
Geological Survey data. passed in June is Concerned more with
the environmental aspect of crypto.
World's Most Popular Leaders
PM Narendra Modi remains the world's Australian Parliament Approved
most popular leader with an approval Free Trade Agreement with India
ratingof 77% on November 25, 2022. The Australian Parliament approved a
This was revealed in a Global Leader free trade agreement with India on
Approval Ratings released by a
Current Affairs 17

November 22, 2022. The India-Australia Itwas published in 2005 and aims to
Economic Cooperation and Trade promote transparency in international
Agreement (Al-ECTA) had to be ratified climate politics. The CCPl considers 4
by the Australian Parliament. The categories : GHG Emissions, Renewable
agreement was signed between the two Energy, Energy Use and Climate Policy.
countries in April this year. BaliG20 Summit 2022
Cambridge Dictionary Revealed Word The 2022 G20 summit was held on
of the Year 2022 November 15 and 16, 2022 in Bali
(Indonesia). It was the 17th meeting of

e
The Cambridge Dictionary has revealed
Homer as the word of the year 2022 on G20 Summit.

nc
November 18, 2022. It was inspired by the The theme of G20 Summit 2022 was
global word game sensation, Wordle. The Recover Together, Recover Stronger.
word was searched for about 75000 times Prime Minister Narendra Modi along
in the first week of May 2022. with other G20 Leaders visited and
ra planted Mangroves at the Taman
COP27 Summit 2022 Held
Hutan Raya Ngurah Rai' Mangrove
The United Nations Climate Change forests on the sidelines of G20 Summit
Conferernce 2022 or Conference of the in Bali.
Parties of the UNFCCC, more commonly
nt

referred to as COP27 was held from World's Population Reached

8 Billion
November November 6-18, 2022 in
Sharm El Sheikh (Egypt). COP 27 took According to World Population
ie

place under the Presidency of Egyptian Prospects 2022, released on World

Minister of Foreign Affairs Sameh Shoukry. Populatiorn Day, the global population
It was the first climate summit held in is projected to reach 8 billion on
jm

Africa since 2016. November 15, 2022.

UNFCCC COP 27 Climate Summit 2022 The UN's latest projections suggest
was attended by 197 countries, 45000 that by 2030, the global population
people and 120 world leaders. could grow by halfa billion to reach
@

8.5 billion. Accordingto UNFPA

First Global Media Congress Held projections, India will continue to
The three day first World Media Congress have one of the yOungest populations
opened on November 15, 2022 at Abu in the world till 2030.
Dhabi (United Arab Emirates). The
Natasa Pirc Musar Elected
conference-cum- exhibition Congress is
organised by ADNECGroup in partnership Slovenia's First Female President
with Emirates News Agency (WAM). The Natasa Pirc Musar, won the second
theme of the World Media Congress was round of Slovenia's Presidential
Shaping the Future of the Media Industry. elections on November 14, 2022.
Natasa Pirc Musar becomes the first
Climate Change Performance female President of the country.
Index 2023 Released She won 58.86% of votes in the runoff,
The Climate change performance Index while the opposition right-wing
2023 was published by the New Climate politician and the former Foreign
Institute and the Climate Action Network Minister Andze Logar won 46.14% of
on November 15, 2022. VOtes.
 18 Current Affairs

UNESCO World Heritage Glaciers

SPORTS AND GAMES
Set to Disappear by 2050
The UNESCO on November 10, 2020 ATHLETICS
said that World Heritage Glaciers
Mumbai Marathon 2023
would disappear by 2050.
Over 55000 people participated in the
Yellowstone and Kilimanjaro
National Park willlikely vanish iconic Tata Mumbai Marathon 2023, held
on January 15, 2023.
by 2050. The warning followed a
study of 18000 glaciers at 50 World India's international runner Thonakal Gopi

e
as he finished first in the Indian category of
Heritage Sites.
the Tata Mumbai Marathon.

nc
"November 18 Designated as Ethiopia's Hayle Lemi (Time -2:07:32) and
World Day for Prevention of Anchalem Haymanot (2:24:15) won the
Child Sexual Abuse elite foreign men's and women's race in a
The United Nations General COurse record.
ra
Assembly (UNGA) has adopted a
resolution for child sexual BADMINTON
exploitation, abuse and violence on India Open 2023
November 8, 2022.
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Shuttler Kunlavut Vitidsarn from Thailand

The UNGA has declared won the ndia Open Badminton
November 18 as the World Day for Championship 2023 on January 22, 2023.
the Prevention of and Healing from Earlier, Korean sensation An Seyoung won
ie

Child Sexual Exploitation, Abuse, and

the Women's Singles final.
Violence.
The Championship, officially named
UNEP Adaptation Gap Report Yonex-Sunrise India Open 2023' was held
jm

2022 Released at KD Jadhav Indocor Stadium in New Delhi,

The report titled "The Adaptation India from January 17 to 22, 2023.
Gap Report 2022:Too Little, Too Hylo Open 2022
@

Slow -Climate Adaptation Failure The Hylo Open 2022 was a badminton
puts World at Risk" was released by tournament held at the Saarlandhalle in
the UNEP on November 2022. The Saarbrücken (Germany) from November
2, 1

Adaptation Gap Report (AGR) has to 6, 2022.

been published each year since 2014
by the UNEP. Winners List
Category Winner
"Permacrisis' is Collins Dictionary's
Men's Singles Anthony Sinisuka Ginting
Word of the Year 2022 (lndonesia)
Collins Dictionary has announced Women's Singles Han Yue (China)
Permacrisis as the Word of the Year
on November 2, 2022. Permacrisis is 34th National U-13
a word describing the feeling of Tournament 2022
a
living through period of war, Telangana's Nishanth Bhukya and Odisha's
inflation, and political instability. It Tanvi Patri won in the boys and girls
was first noted as a word in singles, respectively at the 34th Under-13
academic contexts in the 1970s. National Badminton titles on November 23,
Current Affairs 19

2022. Bhukya came from behind to beat India -Bangladesh Series 2022
Andhra Pradesh's Akhil Reddy Boba in The Indian cricket team led by KL Rahul
44 minutes. Won the cricket test series against the
CRICKET Shakib AI Hassan led Bangladesh team
2-0 to win the 2 match test series in
ICC Under-19 Women's Bangladesh on December 25,2022.
T20 World Cup 2023
Man of the match of second match was
South Africa hosted the ICCUnder-19
Ravichandran Ashwin. Man of the Series
Women's T20 World Cup 2023 from award won by Cheteshwar Pujara.

e
January 14-29,2023. This was the
India lost the ODI series against
inaugural edition of this competition.

nc
Bangladesh by 2-1.
India won the title after defeating
England in the final. Ishan Kishan made a world record by
England's Grace Scrivens named as scoring fastest double century in ODl.
He made his double century against
"Player of the Series'. India's Shweta
ra
Bangladesh in just 126 balls.
Sehrawat scored most runs (297), while
Australian Maggie Clark took most Blind T20 Cricket World Cup 2022
wickets (12) during the competition. India defeated Barngladesh by 120 runs
nt

India-New Zealand ODI Series 2023 in the final to win the 3rd T20 World
India climbed to the top of theICC Men's Cup for Blind on Decenmber 17, 2022.
Final played at the M. Chinnaswamy
ODI rankings after winning the series 3-0
against New Zealand at the Holkar Stadium in Bengaluru, Karnataka.
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It was the third title for India having

Stadium in Indore on January 25, 2023.
won it in 2012and 2017. All the three
Shardul Thakur was awarded the Player
T20 World Cup for Blind has been
jm

of the Match in the third ODI. Shubman

Gill won the Player of the Series award. hosted by India. Batting first India made
277 runs for the loss of 2 wickets in 20
India-Sri Lanka ODI Series 2023 allotted overs.
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India scripted history by defeating Sri

Vijay Hazare Trophy 2022-23
Lanka by the largest ever margin of 317
runs in the third and final ODl in Saurashtra beat Maharashtra by
5 wickets in the final to win the Vijay
Thiruvananthpuram (Kerala) on
Hazare Trophy at the Narendra Modi
January 15, 2023. With this, India also
clean sweeped the series by 3-0. Player Stadium in Ahmedabad on
December 2, 2022. Batting first,
of the series won by Virat Kohli (India).
Maharasthtra scored 248 runs for the loss
India-Sri Lanka T20 Series 2023 of 9 wickets in 50 overs.
India defeated Sri Lanka by 91runs in
India-NZ ODI Series 2022
the third and finalT20 International
cricket in Rajkot on January 8, 2023. The final One Day intemational match
of the series was held on November 30,
With this victory, India clinched the
2022. It was held at the Hagley Oval in
three-match series 2-1.
Christchurch. New Zealand won the
Suryakumar Yadav was declared Man of opening ODl at Eden Park, in Auckland
the Match and Axar Patel Player of the by seven wickets.
Series.
 20 Current Affairs

ICC Men's T20 World Cup 2022 Women's FIH

Nations Cup 2022
The England men's cricket team won The Indian women Hockey team led by
its second ICC T20 men's cricket world Captain Savita Punia beat Spain 1-0 in the
cup by defeating Pakistan in the finals, final to win the inaugural FlH Nations
at the Melboume cricket stadium Cup played at Valencia (Spain) on
(Australia) on November 13,2022. December 17, 2022.
It was the 8th edition of the The winning goal vwas scored by Gurjit
tournament and in the first round, Sri Kaur of India. The inauqural FIH Nations
Lanka played against Namibia. cup was held in Valencia (Spain) from

e
Originally, it was to be held in 2020 but 11-17 December 2022.
was postponed to 2022 due to covid.

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TENNIS
Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy 2022-23 Australian Open 2023
Mumbai won the Syed MushtagAli The first tennis Grand Slam tournament
Trophy 2022-23 on November 5, 2022 of the year 'Australian Open 2023 was
ra
after defeating HimachalPradesh by 3 held in Melbourne (Australia) from
runs in the final played at Eden
January 16-29, 2023. The winners and
Gardens (Kolkata). It was the 15th runner-ups in the major categories are as
edition of domestic T20 Cricket
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follows
tournament in India, which was played
Category Winner Runner-up
from October 11 to November 5, 2022.
Men's Novak Djokovic Stefanos
HOCKEY
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Singles (Serbia) Tsitsipas (Greece)

FIH Hockey Men's World Cup 2023 Women's Aryna Elena Ryoakina
Singles Sabalenka (Kazakhstan)
The FlH Hockey Men's World Cup 2023 (Belarus)
jm

was held in Bhubaneswar and Rourkela

cities of Odisha from January 13-29, Tata Open Maharashtra 2023
2023. Germany won the title by Tata Open Maharashtra 2023 was a
defeating Belgium 5-4 in penalty shoot professional men's tennis tournament
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Out in the final. played in Pune from January 2 to 7, 2023.

This is Germany's third men's hockey
Winners List
world cup title. Earlier, Germany won
this title in the year 2002 and 2006. Category Winner Runner-up
India finished ninth in this Men's Tallon Benjamin Bonzi
Competition. Major award winners are Singles Griekspoor (France)
as followS: (Netherlands)
• Top Scorer Jeremy Hayward Men's Sander Gillé / Sriram Balaji
Doubles Joran Vliegen Jeevan
(Australia)
(Belgium) Nedunchezhiyan
• Best Player Niklas Wellen (Germany) (India)
• Best Young Player Mustapha Cassiem
Adelaide International-1 2023
(South Africa)
• Best Goalkeeper Vincent Vanasch Adelaide Intemational-1 2023 was held at
(Belgium) the Memorial Drive Tennis Centre from
• Fair Play Award Belgium
January to &, 2023. Ace Tennis player
1

Novak Djokovic defeated America's

Current Affairs 21

Sebastian Korda in the final to win the Djokovic in the final on Nov. 7, 2022.
Adelaide International men's singles title. Rune defeated Novak Djokoic in 3 sets
The 21-time Grand Slam winner also in the Paris Masters final.
equalled Rafael Nadal's tally of 92 ATP
singles titles in the Open Era.
ITF Men's Tournament 2022
Digvijay Pratap Singh earns the maiden
Davis Cup 2022 title in the $ 15000 ITF men's tennis
Canada won their first Davis Cup title tournament at the DLTA Complex on
after Felix Auger-Aliassime beat November 6, 2022.

e
Australia's Alex de Minaur by 6-3, 6-4 irn Digvijay Pratap Singh won his first ITF
the second match of the finals on Title at the RK Khanna Tennis Stadium,

nc
November 28, 2022. Felix Auger New Delhi on November 6, 2022.
Aliassime had to guard against three
break points in the first set but also SHOOTING
found his rhythm in the eighth game. Asian Airgun Championship 2022
ra
ATP Finals 2022 The 15th Asian Airgun Championship
Novak Djokovic defeated Norway's 2022 concluded at Daegu International
Casper Ruud to collect 6th ATP Finals Shooting Range, Daegu (Republic of
Korea) on November 19, 2022.
title in Turin (Italy) on November 20,
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2022. This victory brings Djokovic at par The Asian Airgun Championship was
with Federer's record. This was Diokovic's held from November 9 to 19, 2022.
first title at the event since 2015 and the FOOTBALL
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one that matches Roger Federer's record.

Spanish Super Cup
Billie Jean King Cup 2022 Barcelona beat Real Madrid 3-1 in
Switzerland won their first Billie Jean
jm

Riyadh to win their 14th Spanish Super

King Cup title on November 13, 2022 Cup title on January 15, 2023.
after Belinda Bencic saw off Australia's Gavi(33rd minute), Robert
Ajla Tomljanovic in the second match of
Lewandowski (45th minute) and Padry
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the finals with a lead of 2-0. (69th minute) scored for Barcelona in
Seven-time winners Australia had beaten the final match played at the KingFahd
hosts Britain in the semi-final and were Stadium in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
seeking their first title since 1974.
FIFA World Cup 2022
Next Gen ATP Finals 2022 Lionel Messi's Argentina won the
American Brandon Nakashima won the Golden Ball FIFAWorld Cup 2022 for
Next Gen ATP Finals tennis trophy in his outstanding performance on
Milan on November 13, 2022. He was December 18, 2022.
ranked 49 while his opponernt Lehecka Argentina won the final, defeating
was ranked 74th in the tournament defendingchampions France 4-2 on
which featured 8 best players aged penalties following a 3-3 draw after
21-years and under. extra time. French player Kylian
Paris Masters 2022 Mbappé won the Golden Boot as he
19-year-old Holger Rune won his maiden SCored the most goals (eight) during
Masters 1000 title when he beat Novak the tournament.
 22 Current Affairs

He became the first player toscorea Chakras and 15 Shaurya Chakras for
hat-trick in aWorld Cup final since Geoff Armed Forces personnel and others on
Hurst in the 1966final. January 25, 2023.
Argentine captain Lionel Messi was These include 6 Kirti Chakras, including
voted the tournament's best player, 4 posthumous, and 15 Shaurya Chakras
winning the Golden Ball. Emiliano including2 posthumous.
Martínez, also from Argentina, won the
ICC Awards 2022
Golden Glove, awarded to the
tournament's best goalkeeper. FIFA The International Cricket Council ((CO

e
World 2022 took place in Qatar from announced the winners of ICC Awards
November 20 to December 18, 2022. 2022 on January 25-26, 2023.

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Major award winners are listed below
KABADDI
Award/Category Winner
9th Pro Kabaddi League
Sir Garfield Sobers Babar Azam
Jaipur Pink Panthers won the Pro
ra Trophy (Pakistan)
Kabaddi League Season 9 Final againsta
Rachael Heyhoe Flint Nat Sciver (Englarnd)
hard-fighting Puneri Paltan by a score of Trophy
33-29 to win their second PKL Men's Test Cricketer Ben Stokes
championship on December 17, 2022.
nt

of the Year (England)

After Patna, Jaipur Pink Panthers, the Men's ODI Cricketer of Babar Azam
league's first-ever winners, are currently the Year (Pakistan)
only the second team to win multiple Women's ODI Nat Sciver (England)
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titles. The tournament was played Cricketer of the Year

across Berngaluru, Pune, and Hyderabad Men's T20 Suryakumar Yadav
International Cricketer (India)
while the playoffs were played in
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of the Year
Mumbai.
Women's T20 Tahlia McGrath
International Cricketer (Australia)
of the Year
AWARDS & HONOURS Men's Emerging Marco Jansen
@

Cricketer of the Year (South Africa)

NATIONAL
Women's Emerging Renuka Singh (India)
Padma Awards 2023 Cricketer of the Year
The Centre has announced the Padma
Pradhan Mantri Rashtriya
Awards on the eve of Republic Day
BalPuraskar
January 25, 2023. Of the total 106
Padma Awards announced, 6 are President Droupadi Murmu has
Padma Vibhushan, 9 are Padma conferred upon Pradhan Mantri Rashtriya
Bhushan and 91 are Padma Shri. Bal Puraskar at a ceremony in New Delhi.

The list of awardees includes 19 women This year, 11 children have been
and 2 persons from the category of selected for the Pradhan Mantri
Foreigners/NRI/PIO/0C and 7 Rashtriya Bal Puraskar from which,
• 4 are from Art and Culture field
posthumous awardees. . 1
for Bravery
Gallantry Awards • 2 for Innovation
President Droupadi Murmu approved • 1
for Social Service
• 3 for Sports
412Gallantry awards, including 6 Kirti
Current Affairs 23

Subhash Chandra Bose Aapda The film ultimately won the award for
Prabandhan Puraskar-2023 Best Original Song for 'Naatu Naatu' out
Odisha State Disaster Management of the two categories it was nominated
Authority and Lunglei Fire Station, for. 'Naatu Naatu' became the first Asian
Mizoram, selected in the Institutional Song to win the coveted award.
Category for Subhash Chandra Bose Sahitya Akademi Awards 2022
Aapda Prabandhan Puraskar-2023. The central government has
The award is announced every year on announced the Sahitya Akademi Award

e
January 23, the birth anniversary of for literature on December 22, 2022.
Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose.
Writer M. Rajendran from Tamil Nadu

nc
Miss Universe 2022 has received this award for his novel
'Kala Pani'.
The 71st Miss Universe pageant was
held in the city of Nevw Orleans in the US The awardee will be presented with a
state of Louisiana on January 15, 2023. cash prize of 1 one lakh anda copper
ra
America's R'Bonnie Gabriel won the Shield. This 'Kala Pani' novel is a
Miss Universe 2022 title at the 71st Miss historical novel based on the war of
Universe pageant. Kalayarkovil or Kalayarkool.
A total of 17 books were selected for
nt

Amanda Dudamel of Venezuela was

declared the first runner up while the Sahitya Akademi Prize for
Anderina Martinez of Dominican Translation 2022.
Republic became the second runner-up. National Award for Empowerment
ie

UN Medal of Persons with Disabilities 2021-22

Indian peacekeepers serving in the President Droupadi Murmu was Chief
jm

United Nations Mission in South Sudan Guest at aceremony to celebrate the

(UNMISS) were awarded the prestigious International Day of Persons with
UN Medal on January 12, 2023. Disabilities' in Delhi on December 3,
At a special award ceremony in Upper 2022. The event organised by the
@

Ministry of Social Justice and

Nile, 1171 peacekeepers from India
Empowerment.
deployed with the UNMISS were
awarded the UN Medal for their National Sports Awards 2022
exemplary service. President Droupadi Murmu given away
Golden Globe Awards 2023 the National Sports Awards on
The Golden Globe Awards 2023
November 30, 2022.
ceremony was held on January 10, 2023 List of Winners
to recognise excellence in film, both Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna Award
American and international, and 2022 Achanta Sharath Kamal
American television. This was the 80th (Table Tennis)
edition of the annual event by the Dhyan Chand Award for Lifetime
Hollywood Foreign Press Association. Achievement in Sports and Games 2022
One of the films in contention at the Ashwini Akkunji C. (Athletics), Dharamvir
Golden Globe awards was Telugu title Singh (Hockey), BC Suresh (Kabaddi), Nir
RRR, directed by SS Rajamouli.
Bahadur Gurung (Para Athletics)
 24 Current Affairs

Rashtriya Khel Protsahan Puruskar 2022 Gandhi Mandela Award

TransStadia Enterprises Private Limited, The 14th Dalai Lama was presented
Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology, with the Gandhi Mandela Award 2022
Ladakh Ski & Snowboard Association on November 19, 2022. The award was
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (MAKA) conferred at Thekchen Choeling in
Trophy 2022 Guru Nanak Dev University, Dharamshala's McleodGanj by Himachal
Amritsar Pradesh governor Rajendra Vishwanath
Arlekar.
"Para Sportsperson of Year Award

e
Paralympic medallist Avani Lekhara 31st & 32nd Bihari Puraskar
received the Para Sports Person of Writer Madhu Kankariya and Madhav

nc
Year' award at the Turf 2022 and India Hada were awarded the Bihari Puraskar
Sports Awards of FICl onNovember 28, on November 10, 2022. Madhu
2022. Former Ranjicricketer Sarkar Kankariya and Dr. Madhav Hada were
Talwar was honoured with the Lifetime awarded the 31st and 32nd Bihari
ra
Achievement of the Year award. Puraskar, respectively.
53rd IFFIAward INTERNATIONAL
The 53rd IFFI,
held in Panaji(Goa) from Mrs World 2022
nt

November 20 to 28, 2022, was Sargam Kaushal has won the title of
organised by National Film Mrs. World 2022 on December 18, 2022,
Development Corporation and becoming the winner among
Entertainment Society of Goa. contestants from 63 countries. This title
ie

Award Winners has returned to India after 21 years. Mrs.

Polynesia was named the first
Award Winner runner-up, followed by Mrs. Canada as
jm

Satyajit Ray Lifetime Carlos Saura (Spain) the second runner-up.

Achievement Award
Chiranjeevi
PETA's Person of the Year 2022
IFFI Indian Film
Personality of the Bollywood actress, Sonakshi Sinha has
@

Year been named PETA India's 2022 Person

of the Year on December 15, 2022.
Golden Peacock for Tengo sueños
the Best Film eléctricos/ Sonakshi's actions helped save the lives
THave Electric Dreams
of many animals killed for fashion, but
Silver Peacock for Nader Saeivar her strong advocacy of dog and cat
Best Director
rights earned her the title. She is actively
Silver Peacock for Vahid Mobasseri involved in animnal welfare activities and
Best Actor (Male)
reqularly voices the need for stronger
Silver Peacock for Daniela Marín Navarro animal protection laws.
Best Actor (Female) ( Have Electric
Dreams) "World Athlete of the Year'
Special Jury Award Lav Diaz (Philippines) Awards 2022
Best Debut Feature Asimina Proedrou The World Athelete of the Year Awards
Film of a Director (Greece) 2022 were presented to McLaughlin
Special Mention by Praveen Kandregula Levrone and on December 6, 2022.
Jury Award Sydney McLaughlin-Levrone is a world
Current Affairs 25

champion American hurdler and JCB Prize for Literature 2022

Mondo Duplantis is a Swedish pole Khalid Jawed's The Paradise of Food'
vaulter. McLaughlin-Levrone broke the Won the JCB Prize for Literature 2022 on
world women's 40Om hurdles record November 20, 2022. Khalid Jawed's The
twice while Duplantis set three new Paradise of Food' was translated by
world highs this year. Baran Faroogifrom Urdu.
UNESCO Award for Cultural UNESCO-Madanjeet Singh Prize 2022
Heritage Conservation 2022 Franca Ma-ih Sulem Yong won the 2022

e
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu edition of the UNESCO-Madanjeet Singh
Sangrahalaya (CSMVS). Mumbai was Prize for the Fromotion of Tolerance and

nc
conferred with the 'Award of Non-Violence on November 18, 2022.
Excellence' of UNESCO on The UNESCO-Madanjeet Singh Prize for
November 26, 2022. the Promotion of Tolerance and
This award given at the UNESCO Asia Non-Violence is conferred every two
ra
Pacific Avwards for Cultural Heritage years by the UNESCO.
Conservation 2022.
Indira Gandhi Prize 2021 PERSONS IN NEWNS
nt

Pratham, an NGO functioning in the

Aruna Miller
field of education was awarded Indira
Aruna Miller has scripted history by
Gandhi Prize 2021.The award was
presented for peace, disarmament and becoming the first Indian-American
ie

development. politician to be sworn-in as the

Lieutenant Governor of Maryland (US)
The award is in recognition of Pralnam's on January 19, 2023. Aruna, 58, a former
jm

work in ensuring quality education for delegate to the Maryland House, made
children of country. history when the Democrat became the
'Champions of the Earth' 10th Lieutenant Governor of the state.
Award 2022 Nilamani Phukan
@

Assam's wildlife biologist Purnima Devi Renowned Assamese poet and recipient
Barman has been awarded the United of Jnapith Award, Nilamani Phookan has
Nation's highest environmental honour, passed away on January 19, 2023. He
'Champions of the Earth' for 2022 on was 89. Phookan was one of the most
November 23, 2022. Barman has been celebrated poets of Assam and has been
given this honour for his transformative awarded the county's highest literary
action to prevent degradation of award, the 56th Jnanpith for the year
ecosystems. 2021.
UN's Highest Environmental Award Jacinda Ardern
India's Purnima Deví Barman was The Prime Minister of New Zealand
honoured with UN's highest Jacinda Ardern' has announced her
environmental award on Nov. 22, 2022. resignation from her post at the annual
Purnima Devi is Assam's wildlife meeting of her party on January 18,
biologist working to protect the stork, 2023. PM Jacinda Ardern will hold the
post of Prime Minister till February 7,
and the founder of the Hargila Army.
2023 and willresign after that.
 26 Current Affairs

Lucile Randon the age of 23 in 1964. The dictatorship

World's oldest person, Lucile Randon, abolished the monarchy, in 1973, whilea
diedon January 17, 2023 at the age of referendum after democracy was
118. In the year 2022, the world's oldest restored, in 1974, dashed any hopes that
person Ken Tanaka of Japan died. He Constantine had of ever reigning again.
was 119 years old.
Manpreet Monica
After Tanaka's death, 118-year-old Sister
Indian-origin Sikh woman, Manpreet
Lucille Randon became the oldest Monica Singh became the first ever
person in the world.

e
female Sikh judge on January 9,2023 in
Nguyen Xuan Phuc the US after she vwas sworn in as a Harris

nc
cOunty judge.
Vietnam's President Nguyen Xuan Phuc
In her career expanding over two
has submitted his resignation on
January 17, 2023. decades, the newly appointed judge
has been involved in numerous civil
The ruling Communist Party found him
ra
responsible for corruption, scandals and ghts organisations at the local, state,
wrongdoings. The resignation of the and national levels.
President requires approval from the Keshari Nath Tripathi
National Assembly.
nt

Senior leader of the Bharatiya Janata

JananiRamachandran Party (BJP) and former West Bengal
governor, Keshari Nath Tripathi passed
Janani Ramachandran has emerged as
away at 88 on January 7, 2023.
the youngest and the first queer
ie

woman of colour to take oath as the He was a member of the Uttar Pradesh
Oakland City Council member in the legislative assembly six times. He was
California (US) on January 17,2023.
jm

Cabinet Minister of institutional finance

She took the ceremonial oath wearing d and sales tax in UP during the Janata
party regime from 1977 to 1979.
saree as the Oakland City Council
member for District 4 in an inauguration Kaikala Satyanarayana
@

ceremony. Veteran Telugu actor, producer and

Sharad Yadav director Kaikala Satyanarayana died on
The 75-year-old veteran politician,
December 23, 2022 in Hyderabad due
Former Union Minister and RJD leader
to age related ailments.
Sharad Yadav passed away on He, also known as Navarasa Natana
January 12, 2023. He was probably the Sarvabhouma, was 87 years old.
first politician in India to be elected as a He acted in around 750 movies and was
member of the Lok Sabha from three known for 'Kurukshetramu' (1977),
states (Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, 'Daana Veera Soora Karna' (1977) and
and Bihar). "Sri Krishnarjuna Yudham' (1963).

Constantine Il Elon Musk

Constantine II, the former and the last Elon Musk has announced on
king of Greece, has died at the age of 82 December 21, 2022 that he will resign
in Athens on January 11, 2023. as the CEO of Twitter, but that might
Constantine ll acceded to the throne at take some time.
Current Affairs 27

This comes after Musk ran a poll on Ravish Kumar

the platform, asking users whether Senior journalist and Ramon Magsaysay
he should step down as the CEO of awardee Ravish Kumar resigned from
Twitter. NDTV on November 30, 2022.
Mohit Seth This comes just a day after the channel's
Major General Mohit Seth took over founders and promoters Prannoy Roy and
as the General Officer Commanding Radhika Roy resigned from their positions
as directors on the board of RRPR Holding
(GO) of the Counter Insurgency
Private Limited (RRPRH).

e
Force Kilo on December 20, 2022.
The General Officer was Vikram Kirloskar

nc
commissioned into3 MADRAS Toyota Kirloskar Motor Vice-Chairperson
Regiment in Dec 1991. An alurmnus passed away at the age of 64 on
of National Defence Academy, the
November 30, 2022. He is India's
General Officer has attended the
automotive industry stalwart and Toyota
prestigious NDC at New Delhi.
ra
Kirloskar Motor Vice-Chairperson.
Bhairon Singh Rathore Asim Munir
Bhairo Singh Rathore, the hero of the
Former Inter-Services Intelligence (|S0) Chief
1971 wa, has passed away in AlIMS
nt

Lt. Gen. Asim Munir has been appointed as

Jodhpur on December 19, 2022
the new Chief of the Pakistan Army on
He was admitted to the hospital after November 29, 2022. He is appointed by
battling health issues. Bhairon Singh
ie

Prime Minister Shehbaz Sharif.

retired from BSF in 1987. He received
the Sena Medal in 1972 for his aallant Prasanth Kumar
action. Prasanth Kumar has been elected as the
jm

President of the Advertising Agencies

Meghna Ahlawat Association of India (AAAI) for fiscal
Meghna Ahlawat was elected the 2022-23 at its annual general body
first-ever woman president of the meeting on November 29, 2022. Prasant
@

Table Ternnis Federation of India Kumar is presently CEO, South Asia of

(TTFI) on December 8, 2022. Former GroupM Media (India) Pvt Ltd.
veteran Kamlesh Mehta was also
elected as the general secretary. Ruturaj Gaikwad
Patel Nagendra Reddy was elected as Ruturaj Gaikwad, playing for Maharashtra,
the treasurer. became the first batsman in List-A cricket
to hit 7 sixes in an over in the quarter-finals
KV Shaji
of the Vijay Hazare Trophy on
KV Shaji has been named Chairman November 28, 2022. Gaikwad made this
of the National Bank for Agriculture record against Uttar Pradesh in
and Rural Development (NABARD) Ahmedabad. He renmained unbeaten after
on December 7, 2022. scoring 220 runs off 159 balls.
He formerly served as NABARD's
Deputy Managing Director (DMD) till Abdel Fattah el-Sisi
May 21, 2020. Before joining The Indian govemment has invited
NABARD, he worked in Canara Bank Egyptian President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi on
in various capacities for 26 years. November 27, 2022 as the Chief guest for
 28 Current Affairs

the Republic day parade 2023. He will Maura Healey

be the first Egyptian leader to be Maura Healey makes history as first openly
hosted by India for the Republic Day lesbian US Governor and first woman
celebrations. elected Governor of Massachusetts on
Vikram Gokhale November 9, 2022.
Healey was the first openly gay Attorney
Veteran actor Vikram Gokhale, who
General elected in the country in 2014
worked in Hindi and Marathi cinema
as well as numerous plays, passed and was previously a civil rights lawyer.
She led the first state challenge to the

e
away on November 26, 2022. His
Defense of Marriage Act, which banned
latest release was the Marathi film
same-sex marriage.

nc
'Godavari'.
Wes Moore
Deepa Malik
Union Health Ministry appoints Deepa Wes Moore has been elected as the First
Rlack Governor of the US State
of
Malik as Nikshay Mitra ambassador on
ra
Maryland on November 8, 2022.
November 24, 2022 in New Delhi.
Wes Moore is a celebrity author and
Nikshay Mitra is an initiative under
former non-profit executive. He defeated
Pradhan Mantri TB Mukt Bharat
the far-right Republican, Dan Cox backed
nt

Abhiyaan.
by former Donald J. Trump.
Manju Mohamed Irfaan Ali
Lance Naik Manju became the first The Government of India decided on
ie

woman skydiver of the Indian Army

on November 16, 2022. Maju jumped November 5, 2022 that President of
Guyana Dr. Mohamed Irfaan Ali will be the
off from the Advanced Light chief quest at the 17th Pravasi Bharatiya
jm

Helicopter (ALH) Dhruv chopper from Divas Convention. It will be held from
a height of 10000 ft.
January 8 to 10, 2023 in Indore, Madhya
Vivek Joshi Pradesh.
@

The Indian government has Benjamin Netanyahu

nominated Department of Financial Former Israeli PM Benjamin Netanyahu
Services Secretary Vivek Joshion has madea stunning come back to power
November 15, 2022 as a director on as his Likud party and its far-right and
the Reserve Bank of India's central religious allies emerged victorious in the
board. Vivek Joshi will hold the November 3, 2022 elections.
position of Director at the central According to final results released
bank yesterday, the coalition has won 64of 120
Greg Barclay Parliament seats in the country's fifth
election in less than four years.
Greg Barclay has been re-elected
unopposed as the chairman of the Ela Bhatt
on
ICC November 12, 2022. At an ICC Ela Bhatt, Gandhian, SEWA founder, and
Board meeting in Melbourne, Barclay's women's empowerment activist,
died at
opponent Dr. Tavengwa Mukuhlani, the age of 89 on November 2, 2022. She
the chairman of Zimbabwe Cricket was globally recognised as a women
withdrew from the contest. leader and was awarded Padma Bhushan.
Current Affairs 29

Portfolio
WHO'S WHO Minister
Gajendra Singh Jal Shakti
President Draupadi Murmu Shekhawat
Vice-President Jagdeep Dhankar Ashwini Vaishnaw Railways;
Prime Minister Narendra Modi Communications;
Electronics and
Cabinet Ministers Infomation
Technology
Minister Portfolio
Raj Kumar Singh Power; New &
Raj Nath Singh Defence Renewable Energy

e
Amit Shah Home Affairs; Hardeep Singh Puri Petroleum and
Cooperation Natural Gas; Housing

nc
Nitin Road Transport and and Urban Affairs
Jairam Gadkari
Highways Mansukh Mandaviya Health and Family
Weliare; Chemicals
Nirmala Sitharaman Finance; Corporate
Affairs
and Fertilizers
ra
Narendra Singh Mahendra Nath Heavy Industries
Agriculture and
Pandey
Tomar Famers Welfare
Bhupender Yadav Environment, Forest
S. Jaishankar External Affairs
and Climate Change;
nt

Arjun Munda Tribal Affairs Labour and

SmritiZubin Irani Employment
Women and Child
Development; Parshottam Rupala Fisheries, Animal
Minority Affairs Husbandry and
ie

Dairying
Piyush Goyal Commerce and
Industry; Consumer G. Kishan Reddy Culture; Tourism;
Affairs, Food and Development of
Public Distribution;
jm

North Eastern Region

Textiles
Anurag Singh Thakur Information and
Dharmendra Pradhan Education; Skill Broadcasting; Youth
Development and Affairs and Sports
Entrepreneurship
@

Pralhad Joshi Parliamentary Affairs; Ministers of State

Coal; Mines
(Independent Charge)
Narayan Tatu Rane Micro, Small and
Medium Enterprises Minister Portfolio
Sarbananda Sonowal Ports, Shipping Rao Inderjit Singh Slatistics and
and Waterways; Programme
AYUSH Implementation (/C):
Virendra Kumar Social Justice and Planning (VC)); and
Empowerment Corporate Affairs
Giriraj Singh Aural Development; Jitendra Singh Science and
Panchayati Raj Technology (/C); Earth
M.
Sciences (/C); Prime
Jyotiraditya Civil Aviation; Steel Minister's Office:
Scindia Personnel, Public
Pashu Pati Kumar Food Processing Grievances and
Paras Industries Pensions; Department
of Atomic Eneroy:
Kiren Aiju Law and Justice Departmnent of Space
 30 Current Affairs

Ministers of State Minister Portfolio

Darshana Vikram Textiles; Railways
Minister Portfolio
Jardosh
Shripad Yesso Naik Ports, Shipping and
Waterways; Tourism Meenakashi Lekhi External Affairs;
Culture
Faggansingh Kulaste Steel; Rural Commerce and
Development Som Parkash
Industry
Prahalad Singh Patel Jal Shakti; Food
Processing Industries Renuka Singh Saruta Tribal Affairs
Rameswar Teli Labour and

e
Ashwini Kumar Consumer Affairs,
Choubey Employment;
Food and Public Petroleum and
Distribution:

nc
Natural Gas
Environment, Forest
and Climate Change Kailash Choudhary Agriculture and
Farmers Welíare
Arjun Ram Meghwal Parliamentary Affairs;
Culture Annapurma Devi Education
VK Singh Road Transport and
ra A. Narayanaswamy Social Justice and
Highways; Civil Empowerment
Aviation
Kaushal Kishore Housing and Urban
Krishan Pal Power; Heavy Affairs
Industries
nt

Ajay Bhatt Defence; Tourism

Danve Raosaheb Railways; Coal; BL Vema Development of
Dadarao Mines North Eastem
Ramdas Athawale Social Justice and Region; Cooperation
ie

Empowerment Ajay Kumar Home Affairs

Sadhvi Niranjan Jyoti Consumer Affairs,
Devusinh Chauhan Communications
Food and Public
Distribution; Rural Bhagwanth Khuba New and Renewable
jm

Development Energy; Chenicals

Fisheries, Animal and Fertilizers
Sanjeev Kumar
Balyan Husbandry and Kapil Moreshwar Patil Panchayati Raj
Dairying
Sushri Pratima Social Justice and
@

Nityanand Rai Home Affairs Bhoumik Empowement

Pankaj Chowdhary Finance Subhas Sarkar Education
Anupriya Singh Patel Commerce and Bhagwat Kishanrao Finance
Industry Karad
SP Singh Baghel Law and Justice Rajkumar Ranjan External Affairs;
V.Muraleedharan External Afairs: Singh Education
Parliamentary Affairs Bharati Pravin Pawar Health and Family
Rajeev Skill Development Welfare
Chandrasekhar and Bishweswar Tudu Tribal Affairs; Jal
Entrepreneurship: Shakti
Electronics and
Infomation Shantanu Thakur Ports, Shipping and
Technology Waterways
Shobha Karandlaje Agriculture and Munjapara Women and Child
Farmers Welfare Mahendrabhai Development;
AYUSH
Bhanu Pratap Singh Micro, Small and
Verma Medium Enterprises John Barla Minority Affairs
Current Affairs 31

Minister Portfolio State Governor Chief Minister

L Murugan Fisheries, Animal Odisha Ganeshi Naveen
Husbandry and La Patnaik
Dairying; Information
and Broadcasting Nagaland Jagdish Mukhi Nephiu Rio
Nisith Pramanik Home Afairs; Youth Punjab Banwarilal Bhagwant
Affairs and Sports Purohit Singh Mann
Rajasthan Kalraj Mishra Ashok Gehlot
Governors and Chief Ministers
Sikkim Ganga Prem Singh

e
State Governor Chief Minister Prasad Tamang
Andhra Biswa Bhusan YS Jagan Tamil Nadu AN Aavi MK Stalin

nc
Pradesh Harichandan Mohan Reddy
Tripura Satyadeo Manik Saha
Arunachal BD Mishra Pema Khandu Narain Arya
Pradesh K. Chandras
Telangana Tamilisai
Assam Jagdish Himanta Biswa Soundararajan hekhar Rao
ra
Mukhi Sarma
Uttar Anandiben Yogi
Bihar Phagu Chauhan Nitish Kumar Pradesh Patel Adityanath
Chhattisgarh Anusuiya Uikey Bhupesh Uttarakhand Gumit Singh Pushkar Singh
nt

Baghel Dhami
Goa PS Sreedharan Pramod West Bengal CVAnanda Bose Mamata
Pillai Sawant Banerjee
Gujarat Acharya Dev Vrat Bhupendra
ie

Patel
Administration of Union Territories
Haryana Bandaru Manohar Lal Lt.
Dattatraya
Union Governor/ Chief
Khattar
jm

Territory Administrator Minister

Jharkhand Ramesh Bais Hemant Soren Andaman DK Joshi
Karnataka Thaawarchand Basavaraj and Nicobar
Gehlot S. Bommai lslands
@

Himachal Rajendra Sukhvinder Chandigarh Banwarilal Purohit

Pradesh Vishwanath Singh Sukhu (Administrator)
Arlekar Dadra & Praful Patel
Kerala Ari Mohammad P. Vijayan Nagar Haveli (Administrator)
Khan and Daman &
Diu
Madhya Mangubhai Shivraj Singh Vinai Kumar
Delhi Arvind
Pradesh Chhaganbhai Chauhan Kejriwal
Saxena
Patel
Jammu Manoj Sinha
Maharashtra Bhagat Singh Eknath Shinde Kashmir
Koshyari
Ladakh Radha Krishna
Manipur La. Ganesan N. Biren Mathur
Singh (Administrator)
Meghalaya BD Mishra Conrad Lakshacweep Praful Patel
(Add. Charge) Sangma
Puducherry Tamilisai N. Ranga
Mizoram Hari Babu Pu. Soundararajan Swamy
Kambhampati Zoramthanga (Add. Charge)
 32 Current Affairs

Chiefs of Armed Forces/ Bank Chairman/MD & CEO

Intelligence Agencies Bank of India Atanu Kumar Das
Force/Agency Chief Canara Bank Lingam Venkata
Chief of Defence Anil Chauhan Prabhakar
Slaff (CDS) Bank of Maharashtra AS Rajeev
Air Force VR Chaudhari Central Bank of India Matam Venkata Rao
Army Manoj Pande indian Bank Shanti Lal Jain
Navy R. Hari Kumar Indian Overseas Ajay Kumar Srivastava

e
CBI Subodh Kumar Jaiswal Bank
Integrated Balabhadra Radha Krishna Punjab National Bank Atul Kumar Goel
Defence Staff

nc
Punjab & Sind Bank Swarup Kumar Saha
IB Tapan Kumar Deka Union Bank of India A. Manimekhalai
R&AW Samant Kumar Goel UCO Bank Soma Sankara Prasad
Important National Officials JDBIBank Rakesh Sharma
ra
Designation Dignitary
Important International
Chief Justice of India DY Chandrachud
officials
Chairperson, NHRC AK Mishra
nt

M.
Designation Dignitary
Chairperson, University Jagadesh
Grants Commission Kumar Seoretary General, UNO Antonio Guterres
Chairman, ISRO S.
Somanath President, World Bank David Malpass
ie

Chairman, Atomio Energy Kamlesh Vyas Managing Director, IMF Kistalina Georgieva
Commission Gilbert Houngbo
Director General, ILO
ChairperSon, 15th Finance NK Singh
Commission President, UNGA Csaba Korosi
jm

Chairperson, CBFC Prasoon Joshi Director General, WTO Ngozi Okonjo iweala
Chairperson, CBSE Nidhi Chhibber Director General, Audrey AzOulay
Chief Election Rajiv Kumar UNESCO
Commissioner
@

Director General, WHO Tedros Adhanom

Chief Information Yashvardhan Ghebreyesus
Commissioner Sinha Secretary General, Rebeca Grynspan
Attorney General A. Venkataramani UNCTAD
Solicitor General Tushar Mehta Director General, IAEA Aafael Grossi
Chaiman, UPSC Manoj Soni Executive Director, Catherine Russell
UNICEF
Governor, RBI Shaktikanta Das
President, BCCI Roger Binny Secretary General, Esala VWeerakoon
SAARC
President, Indian Olympic PT Usha
Association Secretary General, Agnes Callamard
Amnesty International
Heads of Nationalised Banks President, IOC Thomas Bach
Bank Chairman/MD & CEO President. FIFA Gianni Intantino

State Bank of India Dinesh Kumar Khara Chaiman, ICC Greg Barclay
Bank of Baroda Sanjeev Chaddha CEO, ICC Geoff Allardice
 4

INDIAN
HISTORY

e
nc
ANCIENT INDIA ra
THE EARLY MAN The Palaeolithic Age
•
The fossils of the early humans have (500000 BC-9000 BC)
been found in Africa about 2.6 million The Palaeolithic culture of India developed
nt

years back, but there are no such in the pleistocene period or the ice age.
.
evidence in India. So, it appears that Robert Bruce Foote was the first to
India was inhabited later than Africa. discover a palaeolitthic site in India. Homo
• The artefacts discovered from Bori in
Sapiens first appeared towards the end of
ie

Maharashtra suggest that the this phase.

appearance of early humans in India . Palaeolithic men were hunters and food
was around 1.4 million years ago. gatherers. They had no knowledge of
.
jm

The modern humans (Homo sapiens) agriculture or pottery. They used tools of
2
first appeared in Africa around lakh unpolished, rough stones and lived in cave
years ago and in India around 70,000 and rock shelters.
years ago. • Their tools were mostly made of quartzite,
.
The early man in India used tools of thus, they are also called Quartzite men.
@

stone roughly dressed by crude • This age is divided into three phases
clipping. This period is therefore, according to the nature of the stone tools
known as the Stone Age, which has used by the people and change in the
been divided into climate.
The Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age Early or Lower Palaeolithic
The Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age Middle Palaeolithic
The Neolithic or New Stone Age Upper Palaeolithic

Phases of the Palaeolithic Age

Age Tools Climate Sites
Early Hand axes, cleavers and Humidity decreased Soan valley (Punjab), Belan
choppers valley (Utar Pradesh)
Middle Flakes-blades, pointers, Further decrease in Valleys of Soan, Narmada and
borers and scrapers humidity Tungabhadra rivers.
Upper Scrapers, burins and bone Warm cimate Caves and rockshelters of this
tools age have been discovered at
Bhimbetka near Bhopal.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE- Indian History

The Mesolithic Age cattle, sheeps and goats. They wove

cotton and wool to make clothes.
(9000 BC- 6000 BC) •
Hand made pottery and use of potter
• It was a transitional phase between the wheel first appeared during the
Palaeolithic Age and the Neolithic Age. Neolithic age.
• In this age, climate became warn and Neolithic men lived in caves and
dry, which brought about changes in decorated their walls with hunting and
fauna and flora and made it possible for dancing scenes. They knew the art of
human beings to move to new areas. making boats. In the later phase, people
• The Mesolithic people lived on hunting, lived a more settled life and lived in
fishing and food- gathering. At a later circular and rectangular houses made of

e
stage, they also domesticated animals. mud and reed. Pit houses have been
. found in Burzahom.
The characteristic tools of the Mesolithic

nc
Age are microliths. Microliths were small •
Koldihwa in UP revealed a three
tools made of stone pointed cresconic fold cultural sequence: Neolithic,
blades, scrapers, etc made up of stones Chalcolithic and iron age. Mehargarh in
were other important tools. Baluchistan is the oldest Neolithic site
• Adamgarh
in Madhya Pradesh and in India (7000 BC).
ra
Bagor in Rajasthan provide the earliest
evidence for the domestication of Chalcolithic Culture
animals. (1800 BC-1000 BC)
• The people of Palaeolithic and •
The end of the Neolithic period saw the
nt

Mesolithic ages practiced painting. use of mnetals. Copper was the first metal
Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh is a to be used.
striking site of Pre-historic painting of Chalcolithic culture refers to the
Mesolithic age. stone-copper phase. People also used
ie

hand-axes and other objects made up of

The Neolithic Age copper ware.
(6000 BC-1800 BC) •
Chalcolithic people were primarily rural
jm

•
The people of this age are characterised communities. They domesticated
by the use of polished stone tools. They animals and practised agriculture. They
particularly used stone axes. were not acquainted with burnt bricks
• Important Neolithic sites in India and lived in thatched houses. They
venerated the mother Goddess and
@

include Burzahom, Mehrgarh, Daojali

Hading, Chirand, Maski, Brahmagiri, worshipped the bull.
Hallur, Piklihal, Utnoor, Nagarjunakonda The people of Chalcolithic culture were
and Paiyampalli. the first to use painted pottery. Black
• It isinteresting that in Burzahom dogs and red pottery painted with white line
were buried with their masters in their design was most popular.
graves. •
The Malwa ware is considered the
• The Neolithic settlers were the earliest richest among the Chalcolithic
farming communities. They produced ceramics.
ragi and horse-gram (kulathi). Neolithic Important chalcolithic sites in India are
sites in Allahabad district are noted for Ahar, Jorwe, Kayatha, Malwa, Eran,
the cultivation of rice in the sixth Rangpur, Navdatoli, Nevasa, Daimabad
millenium BC. They domesticated and Inamgaon.
GENERAL KNOVWLEDGE- Indian History 3

INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION

•
Indus civilisation is one of the four Geographical Spread
earliest civilisations of the world along The civilisation covered parts of Sind,
with the civilisations of Mesopotamia Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Punjab,
(Tigris and Euphrates), Egypt (Nile) Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana,
and China (Hwang Ho). Rajasthan, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab
•
The civilisation forms part of the and Maharashtra.
proto-history of India and belongs to the Mundigak and Shortughai are the two
age.
. Bronze mature

e
sites located in Afghanistan.
In its form, the civilisation Western most site Sutkagendor on
lasted between 2600-1900 BC. Makran Coast. Eastern most site

nc
It can be divided into following sub-parts Alamgirpur in Uttar Pradesh.
• Early Phase 3500-2600 BC Northern most site Manda in Jammu
. (River Chenab). Southern most site
Middle (mature) Phase 2600-1900 BC
. Daimabad in Maharashtra (River
Later Phase 1900-1400 BC
ra Pravara) are major sites.
.
Dayaram Sahni first discovered
Harappa in 1921.
• Some New Discoveries
RD Banerjee discovered Mohenjodaro •
or Mound of the Dead in 1922. Ganverivala in Pakistan by Rafeeq Mugal.
nt

Bhirrana oldest Harappan site has said to be

Nomenclature of Indus the mounds at Bhirrana village on the banks of
Ghaggar river.
Valley Civilisation Rakhigarhi in Haryana by Amarendra Nath.
.
ie

Indus Valley Civilisation coined by

John Marshall as it flourished along the
Indus river. Town Planning
. Harappan • A unique feature was the grid system i.e.
Civilisation after the first
jm

discovered site, Harappa. streets cutting across one another at right

• Saraswati-Sindhu Civilisation as most angles, dividing the town into large
of the sites have been found along the rectangular blocks.
Indus-Saraswati river.
@

Indus Cities At a Glance

City Province River Bank Year of Archaeologist(s)
Discovery
Harappa Pakistani Punjab Ravi 1921 Daya Ram Sahni
Mohenjodaro Sind Indus 1922 RD Banerjee
Sutkagendor Baluchistan Dasht 1931 Aurel Stein
Chanhudaro Sind Indus 1931 MG Majumdar
Ropar Indian Punjab Sutlej 1953 YD Sharma
Lothal Gujarat Bhogava 1953 SA Rao
Sabarmnati
Kalibangan Rajasihan Ghaggar 1951 A Ghosh
Alamgirpur Uttar Pradesh Hindon 1974 YD Sharma
Banawali Haryana Ghaggar 1973 RS Bisht
Dholavira Gujarat Luni 1967-68 JP Joshi
Rakhigarhi Haryana Ghaggar 1997 Amarendra Nath
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History
.
The towns were divided into two Crops Produced wheat, barley, dates, peas,
•
parts: upper part or citadel and lower sesamum, mustard, millet, ragi, bajra and
part. jowar. At Lothal and Rangpur, rice husks
. were found. Sugarcane was not known to
The fortified citadel on the Western
side housed public buildings and Indus people.
. They were First to Produce Cotton in the
members of ruling class.
• Below
the citadel on the Eastern side, world, which Greek called as Sindon. A
lay the lower town inhabited by the fragment of woven cotton cloth was found at
common people. Mohenjodaro.
• Underground Drainage System
connected all houses to the street Domestication of Animals

e
drains made of mortar, linme and They domesticated buffaloes, Oxens, sheep,
gYpsum. They were covered with asses, goats, pigs, elephants, dogs, cats etc.

nc
either brick or stone slabs and Remains of Horse were found at Surkotada
equipped with 'Manhole'. This shows and of rhinoceros at Amri.
developed sense of health and • Lion was not known to Indus people. Cow
sanitation. was known to them but was not much
•
The Great Bath (Mohenjodaro) It important.
ra
was used for religious bathing. Steps
at either end leads to the surface. Trade
There were changing rooms • Agriculture, industry and forest produce
alongside. provided the basis for internal and external
.
nt

The Granaries (Harappa) trade.

SLX granaries in a roW were found in • Trade was based on barter system. Coins
the citadel at Harappa. were not evident. Bullock carts and boats
.
Houses were made up of burnt were used for transportation.
ie

bricks. They were often two or more • Weights and measures were made of
storeyed, with a square courtyard. limestone, steatite etc. generally in cubical
They had tiled bathrooms. shape. They were in multiple of sixteen.
jm

• Lamp-posts were erected at regular Decimal system was known to them.

intervals. It indicates the existence of .
Several sticks inscribed with measure marks
street lighting. have been discovered. It indicates that
linear system of measurement was in use.
Agriculture • Foreign trade flourished with Mesopotamia
@

.
It was the backbone of the or Sumeria (Irag), Central Asia, Persia,
civilisation. The soil was fertile due to Afghanistan and Bahrain.
inundation in the river Indus and o Sumerian text refers to trade with Meluha
flooding. (Indus). Dilmun (Bahrain) and Makan
.
They used wooden ploughshare (Makran coast) were two intermediate
(World's first ploughed field at stations.
Kalibangan) and stone sickles for • Susa and Ur were Imesopotamian sites
harvesting. Iron was not known to where harappan seals were found.
them. • Lothal (artificial dockyard),
• Gabarbands or
Surkotada,
nalas enclosed by Sutkagendor, Allahoino, Balakot, Dholavira,
dams for storing water were a feature Daimabad were coastal towns of the
in parts of Baluchistan. Camal civilisation.
irrigationwas absent.
GENERAL KNOVWLEDGE~ Indian History 5

rhinocerous, goat and elephant are

Towns Associated with found on most of the seals. They
Different Industries marked ownership of property.
•
Daimabad Bronze industry. .
Important Seals Pashupati seal found
Lothal Factory for stone tools and metallic from Mohenjodaro and unicorn seal.
finished goods. .
Images Bronze image of dancing girl
Balakot Pearl finished goods, bangle and (identified as devadasi) and stone
shell industry.
steatite image of a bearded man (both
Chanhudaro Beads and bangles factory. It are obtained from Mohenjodaro).
was the only city without a citadel. •
Terracotta Figurines Terracotta is
the Fire baked clay. It was used to

e
• Major Exports were agricultural products, make toys, objects of worship, animals,
cotton goods, terracotta figurines, pottery, toy-carts etc.
steatite beads (from Chanhudaro),

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Conch-shell (from Lothal), ivory products,
Religious Practices
copper etc.
• Chief Female Diety A terracotta
Major Imports figure where a plant is shown growing
out of the embryo of a woman,
Irmports From
ra
represents Mother Goddess (Goddess
Gold Kolar (Karnataka), of Earth).
Afghanistan, Persia (Iran)
.Chief Male Diety-Pashupati
Silver Afghanistan, Persia (lran).
South India Mahadeva (Proto-Shiva), represented
nt

Khetri (Rajasthan). in seals as sitting in a yogic posture on

Copper a low thone having three heads and
Baluchistan
two horns. He is surrounded by an
Tin Afghanistan, Central Asia
elephant, a tiger, a rhino and a buffalo
Badak-Shan (Afghanistan)
ie

Lapis Lazuli
and Sapphire
and two deers appear at his feet.
Central Asia
Lingam and y0ni worship was
Jade Trees
prevalent. (pipal) and animals
Steatite Shaher-i-Sokhta, Kirthar hills (bull, birds, dove, pigeon) were also
jm

Turquoise Iran worshipped. No temples have been

Amethyst Maharashtra found, though idoltary was practiced.
•
Indus people believed in ghosts and
Art and Craft evil forces and used amulets for
@

• Harappans used tools made of stone and protection against them.

.
bronze. Bronze was made by mixing copper Fire altars are found at Lothal and
(from Khetri) with tin. Kalibangan. Evidence of Snake
• worship is also found.
Beads and jewellery of gold, silver and • Swastika symbol was originated here.
precious stone were made. Cotton fabrics
were used in summers and woollen in
winters. Burial Practices
• Pottery both plain (red) and painted (red
• General practice was placing the dead
and black) pottery was made. Pots were body in the North-South direction.
decorated with human figures, plants, • Mohenjodaro Three forms of burial
animals and geometrical patterns and were Complete, Fractional and Post
ochre was painted over it. Cremation.
•
Seals were made of steatite. Pictures of Kalibangan Two forms of burial
One horned bull, buffalo, tiger, Circular and Rectangular Grave.
 6 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE- Indian History
.
Surkotada Pot burial, Dholavira Megalithic burial.
• Lothal Double burial.
. Harappa
East-West axis; R-37 and H cemetery.

Seript
• It was pictographic in nature. Fish symbol is most nepresented.
• It was written from right to left in the first line and then left to right in the second line.
This style is called Boustrophedon.

DECLINE OF THE CIVILISATION

e
The Harappan culture flourished till about 1900 BC, then it began to decline. There is no
unanimity among historians, regarding the exact reason for the decline of this urban

nc
civilisation. There are many different theories that show the decline of the Indus culture.
Decline of Indus Civilisation (Different Views)
Views Thinkers
External Aggression
ra
Wheeler, Piggot and Gordon Childe
Inundation MR Sahani
Epidemic KVR Kennedy
Marshalland Raikes
nt

Tectonio Disturbances (e.g. Dholavira)

Climatic change Aurel Stein and AN Ghosh
Deforestation, Scarcity of Resources, Ecological Fairservis
Imbalances
ie

Flood (e.g. Mohenjodaro) Marshall, SA Rao. Maickey

The Destruction due to change in cOurse of GF Hales
River Ghaggar
jm

Important Harappan Sites

City Archaeological Finds
@

Har Two rowS of six granaries with brick platform, work men's quarter, stone
IGateway ci) symbol of lingam and yoni, virgin-Goddess, clay figures of Mother Goddess,
wheat and barley in wooden mortar, copper scale and mirror, vanitybox, dice.
Sculpture Dog chasing a deer (bronze), nude male and nude dancing fermale
(stone), red sand stone male torso.
Mohenjodaro The great bath, The great granary (largest building), multi-pillared assembly
(Mound of the hall, proto-Shiva seal, clay figures of Mother Goddess, Dice, Mesopotamian
Dead) seals.
Sculpture Bronze dancing girl, steatite image of bearded man.
Kalibangan Ploughed field, Decorated bricks, bangle factory, wheels of a toy cart, wells in
(Black Bangle) every house, bones of camel, 70 fire altars.
Chanhudaro Inkpot, lipstick, bronze, toy cart, imprint of dog's paw on a brick. Only city
(Lancashire of without citadel, Terracotta bullock cart.
India)
Daimabad Bronze images of charioteer with chariot, Ox, elephant and rhinoceros.
Amri Actual remains of rhinoceros.
Alamgirpur Impression of cloth on a trough.
GENERAL KNOVWLEDGE- Indian History 7

City Archaeological Finds

Lothal Aice husk, dockyard, fire altars, grinding machine, tusks of elephant,
(Manchester of terracotta figure of horse, dying vat, painted jar (bird and fox), teracotta ship,
Indus Valley impressions of cloth on some seals, modern day chess, instrument for
Civilisation) measuring angles.
Ropar Buildings made of stone and soil. Dog buried with humans, oval pit burials.
Banawali Oval shaped settlement, only city with radial streets, lack of systematic
drainage pattern. Toy plough, largest number of barley grains.
Surkotada Both citadel and lower town fortified ith stone wall, remains of horse bones,
pot burials.

e
Dholavira Only site to be divided into three parts, Giant water reserVoir, unique water
harnessing system, dams and embankments, a stadium, rock-cut
architecture.

nc
Rakhigarhi Largest Indus valley site.
Rangpur Rice was cultivated here.
ra
THE ARYAN ANDTHE VEDICAGE
nt

Original Home and Rigvedic or Early Vedic Period

Identity (1500-1000 BC)
.
The word Aryan literally means of o
Early Vedic people lived in the region of Sapta
ie

high birth. Sindhu. They had knowledge of about 40 rivers

• including Yamuna, Saraswati and Ganga.
The location of the original
homeland of the Aryans is still Ocean was mentioned as Samudra, Himalaya
jm

as Himvant, Hindu Kush as Munjavants and

controversial, but the Imost
desert as Dhawa.
accepted theory is that they
migrated from Central Asia in Rivers Mentioned in the Rig Veda
Several groups between
Rigvedic Names Moderm Narmes
@

2000-1500 BC and settled in

Eastern Afghanistan, modern Sindhu Indus
Pakistan and Punjab. Vitasta Jhelum
• This region is popularly known as Asikni Chenab
the land of seven rivers or 'Sapta Parushni Ravi
Sindhu' (the Indus, its five Vipas Beas
tributaries i.e. Jhelum, Chenab, Shutudri Sutlej
Ravi, Beas and Sutlej and the Gomati Gomal
Saraswati). Krumu Kurram
Drishadvati Ghaggar
Note The Central Asian theory is also
proved by the Boghazkai Inscription Suvasthu Swat
(Turkey), which mentions four Vedic Kubha Kabul
Gods : Indra, Varuna, Mitra and Nanditara Saraswati
Nasatya. Sadanira Gandak
 8 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

• Aryans came into conflict with the The Samiti was the National Assembly
indigenous inhabitants called Dasas of the people, while the Sabha was
(earlier branch of Aryans) and Dasyus Council of Elders.
(Original inhabitants). Dasyuhatya or • King was assisted by many functionaries.
slaughter of Dasyus is repeatedly Most important functionary was the
mentioned in the Rig Veda. Purohita, the religious advisor of the
king, followed by the Senani, the head of
The Dasarajna War the army.
(Battle of Ten Kings) There was no regular system of taxation.
This battle was fought on the bank of the People gave voluntary offerings to the
Parushni river (Aavi). Sudas, the son of king, called Bali.

e
Divodas and the Bharata king of Tritsu family There was no regular or standing army.
won over an alliance of ten tribes However, there were groups of infantry

nc
(Five Aryans and Five non-Aryans). and charioteers.
The battle broke out due to a dispute between Weapons made of stone, wood, bone and
Vashistha (priest of Bharatas) and metal were used.
Visvamitra (priest of alliance).
Society
ra
Economy • Kinship was the basis of society's
• Rigvedic Aryans followed Imixed structure. People gave their primary
economy consisting of both agriculture loyalty to the tribe, which was called
and pastoralismn. Jana or Vis.
nt

• Pastoralism was their primary Vis was divided into grama. When
occupation while agriculture was
grama clashed with one another, it
secondary. caused the Sangrama or war.
• Society
• They possessed better knowledge in was mostly Patriarchal.
ie

agriculture. Wooden ploughshare is Monogamy was prevalent. No evidence

mentioned in Rig Veda. They were of child marriage was found. Levirate
acquainted with sowing, harvesting, and widow remarriage was practised.
jm

threshing and knew about different • Varna was the term used for colour of
seasorms. people, which were classified into four
• Cow was the most important form of Varnas.
wealth. The term for war in the Rig Veda •
Brahmins (eachers and priests),
is Gavishthi or search for cows. The Kshatriyas (rulers and administrators),
@

horse was almost as important as cow. Vaishyas (Peasants, merchants and

• Cow was the standard unit of exchange. bankers), Sudras (artisans and
Gold coins like Nishka, Krishna and labourers).
Satmana were also in use. Godhuli was
used as a measure of time and Gvyuti as Rigvedic Gods
measure of distance. .
Rigvedic people believed in nature
worship and not in erecting temples or
Polity idol worship. They performed Yajnas in
. open areas.
The king or Rajan was the head of the
tribal polity. Although his post was •
Soma was considered to be the God of
hereditary we have also some traces of plants and an intoxicating drink is
election by the tribal assembly called named after him.
'Samiti'. The ninth mandala of the Rig Veda i.e.
• Several tribal or clan based assemblies 'Soma Mandala' is attributed to Somma.
existed such as the Sabha, Samiti, Important female divinities were
Vidatha and Gana. Aditi and Usha.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

Rig Vedic Deities Important Rituals

•
God Associated Field Rajasuya The king's influence was
IndralPurandar Breaker of Forts strengthened by rituals. The king performed
(Most this sacrifice, which was supposed to confer
Irmportant) Supreme power on him.
Agni Fire God • king performed
Asvamedha-A the
Varuna Water God and upholder Asvamedha, which meant unquestioned
of natural order
control over the area, in which the royal
Surya God with Seven horse horse ran uninterrupted.
driven chariot •
Savitri God of light to whom Vajapeya-A king performed the Vajapeya

e
Gayatri Mantra is
or the chariot race, in which the royal
addressed chariot was made to win the race against his

nc
Mitra Solar God kinsmen.
Pushan God of marriage, also
guarded roads and LATER VEDIC AGE
cattle
Vishnu One, who covered Earth (1000-600 BC)
ra
in Three steps-Upakrama (PAINTED GREYWARE
Rudra God of Animals
Dyaus Oldest God and Father
PHASE)
of the World •
Aryans expanded from Punjab to Western
AshwinlNastya God of health, youth and
nt

UP covered by Ganga-Yamuna Doab

immortality (Aryavarta).
Sindhu River Goddess •
Later Vedic texts refer to rivers Narmada,
Yarma God of death Sadanira, Chambal and Vindhya mountain.
Maruts Personified storm Later Vedas gave three fold territorial
ie

Usha Goddess of dawn division of India into Aryavarta (Nothern

India), Madhyadesa (Central India) and
Aditi Goddess of eternity Dakshinapatha (Southern India).
jm

.
The expansion towards East is indicated in
Types of Marriages a legend of Satapaiha Brahmana ie. how
Eight types of marriages were in Videha Madhava migrated from the
practice during the Vedic period : Saraswati region, crossed Sadanira and
came to the land of Videha (modern
@

Brahma Marriage of a duly dowered Tirhut).

girl to a man of the same
class.
daughter is given to a
A
Polity
Daiva •
sacrificial priest, as a part of Tribal assemblies lost their importance and
his fee. royal power increased at their cost. Vidhata
Arsa Giving the girl to a man in totally disappeared. Women were no longer
exchange of bride-price. permitted to attend assemblies.
.
Prajapatya The father gives the girl Formation of large kingdoms, Kingship
without dowry and without became completely hereditary.
demanding the bride-price. •
Love marriage. The term Rashtra indicating territory, first
Gandhava
appeared in this period.
Asura Bride was bought from her •
Taittariya Brahmana refers to the theory of
father.
divine origin of kingship.
Rakshasa Marriage by capture •
Satapatha Brahmana refers to
Paishacha Marriage by seduction. twelve Ratninas or civil functionaries of the
time.
 10 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE - Indian History
Twelve Ratninas (Shatapatha •
Position of women declined. Aitareya
Brahmana) Brahmana states that daughter is the
source of misery while a son is the protector
Purohita The Priest of family. Maitrayani Samhita mentions
Mahishi Chief Queen three evils--liquor, woman and dice.
Yuvaraja Crown Prince Polygamy became frequent.
Suta/Sarathi The Royal herald/the • However, some of the WOmen had
Charioteer got higher education as indicated by the
Bhagadudha Tax collector Yajnavalkya-Gargi dialogue in
Akshavapa Accountant Vrihadarnyaka Upanishada.
Palagala Friend of king
Economy

e
Govikarta Head of forest
departmnent • Agriculture became the chief economic
activity. Manure was known. Wheat, rice,

nc
Senani The General
Gramani Head of the village barley, beans and Sesamum were cultivated.
Kshata Gaterman/Chamberlain
•
New occupational group emerged, such as
Sangrahitri Treasurer fisherman, washerman, dyers, door
keepers and footmen.
ra
• There was development of judiciary. •
Tin, silver and iron was now known to the
Kings administered the criminal
court. Serious crimes were the killing . people.
Merchants were organised into Guilds, as
of an embryo, homicide, the murder indicated by the terms-Ganas (corporations)
of a Brahmin, stealing of gold and
nt

and Sresthins (aldermen).

drinking sura. Treason was a capital
offence. Characteristie pottery: Painted Grey
Ware.
Society
ie

. Religion
The fourfold division of society Bituals became important in the cult of
became more clear. Initially based on sacrifice.
0ccupation, it later became
jm

hereditary.
•
Prajapati became the supreme God. Vishnu
• was conceived as the preserver and
Brahmin-The growing cult of
protector of people.
sacrifice enormously added to the
power of Brahmins. •
Pushan, responsible for well being of cattle,
@

• Kshatriyas They constituted the became the God of Shudras.

warrior class. •
Towards the end of the Vedic age, a section
• Vaisyas They Were the of society began to resent the priestly
agriculturalists, cattle rearers, domination.
traders,artisans and metal workers.
• 16 Sanskaras
Shudras-Lowest in the social
hierarchy and born to serve the upper 1.Garbhadhana 9. Karnachhedana
three varna. 2. Pumsavana 10. Vidyarmbha
• The Ashram sys tem was formed to 3. Simantonnayan 11. Upanayana
attain four purusharthas (Dharma, 4. Jatakarma 12. Vedarambha
Artha, Kama and Moksha). Jabala 5. Namakaran 13. Samavaratana
Upanishada gives the earliest 6. Nishkramana 14. Vivaha
reference to four ashramas i.e. the 7. Annaprashana 15. Vanprastha
stages of life--Brahmacharya, 16. Antyesti
8. Chudakarma
Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Sanyasa.
GENERAL KNOVWLEDGE- Indian History 11

The Vedic Literature Brahmanas

.
The word Veda comes from the word Vid, These are the prose commentaries on
means to know or knowledge. various vedic hymns. They explain the
• Vedic texts are divided between Sruti Vedas in an orthodox way. They explain
(based on hearing) and Smriti (based on the hidden meaning behind the hymns.
memory). They are ritualistic by nature.
• Veda are divided into Samhitas. The most important is the 'Shatapatha
Brahmana' attached to the Yajur Veda.
Rig Veda Every Veda has several Brahamanas
• It is the oldest text in the world. Also attached to it.

e
called the first testament of mankind'. -
Rigveda Aitareya and Sankhyan.
• Collection of hymns, composed around -
Yajurveda Shatapatha and Taittariya.

nc
1700 BC, contains 1028 hymns and Samveda Jaiminaya, Chhandogya and
10580 verses divided into 10 mandalas. Panchvisha, Shadvinsh.
. II to
VIlare the earliest mandalas, each of
Atharva Veda Gopatha
which is ascribed to a particular family of
Rishi i.e. Gritsamad, Visvamitra,
The Aranyakas
ra
Vamadeva, Atri, Bhardwaja, Vashistha.
VIIl mandala is ascribed to Kanvas and The sages dwelling in the forests
Angiras. IX mandala is the compilation of explained the Vedic scriptures to their
Soma hynns. pupils in the form of Aranyakas. These
. have magical power and they form the
nt

The Xth mandala contains the famous

Purushasukta hymn which explains that concluding part of Brahmanas. It
the four varnas were born from the provides details of the rishis, living in
mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the jungle.
creator Brahma.
ie

.
The IIIrd znandala contains the Gayatri The Upanishadas
Mantra. which was compiled in the praise Also called Vedanta, because they
of Sun God Savitri. denote the last phase of Vedic period
jm

• Saraswati is (800-500 BC).

the deity river in the Rig
Veda. They are spiritual and philosophical in
nature.
Sama Veda There are 108 Upanishadas and the
@

• Sama Veda derives its oots from 'saman', period of 800 BC to 500 BC is known as
which means melodies. It is a collection period of Upanishadas. 11 are
of melodies. The hyms of the Sama Veda predominant and they are called
were recited by Udgatri at the Soma mokhya Upanishadas. Vrihadaranyaka
sacrifice. is the oldest Upanishads.
• It contains Dhrupad Raga. Vedangas
Yajur Veda They are the limbs of the Vedas.
• These are treaties of Science and Arts.
Deals withthe procedures for the
performance of sacrifices. The beliefs and Shiksha (deals with pronounciation)
(phonetics).
rituals of non-Aryans are written in it.
. Two text Kalpa (deals with rituals)
of Yajur Veda
Shukla (White) Yajur Veda Vyakarana (Grammar)
.
Krishna (Black) Yajur Veda Nirukia (Etymology)
-
Chhanda (Metrics)
Atharva Veda Jyotisha (Astronomy)
• It is a book of magical formulae. It Panini wrote Ashtadhyayi
contains charms and spells to ward off evil (4th century BC) on Vyakarana.
and disease.
 12 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE- Indian History

Upavedas
There are four Upavedas
•
Dhanurveda (Upaveda of Yajur Veda) : Deals with art of warfare.
.
(Upaveda of Sama Veda) : Deals with art and music.
. Gandharvaveda :
Shilpaveda/Arthaveda (Upaveda of Atharva Veda) Deals with craft and wealth.
• Ayur Veda (Upaveda of Rig Veda) : Deals with medicine.

Shad-Darshanas
Six systems of Hindu philosophies, given by six philosophers of ancient India.
Nyaya Gautama Vaisesika Kannada

e
Sankhya Kapila Yoga Patanjali
Purva Minansa Jaimini .Uttar Mimansa Badarayan

nc
Puranas
• Puranas means the old'. There are 18 famous Puranas. Matsya Purana is the oldest.
Other main puranas are Bhagavata, Vishnu, Vayu and Brahmnada.
•
ra
They deals with 5 subjects: Sarga (creation), Pratisarga (recreation), Wamsa
(Genealogies of gods), Manvantara (rule of manus) and Wamshanucharita
(Genealogies of kings).

Sutras
nt

Sutra literature is divided into three classes

Srauta Sutra (dealing with large public sacrifices).
Griha Sutra (dealing with rituals connected with birth, naming, marriage).
ie

Dharma Sutra (explain social and local customs).

Epic
•
Mahabharata, written by Ved Vyas. Originally, the Mahabharata consisted of
jm

880 verses then it was raised to 24000 verses. The final compilation brought the
number of verses to 100000.
• Ramayana written by Valmiki which is older than the Mahabharata, originally
consisted of 6000 verses, which was raised to 12000 and finally 24000 verses.
@

Smritis
.
Dharma Shastra is the other name for the Smritis, which are the law books written in
sloka form.
• The important Smritis are Manav Dharna ShastTa, Vishnu Dharma Shastra,
Yajnavalkya Smriti and Narada Smriti.
• Manav Dharma Shastra or Manusmriti is the oldest and most famous. Manu is
supposed to be the first king and law maker.
• Later on, some minor Szritis and commentaries like the Mitakshara were compiled.

PRE-MAURYAN AGE
•
The material advantages brought about by the use of the iron implements in Eastern
UP and Bihar in 6th century BC helped in the formation of large territorial states.
.
Use of iron tools in agriculture produced surplus, which could be taxed by the princes
to finance their military and administrative needs.
•
Thus, many Janapadas sprung up in the 6th century BC, the larger of which were
called Mahajanapadas.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History 13

THE
.
MAHAJANAPADAS
The Anguttara Nikaya of Suttapitaka, Mahavastu (Buddhist literature) and
Bhagavati Sutta (Jain literature) mentions the list of l6 Mahajanapadas.
They were of two types
.
Non-Monarchial/Republican States-Kamboj, Kuru, Koliyas (Ramgrama), Malla,
Moriya (Pipplivana), Shakya (Kapilvastu), Vaji (Vaishali), Lichchhavis (Vaishali),
Bhaggas (Sumsumasa), Kalamas (Kesaputta), Videhas (Mithila), Jnatrikas
(Kundalgrama).
•
Monarchical States Anga, Avanti, Chedi, Kashi, Kosala, Gandhara, Magadh, Matsya,
Sursena, Vatsa.

e
• People now owmed stronger allegiance to the Janapada or territory than the jana or
tribe they belonged to.

nc
•
Asmaka was the Southernmost Mahajanapada.
• Vatsa was earlier a Kuru clan.
• Vajji vwas confederacy of eight republican clans, among which Lichchhavis are prominent.

THE REPUBLICAN STATES

ra
• The republics, unlike the monarchies were ruled by tribal oligarchies and the
Brahmanas had no place.
.
The ruling class belonged to the same class and varna. Lichchhavis are said to be the
nt

oldest republic in the world.

Administration
Raja (King), Uparaja (Vice-King), Senapati (Commander) and Bhandagarika
(treasurer).
ie

Mahajanapadas and their Capitals

Mahajanapadas (Location) Capital(s)
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1
Gandhara (Between Kabul and Rawalpindi). Taxila
Anga (Bhagalpur and Mungher in Bihar). Champa
3 Magadha (Patna and Gaya district of Bihar). Girivraj, Rajagriha (Bimbisara):
Patliputra (Udayin): Vaishali
@

(Shishunaga); Patliputra (Ashoka)

4 Kasi (Varanasidisirict, UP). Varanasi
5 Vaji (Vaishali districi, Bihar). Vaishali
6 Malla (South of Vaishali districi, UP). Kusinagara and Pava
7. Chedi (river Ken, Bundelkhand area). Sothivati-nagar or Shuktimati
8 Vatsa (river Yamuna, Allahabad and Mirzapur Kaushambi
disirict in UP).

9 Kosala (Eastern UP). Sravasti and Ayodhaya (Saket)

10. Kuru (Ganga Yamuna doab, Hastinapur and Indraprastha
Delhi-Meerut region).
11. Panchala (Ganga-Yamuna doab, Rohilkhand). Ahichhatra, Kampilya
12. Matsya (Jaipur-Bharatpur-Alwar district). Viratnagar/Bairath
13. Surasenas (Mathura region). Mathura
14. Asmaka (river Godavari) (near Paithan in Patna or Patali
Maharashtra).
15. Avanti(Malwa). Ujain (Northern capital), Mahisrmati
(Southern capital)
16. Kamboja (Hazara district of Pakistan). Rajapur or Hataka
 14 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

MAGADHAEMPIRE
•
The period from 6th century BC to 4th clan of Punjab. (Khema, daughter of
century BC saw the struggle for supremacy Madra king).
amongst the four Mahajanapadas He sent his personal physician, Jivaka
Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti. to his rival Avanti king
•
Ultimately, Magadha emerged as the most Chandapradyota Mahasena of
powerful and prosperous kingdom in the Uijain, to cure hin ofjaundice.
North India. •
The Gandhara ruler of Taxila, Pukku
• The founder of Magadha was Jarasandha ambassador to

e
Sati, sent
and Brihadratha. But, the growth started Bimbisara.
under the Haryankas, expansion took place

nc
under the Shishunagas and Nandas and Ajatashatru
reached its zenith under the Mauryas. (492 BC 460 BC)
• of Chellana and
He was Son
Causes of the Rise of Magadha Bimbisara. He occupied the throne by
ra
Advantageous geographical location of the killing his father.
capital cities. He adopted an aggressive policy of
Abundance of natural resources such as iron, expansion and gained complete
helped in preparing effective weapons. control over Kasi.
nt

The alluvial soil of the Gangetic plains and He defeated his maternal uncle
sufficient rainfall were very conducive for Prasenjit, king of Kosala and married
agriculture produce. his daughter Vijira.
Unorthodox character of Magadhan society and He destroyed Vaishali (capital of the
ie

ambitious rulers. Lichchhavis) after a protracted war of

sixteen years, by sowing the seeds of
discord amongst the people of
HARYANKA DYNASTY Vaishali.
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•
Sunidha and Vatsakar Ajatashatru's
Bimbisara (544 BC- 492 BC) diplomatic ministers,
• He built the capital city Rajgir (Girivraja). a war engine,
Mahashilakantaka
which was surrounded by five hills. which catapulted big stones and
.
@

He was contemporary to Gautama Buddha Rathamusala a kind of chariot with a

and Mahavira and the first king to have mace; helped him to defeat the
standing army for which he is known as Lichchhavis.
Seniya. •
He fortified Rajagriha to meet the
• He defeated Anga King Brahmadatta and threat from Avanti. He also built the
strengthened his OWn position by fort of Rajagriha and Jaladurga
matrimonial alliances. (a water fort) at Patali village on the
• His three wives belonged to royal family of bank of river Ganges.
Koshala (Mahakosaladevi, sister of He patronised the first Buddhist
Prasenjit ruler of Kashi), Lichchhavi Council and Buddha died during his
(Chellana, sister of Chetaka) and Madra reign.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE Indian History 15

Udayin (460 BC-444 BC) Dhanananda

• Son and successor of Ajatashatru. Last
.
He built the fort upon the confluence of the .(The Nanda Ruler)
Alexander invaded North-Western
Ganga and the Son rivers at Pataliputra India during his reign (326 BC), but
(Patna), thus, transferred the capital from the huge army of Dhanananda
Rajgriha to the new city Pataliputra. deterred Alexander from advancing
• Udayin was succeeded by weak rulers towards Gangetic valley.
Anuruddha, Munda and Naga Dasak. • He is probably referred to as
Agrammes or Xan-drames in the
SHISHUNAGA Greek texts.

e
DYNASTY(412BC-344 BC) • Chandragupta Maurya, assisted by
Kautilya overthrew Dhanananda to
• Shishunaga was the minister of Nag-Dasak

nc
establish Mauryan dynasty in
and was elected by the people. 321 BC.
He destroyed the Pradyota dynasty of
Avanti. This ended the hundred year old FOREIGN
rivalry between the two states and Avanti
INVASIONS
ra
became a part of Magadh. He temporarily
shifted the capital to Vaishali.
Iranian Invasion
.
Kalashoka (Kakavarin) The achaemenian ruler of Iran, took
advantages of the political disunity on
nt

• He succeeded Shishunaga.
• He transferred the capital from Vaishali to
the North-West frontier of India.
Pataliputra and convened the second Cyrus of Persia (588 BC-530 BC) was
the first foreign conqueror, who
Buddhist Council in Vaishali (383 BC). penetrated well into India. He
ie

• Sabakami was the President of this council. destroyed the city of Capisa (North of
Kabul). He enrolled Indian soldiers in
NANDA DYNASTY the Persian Army.
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(344 BC-323 BC) •

Darius-I, grand son of Cyrus invaded
North-West India in 516 BC and
It is considered to be the first non-Kshatriya annexed Punjab, West of Indus and
dynasty of Magadha. Sind.
.
Xerxes, the successor of Darius,
@

Mahapadmananda employed Indians in the long war

• Mahapadmananda, the great conqueror and against the Greeks.
founder of the Nanda dynasty, also known as
'Ekarat', 'Eka-chhatra' (sovereign ruler) or Impacts of Iranian Invasion
Sarvakshatrantaka i.e. uprooter of the • Iranian contact gave an impetus to
Kshatriyas (by Puranas), Ugrasena ie. Indo-lranian trade.
owner of huge army (Pali texts). He is also
described as The first empire builder f There was cultural exchange in the
Indian History." form of Kharoshthi script from Iran to
. India. Some of Ashoka's inscriptions
He conquered Koshala and Kalinga (and in North-West India were written in
from here, he brought an image of the Jina this script.
as victory trophy).
• Succeeded by his eight sons, last one being
•
Iranian influence is perceptible on
Mauryan sculpture, e.g. the
Dhanananda. bell-shaped capitals.
 16 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

Alexander's Invasion Pre-Mauryan Society

• Alexander, the king of Macedonia Division of society into four classes
destroyed the Iranian empire. From necessitated the formation of Dharnasutras.
Iran, he marched towards India, .
Shudras were ill-treated, while allprivileges
attracted by its great wealth and were cornered by the Brahmanas and
divided polity. Kshatriyas.
.
Alexander Conquered Kabul in Restrictions were imposed on women and
328 BC. He moved to India through they were not entitled to education or the
the unguarded Khyber pass and Upanayana ceremony.
reached Orhind near Attock in 326 BC. •
• Ambhi, Dharmasutras condemned Vaishyas for
the ruler of Taxila, readily

e
lending mone.
submitted to Alexander. He got the
first and strongest resistance from Pre-Mauryan Economy

nc
Porus. •
. Agricultural production increased. Varihi
Alexander defeated Porus in the and Sali were new varieties of rice; Karisa,
Battle of Hydaspas on the banks of Nivartan and Kulyavapa were units of land
the river Vitasta (Jhelum), but was measurement; Sita was the state's land.
impressed by his bravery, so he
ra
restored to Porus, his kingdom and Development of industry and crafts. Sreni
was the guild or corporation.
made him his ally.
•
After the Battle of Sakala. Alexander Spurt in rade. Sartha referred to caravans
proceeded upto Beas with a view to and Sresthi to bankers. Anathapindaka, was
nt

a Sresthi of Sravasti, who donated Jetuvana

conquer the East, but his fatigued
army refused to cross the river. Vahana to the Buddha. Mendaka was
another rich Sresthi of Rajagriha.
• So,
he was forced to retreat. He
placed the North-Western India Pottery Northern black polished ware was
ie

under the Greek Governor Selucus used.

Nikator.
.
He remained in India for 19 months RELIGIOUS
jm

(326-325 BC) and died in Babylon ENVIRONMENT

(323 BC)at the age of 33 years.
The 6th century BC was the period of great
Impacts of Alexander's religious upheaval or intellectual revolution.
Invasion Of the various sects that emerged in this
@

• Opening up of new trade routes

period, Jainism and Buddhism were the most
prominent.
between North-West India and
Western Asia. This marked the beginning of second
. Urbanisation in India, also known as the age of
Indians learnt from the Greeks in the he Buddha.
fields of coinage, astronomy,
architecture and sculpture Immediate Causes for the
(Gandhara school). Rise of Heterodox Sects
• Many Greek
settlements Were
Division of the society into four varnas.
established, like Alexandria in Kabul
and Sind, Boukephala in Jhelum. Reaction of the Kshatriyas to the Brahmins
Supremacy.
• Alexander's invasion paved
the way The desire of the Vaishyas to improve their social
for the expansion of the Mauryan
empire in that:area. position, with an increase in their economic
• His historians have left valuable position.
To preserve cattle wealth.
accounts related to Indian geography,
social and economic conditions, Desire to go back to simple life. The use of
which enable us to build the Indian Sanskrit in Vedic texts was not understandable to
chronology of the times. the masses.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE Indian History 17

JAINISM Teachings of Mahavira

a
• Rejected the authority of the Vedas
It was founded by Rishabhnath and did not believe in existence of
(Emblem-Bull). He is described as an God.
incarnation of Narayana in Vishnu Purana .
and the Bhagavata Purana. He believed that every object
• There were 24 possesses a soul, so he professed
Tirthankaras (guru) in
Jainism, the first one was Rishabhnath • strict
non-violence.
(Emblem-Bull). Attainment of salvation by believing
penance and dying of starvation.
• Rig Veda mnentions two Tirthankaras • in
Rishabh and Arishtanemi. Universal brotherhood (equality) and

e
non-belief in caste system.
•
Sambhavnath was 3rd tirthankara and .
Arishtanemi was 22nd tirthankara. He believed in karma and transmi
gration of soul.

nc
• The 23rd Tirthankara was Parsavanath
(symbol-serpent). He was the prince of
Banaras, who abandoned the throne and led Jaina Philosophy
a
the life of hermit. He died at Sammet Anekantvada It is the theory of
Sikhar/Parasanath hill in Giridih district of plurality or multisidedness. It states
ra
Jharkhand. that the reality has multiple aspects,
• The 24th Tirthankara was Vardhanman
and advocates simultaneous
Mahavira (Emblem-lion). acceptance of diverse, multiple and
even contradictory viewpoints.
Life of Mahavira
nt

. •
Syadvada It is the theory of may be.
Vardhman Mahavira or Jina (congqueror) was
It states that all judgements are
born to Siddhartha (head of Jnatrika clan) relative, conditional and limited.
and Trishla (Lichchhavi princess and sister of According to it, seven modes of
ie

Chetak) in 540 BC at Kundalgram mear prediction are possible. Also, both

Vaishali in Bihar: absolute negation and absolute
.
He was married to Yashoda and had a affirmation are Wrong.
jm

daughter Priyadarsana, whose husband .

Jamali became his first disciple. Three Ratnas (Way to Nirvana) :
Right faith (Samyak Vishwas)
•
Renunciation At the age of 30, he became
an ascetic and joined an order founded by Right knowledge (Samyak Jnan)
Parsavanath, but left it later. He wandered Right conduct (Samyak Karma)
@

for six years with Gosala (founder of Ajivika .

Sect). Pancho Mahavratas (Five
•
Attained Kaivalya (perfect knowledge) at principles of Jainism)
the age of 42, under a sal tree at "
Non-injury (Ahimsa).
Jimbhikagrama on the banks of the river Non-lying (Satya).
Rijupalika. Non-stealing (Asteya).
.
Delivered his First Sermon At Pava to .
Non-possession (Aparigraha).
eleven disciples known as Ganddharas. He
also founded a Jain Sangha at Pava. Observing celibacy
. (Brahmacharya).
Died at the age of 72 in 468 BC at Pavapuri
near Rajagriha. o
Mahavratas the great 5 VOWS
• He was called or
the Jaina Jitendriya (one followed by Jain monks and Nuns.
who conquered his senses); Kevalin perfect Anuvratas lesser vows for Jain lay
learned), Nirgranthas (free from all bonds), people.
Arihant (blessed one) and Mahavira (the The
frst four Vratas were given by
brave).
• His followers were called Nirgranthas or
Parsavanath, while the fifth was added
later by Lord Mahavira.
Jainas.
 18 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

Five Instruments of Knowledge

• Mati jana-Perception through activity of sense organs including the brain.
• Avadhi jnana--Clairvoyant perception.
•
Shruta jnana-Knowledge revealed by scriptures.
• Manahparyaya jnana--Telepathic knowledge.
• Keval jnana--Omniscience or Temporal knowledge.

Sects of.Jainism
• After the death of Mahavira, during the reign of king Chandragupta Maurya, a severe
famine led to a great exodus of Jaina monks from Ganga valley to the deccan. This

e
migration led to a great schism in Jainism.
•
Bhadrabahu, who led the emigrants, insisted that complete nudity is an essential

nc
practice of Jainism as per Mahaviras teachings. His followers established the sect
called Digambaras.
•
Sthulabhadra, the leader of the group, who remained in the North allowed his
followers to wear white garments. This sect is called as the Svetambaras.
ra
Spread of
Jainisim
• In later times, Jainisn was chiefly concentrated in two regions
:

Gujarat and Rajasthan-Svetambara sect.

MysoreDigambara sect.
nt

Jaina Councils
Council Year Venue Chairman Royal Patron Developments
ie

First Jaina 300 BC Pataliputra Sthulabhadra Chandragupta Compilation of 12

Council Maurya Angas to replace 14
Purvas.
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Second Jaina AD 512 Vallabhi Devridhigani Final compilation of 12

Council Kshmasramana Angas and 12 Upangas.

Jain Literature
@

•
The sacred texts of Jainism were compiled in 6th century AD at Vallabhi. They are
written in Prakrit language (Ardhumagadhi Prakit).
• Jain texts are divided into 6 types:(1) 12 Angas (2) 12 Upangas (3) 10 Parikarnas (4)
6 Chhedasutras (5) 4 Mulasutras (6) 2 Sutragranthas.
• Other important Jain text are - Kalpasutra (in Sanskrit by Bhadrabahu), Bhadrabahu
Charita, Parishishtaparvan (by Hemchandra).
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE- Indian History 19

BUDDHISM
Founded by Gautarma Buddha (also Teachings of Buddha
called Sakyamuni or Tathagata)
known originally as Siddhartha. (a) Four Noble Truths (Arya Satyas)
1. The world is full of sorrows (Sabbam
Gautam Buddha Dukkam).
• He was born in 563 BC at Lumbini 2. The cause of sorrow is desire (Dwadash
in Sakya Kshatriya clan Nidan/Pratitya Samutpada).
Kapilvastu on Vaiskha Purnima day. 3. If desires are conquered, all sorrows can

e
.
His father Suddhodhana was the be removed (Nirvana).
Saka ruler, his mother Mahamaya 4. This can be achieved by following the

nc
died after 7 days of his birth, so he 8-fold path (Ashtangika Marga).
was brought up by stepmother . The second
truth, is based on Buddha's
Gautami. doctrine of Paticheha Samutpada or Pratitya
• He Married Yashodhara and had a
Samutpada i.e. law of dependent origination
son named Rahul.
ra Or causation.
.
His teachers were Alara Kalama and
(b) Eicht-Fold Path (Ashtangika
Udraka Ramputra.
• He left home, called Great Renun marga)
ciation or Mahabhinish- kramana at •
Right understanding Right thought
nt

the age of 29 years after witnessing •

Right speech Right action
four scenes in a sequence (old man, • Right livelihood Right effort
sick man, dead body and an ascetic). . Right mindfulness
•
Attained Nirvana or enlightenment • Right meditation
ie

at 35 years of age at Uruvella (Bodh

Gaya) under a pipal tree on the (c) Three Jewels (Triratnas)
banks of Niranjan (Phalgu) river on • Buddha (the enlightened)
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the 49th day of meditation. • Dhamma (doctrine)

Delivered First Sermon O
Sangha (order)
Dharmachakra Pravartana at
Sarnath, to five of his disciples. (d) Code of Conduct
@

•
Died at the age of 80 years in 483 BC • Do not covet the property of others
a
under Sal tree at Kusinagar in the o Do not commit violence
Malla republic (Mahaparinirvana). .
. Do not use intoxicants
Buddha's horse-Kanthaka; Buddha's • Do not speak a lie
charioteer-channa; Buddha's cousin • Do
not indulge in corrupt practices
Devadatta.
Major Events of Buddha's Life (e) Belief in Nirvana
•
Also known as moksha or salvation. It refers
Events Symbols to a belief in the concept of ultimate bliss,
Janma (Birth) Lotus and whereby the person gets freedom from the
Bull cycle of birth and death.
Mahabhinishkramana Horse
(Renunciation) (f) The Middle Path
Nivana/Sambodhi Bodhi tree It means that the man should avoid extremes of
(Enlightenment) both a life of luxury and a life of severe
Dharmachakra pravartana Wheel asceticism and acquire a middle path. Also
(First Sermon) called Madhya Marga Madhayama
Mahapainivana (Death) Stupa Pratipada.
 20 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

Buddhist Sangha Buddhist Literature

•
consisted of monks (Bhikshus orShramanas) and
It Mostly written in Pali language.
nuns, who acted as a torch bearer of the dhamma. Tripitakas - Vinaya Pitaka (monastic
The worshippers were called Upasakas. code), Sutta Pitaka (Buddha's
Sayings) and Abhidhamma Pitaka
Sects of Buddhism (Philosophy of Buddha's teachings).
Sutta pitaka includes Digha Nikaya,
Hinayana (The Lesser Vehicle) Majhima Nikaya, Sanyukta Nikaya,
• Its followers in original teachings of Buddha. Angutta Nikaya and Khoddak Nikaya.
• Sought salvation through self-discipline Milindapanho - a dialogue between
and meditation.

e
Milinda (Indo-Greek ruler) and
• Did not believe in idol worship and favoured Nagasena (Buddhist Saint),
Pali language. DipaVamsha and Mahavamsha.

nc
• two subjects : Vaibhasika and Sautantrika. Important Buddhist texts written in
Sanskrit-Buddhacharita and
Mahayana (The Greater Vehicle) Saundarananda by Ashwagosha;
. Mahavibhasha shastra by vasumitra;
Its followers believed in heavenliness of
Buddha.
ra Madhyamika Karika and
• Sought salvation help of Bodhi sattvas. Prajnaparimita karika hy Nagarjuna.
. Believed
in idol worship and favoured Spread of Buddhism
Sanskrit language. •
Mahayanism in Central Asia, China
nt

• Two subsects Madhyanmika (founder

:

Nagarjuna) and Vijnanavada founder and Japan. Hinayanism in Ceylon,

Thailand and other parts of
Maitreyanath.
South-East Asia.
Vajrayana King Ashoka sent Buddhist missions
ie

• Its followers believed that salvation could be under his SOn Mahendra and
daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka.
attained by acquiring magical powers called
vajra. Kanishka was the patron of Mahayana
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• Chief divinity : the Taras. sect of Buddhism.

Buddhist Councils
@

Buddhist Year Venue Chairman Royal Patron Development (s)

Council
First Council 483 BC Saptaparni Mahakassaapa Ajatashatru Compilation of Sutta
cave, (Haryanka Pitaka and Vinaya
Rajgiha Dynasty) Pitaka by Ananda and
Upalirespecively.

Second 383 BC Vaishali Sabakami Kalasoka Monks were split into

Council (Shisunaga Sthavirvadins and
Dynasty) Maha sanghikas.
Third Council 250 BC Patiputra Mogaliputta Tissa Ashoka Compilation of
(Maurya Abhidhamma Pitaka.
Dynasty)
Fourth AD 72 Kundalvan, Vasumitra Kanishka Division of Buddhists
Council Kashmir (Chairman) and (Kushan into Hinayana and
Ashwaghosha Dynasty) Mahayana.
(Vice-Chairman)
GENERAL KNOVWLEDGE- Indian History 21

Some Famous Buddhist Scholars

Ashvaghosha, Nagarjuna, Asanga, Vasubandhu, Buddraghosha, Dinnaga and
Dharmakirti.
Bodhisattvas
• Vajrapani (holds thunderbolt). • Avlokitesvara/Padmapani (lotus bearer).
• Manjushri (holds boks describing 10 paramitas). Kshitigrha (guardian of purgatories).
• Maitreya (the future Buddha). • Amitabha/Amitayusha (The Buddha of heaven).

Buddhist Architecture
Buddhism takes the credit for

e
First human statues to be worshipped.
.
Stone-pillars depicting the life of Buddha at Gaya, Sanchi and Bharhut.

nc
Gandhara art and the beautiful images of the Buddha.
n
Cave architecture in the Barabar hills at Gaya and in Western India around Nashik.
Art pieces of Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda.
Traditional names of buddhist places.
ra
• Stupa relics of Buddha or some prominent monks.
.
Chaitya Prayer hall.
.
Vihara residence.

Buddhist Universities
nt

Buddhist Universities Location Founder

Nalanda Badagaon, Bihar Kumargupla-l
Vikramshila
ie

Bhagalpur, Bihar Dharmapala (Pala ruler)

Somapuri North Bengal Dharmapala (Pala ruler)
Jagadal Bengal Ramapala (Pala ruler)
jm

Odantpuri Bihar Sharif, Bihar Gopala (Pala ruler)

Vallabhi Gujarat Bhattarka (Maitrak rule)

Other Heterodox Sects

@

Seot Founder Theory

Ajivikas Gosala Maskariputra (Makhali) Believed in fate called 'Niyati'
Amoralism Purana Kassapa Sankhya Philosophy
Lokayata or Ajita Keshakambalin Uchchedavada (annihilationism)
Charvaka School
Hindu Vaisesika Pakudha Katyayana Sorrow, happiness and are
life
School indestructible like Earth, water etc.
 22 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

THE MAURYAN EMPIRE

ORIGIN OF MAURYAS Buddhist Literature
• Mudrarakshasa-Maurvas were connected Ashoka vadana and Divyavadana
with the Nandas and were called them Information about Bindusara and
Vrishal/Kulhina (of low clan). Ashoka's expeditions to Taxila.
Dipavansa and Mahavamsa (Sri
•
Buddhist Tradition Chandragupta was a Lankan chronicles) Ashoka's role in
Kshatriya (Sakya clan). The region was full
spreading of Buddhism in Sri Lanka.
of peacocks (mors), so became famous as

e
•
'Moriyas. Jatakas Socio-economic conditions
• of Mauryan period.
Puranas They belonged to the Moriya clan Sthaviravali Charita or Parisistha

nc
(low caste).
• parvan of Hemachandra (A biography
Junagarh rock inscription of Rudrada-man
(AD 150) suggests that Mauryans might of Chanakya) Chandragupta's
to
conversion Jainism.
have been of Vaishya origin.
Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadatta in
ra
Sources Sanskrit, an account of prevailing
socio-economic conditions and about
Literary Sources how Chandragupta overthrew the
•
Arthashashtra of Kautliya (Chanakya or Nandas with the help of Chanakya.
• of
Indica Megasthenese Socio
nt

Vishnugupta) Written in Sanskrit by Prime

Minister of Chandragupta Maurya, it is a economic and administrative
treatise On state craft and public structure under Mauryas; Indians free
administration under Mauryas. The book is from slavery; 7-castes system and
in l5 parts. Usuary in India.
ie

Various Edicts of Mauryan Age

Ediots Content Looation
jm

A. Rock Edicts
14 Major Rock Edicts Ashoka's principle of Kalsi (Dehradun, Girnar (Gujarat).
government and policy of Yerragudi (Andhra Pradesh),
Dhamma. Mansehra (Pakistan), Sopara
(Bombay), Dhauli and Jaugada
@

(Orissa), Shahbazgarhi (Pakistan).

Two separate Kalinga Kalinga War and new system of Dhaulior Tosaliand Jaugada
Edicts administration after war (AIl men (Orissa).
are my children - Dhaul).
n
Minor Rock Edicts Personal history of Ashoka and South and central parts of the
summary of his Dhamma. empire.
B. Pillar Edicts
7 Pillar Edicts Appendix to the Rock Edicts. Delhi topra, Delhi-Meerut,
Rampurva, Lauriya-Araraj.
Lauriya-Nandangarh and
Allahabad-Kosam.
C. Other Edicts
Queen's Edict Refers to Karuvaki mother of On Allahabad Pillar
Tivala/Tivara, the 2nd Queen.
Bhabru Edict Ashoka's faith in Buddhism Bairat (Rajasthan)
Nigalisagar Pillar Edict Stupa of Buddha at Kanakamurni Nigalisagar (Nepal)
was enlarged.
Rummindei Pillar Ashoka visited Lumbini and Rummindei/Lumbini (Nepal).
reduced land tribute.
3 Barbara cave Edicts Donation to Ajivikas. Barbar hills (Gaya, Bihar).
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE Indian History 23

Puranas Chronology and lists of Mauryan Chandragupta was the first Indian
kings. ruler to unite the whole North India.
•
Others Account of Diodorous, Pliny, Both trade and agriculture flourished
Plutarch (Chandragupta as Androcottus), during his reign. Weights and
Arrian and Justin (Chandragupta as measures were standarised, mnoney
Sandrocottus). came into use and sanitation and
famine relief ImeasUTes Were
Epigraphical Evidences
.
undertaken by the states.
Ashoka's Edicts and Inscriptions Ashoka's
edicts were first deciphered by James
Bindusaa(298 BC-273 BC)
Princep in 1837. It was written in Prakrit Greeks called him Amitro Chates

e
language and 3 scripts viz Kharoshthi in (derived from Sanskrit word
North-West, Greek and Aramaic in West and Amitraghata i.e. slayer of foes);
Vindupala (Chinese

nc
Brahmi in Eastern India. texts:),
Sinhasena- Jain text; Bhadrasara
Quick Digest (Vayu Purana).
•
Inscriptions of Skandgupta and Audradaman are He extended the kingdom further to
also found at Girnar. The pillar Edict VIl is the last the Peninsular region of India as far
ra South as Mysore.
edict to be issued by Ashoka.
•
Mahasthan and Sohgura copper plate Antiochus I, the Selucid king of Syria,
inscriptions issued by Chandragupta Maurya, sent his Ambassador, Deimachus to
deals with relief measures adopted during his court.
nt

•
Pliny Imentions that Ptolemy
famine.
Latest discovery-3 Ashokan minor rock edicts Philladelphus of Egypt sent
from Sannati village (Karnataka). Dionysius as his Ambassador to the
court of Bindusara.
ie

•
Chandragupta Maurya Taranath-the Buddhist monk,
credits him for conquerimg the land
(321 BC-298 BC) between the twO seas.
• Also called as Sandrocottus/ Androcottus •
Antiochus I sent some sweet wine
jm

by Greek scholars. and dried figs to Mauryan court on

• He entered into an alliance with Parvartaka Bindusara's request, but denied to
and with the help of Chanakya, he send a sophist explaining that Greek
dethroned the last Nanda ruler law forbid a sophist to be sold.
@

•
Dhanananda and founded the Mauryan He patronised Ajivika sect.
dynasty with the capital at Pataliputra.
•
Chandragupta defeated Selucus Nikator, Ashoka (273 BC-232 BC)
the general of Alexander in North-West He was the greatest Mauryan ruler:
India in 305 BC. Selucus surrendered a vast Governor of Taxila and Ujain
territory in return for 500 elephants. previously. His rule extended to the
Hindukush became the boundary between whole of sub-continent except to the
the two states. There was a matrimonial extreme South. It also included
alliance between them. Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Kashmir
• Selucus also sent the Greek Ambassador, and valleys of Nepal.
Megasthenese, to the COurt of A Buddhist text Dipavasma says that
Chandragupta Maurya. he usurped the throne after killing his
- 99 brothers, except the youngest one,
Chandragupta embraced Jainism and went
to Chandragiri hil, at Sravanbelagola with Tissa in the war of succession that
Bhadrabahu, where he died of slow lasted for four years.
starvation (Salekhna).
 24 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

• He fought Kalinga War (261 BC) in Yuvaraj the crown Prince

the 9th vear of his rule. The miseries of .
Gopa the Purohit Chief Priest
war caused deep renorse to Ashoka,
and therefore he abandoned the policy Senapati Commander-in-Chief of

of physical conquest (Bherighosa) in Arny and other ministers.

favour of cultural conquest Administrative Units and
(Dhamma ghosha). Their Heads
• However, Ashoka retained Kalinga after
conquest. This proves that he was not Unit Head
an extreme pacifist and changes in his Chakra (province) Rashtrapala/Kumara
policies were mainly for admínistrative Ahar (district) Pradeshika

e
purposes. (administrative) and
• Rajuka (revenue)
He embraced Buddhism under
Sangrahana (group Gopa

nc
Upagupta.
of 10 villages)
• He sent his son Mahendra and Gram (village)
Gramika
daughter Sanghamitra to Ceylon as
Buddhist missionaries with a sapling of Provincial Administration
original pipal tree.
ra Provinces
• He inaugurated the Dhammayatras Capital
from the 1lth year of his reign by Uttarapatha(North) Taxila
visiting Bodh Gaya; also appointed Avantipatha(West) Uijain
Dhamma Mahamatras (officers of Prachyapatha (East) Kalinga
nt

righteousness) to spread the message

Dakshinapatha (South) Suvarnagiri
of Dhamma.
Central Province Pataliputra
Ashoka's Dhamma
It was a code of conduct and a set of Some Important Rock Edicts
.
ie

principles to be adopted and practiced Major Rock Content

by the people to build up an attitude of Edicts
social responsibility and preserve the
jm

MAE Prohibition of animal sacrifice

social order. It odained to pay respect
MAE II Refers to Cholas, Pandyas, Satya
to elders, mercy to slaves and putras and Kerala putra (kingdom
emphasised truth, non-violence and of South) and care for man and
tolerance. animals
@

MAE II Liberality to Brahmins

LATER MAURYAS MREV Non-violence; courtesy to relations
. MAE V
Appointrnent of Dharnma
Following the death of Ashoka, the
Mahamatras
Mauryan dynasty lasted for l37 years, MAE VII
Tolerance among all sects
the empire was divided into Western MRE VII
and Eastern parts. Dhammayatras
• MAE IX Charity, kinship, Dhamma
Brihadratha, the last Mauryan ruler,
was assassinated in 184 BOC by his MRE XII Religious tolerance
Brahmin Commander in-chief, MAE XIlI Kalinga war; Bheri Ghosa to
Pushyamitra Shunga, who established Dhamma Ghosa
the Shunga dynasty.
Art and Architecture
Mauryan Administration • Mauryan art is classified into two groups
•
The Mauryan state was a welfare state, by Ananda Coomaraswamy
with highly centralised government. 1. Popular/Folk Art Sculptures of Yaksha
•
Central Administration King was the and Yakshini e.g. Yaksha of Parkham
Nucleus, assisted by Mantri Parishad, (Mathura); Yakshini from Vidisha
which included : (MP) and Didarganj (Patna).
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE Indian History 25

2. Royal/Court Art Royal Palace of Stupas were built throughout the empire,
Chandragupta Maurya at Kumharar, to enshrine the relics of Buddha e.g.
Patna (Fa Hien referred it as the Sanchi and Bharhut.
Creation of God), city of Patliputra
Ashokan pillars; stupas and caves. Significance of Mauryan Rule
Mauryans introduced stone masonry The emblem of Indian Republic has been
on a large scale. adopted from the lion capital of Ashokan
pillar at Sarnath.
Pillars represent the masterpiece of • Many Gurukuls and Buddhist
Mauryan sculpture e.g.
Single lion capital Rampurva and monasteries (Taxila and Banaras)
Lauriya Nandangarh. developed with royal patronage.

e
Four lion capital at Sarmath and Literary developments e.g. Arthashashtra
(Kautilya); Kalpasutra (Bhadrabahu),
Sanchi.

nc
Katha Vastu (Buddhist text), Bhagwati
.Carved elephant at Dhauli and
Sutra, Acharanga Sutra and Dasavalik
engraved elephant at Kalsi. (Jaina text).
ra
POST-MAURYAN PERIOD
Mauryans were succeeded by many ruling Hellinistic art in the North-West frontier
nt

dynasties from Central Asia in North-West of India.

India and by native rulers (Shungas, e-g. Gandhara art and Military
Kanvas, Satvaharnas) in the Eastern, Governorship.
central and Deccan region of India. The Sanskrit term for astrology
ie

Horshastra is derived from the Greek

FOREIGN STATES term horoscope.

The Indo-Greeks The Shakas or Scythians

jm

•A series of invasions began in about (AD 1st to 4th Century)

200 BC. The weak Mauryan king failed
to restrict them. The first to invade The Greeks were followed by the Shaka.
India were the Indo Grecks, who ruled There were five branches of Shakas ruling
@

Bactria lying South of the Oxus river in from Afghanistan, Punjab, Mathura,
the area covered by North Afghanistan. (where it ruled for about two centuries.),
They occupied a large portion of Ujain (rules over) Western India and
North-Western India and moved upto Deccan.
Ayodhya and Pataliputra. A king of Ujain, who called himself
.
The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Vikramaditya defeated Shakas. An era
Menander (165-145 BC) or Milinda. called the Vikram Samvat is recorded
He had his capital at Sakala (modern from the event of his victory over the
Sialkot in Punjab). He invaded the Shakas i.e. 57 BC.
Ganga Yamuna doab. He was converted • The most famous Shaka ruler in India
to Buddhism by Nagasena. Menander was Rudradaman (AD 130-150).
and Nagasena's conversation were . He repaired the Sudarshan lake in the
recorded in the book Milindapanho or
"the questions of Milinda.' semi arid zone of Kathiawar and issued
. the first ever longest inscription in Chaste
They were the first rulers in India
Sanskrit at Junagarh.
to issue coins attributed to the kings.
They were also first to issue gold coins. Other important Saka ruler in India were
The Greek rule introduced features of Nahapana, Ushavadeva, Chastanma,
Ghamatika etc.
 26 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

He patronised the fourth Buddhist

Sudarshana Lake Council in Kashmir, where the doctrine of
It was constructed by
-
Pushyagupta the Mahayana form of the BuddhisIn was
Governor ot Saurashtra under finalised.
Chandragupta Maurya. • Kanishka palronised the following
Tushasp constructed dam on the lake
persons:
during the reign of Ashoka Maurya. First Ashwaghosha (Buddhacharita)
reconstruction by Govermor Survishakh sutra)
Nagarjuna (Madhyamik
under Saka Satrap Audradaman and Vasumitra (Chairman of
the fourth
second by Chakrapalit under Buddhist Council)
Skandgupta. Charaka (Charakasamhita).
.

e
The last Kushana ruler was Vasudeva I.
The Parthians This shows that successors of Kanishka
bore typical Indian names as Vasudeva.

nc
(AD 1st to 3rd Century)
. Impacts of Central
Originally, the Parthians lived in Iran,
from where they moved to India and Asian Contact
replaced Shakas.
. •
The Shaka-Kushana phase registered a
ra
They occupied only a small portion of
distinct advance in building activities. The
North-Western India as compared to use of burnt brick for flooring and that of
the Greeks and Shakas. tiles for both looring and roofing,
•
The most famous Parthian king was construction of brick well and red ware
nt

Gondophernes, in whose reign pottery became prevalent.

St Thomas came to India for the • They introduced better cavalry and tunic,
propagation of Christianity.
trousers and long heavy coat and also.
They also brought cap, helmets, and boots,
The Kushanas
ie

which were used by warriors. The

(AD 1st to 3rd Century) Kushanas were the first rulers in India to
.
The Kushanas (Yuechis or Tochanians) issue gold coins. Kanishka controlled the
famous silk route in Cemtral Asia.
jm

replaced the Greeks and Parthians.

•
They were nomadic people from The Kushana empire gave rise to
steppes of North Central Asia. Their Gandhara and Mathura Schools of Art.
empire included a good part of Central The famous headless erect statue of
Asia, portion of Iran, a portion of Kanishka shows artistic creations of
@

Afghanistan, almost the whole of Mathura School. Vatsyayana WIote

Pakistan and North India. Kamasutra in this period.
.
The first Kushana dynasty was founded
by Kujala Kad-phises. Wima Kadphises Gandhara School of Art
• It exbhibits the influence of Greek and
(the 2nd ruler) issued gold coins in
India. Kanishka founded the 2nd Roman art; patronised by Shakas and
Kushana dynasty. Kushanas. The school specialised in
. Buddha and Bodhi-sattva images, stupas
Kushanas were the first rulers in India
to issue gold coins on large scale. and monasteries. They used blue schist
stone.
Kanishka (AD 78-101) •
Buddhas of this school of art are gentle,
He was also known as Second Ashoka graceful and compassionate.
and was the most famous Kushana
ruler. He had two capitals-Purushpur
Mathura School ofArt
• The Buddha of the Gandhara School of Art
and Mathura.
were copied here, but in a refined way.
Kanishka started an era in AD 78,
which is now known as Saka era and The majority of creations consisted of
is used by Government of India. nude, seminude figures of female,
Yakshinis or Apsara in an erotic pose.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE - Indian History 27
.
The image exhibited not only masculinity Kanya Dynasty
and energetic body, but also grace and
religious feeling. (73BC-28 BC)
• Kanva was a minor dynasty founded
Amaravati School of Art by Vasudeva, who killed the last
• Lord Buddha depicted in the form of a Shunga king Devabhuti. Its capital
was at Patliputra.
Swastika mark. Also depicted Buddha in
the human form for the first time. Bhumimitra and Narayana
.
The ornate bull or Nandiswara', situated in succeeded Vasudeva. All the rulers
were Brahmins.
the Amareswara temple, is also an
Amaravati piece of art. The last ruler, Susarman, was killed

e
by Andhra king Simuka.
NATIVE STATES The Cheti Dynasty

nc
The successors of Ashoka were weak kings, so
Mauryan empire gradually declined. The last
of Kalinga
ruler of Mauryan dynasty was killed by his own The Hathigumpha inscription of
commader-in-Chief Pushyamitra Shunga Kharavela--the third ruler of the
who founded the Shunga dynasty.
ra dynasty gives information about the
Chetis. Kharavela pushed his
upto Godavari in the South,
Shunga Dynasty kingdom
and recovered the Jaina image from
(185 BC-73 BC) Magadha.
nt

• Pushyamitra Shunga ruled from Vidisha He was a follower of Jainis. He

(MP). He defeated Bactrian king, constructed residential caves for Jain
Dematrius and conducted two Ashvamedha monks on the Udaygiri hill near
Yajnas (Chief priest- Patanjali). He is Bhubaneshwar, Orissa.
ie

considered to be the prosecutor of

. Buddhism. The Satavahana Dynasty
However, the Buddhist Stupa at Bharhut
(60 BC -225 AD)
was renovated during his reign.
jm

•
The Greek Ambassador Heliodous visited
° The Satavahanas are considered to be
the Court of fifth Shunga king identical with the Andhra, who are
Bhagabhadra and set-up a pillar in honour mentioned in the Puranas.
of Lord Vasudeva near Vidisha (Madhva
•
The earliest inscriptions of the
@

Pradesh). Satavahanas belong to the first

• Shunga king Agnimitra was hero of century BC, when they defeated the
Kanvas and established their power in
Kalidasa's Malvikagnimitram. parts of Central India.
.
The Shungas marked as the revival of • They were successors of Mauryas in
Hindu culture, Sanskrit language and
Bhagavatism. the Deccan and Central India.
•
The great Sanskrit Grammarian, Patanjali The founder of this empire was
was patronised by them. Simuka, after the assassination of last
. Kanava King Susarman.
The famous book on Hindu Law Manusmriti
was compiled during this period. Gautamiputra Satakarni
•
(AD 106-130) was the greatest ruler of
Later Kings Vasumitra, Vajramitra, this dynasty.
Bhagabhadra, Devabhuti. All of them were
Brahmanas. Assumed the title of raja-raja and
•
maharaja.
Shunga Art Bharthut Stupa, gateway railing His capital was at Paithan
surrounding the Sanchi Stupa built by
Ashoka, Vihara, Chaitya and Stupa of Bhaja Pratisthan on the banks of the river
(Poona), Nasika Chaitya, Amaravati Godavari in Aurangabad district.
Stupa etc.
 28 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE - Indian History
• Vasishthiputra Sri Satkarni, the 24th ruler, married the daughter of Saka Satrap
Rudradaman, but was twice defeated by him.
.
Yajna Sri Satkarni (AD 165-194), the later king of Satavahanas, 'recovered North
Konkan and Malwa from Shaka rulers. His coins figured 'ship with double mast'.
• Pulanmayi
III was the last Satavahana ruler, succeeded by Ikshavakus in the
3rd century BC.
Important Aspects of the Satavahanas
• They issued mostly lead coins (apart from copper and bronze). Satavahanas were the
first rulers to make land grants to Brahmins. There is an instance of grants being made
to Buddhist monk, which shows they also promoted Buddhism.

e
• Satavahana rulers called themselves Brahmins. Gautamiputra
Satkarni boasted that
he was a true Brahmin.

nc
• They performed Vedic rituals and worshipped Gods like Krishna, Vasudeva and others.

Stupas at Nagarjuna konda and Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh became important seats
of Buddhist culture under the Satavahanas.
.
In the Satavahana phase, many chaityas e.g. Karle caves in Western deccan, Nashik and
Kanheri and Viharas were cut out of solid rocks in the North-Western Deccan. The official
ra
language of Satavahanas was Prakrit and the script was Brahmi.
• Provinces were called Ahara, and the officials were known as Amatyas and
Mahamatyas.
nt

THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS

• The fall of Kushana empire towards the middle of AD 3rd century led to the
ie

establishment of the empire of the Guptas.

• Although the Gupta empire was not as large as the Mauryas, it kept North India
politically united for more than a century.
jm

•
Their period is generally regarded as the Golden Age of Hinduism.
• Guptas belonged to the Vaishya caste.
• Sri Gupta was the founder of Gupta dynasty. Sri Gupta was followed by his son
Ghatotkacha and was followed by his son Chandragupta. Both assumed the title of
Maharaja.
@

Chandragupta I(AD 319-335)

• He greatly raised the power and prestige of his dynasty by his matrimonial alliances
and conquests.
• He married the Lichchhavi princess Kumara Devi and issued Chandragupta I

Kumaradevi type gold coins (Dinaras).

• Chandragupta-I is also said to have
starteda new era Gupta Era, which starts from
26th February AD 320, the coronation date of Chandragupta I.
.
He established his authority over Magadha, Saketa and Prayaga.
•
He was the first Gupta king to adopt the title of Maharajadhiraja. He issued gold
coins.
Samudragupta (AD 335-380)
• Son and successor of Chandragupta I. He was a great conqueror.
•
The long inscription in the pillar of Allahabad (Prayag Prasasi) enumerated by his
court poet Harisena informs about the people and the countries that were conquered
by Samudragupta. Because of his bravery and generalship, he came to be called the
Napoleon of India by VA Smith.
GENERAL KNOVWLEDGE- Indian History 29

•
Virasen was his Commander- in-Chief during Southern campaign. Vasubandhu, a
famous Buddhist scholar, was his minister. Samudragupta's arms reached as far as
Kanchi, Tamil Nadu, where the Pallavas were compelled to recognise his suzerainty.
• Samudragupta annexed the territories after defeating the monarchs in North India,
but did not annex territories in South India. His authority over Java, Sumatra and
Malaya island proves that he maintaineda strong navy.
• Samudragupta is said to have composed numerous poems of high merit. Some of his
coins represent him playing the Veena. He also performed Ashvamedha sacrifices.
•
The Allahabad pillar inscriptions mention the title Dharma Prachar Bandhu i.e. he
was the upholder of Brahmanical religion.
• According to Chinese sources, Meghavarman, the ruler of Sri Lanka, sent a

e
missionary to Samudragupta for a permission to build a Buddhist temple at Gaya.
• He was a Vaishnavite.

nc
Chandragupta II (AD380-415)
• According to Devi Chandraguptam of Vishakhadutta, Samudragupta was succeeded by
Ramagupta.
• Ramagupta was a coward. He surrendered his queen Dhruvadevi to the Saka invader.
ra
He was also the only Gupta ruler to issue copper coins.
• Chandragupta II, the younger brother of Ramagupta, invaded
the enemy's camp,
killed the Saka ruler and Ramagupta; occupied the throne and married Dhruvadevi.
.
He proved to be a great ruler and extended his empire by conquests and matrimonial
nt

alliances. He married Kubernaga of Naga dynasty and married his daughter

Prabha-Vatigupta, with the Vakataka prince Rudrasena II.
•
Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription (Delhi) claims his authority over North-Western
India and a good portion of Bengal. It says that the king defeated the confederacy of
ie

Vangas and Vahilkas (Bulkh). Virasena's Udaygiri cave inscription refers to his
conquest of the whole world.
• Chandragupta II conquered
Western Malwa and Gujarat, from the Shaka Kshatrapas
jm

Rudra Simha III. The conquest gave Chandragupta the Western sea coast, famous for
trade and commerce. This contributed to the prosperity of Malwa and its Chief city
Ujain. Ujain was made the second capital by Chandragupta II.
• He issued silver coins (first Gupta
ruler to issue silver coins) and adopted the title
Vikramaditya and Sakari in memory of his victory.
@

.
The court of Chandgragupta II at Uijain was adorned by nine scholars known as
Navaratna, including Kalidasa and Amarsimha.
.
Harisena was the court poet and the minister.
• Fa
Hien-The Chinese piligrim visited India at his tine.
Kumaragupta (AD 415-455)
.
He founded the Nalanda University.
• Worshipper of Lord Kartikeya.
•
In the last year of his reign, the empire was invaded by the Turko-Mongol ribe, the
Hunas. During the war with the Hunas, Kumaragupta died.

Skandagupta (AD 455-467)

.
He repulsed the ferocious Hunas attacks twice. The heroic feat entitled him the title
Vikramaditya (also mentioned in the Bhitari Pillar Inscription).
• During his period Sudarshana lake was repaired and its embankments were rebuilt.
• The continuous attack of the Humas weakened the economy and the decline of empire
began soon after the death of Skandagupta.
 30 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE- Indian History

Gupta Kings, their Titles and Coins

Gupta Kings Titles Gold Coins (Dinaras)
Chandragupta I Maharajadhiraja or king of the kings Kumaradevi type
Samudragupta Kaviraj (Prayag Prasati). Dhanurdhari-Archer, Garud, Axe,
Ashvanedha, Vikram, Pararn Ashvamedha, Vyagnra hanam
Bhagvat, Sarva-rajoch Chetta (Tiger killing), Véena Vadan, Playing
(uprooter of allkings). flute type.
Chandragupta | Vikramaditya, Sakari Ashvarohi, Chhatradhari,
Devagutpa/Devashri/Devaraja, Chakra-Vikram type etc.
Narendra Chandra Sinh Vikram,

e
Param Bhagvata etc.
Kumaragupta Ashvamedha
Mahendraitya, Gajarohi, Khadgadhari, Gajarohi
Sinh-nihanta, Khang-nihanata, (i.e.

nc
Mahendra and Mahendra Sinh
rhinocerous slayer) Kartikeya and
Apratighmudra type.
Skandagupta Vikramaditya, Krarmaditya, Param Archer king and queen, Chhatra
Bhagvat, (on coins); Shakropama and horseman type.
ra
(Kahaum Pillar inscription); Devaraja
(Arya Manjushri Mula Kalpa).

Gupta Administration City Administration aura was the

nt

• Gupta administration was highly council responsible for city administration.

quasi-feudal in It included the President of the city
decentralised and
character. corporation, Chief representative of the
guild of merchants, a representative of the
ie

• Gupta Kings adopted pompous titles

such artisans and the Chief Accountant. It
as Parameshvara, comprised of local representatives.
Maharajadhiraj, Parambhatiarka,
which signify that they ruled over the Army Military Chariots receded into the
jm

lesser kings in their emnpire. The background and cavalry came to the
practice of appointing Kumara (crown forefront. The Gupta empire maintained
a large standing army, but essentially the
prince) came in vogue.
military organisation was feudal in
• Kings were assisted by Mantriparishad/ character.
@

Mantrimandal (Council of Ministers) as It was a form of tax i.e. the

referred in the Prayag Prasasti. Senabhakta
army was to be fed by the people
Administrative Units and their whenever, it passed through the
Heads countryside. Forced labour or Vishti was
also practised in royal army.
Unit Headed by
Revenue Land revenue was the chief
Bhukti (province) Uparika source of state's income. It varied from
Vishayas (district) Vishyapati Ah to
Nagar (sub-district) Purapala/Nagar 4 th
6
of the produce. The number of

Pati taxes increased.

Gram (village) Gramika
GENERAL KNOVWLEDGE- Indian History 31

• During the Gupta's rule, land grants common. Womnen were not given the
(Agarhara and Devagrahara grants) also right to property except for
included transfer of royal rights over salt stridhana, in the form of garments
and mines, which were earlier states and jewellery.
monopoly during Mauryas. Judiciary For
the first time, civil and criminal law were Religion
clearly defined and demarcated. •
Bhagavatism centred around the
• Coinage Guptas issued the largest number worship of Vishnu or Bhagavad.
of gold coins, which were called dinaras in Bhaqvad Gita was written in this
their inscriptions. Silver coins were called period. It preached the doctrine of
the Rupayakas. incarnation or Avatar.

e
Important Officials • ldol worship in the temple became a
common feature. The Gods were

nc
Official Field of Work unified with their respective
Maha Pratihari Chief usher of Royal Consorts. Thus, Parvati got
Palace associated with Shiva and Laxmi
Dandapashika Chief officer of the Police with Vishnu.
department • Gupta kings followed a policy of
u
Mahaprajapati
ra
Chief officer of elephant tolerance towards the different
Corps
religious sects.
Vinayasthitisthapak Chief officer of religious
affairs There was an evolution of
n Vajrayanism as well and Buddhist
Mahashvapati Chief of Cavalry
nt

tantric cult.
Mahadandanayaka Minister of Justice
Buddhism no longer received royal
patronage in the Gupta period.
Society
ie

• The Supremacy of the Brahmins Economy

continued They accumulated wealth on Landwas classified into five groups
accounts of numerous land grant and Khila -Waste land
claimed many privilege.
jm

• Kshetra Bhoomi –Cultivable land

The position of the Shudras improved, and . -
they were permitted to listen epic, Vastu Bhoomi Habitable land
puranas and to worship a new God, Lord Charagah Bhoomi– Pasture land
Krishna. Aprahata Bhoomi -Forest land
.
@

Varna system got strengthened due to the According to Pahadpur copper plate
large scale proliferation of castes, chiefly inscription of Buddhagupta, state was
because of assimilation of foreigners into the the exclusive owner of land.
Indian society, absorption of tribal people Poona plates of Prabhavati Gupta
into Brahminical society through land refers to the land survey conducted
grants and transformation of guilds into
during the period.
class due to the decline of trade and urban
centres. Pushtapala was the officer incharge
. for maintaining records of all land
The Position of women declined: The first transactions.
example of immolation of widow after death
of her husband (Sati) appeared in Gupta Trade There was a decline in trade
times. (Referred in the Eran inscription, with the Roman empire after AD 3rd
Polygamy and pre-puberty marriages were century, while the South-East Asian
trade increased.
 32 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History
. Ports West Coast to trade with
On Gupta Architecture
Mediterranean and West Asia-Bharoach, .
The Gupta age Imarks the
Chaul, Kalyan and Cambay.
. beginning of main style of temple
Ports on East coast to trade with South-East
Asia-Tamralipti,
architecture in India namely the
Ghantashala and Kandura. Nagara and Dravida style (shikhar
style) with Garbhagriha (shrine
Taxes room in which the image of God is
Bhaga King's share in the produce, be paid by kept).
cultivators. • Square sanctum sanctorum and a
Bali (Earlier a voluntary offering) an additional and pillared porch.
oppressive tax during Gupta period.

e
Bhoga Periodic supplies of fruits, firewoods etc. Religious Literature
which the villagers had to furnish to the king. Hindu Texts Many old eligious

nc
Uparika An extra tax levied on all subjects. books were re-wTitten e.g. Vayu
Purana, Vishnu Purana, Manu
Gupta Art Smriti (translated into English
under the title of "Institutes of
Gupta period is also called The Golden Age of
ra Hindu law" William Jones),
Ancient India. Ramayana and Mahabharata.
• Samudragupta is represented on his coins o
Ne Text Narad Snriti,
playing the Veena and Chandragupta II is Parashar Smriti, Katyana Smriti
credited with maintaining in his court, nine and Brihat Smriti.
nt

luminaries or great scholars viz, Kalidasa, Jain Texts Nyayavartam written

Amarsimha, Dhanavantri, Varahmihira, by Sidhsena.
Vararuchi (Vartika-a comment on Ashtadhyayi),
Ghatakarna, Kshapranak, Velabhatt and Buddhist Texts Abhidharma
Kosha wTitten by Dignaga, Vishu
ie

Shanku.
• Over two metre high bronze images of the dhimagga written by Buddhghosa.
Buddha of Gupta period has been recovered Mrichchakatikam (i.e. the clay
cart) is the love story of a poor
jm

from Bhagalpur.
. Brahmin Charudatta and virtuous
For the first time, we get in the Gupta period
courtsean Vasantasena. The work
images of Vishnu, Shiva and some other Hindu is notable for its realistic depiction
Gods.
•
of city life.
Buddha sitting in Dharmachakra mudra
@

(Sarnath) and Buddha images of Bamiyan

belong to this period. Quick Digest
• Brahmasidhanta, was translated into
Brahminical Image The Great Boar (Varah) Arabic under the title "Sind Hind"
carved in relief at the entrance of a cave at
Udayagiri. Ritusamhara, Meghdootam and
• Paintings Ajanta paintings
and paintings at Raghuvamsham are epics and not
Bagh (Madhya Pradesh) are of this timne. They plays.
belong to the Buddhist Art. Bhasa wrote
13 plays in this period.
•
In this period the Gandhara School of There was development of Sanskrit
a
grammar based on Panini and
Sculpture was replaced by regional centres at
Banaras, Pataliputra and Mathura. Patanjali. Amarkosha was compiled
. by Amarasimha.
Stupas--Mirpur Khas (Sindh), Ratnagiri
(Orissa) and Dhammekh (Sarnath).
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History 33

Other Literary Works Astronomy (Science)

•
Author Book Aryabhatta, the great nathematician wrote
Aryabhatiyam and Surya Siddhanta. He
Sudraka Mrichchakatikam placed the value of first line number and the
Bharavi Kiratarjuniya use of zero (0').
.
Dandin Dasa Kumar Charita Varahamihira wrote Panchsiddhantika and
and Kavyadarshan Brihadsamhila. He said the Moon moves
Bhasa Svapnavasavadattam, round the Earth and Earth together with
Charudatta the Moon, move round the Sun.
Vishakhadatta Mudrarakshasa Devi Brahmagupta was a great mathematician.

e
Chandraguptam He hinted the law of gravitation in Brahma
Vishnu Sharma Panchtantra and Siddhanta. Vagabhatta was a distinguished
Hitopodesha physician.

nc
.
Armarismha Amarkosh Dhanvantri was famous for the knowledge
of Ayurveda.
Iswara Krishna Sankhya Kanika •
Romaka Siddhanta, a book on astronomy
Vatsyayana Kamasutra was compiled.
ra
Bhattin Ravan Vadha •
Palakapya wrote Hastyagarveda, a treatise
Varahamihira Panchasiddhantika, on the disease of elephants.
Brihad Samhita •
Bhaskara wrote Mahabhaskarya and Laghu
Bhaskarya.
nt

THE HARSHA PERIOD

ie

PUSHYABHUTI/VARDHANA DYNASTY
jm

•
Harsha belonged to Pushyabhuti dynasty, which ruled from Thaneswar. Pushyabhutis
were the feudatories of Guptas, but had assumed independence after Hunas' invasion.
•
Prabhakar Vardhana (AD 580-605) was its first important ruler succeeded by
Rajyavardhan (AD 605-606).
@

• Grahavarman (Maukhari ruler of Kannauj), husband of Rajyashri (sister of

Rajyavardhana) was murdered by Devagupta (ruler of Malwa) in alliance with
Shashanka (ruler of Bengal).
• Rajyavardhana killed Devagupta but was himself killed by Shashanka in AD 606.

Harshavardhan (AD 606-647)

.
Harsha, also known as Siladitya, ascended the throne in AD 606 and frorm this year,
Harsha Era began.
• Harsha made Kannauj his capital.
•
Harsha is called the last great Hindu emperor of India, but he was neither a staunch
Hindu nor the ruler of the whole country.
• In Eastern India, he faced opposition from Shaivite king Shashanka of Gauda, who cut
off the Bodhi tree of Bodhgaya.
•
Harsha defeated Dhruvasena II, the Maitraka ruler of Vallabhi.
•
Harsha was defeated in Deccan by Pulakesin-II, the Chalukyan king of Vatap.
Harsha's administration became nore feudal and decentralised.
 34 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE- Indian History

•
The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang visited India during Harsha period. He informs us
that the revenue of Harsha was divided into four parts, one for the king, second for
the scholar, third for the oficer and fourth for religious purposes.
• Harsha
held two important assemblies - Kannauj assembly (to popularise Mahayana
Buddhisnm) and Prayaga assembly.
.
He used to celebrate a solemn festival at Prayag after every five years.
• Harsha was a
Shaivite. He also granted revenue of 200 villages for the maintenance of
Nalanda University. The empire of Harsha included parts of Punjab, Kannauj, Bengal,
. Bihar and
Orrisa.
Harsha was defeated by the chalukya ruler Pulakeshin II inthe battle on the banks of
Narmada in 618 AD. After the death of Harsha in 647 AD, the empire once again broke

e
up into petty states.

nc
Tripartite Struggle
The struggle for supremacy between the Palas, the Gurjara - Pratihara and the
Rashtrakutas for the possession of Kannauj at the end of AD 8th century is known as the
Tripartite struggle in histor.
ra
Art and Architecture
Vesara/Deccan Style
• It was started by the Chalukyas.
.
nt

Examples include Vesara style temples at Aihole (town of temples), Jinendra temple
(Meguti temples), Vishnu temple, Lad Khan temple (God Surya), Durga temple,
Nagara style temple at Pattadakal, Papanatha temple, Dravida style temple at
Pattadakal, Virupaksha temple and Sangamesvara temple.
ie

Pallava Art/Dravida Style

.
The Shikhara had influence of Java, Cambodia and Annam.
jm

Examples of Pallava Arts :

Bhairawkona temple
Ananteshwar temple at Undavalli
Mandapa temple
@

"Ratha temple of Mamallapuram

Kailashnath and Vaikunth
.
Perumal Temple at Kanchi
Shore Temple at Mamallapuram
Pallava Sculpture Based on Buddhist tradition e.g. descent of the Ganges and Arjuna's
penance at Mamallapuram.

Rashtrakuta Style
The rock-cut temple of Kailash (Shiva) at Ellora, was built by Krishna I.

Hoyasalas Style
Temple of Hoyasaleshwar at Dwarsamudra.
 e
GENERAL

Other Dynasties and Rulers

nc
Dynasty Capltal Founder Farmous Rulers Other Fealures
Palas Palaliputra, Gopala Dharma Pala Revived Nalanda Universily and They traded with Soulh-Easl Asia
(Eastern India) Gaur founded Vikramshila Universsity deleal ed Bhoja and were replaced by Senas in KNOWLEDGE~

(Pratihara) amogvarsha (Rashtrakula) and won Bengal.

kannau.
Devapala won Orissa and Assam.
ra
Mahipala defeated by Rajendra Chola.
Gurjara Pratiharas Jodhpur Harichandra Mihir Bhoja He worshipped Lord Vishnu and They originaled in Geyanla region of
(SW Rajasthan) 2. Mahwa adopled the tille Adi Varaha. Rajasthan.
(AD 733-1019)

Vakatakas (Deccan Val sagumla, Vindhyashakti Pravarsena I pertormed four Ashvamedha Yagyas. Chandragupta I| married his Indian

and Central India) Paunar daughterPrabhavati to the Vakataka

nt

king Rudrasena.
Eastern Gangas of Kalingnagar, Anantavaman Narshima Deva lbuill the Sun temple at Konark. Anantavarman buill the Jagannath History

Oriss a Cuttack Chodagong Deva lemple at Puri.

Western Gangas Kolar, Talakal Konganivarman Dunvirta Construcled Jain monumenls at
(AD 350-999) Madhava Sravanbe la gola.
ie

Senas of Bengal Vikrampura, Vijaysena Ballasena They were overthrown by Deva

Vijaypura Lakshm ansena dynasty.
Hoysalas Dwarasamudra Vishnu Vardhan Vira Ballal detealed the Chalukyan ruler Hoysala art and archilecture was of
Somesvara lV. a high slandard. The minule carving
of Hoysala temple is their most
jm

attractive feature.
Rashtrakutas Manyakel or Dantidurga (earlier Amogvarsha He is comnpared to Vikramadiya in Rashtrakutas are crediled with the
(AD 750-1142) Malkhed served the giving patronage to men of letters. building of cave shrine of Elephanta.
Chalukyas of He wrole the lst Kannad Poelry, Kavi Aajamarg and It was dedicaled to Mahesh and
Badami) also wrote Prashnottar Mallika. (Trimurt) counts among the most
magnificient art ceations of India.
@
 e
Dynasly Capital Founder Farmous Rulers Other Features 36

nc
Krishna ll constructed Kailash temple at EIlora in
Dravidian sytle.
Krishan lll sel-up Pillar of victory and a temple at
Rameshwaram.
Pallavas Kanchi Simhavishnu Narasimhavarman- (AD 630-668) OCCupied They were orthodox Brahmanical
(AD 560-903) of Chalukayan capital at Valapi and assumed the tit le Hindus.
Tondainadu Valapikonda. Both the Chalukyas and Pallavas tried
(land ol creepers)
ra to establish their supremaoy over land
belween Krishna and Tungabhadra.
Pulakesin-|| He was conlemporary of Harsha and Many of the painting and sculptures of
I

Chalukyas of Valapi(Badami) Pulake sin

Badami was able to check Harsha in conquering Deccan, the Ajanla and Ellora caves were
but was deleated and killed by Pallava ruler completed during Chalukyan Art
Narasimhavarman-I. developed the Deccan or Vesara style.
The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Ts ang visited his They perte cted the art of stone building, GENERAL
nt

kingdom. that is siones finally joined without

morlar.
Chalukyas of Kalyani Tailap || (defeat ed Somevara I (AD 1043-1 068) He shifted the capil al Bilhana, the witer of Vikramdevacharia
Kalyani the Parmar king from Manyakhet to Kalyani. and Milakshara in Yagyavalkya Smritli,
Munj) Vikramaditya iV (AD 1070-1126) He slarted the adomed the court of Vikramadily a V.
Chalukya- Vikram era. KNOWLEDGE~
ie

Yadavas Devagi Bhillana Ramchandra Ramachandra vas delealed by Malik

Kafur.
jm

Indian

History
@
 e
GENERAL

Sangam Age

nc
(AD First-Third Century)
.
The land South of Krishna river vas divided into three lingdoms
KNOWLEDGE~

Kingdom Location Capital Emblem Famous Port Famous Rulers Other Features
Chola North- East of Uraiyur (amous Tiger Puhar Elara was the earlilest known Chola The Cholas mainlained an effic ient
(Cholama Pandyas between for cotton trade
ra
king. He conquered Sri Lanka and Navy.
ndalam) Penner and Vellar and Puhar) ruled over il for 50 years. Their economy was base9d on trade of
rvers. cotton cloth. The Chola kingdom was
Karikala founded the capital city
Puhar/Kaveripatnam and constructed destroyed by the al lack ofl Pallavas
from the North.
embankment along Cauveri
river.(kallana) Indian

Chera Part of Kerala and Vanji or Karur Bov Muzris Todi, Udiyangera is one of the earliest It
has wel-established trade wilh
nt

Tamii Nadu Bandar known Chera rulers. This title of Romans and also sef-up lwo regimenls
Udiyangera, was given to him al Muzris (o protect their in terests. They History

because it
said that he served bolh
is buill the temple of Augustus at Muzris.
the armies of Kurukshetra War.
Senguttuvan/Red Chera, was the
greatest Chera king. He invaded the
North and crossed Ganga. He is
ie

remembered for building a temple of

"Kannagi-the Goddess of chastity
and founded the famous Pattini cult.
Pandya Southemmosl part Madurai Carp (is) Korkai, Mudukudumi was the earliest known This kingdom was first menlioned by
of India Saliyur Megasthenes, who says that their
jm

Pandyan ruler.
kingdom was lamous for pearl and was
Nedunjelian was the most impotant
king of Pandya. He accused Kovalan
ruled bya woman. Also finds mention
In he Hamayana and Mahabharala.
of theft. As a result, the city of Madurai
was laid under a curse by Kannagi
(Kovalan's wile).
•
The Pandyan kings profited from trade with Roman empire and sent embassies to
Roan emperor-Augustus and Trojan.
@
 38 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

Sangam Regions Epics

•
Panchtinai (five Inhabitants Occupation Silappadikaram meaning, the jewelled
Tamilregions) anklet by Ilango Adigal is an epic, dealing
with love story of Kovalan and Madhavi,
Kurinji (hilly Kuvar, Hunting,
backwoods or Vetar Gathering also called llliyad of Tamil Poetry.
montane) Manimekalai is one of the twO greatest
Palai Eyinar, Cattle lifting, epics and a sequel to Silappadikaram,
(Pastoral tract) Maravar Highway written by Seetalai Sattannar:
Robbery Sevaga Chintamani (Sivaga Sindamani),
Mullai Ayar, Shifting a third epic by a Jaina Tiruttakadeva. It
(Pastoral tract) Idaiyar Agriculture,
has elements of Jainism.

e
Animal
husbandry Bharatman was witten by Perudevanar.
Marutam Ulavar, Plough Sangam Economy

nc
(Wetland) Vellalar Agriculture
The land was very fertile with proper
Neital Paratavar, Fishing, Salt irrigation facilities. The chief local God was
(ittoral/coastal) Valayar extraction
Murugan, also called as Subramaniya.
Sangam Literature Revenue Terminologies
ra
. Karai Land tax
The word Sangam is associated with a
Irai Tribute paid by feudatories
college or assembly of Tamil scholars and booty collected in war
and poets, flourished under the royal • Iravu Extra demand or forced gift
patronage of the Pandyan kings.
nt

• Ulgu Custom duties

• The whole Sangam age is called Golden or • Variyar Tax collector
Augustan age. Accoding to Tamil sources, • Variyam A well-known unit of
the father of Tamil literature is Agastya." territory yielding tax
ie

Tamil Sangams
THE CHOLAS
San- Venue Chairman Surviving The ancient capital of Cholas was
gams Text
jm

Palayarai.
1st Ten-Madurai Agastaya Vijayalaya revived the Chola empire in
2nd Kapatapuram Agastaya Tolakap the AD 9th century He took the title of
Alvai (founder) piyam (Tarmil Narkesari and established the capital at
Tolakap- Grammar) Tanjore.
@

piyan Aditya Chola defeated the Pallava king

(later
chairman) Aparajit, captured Tondamandalam and
took the title of 'Maduraikonda.' He built
3rd North Nakkirar Ettutogai a Siva temple at Tanjore.
Madurai Patinenki
lakanakku, Parantaka I established his authority
Pattu-Pattu over the North-Eastern part of Sri Lanka.
His copper-plate inscription informs us
about the administration of the Cholas.
Important
.
Sangam Works Rajaraja I (AD 985-1014) attacked Sri
Tolkappiyam by Tolkappiyar (Tamil
Lanka. He permitted the Shailendra king
Grammar). to build the Churamani Buddhist Vihara
.
Tirukkural or Kural by Tiruvalluvar is at Nagapattanam. He himself built the
sometimes called the Fifth Veda or Bible Rajarajeshwara temple (Saiva temple) at
of the Tamil land. It explains the doctrine Tanjore. He is known as Rajaraja-The
of Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha. Great in history.
• Aggatiyam comprises grammar of Rajendra I (AD l014-1044) conquered
letters and life, in three parts, written by the complete Sri Lanka and made
saint Aggatiyar. Anuradhapur as his capital.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History 39

• He defeated the Pala king Mahipala Chola Temples

and took the title of
Gangaikondacholam and he also Temple Location Builder
built the Cholamandalam lake and Kailashnath Kanchipuram King Rajasimha
the city of Gangaikonda Cholapuram. temple
He won the Java, Sumatra and Vrihadeshwar Tanjore Rajarajal
Malaya areas from the Shailendra temple
Koranganatha Sriniwasanllur Parantak
king.
. temple
Rajendra III was the last king of the Airawteshwar Darasuram Rajaraya lI
dynasty. temple
Kampahre Tribhuvan Kullotung ll
Other Aspects of the

e
shwar temple
Cholas Gangaikonda Gangaikonda Rajendra

nc
• Cholapuram Cholapuram
Administration The Chola empire
was divided into 2andalams and
then into valadus. The most RELIGIOUS
important feats of Chola
administration was local-self DEVELOPMENTS
ra
Government. Each village was VAISHNAVISM
divided into 30 wards. Several
committees were constituted under Lord Vasudeva was first worshipped in
Gram Sabha for various Western India. Besnagar inscription
the
(2nd century BC) states that the cults
nt

purposes.
• Cholas maintained a strong navy. received royal patronage. Soon, Vasudeva
was identified with Narayana and Krishna.
Kasu or Kalanju was their gold coin. •
• Chandogya Upanishada gives first reference
Literature Bentak Madhav wrote to Lord Krishna as the son of Devaki and
ie

commentary on Rig Veda in this

period. student of Rishi Ghor Aniras. Matsya
. Purana refers to the ten incarnations of
Jayanodar wrote Phalingtuparni and Vishnu.
jm

Shekilar wrote Periyapuranam in the • on

cOurt of Kullotunga I.
This cult emphasised Bhakti and
Ahimsa.
• Kamban, Kuttana and Pugalendi
were considered as three gems
Tamil Poetry. Kamban Wrote
of SAIVISM
@

Ramaataram and Kamba Shiva is identified with the Rig Vedic God
Ramayana. Rudra. He was worshipped in form of linga
• (phallus).
Architecture The dancing figure of
Shiva called Nataraja was made • Matsya Puranas and Anusashan festival of
during Chola period. Mahabharata refers to lingam worship.
. Gundimallam linga is the oldest idol of
The Chola stvle of architecture is
called Dravida Style in the temples, Shiva, excavated firom Renugunta in
the vimana or the tall pyramid tower Andhra Pradesh.
dominated the whole structure of the Mahabhashya of Patanjali mentions Saiva
shrine. Gopurans and Garbhagriha cult as Shiva Bhagvat. Vamana Purana
are the two other important refers to four schools of Saivism-Pasupati,
structures. Saiva, Kapalika and Kalmukha.
•
The best specimens of the temple are • Pasupatal is the oldest, cult founded by
Vijayala-Choleshwar and the Lakulisa.
Nageshwar Koranganatha temple.
 40 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

• Kapalika is the tantric cult who worship Mahakal, Kapala bhrit and Bhairav.
• Kalmukha another tantric cult, flourished in Karnataka.
• Aghoris worshipped Goddesses Sitala and Kali.
• Kanphata or Gora khnati cult was propounded by Gorakhnath in Eastern Bengal.
•
Suddhasaiva cult was expounded by Srikanat Sevacharya.
• Virasiva or Lingayat cult was founded by Basava.
•
Rashtrakutas built the Kailasa temple of Ellora and the Kushana kings inscribed
Shiva and Nandi on their coins.

SHAKTIDHARMA

e
. It
refers to the worship of the female deity. It is first mentioned in the Mahabharata.
• The
Tantric Devi hymn in the 10th mandala of the Rig Veda is devoted to the worship

nc
of Goddesses.
Some Important Temples of Ancient India
Temple Builder Dynasty
ra
Jagannath temple, Puri Anantavarman Ganga
Sun temple of Konark Narsinghdev Ganga
Kandariya and Mahadev termple, Khajurao Krishna-l Chandela
nt

Kailash temple of Ellora Krishna-l Rashtrakuta

Elephanta Narsingh Varman-l Aashtralkuta
Mamallapuram temple Narsingh Varman-ll Pallava
ie

Kailashnath temple of Kanchi Narsingh Varman-l Pallava

Baikuntha Perumal Temple of Kanchi Narsingh Varman-l| Pallava
jm

Jain temple of Diwara Vimala Minister of Solanki ruler

@

MEDIEVAL INDIA
THE RAJPUTS
.
Thev emerged as a powerful force in Northern India in AD 9th and 10th centuries.
• Origin: Four of the Rajput clans claim to have descendant from a mythical figure that
arose out of a sacrificial fire pit near Mount Abu, i.e. of Agnikula origin. They are
Chauhans of East Rajasthan.
Pratihara Pariharas of South Rajasthan.
Chalukyas/Solankis of Kathiawar.
-
Parmars/Pawars of Malwa
• However, the most accepted theory is
that Rajputs were of a foreign origin, who came
as conquerors and settled in West India.
• The two main clans of Rajputs are
• Surya Vansha (Sun family)
• Chandra Vansha (Moon family)
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History 41

Some Important Rajput Kingdoms

Rajput Kingdoms Capital(s) Founder
Chauhan/Chahaman of Delhi Vasudeva
Delhi-Ajmer
Pawar of Malwa Ujain, Dhar Sri Harsha
Pratihara of Kannauj Avanti, Kannauj Nagabhatta I

Aashtrakuta of Malkhand Manyakheta Dantidurga (Dantivarnan )

Chalukya/Solanki of Kathiawar Aniha/vada Mularaja l

e
Kalchuri/Haihaya of Chedi Tripuri Kokkala l

Chandela of Jejakabhukti Khajuraho, Mahoba, Kalinjar Nannuk Chandela

nc
Gadhawal/Rathor of Kannauj Kannauj Chandradeva
Tomars of Delhiand Haryana Dhillika
Guhilota/Sisodiya of Mewar Chittor Bappa Rawal, Hammir |
ra
SOME IMPORTANT RAJPUT RULERS
• AD) assisted Muhammad Ghori against
Jai Chand Gadhawal/Rathor (l169-94of
Prithviraj Chauhan in the Second battle Tarrain (1192), but was himself killed by Ghori
nt

in the battle of Chandawar (1194).

Prithviraj Chauhan (1178-92) He was the Chahamana ruler of Delhi and Agra who
fought two battles with Muslim invader Muhammad Ghori.
First Battle of Tarrain (1191) Prithviraj defeated Muhammad Ghori.
ie

Second Battle of Terrain (1192) Prithviraj was defeated and killed by Muhammad
Ghori.
• Bhoja Parmar (1010-55) of Malwa He was a great conqueror and a patron of literature
jm

and was also known as Kaviraj.

Architectural
.
Works
Kandariya Mahadeva temple at Khajuraho, built by Chandellas of Bundelkhand
@

(AD 1000).
•
Dilwara temple at Mount Abu (West Indian style of architecture) built by Siddharaja
Solanki of Gujarat.
Ångkorvat Temple at Cambodia built by Suryavarman II. It is dedicated to Lord
Vishnu and built on Dravidian model.
• Sun Temple at Konark (Orissa).
•
Lingaraja Temple at Bhubaneshwar (Orissa).
Literary Works
•
Kathasaritasagar by Somadeva.
• Vikramdeva Charita by Bilhana (biography of Chalukya King Vikramdeva VI).
• Rajtarangini of Kalhana (history of Kashmir).
• Gita Govinda of Jayadeva (in Sanskrit).
• Chachanama The history of Sind.
 42 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

ARABCONQUEST OF SIND
Md Bin Qasim Invasion (AD 712) Md Quick Digest
Qasim of Iraq was the first Muslim to Mahmud is considered as a hero of lslam by
invade India. He defeated the ruler of medieval Muslim historians because of his
Sind, Dahir and the province was givern to stout defence against the Central Asian Turkish
Omayyad Khilafat. tribal invaders.
Secondly, because he was closely associated
TURKISH INVASIONS with the renaissance of the Iranian spirit.

e
Mahmud of Ghazni •A high water mark in the Iranian renaissance
was reached with Firdausi's Shah Namah.
• Towards the close of the AD ninth He patronised three persons, Contemporary to

nc
centur, the vast empire of Arab broke him: Firdausi (court poet), Alberuni (scholar)
up and the Turks who got the
and Utbi (court historian).
upperhand over the Khalifas of
established Alberuni vwrote 'Kitab-ul-Hind.
Baghdad, many
independant principalities. One of such
ra
Turk state was founded by Alapigin MUHAMMAD GHORI
with Ghazni as his capital in about .
AD 933. The Ghaznavi state was no longer a
. In powerful state after Mahmud Ghazni. His
those days, Punjab and the successors were weak which resulted into
nt

North-West of India were ruled by the emergence of a Seljuk empire. But

Jaipal of the Shahiya dynasty towards the middle of the 12th century,
(Hindustani). Subuktigin, the ruler of another group of Turkish tribe man
Ghazni of that period, fought with shattered the power of the Seljuk Turks.
ie

Jaipal and defeated him. .

• Mahmud Ghaznavi was the eldest son The power of the Ghurids increased
under Sultan Alauddin, who earned the
of Subuktigin, born in AD 971 and title the World burner, because he
ascended the throne in AD 998.
jm

ravaged Ghazni and burnt it into the

• For India,
the only memory of Mahmud ground.
is that of a plunderer and destroyer of In Muhammad
1173, Muizzudin
temples. Mahmud is said to have made (Muhammad Ghori) ascended the throne
17 raids into India. The initial raids at Ghazni, while his elder brother was
@

were directed against the Hindustani

ruling at Ghur. Muizzudin Muhammad
rulers. In AD 1001, the Hindustani conquered Multan and Kutch.
ruler Jaipal again was defeated by •
In 1178, he attempted to penetrate into
Mahmud. across the
Gujarat by marching
•
His son Anandapala succeeded the Rajputana desert, but was completely
throne. A decisive battle between rooted out by the Gujarat ruler.
Mahmud and Anandapala was fought in
AD 1008-09 at Waihind during his
•
He realised the necessity of creating a
suitable base in Punjab before venturing
sixth expedition. upon the conquest of India. He
. expeditions Mahmud
In other Conquered Peshawar, Lahore and
plundered Nagarkot, Thaneshwar, Sialkot.
Kannauj, Mathura and Somnath.
•
• At that period, the Chauhan power had
He plundered Somnath temple in AD
been steadily growing. Chauhans had
1025 (his sixteenth raid). captured Delhi from the Tomars around
• In AD 1026, Mahmud defeated
the Jats. the middle of the century.
He died in AD 1030. The objective of e
At the age of 11, Prithviraj ascended the
Mahmud's expeditions was to plunder throne at Ajmer and began a career of
and loot.. He was not interested in conquest. He invaded the Chandellas of
expanding his empire to India. Bundelkhand in a battle near Mahoba.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History 43

• Both Prithviraj and Muhammad Ghori's Muhammad Ghori died in AD 1206,

attention towards the Punjab and Ganga leaving the charge with Qutub-ud-din
valley brought the two ambitious rulers Aibak.
into conlict. In the First Battle of . The Sultanate of Delhi had five ruling
Terrain (1191) the Ghori forces were dynasties with 34 kings.
completely rooted out by Prithviraj.
•
It is said that Jaichand, the ruler of Battle of Terrain
Kannauj (Gahadavala kingdom) did not The Second Battle of Terrain (1192) is regarded
help Prithviraj during the Second battle as one of the turning point in Indian history.
of Terrain because Prithviraj had The better organised and well prepared
abducted, Jaichand's daughter Turkish force defeated the Indian forces.

e
Sanyogita, who was in love with him. Prithviraj was defeated by Muhammad Ghori.
• Prithviraj Raso, written by court poet Prithviraj was allowed to rule over Ajmer for

nc
of Prithviraj, Chand Bardai, the depicts sometime. But was executed on a charge of
the life story of Prithviraj and his love conspiracy after some time.
. story.
The defeat laid the foundation of
Muslim rule in India.
Causes ofthe Turkish Success
ra
•
Political disunity among Rajput and
• Later on in 1194, Jaichand of Kannauj
was also defeated at the Battle of . internal rivalries.
Chandawar. No Central Government.
• Bakhtiyar Khilji One of Ghoi's Unguarded frontiers, even after repeated
nt

commanders, annexed Bihar and attacks.

Bengal and destroyed Nalanda and • Organised military and ambitious Turkish
Vikramshila Universities. invaders.
ie

THE DELHISULTANATE
jm

THE ILBARI OR SLAVE After Ghori's death, Aibak ruled over

DYNASTY (1206-1290) Delhi and founded his dynasty.
•
Lahore and later, Delhi was his capital.
@

.
After Muhammad Ghori's death, all the . For his generosity, he was given
the title
Muslim rulers who ruled over India from of Lakh Baksh.
AD 1206-1290 were either slaves or were •
He constructed mosques
descendants of the slave ruler. So, the Quwwat-ul-Islam at Delhi and Adhai
Dynasty is generally known as the Slave Din ka Jhopra at Ajmer.
Dynasty.
• He also began the construction of Qutub
The dynasty is also called Ilbari Dynasty, Minar in the honour of famous Sufi
as all the rulers of this dynasty except
Saint Khwaja Qutub-ud-Din Bakhtiyar
Aibak belonged to the Ilbari tribe of Kaki.
Turks.
•
Aibak was great patron of learning, and
like Hasan-ul
Qutubuddin Aibak patronised writers
Nizami, author of Taj-ul-Massir and
(1206-1210) Fakhruddin, author of Tarikh-i
• Originally a slave, Qutubuddin, because Mubarak-Shahi. He fell from the horse
of his mnerit and loyal service was rose to while playing chaugan (Polo) and died.
the post of Viceroy by Muhammad Ghori.
 44 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

•
Aram Shah (AD 1210) He patronised Minhaj-us-Siraj, author of
Tabaqat-i-Nasiri.
After Qutubuddin's death, his son Aram .
He is called the father of Tomb Building
Shah succeeded him. Aram Shah proved
(built Sultan Garhi in Delhi).
quite incompetent. Some of the nobles
rose to the occassion and invited Aibak's
son-in-law and Governor of Badaun,
Rukunuddin FirOz (AD 1236)
Iltutmish to ascend the throne. He Itutmish appointed his daughter Raziya
deposed Aram Shah and secured the . as his successOr.
throne for himself. But most of the nobles could not reconcile
themselves to the idea of a woman ruling
IlItutmish (AD 1211-1236) over them and so they placed one of his

e
• He is considered to be the greatest slave son Rukunuddin Firoz on the throne. He
was a worthless person who left the work
king and the real consolidator of the
of the governnent in the hamd of his

nc
Turkish conquest in India.
• He made Delhi
mother;, Shah Turkan.
the capital in place of •
Lahore and was the son-in-law of Aibak. Finally throne was given to Raziya when
• IItutmish, during the early years of his he was out of the capital to curb a
rebellion in Awadh against him.
reign, first consolidated his position by
ra
suppressing the revolts of the ambitious Raziya Sultan (AD 1236-1240)
nobels.
•
•
She was the first and the last Muslim
In AD 1215, he defeated Yaldoz, who woman ruler of Medieval India.
established himself as the independent Baziva successfully crushed the rebellions
nt

ruler of Ghazni. He sent expeditions that occurred in Multan Lahore and

against the Rajputs in Ranthambor, Jhansi. The wazir Nizam-ul-Mulk
Jalor, Gwalior, Ajmer and Malwa. Junaidi, who had opposed her elevation
• During his period, the Mongols under to the throne, was defeated by Raziya.
ie

their leader Changez Khan made their She also sent an expedition against
appearance for the first time in India.
Ranthambhor to control the Rajput.
He saved Delhi Sultanate from the She discarded the female apparel and
jm

wrath of Changez Khan by refusing started holding the court with her face
shelter to Khwarizm Shah Jalaluddin unveiled.
Mangobarni, to whom Changez Khan
was chasing.
•
Her attempt to create a party of nobles
. loyal to her and the appointment of a
He got his authority (Sultanate of non-Turk, Yakut to the high office led to
@

Delhi) recognised by the Caliph of opposition.

Baghdad (khalifa), as a member of •
She herself led an expedition against the
world fraternity of Islamic states. rebellious Governor of Lahore and forced
•
He completed the construcion of him acknowledge her suzerainty.
Qutub-Minar. There was again a serious rebellion in
• He
constituted a corp of 40 loyal Bhatinda. Altunia, Governor of Bhatinda
slave Amins, known as Turkan-i refused to accept the suzerainty of Razia.
Chahalgani or Chalisa. Razia, accompanied by Yakut, marched
He started Iqta system in Delhi against Altunia.
•
Sultanate. This is an assignment of land However, Altunia murdered Yakut and
in lieu of salary, which he distributed to imprisoned Razia. Subsequently, Razia
his officers. Every lgtadar had to Imarried Altunia and both of them
maintain law and order, and collect marched towards Delhi. In AD 1240,
revenue. After deducting his salary and Razia, became the victim of a the
the expenses of the government, he Conspiracy and was assassinated near
sent the surplus amount to
the Central Kaithal (Haryana) by the jats.
•
Government. After Raziya, the battle of succession
• He introduced the Silver Tanka and continued in which the some rulers ruled
Copper Jital. insignificantly.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History 45

Ghiyasuddin Balban Jalaluddin Khalji

(1265-1286) (AD1290-1296)
• Balban ascended the throne in 1265, • He was the first ruler of the Delhi
after killing all members of Iltutmish's Sultanate to clearly put forward the view
family. He himself was a member of the that the state should be based on the
chalisa or chahalgani, but he broke the willing support of the governed and that
power of chahalgani and restored the since the large majority of the people in
prestige of the crown. India were Hindus, the state in India
. could not be a truly Islamic state.
He created a strong centralised army and
established the military department He adopted the policy of tolerance and

e
Diwan-i-Arz. He ordered the separation avoiding harsh punishment.
of military affairs from finance The most important aspect of his reign
department (diwan-i•wazarat). He also was the invasion of Devagiri in 1294, by

nc
appointed spies. his nephew and son-in-law Alauddin
• He declared the Sultan as the Khalji.
'representative of God on the Earth'. The • He married his daughter to Ulugh Khan,
Persian court model influenced Balban's a descendant of Changez Khan to win
ra
conception of kingship. He took up the his goodwill.
title of Zil-i-Mahi (Shadow of God) and
impressed upon the people that king was Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316)
the deputy of God (Niyabat-i-Khudai). .
. He came to the throne by treacherously
He refused to laugh and joke in the court,
nt

murdering his uncle and father-in-law

and even gave up drinking wine. To Jalaluddin Khalji.
emphasise that the nobles were not his He proclaimed himself as Sultan
•
equals. He introduced Persian etiquettes winning over the nobles and soldiers to
like Sijda and Paibos. (prostration
his side by the lavish use of gold.
ie

before and kissing the monarch's feet). .

• Balban started the festival of NauToz. He
He massacred the rebellious nobles,
relatives, family members and the
adopted the policy of Blood and Iron
jm

Mongols who had settled in Delhi.

• He was a patron of Persian literature, and
Alauddin gave harsh punishment even
showed special favour to Ámir Khusro. to the wives and children of all nobles.
• Alauddin framed a series of regulations
Kaiqubad (AD 1287-90) to prevent the nobles from conspiring
@

Grandson of Balban, he was put on the against him. They were forbidden to
throne by Fakruddin, the kotwal of Delhi. hold banquets of festivals or to form
But, Kaiqubad was killed by the Khali marriage alliances without the
rulers. This led to the end of Ilbari dynasty permission of the Sultan.
and establishment of the Khalji dynast. • To discourage
the festival parties, he
banned the use of wines and intoxicants.
THE KHALJIDYNASTY He also instituted a spy service to keep
(AD 1290-1320) himself informed of all that the nobles
said and did.
A group of Khalji nobles led by Jalaluddin He firstly conquered Gujarat and
Khalji, overthrew the incompetent maried Raja's wife Kamla Devi. He
Successors of Balban in AD 1290. The acquired Malik Kafur from there.
Khalji rebellion was welcomed by the • Then he captured Ranthambhor,
non-Turkish nobility. The Khaljis did not Chittor and Malwa.
exclude the Turks from high offices, but •
ended the Turkish monopoly. Malik Kafur was sent towards South to
expand the territory.
 46 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

• He defeated Yadava king of Devagiri, He was the first Turkish sultan who
Ramchandra Deva, Kakatiya king separated religion from politics. He
Pratap Rudra Deva I, Hoyasala king of proclaimed kingship knows no kinship.
Dwar Samudra Vira Ballala III and • He patronised many great poets in his
Pandyas of Madurai (King Mahavarman court like Amir Khusro and Mir Hasan
Kulshekhara). Dehlvi.
• He is said to have reached as far as
Rameshwaram, where he built a Market/Economic Reforms
mosque. Alauddin controlled the market by many
• regulations
Alauddin strengthened the North-West
frontier, under his trusted commander Fixed the cost of all commodities.

e
Ghazi Malik. He set-up three markets at Delhi.
All goods for sale were brought to the open
Administrative Reforms of

nc
market called'Sarai-Adf.

Alauddin Khalji He established the market control department

under a minister called diwan-i-riyasat.
•
First Sultan to have a permanent army.
He paid soldiers in cash.
Successors of
ra
• In order to avoid the problems created
by the nobles, Alauddin issued four
Alauddin Khalji
important ordinances. • After the death of Alauddin in 1316, Malik
• Confiscation of religious endowments Kafur Hazar Dinari seized the throne, but
and free grants of lands. he could not rule for long and nominated
nt

.
Reorganised the spy system. Shihabuddin (Alauddin's sixteenth son)
as king.
• Prohibited the use of wine and
intoxicants.
• Shihabuddin was deposed by Qutbuddin
. Mubarak Shah (1316-20).
ie

Laid down that the nobles should not

have social gatherings and they should Nasiruddin Shah (AD 1320) killed
not inter-marry without his permission. Mubarak Shah and himself was killed by
•
He introduced the system of Dagh or
Ghazi Malik the Governor of Dipalpur.
jm

branding the horses and Chehra or

•
This ended the 30 years rule of Khalji
detailed description of each soldier. dynasty and established the Tughlaq
dynasty on throne.
Revenue Reforms of THETUGHLAQ DYNASTY
@

Alauddin Khalji
.
Measured the cultivable land and fixed
(ADI320-1414)
the land revenue. Bishwa was declared Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
to be the standard of mneasurement.
•
The state demanded half of the (AD 1320-1325)
produce. • Ghazi Malik or Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq was
.
The post of special official called the founder of Tughlaq dynasty or the
Mustakharaj was created for the dynasty of the Qaraunah Turks. He was
purpose of collection of revenue. the first Sultan of Delhi who took up the
Alauddin is credited to have built many title of Ghazi or slayer of the infidels.
forts, and the most important of them is He liberalised Alauddin's administrative
policies and took a keen interest in
Alai Fort.
• He also construction of canals and formulated the
constructed the Alai Darwaja, famine policy. The judicial and police
the entrance gate of the Qutub Minar.
arrangements were made efficient.
• He also built the palace of
thousand He gave up the land measurement system
pillars called 'Hazar Situn,' Hauz Khas and started the Batai System or sharing of
and Jamait Khana Mosque and built his Crops. Eficient Postal service was
capital at Siri. He adopted the title restored.
Sikandar-i-Sahni.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History 47

• He sent his son, Jauna Khan to The Khurasan Expedition

re-establish the authority in Warangal
(Kakatiya) and Madurai (Pandyas). (1329)
. He built the city of Tughlagabad near Under the vision of Universal Conquest, he
Delhi and made it his capital. decided to conquest Khurasan and Iraq and
• Sufi saint, Shaikh Nizam-ud-din Aulia mobilised a huge army for this purpose.
away, in regard to him.
. said Delhi is far Qarachil Expedition (1330)
He died in 1325, after a fall from a hign This expedition was launched, in Kumaon
raised pavillion. Ibn Battuta, the hills in the Himalavas, allegedly to counter
Moroccan traveller, who was in Delhi at
Chinese incursions. The attack was
that time, opined that his death was due
Successlul, but when the rainy season set in.

e
to sabotage arranged by his so. Iauna
the invaders suffered terribly. He died in
Khan (Muhammad-bin- Tughlag).
Thatta (Sind), while campaigning against a

nc
MUHAMMAD-BIN Turkish slave Taghi.

TUGHLAQ (AD 1325-1351) Diwan-i-Kohi

• A new department of agriculture Diwan-i-Kohi
Jauna Khan ascended the throne under
ra was set-up. He built the fortress of Adilabad and
the naine Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq. He
was one of the most extra-ordinary king the city of "Jahanpanah".
who ever sat on the throne of Delhi. He lbn-Battuta
was an expert in Arabic, Persian
Astronomy Philosophy, Maths and The famous Moroccan traveller lbn-Battuta
nt

came to Delhi in 1334 and acted as the lazi of

Medicine.
• the capital for 8 years. He recorded the
He applied his rational and innovative contemporary Indian scene in his Safranamah
mind in every aspect of administration (Rehia).
but achieved little success as he was
ie

very hasty in nature.

Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388)
Five Ambitious Projects of
jm

Firoz Tughlaq faced the problem of

Muhammad-Bin-Tughlaq preventing the imminent break up of
His five ambitious projects were Delhi Sultanate. So he tried to appease
the nobility, the army and the Battuta
Taxation in the Doab (1326) theologians.
@

The Sultan made an ill-advised financial He made the lqta system hereditary.
experiment in the Doab between the He externded the principle of heredity to
Gangas and the Yamuna. He not only the army. The soldiers were not paid by
increased the rate of taxation, but also cash but by assignments on land revenue
revived and created, some additional of villages (Vajeha). This technique led to
Abwabs or Cessess. many abuses.
Transfer of the Capital (1327) In order to encourage agriculture, the
Sultan paid a lot of attention to irrigation.
The most controversial step was the He repaired a number of canals. The first
transfer of capital from Delhi to Deogiri.
He renamed Deogiri as Daulatabad.
canal was from Sutlej to Ghaggar. The
second canal carried water from Yamuna
to Hissar. He imposed Haq-i-Sharb or
Introduction of Token Currency Hasil-i- Sharb i.e. water tax.
(1329)
He encouraged the practice of slavery
Muhammad Tughlaq decided to introduce and selected young boys from the
Bronze coin, instead of the silver coin conquered territory for the purpose.
which would have the same value. Diwan-i-Bandagon was created as the
department for slaves.
 48 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

• Built new towIs of Fatehabad, Hissar, •

He robbed people. He is said to have
Jaunapur (in memory of Muhammad inflicted on India more misery, than had
Tughlag) and Firozabad. During his ever before been done by a conquerer in a
Bengal campaign, he renamed Ikdala single invasion.
as Azadpur and Pandua as Firozabad. Timur nominated Khizr Khan to rule over
• He brought two pillars of Ashoka from Punjab and himself returned to Central
Topara and Meerut, to Delhi and Asia. He died on his way to conquer China
repaired Qutub-Minar when it was in AD 1404.
struck by lightning.
• He established a hospital at Delhi,
Taxation System
known as Darul-Shifa. Firoz Shah Tughlag introduced new system of

e
• A new
department of Diwan-i- Khairat taxation according to the Quran.
was set-up to make provision for the A land tax of 1/10th of the
Kharaj

nc
marriage of poor girls. procedure of land.
• Introduced two new coins - Adha (50%
Zakat 2.5% tax on property (by Muslim
Jital) and Bikh (25% Jital). only).
.
Mathura was destroyed during his period. Jaziya A tax by non-Muslims (even by
• He made Jaziya a separate tax and he Brahmins).
ra
imposed this tax upon the Brahmans Khams 1/6th of the booty captured during
for the first time in the history of war.
Sultanate.
• Barani, the historian, was in his THE SAYYID DYNASTY
nt

court. He wrote Tarikh-i-Firozshahi

and Fatwa-i-Jahangiri. (AD 1414-51)
.
He died in AD 1388.
Khizr Khan (1414-21) founded the Sayyid
ie

dynasty and claimed to have descended

THE LATER from the prophet of Islam.
TUGHLAQS(1388-1414) He helped Timur in his invasion, so was
given the governship of Lahore.
jm

• After Firozshah Tughlag, Ghiyasuddin

Tughlag Shah-I succeeded. He was Khizr Khan took the title of Rayat-i-Ala
repalced by Abu Bakr Shah in AD 1389. and not of a king. The coins were struck
• and Khutba was read in the name of Timur
The states of Malwa, Sharqi (Jaunpur) and his successor Shahrukh.
and Gujarat broke away from the
@

Khizr Khan's three successors were

Sultanate.
. Abu incapable rulers.
Bakr was replaced by Nasiruddin
Muhammad in AD 1390. Nasiruddin Mubarak Shah (1421-34) led successful
Muhammad was replaced by expeditions against Mewatis, Katehars and
a
Ala-ud-din Sikandar Shah for brief the Gangeti Doab area. He was killed and
period in 1394, but regained the deposed by the nobles.
throne after Sikandar's death. Muhammad Shah (1434-43) ruled on a
He ruled till AD 1412. During his very small area, rest being governed by
period, Timur invaded India. nobles. Alauddin Shah Alam (1443-1451)
was the last Sayyid king who retired as a
Timur's Invasion coward, descending in favour of Bahlol
•
Timur, the head of the Chaghtai Turks Lodhi. Thus, the Sayyid Dynasty was
and the ruler of Mongols in (Central replaced by the Lodhi Dynasty.
Asia) invaded India in i398, during the Yahya-bin-Ahmed-bin-Abdullah Sirhindi
reign of Nasiruddin Muhammad wrote Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi (History of
Tughlaq. Muhammad Shah of Sayyid Dynasty).
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE Indian History 49

THE LODHIDYNASTY Causes of the Decline of

(AD 1451-1526) the Delhi Sultanate
• Despotic, autocratic and military forms of
Considered as the first Afghan dynasty of government.
India. They were ruling over Sirhind, Wars of succession.
while Sayyids ruled over India.
Financial instability.
Bahlol Lodhi(AD 1451-1489) Vastness of the empire and improper
• administrative control.
Founder of Lodhi dynasty in India. • Unsuccessful experiments of Muhammad
• Revived Sultanate to quite an extent.
-bin-Tughlaq. Timur's invasion.

e
• Annexed entire Sharqi kingdom and Incompetent nobility and increase in number of
issued Bahlol coins. slaves during Firoz Tughlaq.
• Never sat on the throne, used to sit on

nc
carpets alongwith Amins.
THE SULTANATE
Sikandar Lodhi ADMINISTRATION
(AD 1489-1517)
ra
• Noblest of the three Lodhi rulers. real The Turkish Sultans in India declared
name was Nizam Khan (Son of Bahlol themselves Lieutenants of Painful, which
Lodhi). Conquered Bihar and Bengal in
meant that they included the name of
AD 1504, he built a new city Agra and Caliphate of Baghdad in Khutba, but he
had only moral position.
nt

Imade it his capital. He was the son of

• Political, legal and military authority was
Bahlol Lodhi.
• He was a Muslim fanatic and broke the vested in the Sultan. He was responsible
sacred images of.Jwalamukhi temple at for administration.
He was the Commander-in-Chief of the
ie

Nagarkot and ordered the temple of

military forces.
Mathura to be destroyed.
• He set-up an eficient espionage and The cOuntry was divided into lgtas, which
distributed among the nobles,
jm

judiciary system and introduced the Were

system of auditing of accounts. officers and soldiers for the purpose of
• He encouraged agriculture. For administration and revenue collection.
measurement of land, he introduced lgtadars could be transferred.
Gaj-i-Sikandari.
• The key figure in
the administration was
@

• He was a poet and wrote verses in

Wazir. In the earlier period, the Wazir was
Persian under the pen-name of primarily a military leader, but now he
began to be considered more as an expert
Gulrukhi.
• in the revenue affairs and supervised the
He repaired the Qutub Minar:.
collection of income and expenditure.
.
Ibrahimn Lodhi (1517-1526) The head of military department was
• called Ariz-i-Mamalik. The responsibility
Ibrahim Lodhi arrested the absolute of Ariz was recruitment, payment and
power of the Sultan. As a result, some of
inspection of army.
the nobles turned against him. At last, •
Diwan-i-Risalat dealt with religious
Daulat Khan Lodhi the Governor of was presided over by a Chief
Punjab, invited Babur to overthrow
matters. It
Ibrahim. Sadr or Chief Qazi. The Qazi dispensed
. civil law based on Muslin law (Sharia).
He captured Gwalior and was defeated •
by Rana Sanga of Mewar. Diwan-i-Insha, headed by Dahir-i-Mumal
• He was defeated and killed at the hands ik, managed the royal correspondence.
of Babur in the First Battle of Paninat The rulers posted intelligence agents
called Barids in different parts of the
in AD 1526. This marked the end of the
empire to keep themselves informed.
Delhi Sultanate.
 50 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE- Indian History
.
Wakil-i-Dar was responsible Literary Sources
for the maintenance of proper
decorum at the court. The Book Author
province were divided into Khazyan-ul-Futuh Amir Khusro
Shigs and headed by Shigdars. Tughlag Narmah Amir Khusro
The next unit was Parganas, Tarik-i-Alai Amir Khusro
groups of hundred villages, Tabaqat-i-Nasiri Minhaj-us-Siraj
headed by the Chaudhary. Tarikh-i-Firozshahi Ziauddin Barni
Pargana was also headed by Gita Govind Jayadeva
Amil. Khuts Were the Mitakshara Vigyaneshwara
landoWners. Dayabhaga Jirnuta Vahana

e
Ashiga and Khizr khan Amir Khusro
CULTURAL Armuktamalyada Krishnadeva Raya

nc
DEVELOPMENTS Futuhat-i-Firozshahi Firoz Shah
Parasana Kaghava Jayadeva
Art and Architecture Khamsah Amir Khusro
• Archs and domes are a special Miftahul Futuh Amir Khusro
feature of Muslim
ra
architecture. This required Music
stronger cement, thus, finer .
New musical modes and instruments like Rabab
quality of mortar became and Sarangi, were introduced.
widespread in North India. •
Amir Khusro introduced many Persian Arabic
nt

• For decoration, the Turks used, ragas. He also invented the Sitar.
geometrical and floral designs
with verses from the Quran. Paintings
Hindu motifs like bell, lotus Arabs introduced paper in the
l5th century which
ie

and swastik etc were also used

e.g. Adhai Din ka Jhompra at encouraged painting.
Ajmer, tomb of Ghiyasuddin
Literature
jm

Balban in Mehrauli (Delhi). .

Many Sanskrit works like Rajatarangani and
were
Other Developments Mahabharata translated into Persian.
Udayraja wrote Raja Vinoda on Mahmud Begarha.
. Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque,
Delhi Built by Outubuddin Zai Nakshabi translated Sanskrit stories into
@

Aibak. Persian under the title Tuti Namah.

• Adhai din ka Jhopra Ajmer : Merutanga wrote Prabandha Chintamani.
Qutubuddin Aibak. Amir Khusro
• Alai Darwaja, Qutub Minar : He was a Persian poet (AD 1253-1325) associated vwith
Alauddin Khalji royal courts of more than seven rulers of the Delhi
•
Jamat Khan Masjid at dargah Sultanate.
of Nizamuddin Auliya :
He was also a musician and invented the Sitar. He
Alauddin Khalji innovated Khayal (a style of singing).
• Siri (city), Hauzkhas tank, In his b00k Tarikh-i-Alai, he gave an account of the
:
Hazar Situn Alauddin Khalji. Conquests of Alauddin Khalji.
• City of Tughlaqabad founded His book Ashiqa, contains the love story of Deval ani
by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq. City of and Khizr Khan.
Jahanpanah and Adilabad fort: In his book Nuh-Siphir or nine skies, he gave the story of
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. Sultan Mubarak Shah. He also lived in the court of
• City of Jaunpur Hissar, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq and wrote Tughlagnamah.
Firozabad : Firoz-shah Tughlaq. Khusro is also known as Tuti-i-Hind or 'Parrot of India.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE - Indian History 51

PROVINCIAL Mewar
KINGDOMS
• The capital city Chittor was captured by
Alauddin Khalji in AD 1303, but Rajput rule
Gujarat was SOOn restored by Rana Hamir
• (AD1326-64).
Disintegrated from Delhi in
AD 1397,
• Rana Kumbha Karan (AD 1433-68) was the
under Zaffar Khan, who greatest ruler of Mewar. He built the famous
assumed the title of Sultan
victory tower Vijay Stambh at Chittor, to
Muzaffar Shah. commenorate his victory over Mahmud Khilji
• Ahmed Shah I (his grandson), built
a new city Ahmedabad and also built of Malwa. His court was adorned by Mandan,
who wrote many books on architecture

e
Jama Masjid and Tin Darwaza at namely, Parsad Mandan and Rupa Mandan.
Ahmedabad.
Rana Sangram Singh or Rana Sanga

nc
• Mahmud
Beghra was another (1509-28) defeated Mahmud II of Malwa and
prominent ruler, in whose reign, the Ibrahimn Lodhi. But, he was defeated by Babur
Portuguese set-up a factory at Diu. in the Battle of Khanwa (AD 1527).
.
Sanskrit scholar, Udayraja, was his
court poet. Akbar annexed Gujarat Bengal
ra
in AD 1573. • Disintegrated from Delhi during the reign of
Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq.
Malwa
. In AD 1342, Iliyas Khan founded the new
The state was annexed by Alauddin Iliyas Shahi Dynasty.
nt

Khalji in AD 1305 and rernained a •

part of the Sultanate until its Ghiyasuddin Azam established friendly
Governor, Dilawar Khan Ghuri,
relations with China and established trade
commerce.
declared his independence in • and
The famous poet, Maladhar Basu, compiler of
ie

AD 1435.
. Sri-Krishna Vijay, was patronised by the
Hasan Shah was a powerful ruler of Sultans and was given the title of Gunaraja
Malwa. He built Jama Masjid, Khan.
Hindol Mahal and Jahaz Mahal at .
jm

Chaitanya and Shankaradeva belonged to this

Mandu. Next rule, Mahmud Khalji,
was defeated by Rana Kumbha. period. Sher Shah Suri occupied Bengal in
• Malwa became a part of Gujarat in AD 1538.
AD 1531 and was annexed to the VIJAYANAGARA
@

Mughal state in AD 1562.

KINGDOM (AD 1336-1580)
Kashmir (AD 1336-1485)
• Shamsuddin Shah became the lhe Sangamas
• was
first Muslim ruler of Kashmir in The kingdomn founded in AD 1336 in
AD 1339. response to the Tughlaq authority in South
•
Zainulabdin (AD 1420-70) was the India.
greatest ruler of Kashmir, also Vijayanagara Kingdom and the city was
known as 'Badshah' and the Akbar founded by Harihara Iand Bukka. (Two of the
of Kashmir. five sons of Sangama).
• He accepted the policy of tolerance,
•
Harihara and Bukka were originally the
introduced the art of shawl making feudatories of the of Kakatiyas. They were
in Kashmir, built Zaina Lanka and brought to the centre by
an artificial island in the Wular lake. Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, converted to
• Islam and were sent to South to control the
Later ruled by Chak Dynasty, whose
ruler submitted to Akbar in AD 1586. rebellion, but motivated by a Bhakti Saint
Vidyaranya they reconverted to Hinduism.
• It is believed that women played an They established the Vijayanagara kingdom
important role in the history of the in AD 1336.
Kashmir.
 62 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

Harihara I (AD 1336-56) The Tuluvas

Conflict with the Bahmani kingdom for (AD 1505-157O)
over three areas Raichur doab
:
Supremacy •
Krishna Vira Narsimha (AD 1505-09)
(between and Tungabhadra), Killed Immadi of Saluva dynasty
Krishna-Godavari Delta and Marathwada. and established the Tuluva dynasty.
He was the son of Narsa Nayaka.
Bukka I (AD 1356-79) • Krishnadevaraya (AD 1509-29)
.
Renamed the city of Vidyanagar as was the greatest ruler of the dynasty.
Vijayanagara Portuguese
. traveller, Domingo
The royal Ambassadors from Malabar and Paes, wrote high about him.
Ceylon, adorned his court.

e
Berbosa also came as a traveler.
• Restored peace between the warring Also Friar Louis, the Ambassador of
Vaishnavas and the Jains. Portuguese Governor,

nc
the
Albuquerque, resided in his court.
Devraya-I (AD1406-22) His period was known as "Golden
• He constructed a dam acrosS the age of Telugu literature."
Tungabhadra to bring the canal into the city.
He was warrior, an administrator
a

ltalian traveller Nicolo Conti visited the

ra
kingdom during his reign.
and a patron of art and literature.
He defeated the Gajapati ruler of
•
Srinatha was his court poet, who wrote Orissa and took the title Yavanaraja
Haravilasam. Sthapnachaya (restorer of the
• There was a Pearl Hall in his palace, where
nt

Yadava of Bidar).
he honoured the men of eminence. • His political ideas are contained in
Devraya-II(AD 1423-46) the Telugu book Anuktamalayada.
He also wrote Sanskrit drama
• He was the greatest Sangama ruler. The
ie

Jambavati Kalyanam.
Commanders believed that he was an • As a great patron of literature, he
incarnation of Indra. He wrote Mahanataka was known as Abhinava Bhoja,
Suddhanidhi. He took the tittle Gaj
Andhra Pitamaha and Andhra
jm

Betekara' i.e the elephant hunter Persian Bhoja. Sri Vyasatirtha was his guru.
Ambassador Abdul Razzaq, the envoy of •
Shahrukh, visited his court. Eight great poets of Telugu, known
. as Ashta Diggaja adorned his court.
The Sangama dynasty was replaced by Saluva
dynasty which lasted for two decades. • He was a contemporary to Babur.
@

• The king was a scholar in Kannada and • Achyuta Raya (AD 1529-42)
Sanskrit. Succeeded Krishnadevaraya. A
Portuguese traveller Fernao Nuniz
The
.
Saluvas (AD 1486-1505) came during his reign.
Saluva Narsimha was the (AD 1486-91), •
Sadasiva (1543-76) was the last
founder of the dynasty, native of the Kalyam ruler of the dynasty.
region. •
Battle of Talikota (AD 1565)
Between the alliance of
Tirumal (1491) and Immadi Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golkonda
Narasimha (1491-1505) and Bidar at one side and Sadasiva
. on the other side. Sadasiva was
Ruled under the regency of Narsa Nayak.
. defeated.
Vasco Da Gama came to India (Calicut) •
during the reign of Immadi in AD 1498. Caesar Frederick, the Portuguese
• Ultimately, a new dynasty called the Tuluva
travelle, visited his cOurt
(AD 1567-68).
dynasty was founded by Vir Narasimha.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE - Indian History 53

The
.
Aravidus (AD 1570-1650) The Ayagar System
The dynasty was founded by Thirumala, It involved the Constitution of a
brother of Rama Raya. He shifted the Twelve-member official group by the centre
capital to Penugonda and divided the to maintain administration at the village
empire into three linguistic sections. level. These officials, called the Ayagars,
were village functionaries and constituted
Vijayanagara
.
Architecture of groups of families.
Important temples are Vithalswami and They were given, for their service, a portion
Hazara temples at Hampi, Varadraja and of or a plot in the village, which were
Ekambarnatha temples at Kanchipuram, tax-free. The Ayagars were hereditary
and Parvati temples at Chidambaram. officials and there was to be no sale or

e
. purchase of land without their permission.
The stories of Ramayana and
Mahabharata were inscribed on the walls

nc
of the tenmples; e.g. Vithalswami and BAHMANIKINGDOM
Hazara Ram temple.
of Deccan was
• Vibrant combination of Chalukyan,• The Bahmani kingdom
Hoysalan, Pandyan and Cholan styles. founded by Hasan Gangu, whose
original name was Ismail Mukh. The
ra
Vijayanagara Society capital was Gulbarga. Hasan Gangu
• Only empire in Medieval India, which took the title of Alauddin Hasan
employed women in the services. Women Bahaman Shah (AD 1347-58) became
even went to battles. the first king of Bahmani in AD 1347.
nt

• At the time of his death, his

Vijayanagara Trade dominion had four provinces
• Accounts of Nuniz and Paes indicate a Gulbarga, Daulatabad, Berar and
dependence foreign trade for Bidar.
ie

or
maintenance of the two most important Mahmud Shah I (1358-75) son of
bases of the Vijayanagara empire the Bahaman Shah, established a council
cavalry and its fire arms. consisting of eight ministers and
jm

decentralised his provincial

Vijayanagara Coins administration. He fought with
• They issued gold coins called Varahas or Vijayanagara. He was succeeded by his
son Ala-ud-din Mujahid Shah.
Pagodas. (Varahas, because the most •
common symbol was Varaha the boar an Firoz Shab (1397-1422) was the most
@

incarnation of Vishnu). These help us remarkable figure in the Bahmani

know that they were the worshippers of kingdom. He was determined to make
Vishnu. Deccan the cultural centre of India.
He inducted Hindus in his
The Nayankara System administration to large extent. He built
an observatory at Daulatabad. He
Under this system, military chiefs were
assigned certain pieces of land called Amaram. founded the city of Firozabad on the
These chiefs, known as nayaks, had revenue bank of the river Bhima. Firoz defeated
Devaraya I.
and administrative rights on their lands.
They were required to maintain elephants,
•
Firoz Shah was succeeded by his
horses and soldiers in certain numbers, which brother Ahmed Shah I (AD 1422-36).
were included in the royal army during wars. He shifted his capital from Gulbarga to
They also had to pay a sum of money
Bidar.
the
central exchequer. In course of time, the nayaks Ahmed Shah is known as Wali or saint,
began to assert their military., administrative due to his association with Gisudiraz.
•
and economic powers, which later became a Inlaying of zinc with silver and gold,
major cause of the decline of the Vijayanagara and Bidri ware was introduced in his
empire. period.
 54 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

• Ahmed Shah was succeeded by his son Alauddin-II (AD 1436-58) and Humayun.
Humayun (AD 1458-61) was so cruel, that he got the title of Zalim.
.
Humayun was succeeded by his son Nizam Shah (1461-63) and then by Muhammad
Shah-II (AD 1463-82). Mahmud Gawan was the Prime Minister of Muhammad.
Nikitin, a Russian merchant, visited Bidar during his reign.
• After Gawan's execution by the disconternted noble, the Bahmani kingdom started
declining.
• The last
ruler of Bahmani kingdom was Kalim Ullah Shah (AD 1524-27).
• After
the break-up of Bahmani kingdom, five Muslim separate states were formed as
:
follow

e
1. Nizanm Shahis of Ahmednagar founder-Ahmned Nizam Shah, later annexed by
Shahjahan.
2. Adilshahis of Bijapur (1490-1686) founded by Yusuf AdilShah. It was annexed

nc
by Aurangazeb.
Greatest ruler of the kingdom was Ibrahim Adil Shah. He introduced Dakhini in
place of Persian language. Another ruler Muhammad Adil Shah built the Gol
Gumbaz.
ra
3. Imad Shahis of Berar (1490-1574) founded by Fateullah Khan Immad-ul-Mulk
with Daulatabad as capital. Later, it was conquered and annexed by one of the
Nizam Shahi rulers of Ahmednagar.
4. Qutub He
Shahis of Golconda (1518-1687) founded by Quli Qutub Shah. built
nt

the famous Golconda fort and made it his capital.

•
Muhammad Quli Qutab Shah was the greatest of all. He founded the city of
Hyderabad.
.
He built the famous Charminar. Most important port of Qutub Shahi kingdom was
ie

Masulipatnam. The kingdom was annexed by Aurangzeb (1687).

5. Barid Shahis of Bidar (1528-1619) founded by Ali Barid. Annexed by Adil
Shahis of BijapuT.
jm

RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS
The Sufi Movement
Mystics who are called Sufis, rose in Islam at a very early stage.
@

•
These saints had nothing to do with the state. They laid great emphasis on love as a
bond between God and the individual soul.
• Sufi came out of the word sooph meaning wool. They advocated life of purity and
renunciation. Sufism sprang from the doctrine of Wahadat-ul-Wujud or unity of being.
This doctrine was propoumded by Ibn-ul-Arabi.
• One and the earliest Sufis was Rabia, a woman.
• Sufis organised 12 orders or silsilas. A silsila was generally led by a prominent mystic,
who lived in a khangah or hospice alongwith his disciple. The link between the teacher
or pir and his disciples or murids was a vital part of Sufism. Every pir nominated a
successor or wali to carry out his work.
• Sufi orders are broadly divided into Ba-shara that is those which followed the Islamic
law (shariat) and Be-shara, that is those which were not bound by it.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History 55

Sufi Order Founder Popular Saints Other Features

Chisti Khwaja Abdul Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti They adopted musical
(Delhi and Chisti (in Heart) (India) recitation, called sama, to
Doab region) Bakhtiyar Kaki, Create mood of nearness to
God.
Nizamuddin Auliya,
Nasiruddin Chirag-i-Delhi
Nizamuddin Aullia also
known as Tahbul-i-llahi
(beloved of God).
Suhrawardi Shaikh Shaikh Bahuddin Zakariya Saints had big jagirs and a
(Punjab and Shihabuddin close contact with the state.

e
Šind) Suhrawardi
Firdausi Shaikh Badruddin Shaikh Shamsuddin Yahiya believed in

nc
of Samark Yahiya (Bihar) pantheistic monotheism and
was the disciple of Khwaja
Nizamuddin Firdausi.
Qadiri Shaikh Abdul Shah Niamatullah Dara Shikoh, the eldest son
Qadiri Syid Muhammad Jilani of Shahjahan was the
ra follower of this order.
Naqshbandi Khwaja Pir Khwaja Bagi Billah
Muharnmad Shailkh Ahmed Sirhindi

•
Sufi Terminology The real development of Bhakti took place in
nt

South India between the 7th and the

Sufi Words Meanings 12th centuries. The Bhakti saints came
Shaikh/Murid/Pir Spiritual teacher usually from the lower caste. They
disregarded caste, encouraged women to join
ie

Tasawwuf Sufism
and taught in the local vernacular language.
.
Murid Disciple They considered that God has either a formn
Khangah The hospice (Saguna) or was formless (Nirguna).
jm

Sama Musical recital

Ramanuja (AD 1017-1137)
Aaksa Dance In the llth century, Ramanuja tried to
Fana Self annihilation assimilate Bhakti to the tradition of the Vedas.
According to him, Moksha (salvation) can be
@

Khalifah Successor
obtained through Karma, Gyan and Bhakti. He
gave the concept of Vishishtadvaita.
The Bhakti Movement
.
The Bhakti Movement, which Jnandeva (AD 1275-96)
stressed mystical union of the Progenitor of Bhakti Movement in
individual with God, was initiated in Maharashtra.
South India by popular saint poets
called Alvars, who represented the
emotional side of Vaishnavism,
Namdeva (1270-1350)
was a Nirguna Upasaka. Some of his
through collective SOngs called He are included in the Guru Granth
abhangas
Prabandhas.
. It
declined in the AD 10th century, Sahib.
but was again revived as Ekanath (AD 1533-99)
philosophical and ideological •
movement by Acharyas like Born in Patan in Aurangabad published the
disciple first receivable edition of Janesvari (Marathi
Ramanuja, whose Gita).
Ramananda took it to North India. •
• South India : Shiva and Vishnu He condemend caste systern and accepted
: disciple from the lower caste.
North India Rama and Krishna
 56 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

Tukaram (AD 1598-1650) Ramananda (15th century)

He was a contenporary of Shivaji, the .
The founder of Bhakti Movement in North
greatest Marathi Bhakti poet and his
India.
views are similar to that of Kabir. Great •
He discarded caste rules and included among
devotee of Vithal, a form of God
Vishnu. his disciples, men of all castes.
• He was greatly influenced by the teachings of
Ramadas (1608-1681) Ramanuja.
He was the spiritual guru of Shivaji. Among his disciples were Raidas, the cobbler,
Established ashrams all over India. He Kabir the weaver, Dhanna the farmer, Sena
WTote Dasabodha, a didactic work, the barber and Pipa the Rajput.

e
which gave advice on all aspects of life.
Kabir (1440-1510)

nc
GuruNanak (1469-1538) • He was a weaver:.
•
• Represented Nirguna Bhakti tradition. His
Founder of Sikh faith in Indía. followers organised themselves as Kabir
• He has born in Talwvandi, now Panthis.
Nankana Sahib to a Khatri family. His teachings contained Dohas, which are
ra
He composed hymns and sang them sung till today.
with the help of a rabab. .
. He was not merely a Bhakti poet, but also a
He laid emphasis on one God. By social reformer. He spoke in language of
repeating his name with love and common man. He emphasised on simplicity
nt

devotion, one could get salvation of the religious practice be it Brahminism or

without distinctions of caste, creed Islam.
and sect. He was against idolatory, •
He advocated the Bhakti marga and
undertaking pilgrimage and other
dedication to a formless supreme being.
ie

ritualistic conducts.
• In course of time, his teachings gave
rise to Sikhism.
Chaitanya (1486-1533)
. Born
• Nanak began in Nadia district of West Bengal.
jm

the practice of •
community kitchen Or
Regarded as the founder of modern Vaishna
Guru-ka-Langar. Sect of Bengal.
• He named the formless God as Akal He preached during the reign of Sultan
Purush. Alauddin Shah of Bengal and Gajpati ruler of
@

Orissa. He died in Puri. His biography is the

•
His teachings are compiled in the Chaitanya Charitmala.
Adi Granth. .
Philosophy of Chaitanya was called
Achityabhedaveda.
Vallabhacharya •
His disciples considered him as the
(1479-1531) incarnation of Krishna.
• He emphasised on the worship of
Krishna as an incarnation of the
Surdas (1483-1563)
almighty God. Disciple of Vallabhacharya and devotee of lord
• Lived in the court of Krishnadeva of Krishna amd Radha. He wrote Sur Suravali.
Vijayanagara. Sahitya Ratna and Sursagar (belonged to
Saguna school).
• He taught
that there was no
difference in Atma and Paramatma.
By means of Bhakti, one can get
Dadu Dayal
Nirguna Bhakti tradition, founded Brahma
salvation and merge in him. He
founded the Pushti seet. Sampradaya and Parabrahmna Sampradaya;
preached service to humanity.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History 57

Nimbarakacharya Vidyapati
Worshipper of Krishna and Radha and Maithilili saint poet.
contemporary of Ramanuja. Wrote Padavali i.e. thousands of love
ballads on Radha and Krishna. He also
Madhavacharya wrote Kirtilata Kirtipataka.
(1238-1317)
According to him, the release from Narsingh Mehta
transmigration could be secured only by Saint from Gujarat, who wrote songs in
means of knowledge and devouon. Gujarati, depicting the love of Radha and
Jayatirtha was his successor. Krishna. He authored Mahatma Gandhi's

e
favourite bhajan Vaishnava jan ko'.
Mirabai (1498-1546)
Married to Bhojraj, she was the Rathore Purandar
Das (1480-1564)

nc
princesss of Mevata and daughter in-law Vaishnava saint, composer of Karnataka, who
of Rana Sanga of Mewar. She belongedto laid the foundation of Caratic music.
the Krishna cult of Vaishnavism.
Shankara Deva (1449-1568)
Tulsidas (1532-1623)
ra Vaishnava saint from Assam.
Born in Brahmin family in Varanasi and
belonged to Ram Bhakti cult of Thyagaraja (1767-1847)
Vaishnavism. He wrote Telugu saint and greatest composer of
Ramcharitmanas, Gitawali, Kavitawali, Carnatic music.
nt

Vinay Patrika etc.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

ie

Babur (AD 1526-1530)

.
The battle of Ghaghra was the Ist battle
He was the descendant of Timur on his which was fought on land and water
jm

father's side and Changez Khan on his simultaneously in medieval India.

mother's side. His family belonged to Babur was the first ruler to entitle himself
the Chagtai section of the Turkish race 'Badshah'.
and Were commonly known as • He wrote Tuzuk-i-Babari or Babarnama
Mughals. in Turkish. It was translated into Persian by
@

• Originally ruled OVer Ferghana Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan and in

(Afghanistan). English by Madam Bebridge.
• He was invited to attack India by His victory led to rapid popularisation of
gunpowder and artillery in India.
Daulat Khan Lodhi, Subedar of
Punjab, Alam Khan Lodhi. uncle of After the Kushanas, he was the first to have
Ibrahim Lodhi and Rana Sanga. brought Kabul and Kandhar into the Indian
• He empire.
was successful in his
He died in AD 1530 and was buried at
fifth expedition. In the First Battle of
Aram Bagh in Agra. Later his body was
Panipat in AD 1526, he inally
taken to Aram Bagh at Kabul.
defeated Ibrahim Lodhi.
• Defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar in
Battle of Khanwa in 1527. Babur took Humayun
(AD 1530 -40 and 1555-56)
. the title of 'Ghazi' after this.
Defeated another Rajput ruler Medini • He was the son of Babur and Maham Anaga
Rai in the Battle of Chanderi in begum.
AD 1528. Babur had divided his empire among the
• In AD 1529, he defeated Muhammad three brothers of Humayun (Kamran,
Lodhi (uncle of Ibrahim Lodhi) in the Hindal and Asakari). So, Humayun had to
Battle of Ghaghra. face real problems ascending to the throne.
 58 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

• His first campaign was against Kalinja.

• In AD 1533, the first siege of Chunar and the March of Gaur was stopped by Jalal Khan
Sher Khan (Sher Shah) offered nominal submission by sending his son Qutb Khan to
Humayun's court.
• The second siege of Chunar was stopped by Jalal Khan, Sher Shah's son in 1538.
Humayun occupied Gaur from Sher Khan renamed it as Jannatabad (Paradise).
• The Battle of Chausa (1539) was fought between Sher Shah and Humayun's army.
Humayun was badly defeated and escaped. He was saved by Nizam.
• The Battle of Kannauj (Bilgrama) (1540) Humayun was again defeated by Sher Shah
:

and had to flee.

• He passed nearly 15 years in exile. He wandered in Sindh during the reign of Shah

e
Hussain Arghuna, and then reached the Iranian Court.
• He got a chance to return in AD 1555. By that time, Sher Shah and his son Islam

nc
Shah, who ruled upto l553, had died. Muhammad Adil Shah was fond of pleasure and
the entire affairs of his state were governed by Hemu, his minister.
•
Bairam Khan, his most faithful officer helped him. The Mughals occupied Lahore
without any march towards Delhi. After the Battle of Machhiwara against the Afghans,
and Battle of Sirhind against Sikandar Shah, Humayun's second coronation was
ra
organised. In AD 1556, he fell from the stairs of the library (Sher Mandal, Delhi) and
died. Dinpanah was his second capital.

Akbar (AD 1556 -1605)

nt

• Akbar was born to Hamida Banu begum at Amarkot in Rana Veersal's palace in AD
1542.
• Akbar was 14 years old when
he was crowned at Kalanaur in 1556. Akbar already had
shown his calibre at the battle field, when he captured Sirhind from Sikandar Shah,
ie

AD 1555.
• Bairam Khan represented him
in the Second Battle of Panipat in AD 1556 against
Muhammad Adil Shah Sur's Wazir, Hemu. Akbar defeated Hemu and reoccupied
jm

Delhi and Agra.

.
Between 1556-1560, Akbar ruled under Bairam Khan's regency. The fort of Gwalior,
Jaunpur, Ajmer and Ranthambore were successfully occupied. Later, Akbar asked
Bairam Khan to proceed to Mecca. On the way near Patna, Bairamn Khan was
murdered.
@

• He also ended the

interference from the Petticoat Government, (1560-62)
represented by Maham Anaga and Adham Khan's Junta.
• Akbar conquered Malwa in AD 1561, defeating Baz Bahadur. He was later made the
Mansabdar, to honour his skill as a musician.
• Akbar's earliest campaigns was against Rani Durgawati of Garth-Katanga (Gond and
Rajput principalities).
•
The two powerful forts of Rajasthan-Ranthambor and Chittor (Rana Udai Singh
guarded by Jaimal) were captured by the Mughals.
• Akbar's deccan campaign began with
the siege of Ahmednagar (defended by Chand
Bibi).
. Akbar's East campaign was against Asirgarh, resulting into the annexation of
Khandesh (1601).
• Akbar followed the policy of reconcilation with the Rajputs. In AD 1562,
he married
the eldest daughter of Raja Bharmal of Jaipur, Harakha Bai.
.
In 1570, he married princesses of Bikaner and Jaisalmer, 1584. Prince Salim was
married to the daughter of Raja Bhagwan Das.
•
He won Gujarat in 1572. In order to commemorate his victory of Gujarat, Akbar build
Buland Darwaja at Fatehpur Sikri.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History 59

• Raja Maan Singh conquered Bihar, Bengal and Orissa for him.
•
In 1586, Akbar conquered Kashmir and in 1593, he conquered Sindh.
• At the time of Akbar's death in AD 1605, his empire included Kashmir, Sindh,
Kandahar and extended as far as the Godavari in the Deccan.
•
He was buried at Sikandara near Agra.

Navratnas in Akbar's Court

Abul Fazal He was the Wazir of Akbar. He wrote the Akbarnamah and also led the
Mughal imperial army in its war in Deccan.
Faizi Abul Fazal's brother and historian in Akbar's court. His famous work Lilavati is

e
on Mathematics. Akbar appointed him as a teacher for his son.
Tansen Believed to be one of the greatest musicians of all time. He was born to

nc
a Hindu family.
He served as the court musician to king Ramchandra of Mevwar and
was sent to Akbar's court.
He accepted Islam at the hands of great Sufi saint Shaikh Muhammad
Ghaus of Gwalior.
ra
It was believed that Tansen made miracles, such as bringing rain and
fire through his singing of the ragas, such as Megh Malhar and Deepak.

Birbal Courtier in the administration of Akbar. His actual name was

Mahesh Das.
He was conferred the title of Raja by Akbar. He frequently had witty and
nt

humorous exchanges with Akbar.

Raja Todarmal He was Akbar's Finance Minister.
He introduoed standard weights for measurement and undertook
revenue districts. His revenue Collection arrangement came to be called
ie

the Todarmal's Bandobast.

His systermatic approach to revenue collection became a model for the
future Mughals as well as the British.
jm

Raja Man Singh He was the Raja of Armber, a Mansatbdar and a trusted General of Akbar.
He was the grand son of Akbar's father-in-law Bharmal and the adopted
son of Raja Bhagwan Das.
He assisted Akbar in many battles including the well known
Battle of Haldighati.
@

Abdul Rahim He was poet and the son of Bairam Khan, known for his Hindi
Khan-e-Khana cOuplets
Faqir Azio Din He was the chief advisor of Akbar, sufi mystic.

Mullah Do Piaza He was among the Mughal emperor's chief advisor.

Important Aspects of
Akbar'sRule
• Akbar reorganised the central machinery of administration, on the basis of division of
power between various departments.
• He abolished the Jaziya and pilgrimage tax, and the forcible conversion of prisoners of
war. The use of beef was also forbidden.
He believed in Sulh-i-Kul, that is peace for all.
•
He built an Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri to discuss religious matters. He invited
Imany distinguished persons, such as Purshottam Das (Hindu) Maharaji Rana (Parsi),
Harivijaya Suri (Jain), Monserate and Aquaviva (Christian).
• To curb the dominance of the Ulema, Akbar introduced a new Khutba written by Faizi
and proclaimed Mahzarnamah in 1579, which made him the final interpreter of
Islamic law (Mujtahid Iman-i-Adil), in case of any controversies.
 60 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

• It made him Amir-ul-Momin (leader of the

faithful) and Amir-i-Adil (a just ruler).
Jahangir (AD 1605-1627)
. •
Akbar's eldest son, prince Salim,
His liberation is reflected again in the
pronouncement of Tauhid-i-lahi assumed the title of Nuruddin
Muhammad Jahangir and ascended
Din-i-Ilahi, which propounded Sufi divine the throne.
monotheism. Birbal, Abul Fazl and Faizi He was born at Fatehpur Sikri near
joined the order.
• Akbar established the painting Agra in l569. He was given a proper
karkhana, education by his tutor Rahim
headed by Abdus Samad. Khankhana.
• Ralph Fitch (1585) was the first In AD 1585. he married Manbai, the
Englishman to visit Akbar's court. daughter of his maternal uncle-Raja

e
• Abul Fazal WIote 'Akbarnamah' the Bhagwan Das.
appendix of which was called Ain-i-Akbari. •
In AD 1587 he married Jodhabai or

nc
• His land revenue system was known as Jagat Gosain, the daughter of Udai
Todarmal Bandobast or Zabti system. Singh, who gave birth to prince
•
Mansabdari System was another feature of Khusro (Shahjahan). He mostly lived
administration during Akbar's reign to in Lahore, which he adorned with
organise the nobility as well as the army. He gardens and buildings.
ra
was the first Mughal ruler to separate The eldest son of Jahangir, Khusro
religion from politics. revolted against him, but was
. suppressed. Khusro
Sufi saint Shaikh Salim Chisti blessed Akbar received
with a son who was named Salim (Jahangir). patronage of Guru Arjun Dev (5th
nt

Akbar shifted his court to Fatehpur Sikri Sikh Guru). Guru Arjun Dev was
from Agra, in honour of the saint. executed for his blessings to the rebel
• Birbal was killed in the battle with the prince.
•
Yusufzai tribe (1586). Rana Amar Singh (son of Maharana
ie

• Abul Fazal was Pratap) of Mewar, submitted before

murdered by Bir Singh
Bundela (1601). In 1579, Akbar issued Jahangir in AD 1615. Rana Amar
'Decree of Infallibility'. Singh was made a Mansabdar in the
Mughal court.
jm

• Persian was mnade the official language of

Mughal empire.
•
His greatest failure was loss of
. Kandahar to Persia in 1622.
He culminated "Din-i-illahi, which •
Jahangir's wife Nurjahan (daughter
recognised no prophets. of Itamad-daulah) exercised
@

tremendous influence over the state

Maharana Pratap affairs. She was made the official
A Rajput ruler of Mewar, he belonged to the Badshah Begum.
Sisodia clan of Suryavanshi Rajputs. He was a son Coins were stuck in her name and all
of Udai Singh Il. In 1568, during the reign of Udai royal farmans beared her name.
Singh Il, Mewar was conquered by Akbar. •
She got high positions for her father
Battle of Haldighati was fought on 18th June, (Itamaduddaulah) and her brother
1576, in vwhich Maharana Pratap was defeated by (Asaf Khan),
Akbar's army, led by Raja Man Singh. Maharana •
He restored Muhammad faith and
had to flee the field on his trusted horse-Chetak. prohibited the sale of Tobacco.
Thereafter, Pratap had to retreat into the Nurjahan married her daughter (by
Aravallis, from where he continued his struggle Sher Afghani her first husband) to
through the tactics of guerilla warfare. Rana Jahangir's youngest son, Shahryar
Pratap died of injuries sustained in a hunting and she supported him for the heir
accident. apparernt.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE - Indian History 61

• Jahangir's military general, Mahabat • In 1639, Shahjahan secured Kandahar

Khan revolted and abducted him but and immediately fortified it. But Persia
Nurjahan saved him due to her wrested Kandahar from Mughals in
diplomatic efforts. 1649. Shahjahan failed to recover
• He was justice loving, a huge bell with a Kandahar.
chain of 30 yards was placed at the gate Shahjahan was the second Indian ruler
to invade Central Asia.
of royal palace in Agra and anybody who
sought justice from the emperor had to • Two French travellers : Bernier and
strike the bell. This bell was called Tavernier and the Italian traveller
Zanzir-i-Adil. Nicolo Manuccivisited during his reign.
.
Jahangir faced a formidable opponent in Peter Mundi described the famine that

e
Malik Amber of Ahmednagar. occurred during Shahjahan's reign. His
. reign is considered as the Golden age of
Captain Hawkins (1608-11) and the Mughal empire.

nc
Sir Thomas Roe (1615-1616) visited
Jahangir's court.
• The last 8 years of Shahjahan were very
. painful, because of the brutal war of
Pietxa Valle, the famous traveller, came succession between his four sons.
during his reign. He was imprisoned by his son Aurangzeb
• Production of Tobacco (brought by the
ra in Agra fort and died in captivity in
Portuguese) started in his reign. AD 1658. He was buried at Taj Mahal
•
.
He was buried at Lahore. (Agra) besides his lovingwife.
He wrote his autobiography, Tuzuk--
Jahangiri in Persian.
War of Succession
nt

• Among Shahjahan's four sons, the eldest

Nurjahan son Dara Shikoh was the Governor of
Nurjahan's actual name was Mehrunnisa. She Punjab, Shuja was Governor of Bengal,
was the widow of Sher Afgani. Jahangir married Aurangzeb was Governor of Bengal and
ie

to her and confered the title 'Nurjahan to her. Murad was Governor of Gujarat.
•
Battle of Bahadurgarh February 1658,
was fought between Shuja and Dara,
Shahjahan (1628-1658) Shuja was defeated.
jm

• Born to Jodhabai or Jagat Gosain in •

Battle of Dharnmat April 1658, where
Lahore in 1592. His real name was combined forces of Aurangzeb and
Khurram. He was the youngest prince to Murad, defeated Dara.
be appointed as the Governor of Deccan, •
Battle of Samugarh May 1658, Dara led
@

at the age of 15. Mughal forces on behalf of Shahjahan

. against Aurangzeb. In this decisive
In AD 1612, he got married to Arjamand
Bano Begum (known as Mumtaz Mahal), battle, Shahjahan was put into prison by
daughter of Asaf Khan. Aurangzeb in the Agra fort.
•
He marched against Khan Jahan Lodhi, Battle of Khanjawa December 1658,
the Governor of Deccan and Jujhar between Aurangzeb and Shuja. Shuja
Singh Bundela, the independent ruler of was defeated and fled to Arakan.
Bundelkhand. •
Battle of Deorai March 1659, Dara was
Shahjahan's policy of annexing Deccan defeated and executed by Aurangzeb.
was successful. Ahmednagar was His dead body was paraded on the
streets of Delhi.
annexed while Bijapur and Golconda
accepted his suzerainity.
.
The Portuguese established their control
Aurangzeb (AD 1658-1707)
over Satgaon, through a Shahi firman. • He was the third son of Shahjahan born
They started misusing their authority. in Uijain.
Shahjahan ordered Qasim Khan in 1532 • Aurangzeb, made the victory of Deccan
to drive the Portuguese out of Hughli. in 1636. Aurangzeb's first tenure was
upto 1644.
 62 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

• Aurangzeb's second terM as Viceroy Marathas under Shivaji Shivaji was a

in Deccan began in 1653 and powerful king. Aurangzeb conspired with Jai
. continued
uptil l658. Singh of Amber against Shivaji in 1665.
He took the title of 'Alamgir upon Shivaji visited Mughal court on the request
his coronation in l659. He was of Jai Singh, but was imprisoned.
called a Zinda pir or the 'living saint." He managed to escape in 1674 and declared
. himself an independent monarch.
Under him, the Mughal empire
reached its greatest extent amd the After his death in 1680, his son and
largest single state ever known in successor, Sambhaji was executed by
India. Aurangzeb in 1689. Later, the Marathas,
. Rajaram and Tarabai, continued the
He forbaded the inscription of

e
Kalma on the coins, also forbaded Imovement against the Mughals.
Sati and Jharokha-darshan. He The Jats revolted under Gokla, Rajaram

nc
ended the celebration of Nauroz . and Churaman.
(singing in the court) and in 1679, The first Afghan Rebellion was by Yusuf
reimposed Jaziya. Shahi tribes of Afghanistan of Roshni Sect.
•
Muhtasib (regulation of moral The Second Afghan Rebellion was led by
conduct) were appointed. He ended Ajmal Khan.
ra
the use of almanacs and weighing of Marwar He annexed Marwar in AD 1678.
the emperor. Aurangzeb compiled The campaigning was led by Akbar II (Son of
the Fatwa-i- Alamgiri. Aurangzeb) against Durgadas, General of Ajit
• The Hindu Mansabdar, however, Singh (Son of Raja Jaswant Singh). Akbar I
nt

Inaintained their high proportions died in the battle. This gave a serious blow to
during his rule. Rajput Mughal alliance.
•
Thus, the Mughal empire stretched Bijapur and Golconda were annexed in
to
from Kashmir in the North Jinji in AD 1686 and AD 1687, respectively.
ie

the South and from Hindu Kush in Ahoms In 1662, Mir Jumla Aurangzeb's
the West to Chittagong in the East. ablest general led the expedition against
• Aurangzeb died in AD 1707 and was
Ahoms.
jm

buried at Khuldabad (Daulatabad)

near Aurangabad. Religious Policy of Aurangzeb
He built Bibi ka Magbara', similar Aurangzeb was a Sunni orthodox Muslim, who
to Taj Mahal in Aurangabad. wanted to convert India from Dar-ul-Harb to
Dar-ul-Islam. His religious policy was a
@

Revolts under Aurangzeb departure from the policy of tolerance and

•
Aurangzeb's rule can be broadly universal peace followed by Akbar. He replaced
divided into two periods, in the first the solar calender by the lunar Hira, dismissed
23 years, he concentrated in the court musicians and royal painters, appointed
amongst the
North, when Maratha power under Muhtasibts (court sensors) from
to enforce sharia't.
Shivaji emerged and the second Ulema,
period (1682-1707) is marked by his
pre-occupations with the affairs of Causes of the Fall of
Deccan.
. the Mughal Empire
Sikhs In 1675, he ordered the arrest • Weak and incompetent successors.
and execution of the ninth Sikh Wars of succession.
Guru, Guru Tegh Bhadur. Against Aurangzeb's Deccan, religious and Rajput
this, Guru Gobind Singh organised
policies.
his followers into a military force
called Khalsa, but he was also Jagirdari crisis.
AD 1708 by an Growth of Marathas and other regional powers.
murdered in Afghan
at Nanded in Deccan. Later, Banda Foreign invasions of Nadir Shah (1739) and
Bairagi continued the war against Abdali.
Mughals.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History 63

During his reign, Bengal acquired

LATER MUGHALS virtual independence during the
Bahadur Shah-I(AD 1707-1712) governership of Murshid Quli Khan.
• Real name is Muazzam, ascended the Saadat Khan (Burhan-ul-Mulk), who
was appointed as the Governor of
Mughal throne with the title Bahadur
Awadh, laid down the foundation of
Shah. He also assumed the title Shah
the autonomOIS state.
Alam-I. •
Nadir Shah invaded India in AD 1739
Pursued pacifist policy and was theefore,
and defeated Muhammad in the battle
known as Shah Bekhabar.
• He made peace with Guru Gobind Singh of Karnal (1739) and he took away
Takhi-i-Taus (Peacock throne) and

e
and Chatrasal. He granted Sar Deshmukhi the Kohinoor diamond.
to Maratha and released Shahu. •
. Ahmed Shah Abdali raided the
He forced Ajit Singh of Marwar to submit

nc
kingdom for the first time during his
but later recognised him as the Rana of
reign.
Marwar. He defeated Banda Bahadur at .
Lohgarh. He was a pleasure loving king and was
• He was not able to eliminate Jaziya, but he nicknamed Rangeela.
supported music.
ra
Kohinoor Diamond
Jahandar Shah (AD 1712-1713) Most sources agree that the Kohinoor was
mined at Rayalseema in Andhra Pradesh.
•
Jahandar Shah won the war of succession
It was first owned by the Kakatiya dynasty.
due to the support of Zulfiqar Khan, the
nt

most powerful Iranian noble of the time. From then onwards, the stone passed
• He was the first puppet Mughal emperor. through the hands of successive rulers of
the Delhi Sultanate, finally passing to Babur
•
Jai Singh of Amber was given the title of in 1526. ShahJahan had the stone placed
Mirza Raja Sawai and Ajit Singh was
ie

into his ornate Peacock Throne. It was taken

awarded the title of Maharaja. He away by Nadir Shah in 1739 along with the
abolished Jaziya.
Peacock Throne.
jm

Farrukhsiyar (AD 1713-1719)

•
Ascended the throne with the help of Ahmed Shah (AD 1748-54)
Sayyid brothers (Abdullah Khan and Ahmed Shah Abdali invaded Delhi many
Husasain Khan ) who were the Wazir and times and Punjab and Multan were
ceded to him.
@

the Mir Bakshi respectively.

• Zulfiqar Khan was murdered.
• Banda Bahadur was executed at Gurudaspur. Alamgir II (AD 1754-1759)
Farrukhsiyar was murdered by the Sawid Ahmed Shah Abdali occupied Delhi
brothers with the help of Marathas. in during his reign. He defeated the
AD 1719. Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat
.
Surman Commission visited his court. in 1761. In this battle, Marathas wee led
by Sadashiv Rao Bhau, while the Peshwa
at that time was Balaji Bajirao.
Muhammad Shah
(AD
.
1719-1748) Shah Alam-II (1759-1806)
Ascended the throne with the help of He crowned himself under
Sayyid brothers (king makers.). Sayyid Shujauddaula's protection in Bihar
brothers were killed under a conspiracy and remained in exile for 12 vears.
.
hatched by the nobles in 1720. He fought the Battle of Buxar in
• Nizam-ul-mulk was appointed as the AD 1764 and was defeated by the
Wazir, but he relinquished the post in 1722 British. He lived for several years at
and marched towards Deccan and found Allahabad as a pensioner of the East
an autonomous state Hyderabad. India Company.
 64 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

• By
the Treaty of Allahabad, the emperor Wazir The Prime Minister.
His responsibility were in three
:
received the territories of Allahabad and Diwan
Kara and an annual tribute of 26 lakhs fields Executive, revenue and finance.
:

from Bengal. Mir Bakshi He was the head of the

• By a farman, the emperor confirmed the military department, similar to that of
English gains and granted them the Ariz-i-mamalik, under Delhi Sultanate.
Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Mir Saman or Khan Saman Incharge of
the royal households, like building,
Akbar-II (AD 1806-37) roads, gardens etc.
• The king gave Raja Rammohan Roy, the Sadr-us-Sudur Incharge of religious
title of Raja. matters, religious endowments and

e
.
Lord Hastings ceased to accept the charities.
sovereignty of Mughals and claimed the Chief Qazi Head of the Judiciary

nc
status of pensioner of the East India department after the king.
Company.
Barids Intelligence officers.
Bahadur Shah-II(1837-1857) Mustaufi Auditor-General.
•
He was the Last Mughal Emperor. He was
ra
confined by the British in the Red Fort.
Provincial Administration
• Mughal empire was divided into
• During the 1857 sepoy revolt, he was
12 Subas (provinces). After expansion
proclaimed the emperor of India by the
rebels. He was deported to Rangoon and of the empire, it became 15 during
nt

died there. Akbar, 22 during Shahjahan and

21 during Aurangzeb.
• He used to write Shairis in the pen-name
of Zafar. Subedar Head of the province
(governor).
ie

Socio Economic Conditions Provincial Diwan Dealt with

. Society Society was finance, directly responsible to central
stratified into several
classes. Both Sati and child marriage diwan.
jm

were readily practiced. Purdah system was

in vogue, both among the Hindus and the District or Sarkar
Muslims. Fauzdar Administrative head of the
• Economy Both trade and commerce Sarkar.
flourished with the European nations. Amil/Amalguzar Collecting revenues
@

Cotton, Indigo, Opium and tobacco was and patrolling the roads.
produced. Mughal rulers encouraged
Kotwal Duty was to maintain law and
agriculture, industries and crafts. order in sarkar besides, trial of criminal
•
Ports Surat, Cambay, Cochin and cases and regulations of prices.
Masulipattnam.
Pargana or Taluka
Central Administration Sigdar Administrative head of the
• Akbar organised the central machinery of Pargana.
administration on the basis of the division
Amin/Qanungo They were revenue
of power between various departments
officials.
and through checks and balance. The
king was the head of all powers.
Village or Gram
• The wakil (deputy of the king) was
stripped off of all his powers after Bairam Lambardar Village Headmen
Khan's death. Patwari Village Accountant
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE - Indian History 65

Mansabdari System
• Methods of revenue collection
- Rai Yield per unit area.
Mansabdari system (1595-96) showed a noble's - Kankut Based on estimate.
civil and miltary capacity. In its broad aspect, the
-Zabti Based on the yields of crops.
mansab or rank awarded an individual fixed
Jagirdari System In this system,
both his status in the official hierarchy as well as every Jagirdar was assigned land in
his salary.
proportion to his salary.
Twin ranks Zat and Sawar were alloted. The ljara System The Government
Zat indicated the noble's personal statuS and the began contracting the land with the
Sawar rank, the actual number of horsemen he middle man, also knoWn as revenue
was expected to maintain. farmers, who were supposed to pay

e
fixed amount to the government,
Revenue Administration however, were left free to collect
whatever they could, from the

nc
• The empire was divided into Khalisa (crown
land), Jagirs (land granted to nobles) and farmers leading to their exploitation.
or
Inam Madad-i-Maash or Suyurghal (land
granted to religious and learned men).
Mughal Paintings
.
. : The Mughals introduced new
Dashala System Raja
of Todarmal Under
ra
themes depicting the court, battle
this system the average produce of different scenes and added new colours
crops at the average price prevailimg over the
(peacock blue and Indian red).
last 10 years were calculated. 1/3rd of the •
average produce was the state's share. For Daswant and Basawan were two
Bigha was .
famous painters of Akbar's court.
nt

the measurement of land,

adopted as the standard unit. Mughal painting reached to its
. zenith during Jahangir's rule.
Zabti System was based On the Jahangir was a great patron of
measurement and assessment of land. painting
ie

Mughal Architecture
Ruler Arohitecture Built
jm

Babur Mosques at Kabuligarh (Panipat) and at Sambhal (Rohilkhand).

Humayun City of Dinpannah, Jarnali mosque and mosque of lsa Khan at Delhi.
Haji Begum Humayun Tomb.
(ife of Humayun)
@

Akbar Agra fort; Jahangiri Mahal in Agra fort based on design of Manmandir;
Lahore Palace, Allahabad fort, iemple of Govind-deva at Vrindavana and
several buildings at Fatehpur Sikri that included Panch Mahal (planned on
Buddhist Vihara), Diwan-i-khas, Jodhabais' Palace, Diwan-i-Aam, Buland
Darwaja (lranian style). He began to build his own tomb at Sikandara which
was completed by Jahangir.
Jahangir (Indo Moti Mosjid at Lahore, own Mausoleum at Shahdara.
Persian style)
Nurjahan Itanaduddaulas marble tomb at Agra in pietra
dura technique.
Shahjahan At Agra Taj Mahal, Moti ki Masjid, Khanas Mahal, Sheesh Mahal,
Musamman Burz (Jasmine Palace where he spent his last years).
At Delhi Jama Masjid, Red Fort (Diwan-i-Khas and Rang Mahal).
:
Others Shalimar Bagh (Lahore), City of Shahjahandabad (Red Fort and
Taght-i-Taus i.e. Peace throne), Nahor-i-Faiz.
Aurangzeb Moti Masjid at Delhi, Bibi-ka-Makbara (tomb of his wife Aabbia-ud-Douna) at
Aurangabad, Badshahi mosque at Lahore.
 66 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE - Indian History
Mughal Era Painting
Ruler Farnous Painters Other Features
Humayun MirSayyid Ali
Abdus Samad
Akbar Adbus Samad Farrukh Beg Introduction of Persian style
Khusro kuli
Jamshed Daswan illustrated 'Razrna Namah
Basawan (Persian Mahabharat) and
Daswan Akbamama.
Jahangir u
Bishan Das Abdul Painting reached at its zenith, use
Hassan of halo (divine light) started.

e
Ustad Mansur (animal
paintings)

nc
Mughal Period Literature
Soholars Works
Babur Tuzuk-i-Baburi (in Turki)
Gulbadan Bequm Humayun Nama
Khan Abdur Rahman
ra
Translated Tuzuki-i-Baburi from Turki to Persian during Akbar's
reign.
Abul Fazal Ain-i-Akbari, Akbarnama.
Abdul Qadir Badauni Kitab-ul-Ahadish, Tarikh-i-Alfi, Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh.
Khwaja NizamuUddin Tabagat-i-Akbari
nt

Jahangir Tuzuk-iJahangiri (in Persian).

Hamid Padshah Namaah
Khafi kKhan Muntakhab-i-Lubab
Dara Shikoh Translated Upanishadas and Bhagavada Gita, Safinat-ul-Auliya,
ie

Hasrat-UI-Arifim.
Mirza Muhammad Quzim Alamgirnamah
Ishwar Das Fatuhat-i-Alamgiri
jm

Muhammad Salih Shahjahanama

•
Kannau He also annexed
Battle of
SHERSHAH SURI Kannauj after defeating Humayun.
AND AFGHAN •
Battle of Samel (1544) Defeated
@

Rajput forces of Marwar.

EMPIRE (1540-55) .
The campaign of Bundelkhand was the
• His real name was Farid. last campaig of his life. While
• He was born to Hasan, a Jagirdar of besieging its fort at Kalinjar, Sher Shah
Sasharam and Hajipur. got to
burned due fire in the bundle of
. rockets in 1545.
He joined Babar Khan Lohanis service
and then appointed as the Deputy Administration
Governor of Bihar.
. o
For administrative Convenience,
He usurped the throne as
Shershah divided his whole empire into
'Hazarat-i-Ala'.
• 47 divisions called Sarkars and further
He gained Chunar by marrying Lad into smaller Parganas.
Malika, the widow of Governor of Chunar. •
• Pargana, comp0sed of number of
Battle of Chausa In 1539, he captured villages and was under the charge of
Chausa from Humayun. He assumed the Shigdar, who looked after the law, the
title of Shershah as emperor.
order and general administration of the
• He also issued coins and Khutba was read Pargana. The Amil or Munsif looked
in his name. The whole area from Bengal after the collection of land revenue in
to Banaras was under his empire. the Pargana.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE - Indian History 67

Aministrative Unit Head Others

lqta (Province) Amin and Haqim •
Shershah introduced a regular postal
Sarkar (District) Shiqdar-i-shiqdaran and service.
.
Munsif-i-Munsifan He introduced silver rupiya.
Pargana (Taluka) Shiqdar and Munsif • He promoted trade and commerce by
Gram (Village) Amil and Muqaddam reducing the number of customs duty at
collection points.
• Civil cases of the pargana was headed by •
Shershah improved the transportation
Amin and criminal cases by a Qazi or by building roads. The roads built by
Mini-i-Adal.
Sher Shah were termed as "the arteries
•

e
He introduced the principle of local of the empire'. Sarais were built on the
responsibility for local crimes. road. He restored the old imperial road
Grand Trunk from Sonargaon in Bengal

nc
Revenue System to Peshawar.
.
Land was measured using the . He built Purana Qila, alongwith
Sikandari-gaz one-thírd of the average
;
Grand-Trunk. He also built his tomb at
produce was fixed as tax. Sasaram in Bihar.
.
The peasant was given a Patta and •
ra
Malik-Muhammad Jayasi WIote
Qabuliyat, which fixed the peasants Padmavat (Hindi) during his reign.
rights and taxes. .
Tarikh-i-Shershahi was wTitten by
• Zamindars, were removed and taxes Abbas Khan Sarwani, his court historian.
were directly collected.
nt

THE MARATHA AGE

ie

Shivaji (1674-80) • Later, Shaista Khan, a Governor of

jm

. Shivaji belonged to Deccan, was deputed by Aurangzeb to

the Bhonsle Clan of
Marathas. Shivaji's father Shahji put down the rising power of Shivaji in
Bhonsle was a military commander 1660. Shivaji lost Poona and suffered
under Nizam Shahi ruler of several defeats, till he made a bold attack
@

Ahmednagar. on Shaista's military camp at night and

. plundered Surat and later Ahmednaga.
Shivaji was born to Jijabai in the hill • Raja Jai Singh of Amber was then
fortress of Shivner. Shivaji's early career
appointed by Aurangzeb to put down
and life was influenced by Jijabai, his
mother, Dadaji Kondadev, the manager Shivaji (1665) and Jai Singh succeeded
of his father's Jagir and Guru Ramdas, in besieging Shivaji in the fort of
his spiritual teacher. Purandhar. Consequently the Treaty of
Purandhar (1665) was signed according
• Dadaji Kondadev gave him training in to which, Shivaji ceded some forts to the
civil and military administration. Mughals and paid a visit to the Mughal
• Before that, in l646, he conquered the court at Agra. Shivaji also agreed to help
fort of Torna and built forts at Raigarh Mughals in their attack on Bijapur.
and Pratapgarh. In l647, he assumed • Shivaji visited Agra with his son
full charge of his Jagir. Shambhaji in l666. He was put on house
• In 1659, Shivaji killed Afzal Khan, arrest but escaped from there.
Ambassador of Ali Adil Shah (Sultan of He, very soon, conquered the forts
Bijapur), in a mecting with his tiger which he had surrendered to the
paws. The Sultan then acknowledged the Mughals. He defeated the Mughal forces
independent status of Shivaji. in the Battle of Salher in 1672.
 68 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

• He was crowned in 1674 at Raigarh and

assumed the title of Haindava
MARATHAS AFTER
Dharmodharak (protector of Hinduism) SHIVAJI
and Chhatrapati. He became the sovereign
ruler of Maharashtra. He died in 1680. There was a dispute of succession
•

between Sambhaji and Rajaram.

•
Shivaji's Administration Son of Shivaji, Sambhaji (1680-89)
• Shivaji divided the territories
under his rule succeeded the throne. He was an
into three provinces (prants), each under a incapable ruler and poor diplomat.
Viceroy. Provinces were divided into Prants, Prince Akbar, the rebellious son of
which were subdivided into Parganas or Aurangzeb took shelter with him.
Sambhaji was executed by Aurangzeb

e
Tarafs. The lowest unit was village, headed
a
by headman or patel. and his infant son, Shahu, was taken
• Shivaji was helped by Ashtapradhan captive by Aurangzeb. Sambhaji was

nc
(eight
ministers), which was unlike a Council of succeeded by Rajaram in 1689.
Ministers, for there was no collective •
Rajaram (1689-1700) was killed in
responsibility. Each minister was directly 1700 by Aurangzeb. His widow
to
responsible Shivaji. Tarabai put her infant son, Shivaji II,
ra
• His administrative reforms were guided by on the throne. Rajaram created the
Malik Amber of Ahmednagar. new Ministerial post of Pratinidhi.
Thus, total number of ministers
Shivaji's Revenue .
became nine.
After Aurangzeb's death in 1707,
nt

Administration Shahu, the grandson of Shivaji and

• Assessment of land revenue was based on
son of Sambhaji was released by
measurement. The Kathi of Amber was Bahadur Shah. He claimed the
adopted as the umit of measurement. throne and this led to a civil war
ie

. was revenue
Chauth one-fourth of the land between Shahu and Tarabai. Shahu
paid to the Marathas so as not to be emerged victorious in the Battle of
subjected to Maratha's raid. Khed, with the help of Balaji
.
jm

Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10 Vishwanath. After this, Shahu ruled

per cent (1/10th) on those lands of from Satara and Tarabai from
Maharashtra, over which the Marathas Kolhapur: From now onwards, the
claimed hereditary right, but which formed rule of Peshwa started. They became
part of the Mughal empire. virtual rulers of the state.
@

Shivaji's Ashtapradhan
Ashtapradhan Department
Peshwa (Mukhya Pradhan) Prime Minister, Finance
Sar-i-Naubat/Senapati Military Commander
Majumdar or Amatya Accountant General
(revenue and finance minister during the Peshwas)
Wagenavis/Mantri Intelligence, posts and household affairs
Surunavis or Sachiv Minister for Correspondence
Dabir or Sumanta Foreign Minister and Minister of royal ceremonies
Nyayadhish Administration of Justice
Pandit Rao Charity and religious affairs
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE - Indian History 69

THE PESHWAS Balaji Baji Rao

(AD 1713-1818) (Nana Sahib) (1740-1761)
•
In an agreement with the Mughal emperor
BalajiViswanath (Ahmed Shah),the Peshwa agreed to protect
(1713-1720) the Mughal empire from internal and
. external enemies in return for the chauth.
He excelled in diplomacy and won
over many Maratha chiefs to the side In the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761,
of Shahu. Shahu honoured him with
between Maratha and Ahmed Shah Abdali,
Viswas Rao, the son of Nana Sahib died.
title of 'Sena Karte' in 1708, and
made hinm his Peshwa in 1713. The
PeshwaMadhav Rao I

e
Peshwa concentrated all the powers
in his office. He became the (1761-1762)

nc
functional head of the Maratha Balaji Baji Rao was succeded by his younger
empire. son Madhav Rao I. Raghunath Rao, the
• He concluded an agreement with the eldest surviving member of Peshwa family,
Sayyid brothers, by which the became regent to the young Peshuva and
Mughal emperor (Farrukhsiyar) de-facto ruler of the state.
ra
recognised Shahu as the káng of . After the death of Madhav Rao, Peshwaship
Swarajya. had lost its all power.
• He also helped Sayyid brothers in
over throwing Farrukhsiyar.
LATER PESHWAS
nt

•
Baji Rao (1720-1740) Narayan Rao (1772-73)
. •
Sawai Madhav Rao (1773-95)
He was bold and brilliant
commander and was considered the Baji Rao II (1795-1l818)
ie

greatest exponent in guerilla tactics

after Shivaji. Maratha power reached Anglo Maratha Wars
. its zenith under him. •
lst Anglo Maratha war (1775-82)
jm

Under his leadership, the Marathas Imp treaties convention of Wadgaon

compelled the Mughals first to give (1779) and treaty of Salbai (1782).
them the right to collect chauth of 2nd Anglo Maratha War (1803-06)
the vast areas and then to cede those .
began when Maratha Peshwa signed
areas to the Maratha kingdom. subsidiary Ailiance Treaty of Bassein.
@

• He conquered Salsettle and Bassin

Maratha army defeated by British.
from Portuguese in 1733. He also • 3rd Anglo Maratha war (1817-18)
defeated the Nizam-ul-Mulk near declared war against
Lord Hastingsmercenary
Bhopal and concluded the treaty of Pindaries the of world that
Durai Sarai, via which he got Malwa Marathas decisively defeated.
and Bundelkhand (1737).
 70 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

MODERN INDIA
ADVENT OF THE • They replaced the Portuguese as the
most dominant power in European
EUROPEANS trade with East.
Portuguese
.
•
Pulicat was their main centre in India
The Cape Route from Europe to India was till Nagapatam replaced it in 1690.
discovered by Vasco da Gama. He reached • The Dutch conceded to British after
Port of Calicut via Cape of Good Hope their defeat in the Battle of Bedera

e
(Africa) on 17th May, 1498 and was received in 1759.
by the Hindu ruler of Calicut, Zamorin. This
English

nc
led to the establishment of trading stations
at Calicut, Cochin and Cannanore. • Before the establishment of the East
• Cochin (1502) was the initial capital of the India Company John Mildenhall, an
Portuguese in India, later on replaced by English merchant came to India over
Goa. land route to trade with Indian
.
ra
The first Governor of Portuguese in India merchants in 1599.
was Francisco Almeida (1505-09). He The English East India Company was
introduced The Policy of Blue Water' formed by a group of merchants in
Allonso d' Albuquerque arrived in India in 1599 known as Merchant
nt

1503 and became Governor of the Adventures.

Portuguese in India in 1509. He captured Jahangir issued a farman to Captain
Goa from the ruler of Bijapur in 1510 Hawkins (1609) permitting him to
and introduced the policy of Imperialism. establish a factory at Surat.
.
ie

•
Nino-da-Cunha (1529-1538) transferred Sir Thomas Roe visited Jahangir's
the capital from Cochin to Goa in 1530. He court (1615) as an ambassador of
acquired Diu and Bassein from Bahadur king James I to seek permission to
jm

Shah of Gujarat (1534). trade in India.

.
Portuguese acquired Daman in 1559. They First factory was built at Surat
lost Hugly in 1631, during the reign of Shah (1608). Surat Was replaced by
Jahan. Bombay acquired from Charles-II on
• In
166l, the Portuguese king gave Bombay lease as the headquarters on the
@

to Charles II of England as dowry, for West coast in 1687.

• In 1639, obtained Madras from Raja
Imarrying his sister.
• First Portuguese factory was established at of Chandragiri with permission to
Calicut. build a fortified factory, which was
• The famous Jesuit Saint, Francisco Xavier named Fort St George.
arrived in India with Martin Alfonso de
•
In 1690, Job Charnock, established a
Souza (1542-45). factory at Sutanati and the
• Gradually, almost all of their territories were Zamindari of three villages Sutanati,
Kalikata and Govindpur were
lost to Marathas (Salsette and Bassein in
1739), Dutch and English. Only Goa, Diu acquired by the British (1698). These
and Daman remained with them until 1961. three villages grew as city of Calcutta.
• The factory at Sutanati was fortified
Dutch and named Fort William in 1700.
•
The Dutch East India Company established In 1717, John Surman obtained royal
factories in India at Masulipatnam in 1605, farman from Mughal emperor
Pulicat (1610), Surat (16l6), Bimlipatarm Farrukhsiyar. This farman is also
(1641), Karaikal (1645), Chinsura, called the Magna Carta of the British
Kasimbazar, Patna, Balasore, Nagapatam rule in India as it gave large
and Cochin. concessions to the company.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History (71

Danes •
The first French factory was established
• at Surat by Francois Caron in 1668 and
The Danes arrived in India in l616. second at Masulipatnam in 1669.
They established settlement at
Tranqueber (Tamil Nadu) in 1620 and They occupied Mahe, Yanam and
Serampore (Bengal) in 1676. Karaikal.
Serampore was their headquarters.
•
The foundation of Pondicherry was laid
• They were forced to sell their in 1673, which afterwards became their
settlements to the British in 1854. capital. They also developed a factory at
Chandernagar.
.
French The Governors, Lenoir and Dumas
. revived the French power in India
The French East India Company

e
was formed in 1664 by Colbert under between 1720-42 and the Anglo-French
state patronage during the reign of Louis conflict started with the arrival of

nc
XIV. Governor Dupleix in 1742.

INDEPENDENT STATES ra
HYDERABAD •
The highest post of his government was
• held by Maharaja Nawab Rai. This shows
Founded by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jahan his religious tolerance towards the
in AD 1724. His originalname was Chin Hindus.
nt

Qilich Khan but emperor Farrukhsiyar

conferred on him the titles of MYSORE
'Khan-i-Duran' and later .
Nizam- ul-Mulk. Haider Ali (1761-82) started his career
as a soldier in Mysore state, promoted to
ie

• Puran Chand was his diwan.

. Commander-in-Chief and later to
Carnatic was one of the Subah of Deccan Faujadar at Dindigul.
hence, it was under Nizam of . In 1761,
he overthrew Nanjaraja and
jm

Hyderabad. established his authority over Mysore.

. Hyderabad
Nizam of became He established a Modern Arsenal in
independent of Delhi and deputy Dindigul.
Governor of Carnatic made himself • In 1769,
independent of Hyderabad, hence he repeatedly defeated the
@

British in First Anglo-Mysore War and

assumed the title Nawab of Carnatic.
• reached the walls of Madras. He died in
Saadautullah Khan of Carnatic made his 1782 during Second Anglo-Mysore
nephew Dost Ali as his successor at War.
Carnatic without the approval of Nizam.
This caused rivalry betwveen Carnatic Tipu Sultan (1782-99) succeeded Haider
and Hyderabad. Ali. He planted the Tree of Liberty at
. Srirangapatnam and became a member
Hyderabad remained independent until of the Jacobian Club.
it became a part of Independent India. •
The Nizam provided assistance to the He died in 1799, fighting at the gates of
British during the 1857 Revolt. Srirangapatnarn during the 4th Anglo
Mysore War.
AWADH •
He was tolerant and enlightened in his
. approach towards other religions. He
Founded by Saadat Khan gave money for the construction of
Burhan-ul-Mulk. Emperor Muhammad image of Goddess Sarda on the
Shah appointed him as Governor of Shrinageri temple. The famous temple
Awadh in AD 1722. of Sri Rangnath was situated barely a
• Committed suicide in 1739 and was hundred yards from his palace. He
succeeded by his nephew Safdar Jung. assumed the title of Padshah in 1797.
 72 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

BENGAL Mir Jafar (1757-60)

Mir Jafar was the first Nawab of Bengal,
•
Murshid Quli Khan (171 7-27) He was Bihar and Orissa under the British rule
made Governor of Bengal (1717) and in India.
Orissa (1719). He transferred capital of
Bengal from Dacca to Murshidabad. He He granted free trade right to the
Company in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
died in l727.
• In 1760, Mir Jafar was replaced by his
Shuja-ud-din (1727-39) He was son-in-law, Mir Qasim.
granted Governorship of Bihar by
Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah Mir Qasim (1760-64)
Rangeela.

e
. Mir Qasim ceded Burdwan, Midnapur
Sarfaraz Khan (1739-40) Alivardi Khan and Chittagong. He shifted his capital
deposed and killed Shuja-ud- din's son,
from Murshidabad to Monghyr.

nc
Sarfaraz Khan and made himself
Nawab. Mir Qasim soon revolted as he was angry
• with the British for misusing dastaks
Alivardi Khan (1746) Bribed (free duty passes).
Muhammad Shah Rangeela and
legalised his position by receiving a Battle of Buxar He formed an alliance
ra with Nawab of Awadh, Shuja-ud-daula
farman from him. He prevented the
English and French fortifications at and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam-II and
Chandranagar fought with the British army at Buxar on
Calcutta and
respectively. 22nd October, 1764. Mir Jafar was again
put on the throne by the Britishers.
nt

Shiraj-ud-Daula (1756-57) On Mir Jafar's death, his SOn

. Nizam-ud-daula was placed on the
Under the farman of 1717, the
Company had rights to import or export throne and he signed a treaty on 20th
February, 1765, by which the Nawab had
ie

their goods in Bengal without paying tax to disband most of his army and to
and right to issue passes or dastaks.
Dastaks were misused for private trade administer Bengal through a deputy
by Company's servants. subedar nominated by the company.
jm

• In 1756, Siraj-ud-Daula seized the Robert Clive became the first Governor of
English factory at Kasimbazar and Bengal in 1765.
marched to Calcutta and occupied Fort After the Battle of Buxar, the Company
gave Shah Alam-II a subsidary of 26
William. Black hole tragedy took place.
@

Robert Clive recovered Calcutta and lakh and secured Diwani of Arrah and
Treaty of Alinagar was signed on 2nd Allahabad.
January, 1757. The important outcome is the Treaty of
•
Battle of Plassey On 23rd June, 1757, Allahabad.
English Won the battle against
Siraj-ud-daula, and compelled the Treaty of Allahabad
Nawab to concede all the demands. (August, 1765)
• Mir Jafar, (Mir Bakhsh), Manik Chand English got the Diwani rights (right to
(Officer incharge of Calcutta), collect revenue) of Bengal, Bihar and
Aminchand (rich Sikh merchant), Jagat gave 26 lakhs.
(banker), Khadim . Orissa) and
Seth Khan The Dual Government of Bengal was
(Commander of Nawab's army) all were established in 1765, wherein the
on the English side. compamy got the right to collect revenue
.
Mir Madan and Mohan Lal, Nawab's but the Nizamat right (duty of
soldiers, fought bravely. administration) was with the Nawab.
• Nawab was killed by Mir
Jafar's son Warren Hastings ended the Dual
Miran. System of Government in l772.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History 73

ASCENDANCY OF Second War (1780-84)

.
Warren Hastings attacked French port Mahe,
THE BRITISH which was in Haider Ali's territory. Haider
Ali led a joint front with Nizam and Maratha
Carnatic Wars and captured Arcot. In 1781, Haider Ali was
defeated at Porto Novo by Eyre Coote.
First War (AD 1746-48)
. Treaty of Mangalore (1784) was signed by
Awar between France and England.
Tipu Sultan on the basis of all mutual
• Nawab of Carnatic's army was restitution of conquests.
defeated by French under Dupleix,
in the Battle at St Thome. Third War (1789-92)

e
.
Afterwards, the French besieged Marathas and Nizam aided the British, Lord
Madras. Cornwallis captured Bangalore.

nc
.
The war ended with Treaty of • Treaty of Seringapatnam signed; Tipu
Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), which also ceded half of his territories.
ended the Austrian War of
Succession. Fourth War (1799)
.
ra Lord Wellesley attacked, Tipu died while
Second War (AD 1749-54) fighting.
. Tipu used the iron ( cased rockets in the
Dupleix alligned with Muzaffar Jung
(Hyderabad) and Chanda Sahib 3rd and 4th Anglo- Mysore Wars.
(Carnatic). It placed England on the military supremacy
nt

• After initial victory of the French, in India.

ultimately Robert Clive emerged
.
victorious. Anglo-Maratha Wars
ie

War ended with Treaty of

Pondicherry/ Treaty of Godehu.
First War (1775-82)
. English favoured Raghunath Rao to become
The Siege of Arcot (1751) made were
Clive a national hero in England. the Peshwa but defeated and signed the
jm

Convention of Wadgaon.
Third War (AD 1758-63) British later signed Treaty of Salbai
•
French Governor Count de Lally renouncing the cause of Raghunath Rao.
captured Fort St David.
. Second War (1803-06)
@

French were defeated by British in

the decisive Battle at Wandiwash in The Peshwas signed the Treaty of Bassein
was (1802), which was a treaty for subsidiary
AD 1760. Pondicherry returned alliances.
to France by Treaty of Paris.
. Local
version of "seven years war" in Third War (1817-19)
Europe.
Lord Hastings moved against Marathas and
Anglo-Mysore Wars Marathas were decisively defeated.

First War (1766-69) Anglo-Sikh Wars

Haider defeated the British. Treaty
Ali Began after the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839.
of Madras signed.
74 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

The Sikhs (Punjab) First War (1845-46)

Guru Nanak (1469-1539) Born in Talwandi, the Sikh were defeated, "Treaty of Lahore'
first Sikh guru and established
Nanak Panth. ended the war.
Guru Angad (1539-52) Invented Gurumukhi Second War (1948-49)
script for Punjabi language.
Dalhousie annexed Punjab. Sir John
Guru Amardas (1552-74) Divided his spiritual Lawrence became the first
empire into 22 parts called Manjis, which was Commissioner of Punjab.
put under the charge of a Sikh. Mughal Emperor
Akbar visited him. Anglo-Burmese Wars
Guru Ramdas (1575-81) Founded the city of Burma was united by king Aloung Paya

e
Amritsar. He dug a tank (sarovar) and between 1752-60. His successor
constructed Harmandir Sahib in the midst of Bodopaya repelled many Chinese

nc
the tank. invasions and conquered the states of
Guru Arjun Dev (1581-1606) He compiled the
Arakan and Manipur (1813).
Adi Granth. Completed the construction of First War (1824)
Amritsar and founded the cities of Taran and
Kartarpur. He was executed by Jahangir. In 1824, British Indian authority
ra
declared war on Burma and occupied
Guru Har Govind Rai (1606-45) Transformed Rangoon and reached the capital Ava,
Sikhs into warrior class and defeated Mughal peace came in 1826 by Treaty of
army at Sangrama. Fortified Amritsar and built
Yandabo.
Akal Takhqt at Golden Temple. Took the title of
nt

Padshah and founded the city of Kiratpur in Second War (1852)

Kashmir.
Annexation of Pegu, the capital province
Guru Har Rai (AD 1645-61]He met Dara Shikoh, only remained free.
son of Aurangzeb.
Third War (1885)
ie

Guru Har Kishan (1661-64) Ramraya

established separate seat of Guru at Dehradun. British attacked over Burma and
Teg Bahadur (1664-75) Executed by Thibaw surrendered. In 1935, Burma
Guru was separated from India. Movement of
jm

Aurangzeb at Delhi. Sis Ganj Gurudwara marks

Burma reached a new height under
the site of his martyrdom.
leadership of Aung San and Burma
U

Guru Gobind Singh (1675-1708) (born in got independence.

Patna) He was Tenth and the last Sikh Guru. He
Anglo-Afghan Wars
@

organised a community of warriors called

Khalsa (Baisakhi Day, 1699), summoned the
assembly of Sikhs at Anantpur and 5 persons First War (1839-42)or
were selected (Panj Piaras), who took the water Auckland's Folly
of immortality.
In 1839, British replaced Dost
The Sikhs were required to keep 5 k's viz Kesh, Muhammad by placing Shah Shuja.
Kripan, Kachcha, Kangha and Kara. He compiled British faced a popular revolt but were
Dasween Padshah ka Granth. He was able to re-occupy Kabul. However,
stabbed to death by a Pathan in 1708. they had to restore the throne to Dost
Maharaja Ranjeet Singh (1792-1839) Born in Muhammad. British occupied Kabul
1780 at Gujranwala, he founded the Sikh rule in in 1842.
Punjab. He occupied Lahore in 1799 and made it
his capital. He annexed Amritsar (1802),
Second War (1878-80)
•
Ludhiana, Kangra, Multan, attacked Kashmir and British India attacked Afghanistan
Peshawar. He died in 1839. during period of Sher Ali. Sher Ali was
Successors of Ranjit Singh Kharak Singh defeated by Lord Lytton and his sons
signed the Treaty of Gandamak
(1839-40), Naunihal Singh (1840), Sher Singh (Yakub Khan).
(1841-43), Dalip Singh (1843-49).
British adopted the principle of
non-interference.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History (75

Third War Drain ofWealth Theory

• Durand line was reaffirmed between •"Drain of Wealth" refers to a
portion of
British India and Afghanistan. National Product of India, which was not
• Treaty of Rawalpindi was signed. available for consumption of its own
. people.
Afghan independence with full
sovereignity in Foreign Affairs. Dadabhai Naoroji first cited the drain of
wealth theory in his book titled Poverty
ECONOMIC AND •
and Un-British Rule in India.
RC Dutt blamed the British policy for
COMMERCIAL Indian economic ills in his book Eeonomic
POLICY

e
History of India.
The 'gradual development of Economic Drain of wealth began in l757 after Battle
of Plassey. In 1765, the company acquired

nc
and Commerical Policy has been traced the diwani of Bengal and began the
through three stages of British
colonialism by RP Dutta.
purchase of Indian goods out of the
revenue of Bengal and exported them.
Phases ofEconomic Policy These purchases were known as
ra Company's investnents.
Early Phase (1600-1757)
The East India Company was purely a LAND REVENUE
trading company, dealing with import of SYSTEMS
nt

goods and precious metals into India and

export of spices and textiles. Permanent Settlement
•
Introduced in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa,
Mercantile Phase (1757-1813) districts of Banaras and Northern
ie

They imposed their own prices and had districts of Madras by Lord Cornwallis in
no relation with the cost of production. 1793.
The Company used its political power and John Shore planned this settlement.
monopolised trade and dictated terms to •
Assured of their ownership, many
jm

the weavers of Bengal. The Company zamindars stayed in towns and exploited
used revenue of Bengal to finance exports their tenants.
of Indian goods. •
It declared zaindars as the owners of the
Industrial Phase (1813-1858) land. Hence, they could keep 1/1lth of the
@

revenue collected to themselves while the

The British mercantile industrial British got a fixed share of 10/1 1 th of the
capitalist class exploited India. Charter revenue collected. The zamindars were
Act of 1813, allowed 'one way free trade' free to fix the rate.
for British citizens resulting in Indian
markets flooded with cheap and machine Ryotwari Settlement
made imported goods from Britain. •
Introduced in Bombay Madras and
Indians not only lost their foreign markets Assam. Munro and Charles Reed
but their Indian markets also. recommended it.
.
In this, the direct settlement was made
Finance Imperialism between the Government and the Ryots.
(1858 Onwards) e
The revenue was based on the basis of the
This phase saw export of capital from quality of the soil and the nature of the
India and also chains of British controlled crop. The revenue was fixed for a period
banks, export import fîrms and managing not exceeding 30 years. It was based on
agency houses. Exploitation through the 'Scientific Rent Theory of Ricardo.'
railways is the best example of finance . The position of the cultivator
became
Imperialism. Imore secure.
 76 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

Mahalwari System Asettlement was made with the village,

. which maintained a forn of common
Introduced in the area of Ganga ownership known as Bhaichara or with
valley, North-West Frontier Provinces
parts of Central India and Punjab. Mahals, which were group of villages.
Revenue was periodically revised.
• Revenue Settlement was to be made
by village or estates with landlords.

REVOLT OF 1857

e
CAUSES OF THE • Mangal Pandey was hanged.
REVOLT On 10th May, 1857, the sepoys at Meerut

nc
refused to use Enfiled Rifles and revolted.
• Political Nana Sahib was refused The mutiny spread throughout Uttar
pension as he was the adopted son of Pradesh and sepoys moved to Delhi crying
Peshwa Baji Rao-IIto lead the revolt at March to Delhi.
Kanpur.
ra At Delhi, Bahadur Shah II was
• Awadh (Lucknow) was annexed declared 'Shahenshah-i-Hindustan.
in 1856, charge of Where the rulers were loyal to the British,
maladministration and Jhansi was the soldiers revolted as in Gwalior and
annexed owing to the Doctrine of Indore. In some places, people revolted
nt

Lapse. before the sepoys.

In the beginning, the rebels were
Military Discrimination successful. Europeans were killed, police
Indian soldiers were paid low salaries, stations and law courts were attacked and
ie

they could not rise above the rank of revenue records were destroyed. But, the
Subedar and were racially insulted. revolt was soon suppressed.
Religious Discrimination
jm

Centres of Revolt and

The social reforms by British was against
the people's will (widow remarriage, their Leaders
abolition of sati, school for girls, Delhi Bahadur Shah lI, General Bakht Khan
Christian missionaries etc). Soldiers Kanpur Nana Sahib/Dhondhu Pant (adopted
@

were asked to use the Enfield Rifles with son of Baji Rao-ll) Tantia Tope, Azimullah khan
greased (by pork or beef) cartridges. Jhansi Rani Lakshmi Bai
Lucknow Begum Hazrat Mahal, her son Birjis
Economic Grievances Qadir.
Heavy taxations, discriminatory tariff Faizabad Maulavi Ahamdullah
policy; destruction of traditional Bareilley Khan Bahadur Khan
handicrafts that hit peasants, artisans -
Bihar (Arrah) Kunwar Singh, Zamindar of
and small zamindars. Jagdishpur.
Outbreak of the Revolt
•
Bengal Resentment in which 19 Suppression of the Revolt
native infantries of Behrampur, •
John Lawrence remarked, "Had a single
refused to use the newly introduced leader of ability arisen among them we
Enfield Rifle. must have been lost beyond redemption.
• Mangal Pandey 34th native infantry Delhi was captured on 20th September,
fired at the sergeant major of his 1857 by John Nicholson and Bahadur
regiment. Known as a part of Mutiny of Shah II was deported to Rangoon, where
Barrackpur. he died in 1862. His sons were shot dead at
Delhi.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History (77

•
Jhansi was captured by Hugh Rose on 17th The military equipments of rebelswere
June, 1858. Rani Lakshmi Bai died in the inferior.
battle field. • The most significant feature of the
. recaptured exhibition
Lucknow Was revolt was the of
21st March, 1858 by Colin Campbell, Hindu-Muslim Unity.

.
Havelock and Outram. • Concentrated on the Northern part of
Nana Sahib and Hazrat Mahal both India.
escaped to Nepal.
.
william Taylor and Edgre suppressed the Impacts of the Revolt
revolt at Arrah. Tantia Tope was betrayed. In August 1858, the British Parliament
by a friend. He was captured and executed passed an Act, which put an end to the

e
on l5th April, 1859.
rule of the Company. The
responsibility of the administration of

nc
Rani Lakshmi Bai British India passed into the hands of
Rani Lakshmi Bai, nicknamed Manu, was married the British Queen and the Parliament.
to Raja Gangadhar Aao in 1842. The couple An office of the Secretary of State for
adopted a child in 1853 but Lord Dalhousie India with a 15 members' council was
wished to annex Jhansi under the Doctrine of
ra constituted for the administration of
Lapse. Rani did not surrender and died fighting at India.
Kalpi near Jhansi during the Revolt of 1857. The designation of the Governor
General was changed to Viceroy, who
was to act as a representative.
nt

Causes Behind the Failure of • 'Doctrine of Lapse' was withdrawn.

the
.
Revolt Princely states were assured against
Lack of unity and poor organisation of the annexation.
revolt. All the classes of the society were The British pursued the divide and
ie

not effected or participated in the revolt. rule policy.

• Lack of common motive for participating • Increase
in the number of white
in the revolt. Some of the rulers like soldiers in the army.
jm

Scindhias, Nizam and Holkars helped Total expense of the suppression was
Britishers in reppressing the revolt. borne by the Indians.

Opinions on the Nature of the 1857 Revolt

@

Opinion-Maker Nature of Revolt

Sir John Seeley Wholly unpatriotic and selfish sepoy mutiny with no native leadership
TR Holmes A
conflict between civilsation and barbarism
Outran and Taylor A Hindu-Muslim Conspiracy
VD Savarkar Indian War of Independence
Bipin Chandra The entire movement lackeda unified and foward looking programme
to be implemented after the capture of power
SN Sen What began as a fight for religion ended as a war of independence

Benjamin Disraeli Is it a military mutiny or is it a national revol?

Dr RC Majumdar The so called First National War of Independence 1857, is neither First,
nor National, nor War of Independence
Malleson Sepoy Mutiny
 78 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

GOVERNOR-GENERALS OF BENGAL
Warren
.
Hastings (1772-85) Third Anglo-Mysore War and the Treaty
He became Governor of Bengal in 1772 of Seringapatnam.
and fârst Governor-General of Bengal in He undertook police reforns.
1774, through the Regulating Act of 1773. •
Reform of the Judiciary (1793) setting up
• He abolished the
dual system of courts at different levels amd separation of
administration. revenue administration from Judicial
. administration.
Divided Bengal into districts and
appointed collectors and other revenue

e
officials.
Sir John Shore (1793-1798)
•
•
He played an important role in planning
Established India's first Supreme Court

nc
in Calcutta. the Permanent Settlement.
.
• He founded He introduced First Charter Act (1793).
Asiatie Society of Bengal
with William Jones in 1784 and wrote He was famous for his policy of
introduction to the first English non-interference.
translation of the Gita by Charles Battle of Kharla between Nizam and
ra
Marathas (1759).
. Wilkins.
Started Diwani and Faujdari adalats
and the district level Sadar diwani and
Lord Wellesley (1798-1803)
•
Nizmat adalats (appellate courts). Introduced the system of Subsidiary
nt

•
He redeîned Hindu and Muslim laws. A Alliance. Madras presidency was formed
translation of code in Sanskrit appeared during his tenure.
•
under the title Code of Gentoo laws'. In Fourth Anglo-Mysore War 1799, Tipu
• First Anglo-Maratha War occurred . Sultan died.
ie

during his period, which ended with First subsidiary treaty with Nizam of
Treaty of Salbai (1776-82). Hyderabad.
• Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84), •
Second Anglo-Maratha War.
jm

•
ended with Treaty of Mangalore. In 1800, he set-up Fort William College
• Rohilla War in 1774. in Calcutta. He was famous as Bengal
• Pitts India Act, 1784 and Edmund Tiger. He brought the Censorship of Press
Burke Bill, 1783 was passed. Act, 1799.
• Deprived
zamindar of their judicial
@

powers. Maintenance of records was Subsidiary Alliance

made compulsory. The subsidiary alliance system was used by
•
Impeachment proceedings started Wellesley to bring Indian states within the
orbit of British political power.
against him in Britain on the charges of
taking bribes. After trial of 7 years, he
a Under this system, the ruler of the allying
was finally acquitted. Indian state was compelled to accept the
Permanent Stationing of a British force within
Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793) his territory and to pay a subsidy for its
• First person to codify laws (1793). The maintenance. British promised that they will
code separated the revenue not interfere in the internal affairs but this was
administration from the administration a promise they seldom kept.
ofjustice. It disarmed the Indian states and threw British
• He introduced Izaredari Systemn in protectorate over them.
1773. First to accept subsidiary alliance was Nizam
• He started the Permanent Settlenment of Hyderabad 1798, the second was the
of Bengal. Nawab of Awadh, 1801
• He created the post of District Judge. The Peshwa, the Bhonsle, the Scindhia and
He is known as Father of Civil Services Rajputs of Jodhpur, Jaipur accepted the
in India. subsidiary alliance.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History 79

Sir George Barlow (1805-07) Introduced the Ryotwari settlement in

• Madras by Thomas Munro, the
Vellore mutiny (1806, by soldiers). Governor.
.
Second Anglo-Maratha War ended. Treaty of Sangli with Gorkhas (1816).
Lord MintoI (1807-1813) Treaty of Poona (1817) with the the
Peshwa.
• Treaty of Amritsar (1809) with Ranjit
Suppression of Pindaris (1817-1818).
Singh.
. The Charter Act of 1813 ended the
monopoly of East India Company in India.
LordAmherst (1823-28)
First Anglo Burmese War (1824-26),
Lord Hastings (1813-23) signed Treaty of Gandaboo in 1826

e
• with lower Burma of Pegu, by which
Adopted the policy of intervention and
British merchants were allowed to

nc
war.
• Anglo-Nepal War (1813-23).
settle on Southern coast of Burma.
Acquisition of Malaya Peninsula and
• Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-18). ra Bharatpur (1826).

GOVERNOR-GENERALS OF INDIA
Lord William Bentinck Lord Ellenborough (1842-44)
(1828-1835) Brought an end to the Afghan
nt

War
• Most liberal and enlightened amongst all (1842).
the Governor-Generals of India, • Abolished Slavery
• Regarded as the Sind was annexed by Charles Napier.
'Father of Modern
ie

Western Education in India'. He was appointed as First Governor of

• Abolition of Sati in 1829. Sind.

.
Suppression of Thugi (1830). Lord Hardinge (1844-48)
jm

Passed the Charter Act, of 1833. First Anglo-Sikh War and the Treaty of
• Deposition of Raja of Mysore and Lahore.
annexation of his territories (1831).
• Abolition of Provincial court of Appeal and Lord Dalhousie (1848-56)
appointment of commissioners instead. Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49) and
@

He was the First Governor-General of annexation of Punjab.

India. Abolished titles and pensions.
.
First Medical College was opened in Widow Remarriage Act (1856).
Calcutta in 1835.
• Treaty of Friendship with Ranjit Singh Introduced Doctrine of Lapse.
Woods Educational Despatch of 1854.
(1831).
• Annexed Coorg (1834) and Central Introduction of the Railway, Telegraph
and the Postal System in 1853.
Cachar (1831).
Establishment of a separate Public
Sir Charles Metcalfe Works Department in every province.
(1835-36) An Engineering College was
established at Roorkee.
Passed the famous Press Law, which Planned to open universities in
liberated the press in India. He is known as
the liberator of press. Calcutta, Bombay and Madras on the
model of Universities of London.
Lord Auckland (1836-42) Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852).
. Santhal uprisings (1855-56).
First Afghan War (1836-42).
• Death of Ranjit Singh (1839). Charter Act of 1853.
 80 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

He was the only Viceroy to be murdered

VICEROYS OF INDIA in office by a convict in the Andaman in
Lord Canning (1856-1862) 1872.
•
He introduced state railways.
Revolt of 1857.
. Universities
of Calcutta, Bombay and Lord Northbrook (1872-76)
Madras were opened in l857.
• He
In 1872, Kuka Rebellion in Punjab led by
was last Governor-General Ram Singh. Famine in Bihar (1876).
appointed by the East India Company He resigned over Afghanistan question.
and the first Viceroy.
• Passed the Government of India Act Trial of Gaekwads of Baroda.

e
of 1858, which ended the rule of the TLord Lytton
East India Company. (1876-80)
Most unpopular Viceroy of India.

nc
•
The Doctrine of Lapse was withdrawn.
The Indian Penal Code (1859) was Arranged the Grand Darbar in Delhi (in
passed. Income tax was introduced for 1877), when the country was suffering
from severe famine.
. the first time in l858. Passed the Royal Title Act, (1876) and
The Indigo riots in Bengal.
.
ra Queen Victoria was declared as
The Indian Councils Act of 1861 was Kaiser-i-Hind.
passed, which proved to be a landmark
He passed Arns Act, (1878) the infamous
in the constitutional history of India.
• Indian High Court Act, (1861). Under Vernacular Press Act, (1878) and lowered
the maximum age of ICS from 21 to 19
nt

this act, High Courts were opened in vears.

1865.
• Bombay and Madras founded in 1857. Second Anglo-Afgan War 1878-80.
Famine Commission under Starchy was
ie

Lord Elgin-I (1862-63) appointed by him in 1878.

. In 1876, Deccan Agrarian Relief Act was
Wahabi Movement suppressed.
passed.
Sir John Lawrence
jm

Lord Ripon (1880-1884)

(1864-69)
. He was appointed by the Liberal Party
High Courts were established at under Gladstone. Repealed the Vernacular
Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in Press Act 1882.
@

1865. War with Bhutan in 1865.

The first Factory Act, came in 1881
• The Punjab Tenaney Act, was passed. (Improve the labour condition). In rural
areas, Local Boards were set-up in 1889,
Lord Mayo (1869-72) Madras Local Board Act, was passed. He
. was famously known as "Father of Local
Introduction of financial
decentralisation in India and made Self Government".
the first Provincial Settlement in First Official Census in India (1881).
1870.
•
• Famine code was adopted (1883).
He established the Department of • Appointed Hunter Commission for
Agriculture and Commerce. Educational reforns in 1882.
.
He organised the Statistical Survey of
Ilbeqrt Bill Controversy (1883-84), which
India. In 1872, the first Census was empowered Indian Judges to inquire into
done in India. He established the European cases.
Rajkot College in Kathiawar and
Mayo College at Ajmer. Foundation of Punjab University.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History 81

Lord Dufferin (1884-88) Lord Minto-II (1910-1910)

• Swadeshi Movement.
Third Anglo-Burmese War and annexation
of Burma (1885). Surat split (split in Congress between
• Formation of
Indian National Congress the moderates and the extremists,
(INC) in 1885. 1907).
.
Bengal Tenacy Act, in 1885. Indian Councils Act, 1909 and
• Dufferin called the Indian National Morley-Minto Reforms.
Congress as 'microscopic minority • Foundation of Muslim League, 1906.
Lord Lansdowne (1888-94) Newspapers Act, 1908.
. Factory Act, Lord Hardinge-II

e
of 1891.
• Indian Council Act, of 1892. (1910-1916)

nc
• Civil Services were classified- Imperial,
Annulment of the Partition of Bengal
Provincial and Subordinate services. in 1911.
.
In 1891, Age of Consent Act, under which Bomb was thrown at Hardinge near
marriage of girl below 12 years was Chandni Chowk, but escaped unhurt.
prohibited.
. Appointment
ra Transfer of capital from Caleutta to
of Durand Commission in
Delhi in 1911.
1893 to define the line between British
India and Afghanistan. Darbar in Delhi and Coronation of
George V in 191l.
Lord Elgin II (1894-1899)
nt

In 1912, Bihar and Orissa separated

• from Bengal and, became a new
The Santhal uprising of 1899.
. state.
Munda uprising of 1899.
• Establishment of Hindu Mahasabha
Lyall Commission appointed after famine.
ie

by Madan Mohan Malviya (1915).

• Assassination of two British officials by the Gandhiji came back to India from
Chapekar brothers in 1897.
South Africa (1915).
Plague spread in Bombay.
jm

Lord Curzon (1899-1905) Lord Chelmsford

(1916-21)
•
Appointed a Police Comnmission in 1902
Government of India Act, 1919 also
under Andrew Frazer. known as Montague-Chelmsford
@

• Universities Commission appointed in

Reforns.
1902, under Thomas Railey. •
. Repressive Rowlatt Act, (1919).
Indian Universities Act, passed in 1904.
• Famine Commission under Macdonell. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13th
April, 1919).
• A new Department of Commerce and
Industry established. Home Rule Movement both by Tilak
• Partition of Bengal (16th October, 1905). and Annie Beasant.
. Saddler Commission on Education
The risings of the frontier tribes in 1897-98 in 1917.
led him to create the North-Western
Frontier Province. Appointment of Hunter Commission
• He passed
to look into Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy.
the Ancient Monuments
Chambers of Prince, 1921,
Protection Act, (1904) to restore India's established.
culturalheritage. Thus, the Archaeological
Survey of India was established. Non Co-operation Movement Started,
. Khilafat movemernt initiated.
Passed the Indian Coinage and Paper
Currency Act, (1899) and put India on a • An Indian Sir SP Sinha was appointed
gold standard. as the Governor of Bengal.
• PUSA Agricultural Death of Tilak (1920).
Institute in 1903.
 82 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

Lord Reading (1921-1926) • During his period Orissa was separated

from Bihar (1936) and a new province
• Rowlatt Act was repealed along with Press Sind was created (1936), Burma
.
Act of 1910. separated from India as well in 1935.
Holding of simultaneous examination for . All
India Kisan Sabha, 1936.
the ICS in England and India fromn 1923. .
Foundation of Congress Socialist Party,
Prince of Wales visited India in November, 1934.
1921.
Moplah Rebellion (1921) took place in Lord Linlithgow (1936-43)
Kerala. •
First General Election (1936-37)
.
Chauri-Chaura incident and withdrawal of Congress Ministries.

e
Non-Coperation Movement. • SC Bose president of 51 st INC (1938).
.
Formation of Swaraj Party by CR Das and Forward Bloc founded in 1939.

nc
Motilal Nehru (1923). •
. Deliverance day by Muslim League
Communist Party of India founded by MN
. 1939.
Roy (1925). Lahore Resolution of Muslim League
• Kakori Train (1940) demand of Pakistan.
Conspiracy (1925).
• Vishwabharati University (1922). • August Offer, 1940.
ra
• Lee Commission (1924) for public "Divide & Quit" at the Karachi Session
services. Young Hilton Committee for (1940). Passing of Quit India
currency notes (1926). resolution (1942).
• Royal Commission on agriculture. • In Haripura Session (1939) of Congress,
nt

• RSS founded in 1925. declared Complete Independence.

. • Cripps Mission, 1942.
Murder of Swami Shraddhanand.
• Quit
India Movement, 1942.
Lord Irwin (1926-1931) • In 1943, Muslim League celebrated
ie

• Simon Commission visited India in 1928.

Pakistan day'.
Buttler Commission in 1927.
• Deepawali declaration by Lord Irwin (1929). Lord Wavell (1943-47)
jm

• CR
• All India Youth Congress, 1928. Formula (Rajaji Formula), 1944.
• Wavel Plan and Shimla Conference,
• Nehru Report, 1928.
• 1945.
Lahore Session of the Congress, (1929) •
and Poorna Swaraj declaration. Cabinet Mission came to India in May,
1946. The Congress and the Muslim
@

-
First Round Table Conference 1930, league both rejected its proposals.
Congress boycotted it.
• Muslim
• Civil
League celebrated 16th
Disobedience Movement, 1930 August, 1946 as Direct Action Day'.
started with. • INA trials and the Naval Mutiny, 1946.
Dandi March (12th March, 1930).
• Gandhi-Irwin Pact, 5th March, 1931. Lord Mountbatten
. Act, 1929, which (March to August, 1947)
Sharda under
marriageable age of girls (14 years) and • June third plan.
boys (18 years) was raised. .
Last British Viceroy of British India.
• Jawaharlal
Nehru and Subhash Chandra • First Governor-General of free India.
Bose founded Independence of India • Boundary commissions under Radcliffe.
League. •
Introduction of Indian Independence
Lord Wellington (1931-1936) Bill in the House of Commons.
• Second and Third Round Table CRajagopalachari
Conferences. • Last Governor-General of India.
• Communal Award by Mcdonald (British The only Inian Governor-General to
PM). Government of India Act, 1935. remain in office from 21st June, 1948
.
Poona Pact was signed. to 25th January, 1950.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE - Indian History 83

GROWTH OF
MODERN EDUCATION IN INDIA
First Phase (1758-1812) . controversy was settled by
The
•
Initially, the East India Company was not Macaulay's Education Policy 1835,
interested in the development of which was approved by Lord William
education. Some minor exceptions were Bentinck. The policy favoured English
education to a traditional one.
. efforts individuals.
by

e
The Caleutta Madrasa established by In 1844, Lord Hardinge decided to give
Warren Hastings in 1781, for the study of government employment to Indians

nc
Muslim law. educated in English schools. This
. further boosted the Western education
The Sanskrit College established by in India.
Jonathan Duncan at Banmaras in 1791, for .
the study of Hindu law and philosophy. Bethune school was founded by JED
• Fort William College established by Bethune af Calcutta (1849),
ra
Wellesley in AD 1800, for training of Civil Agricultural Institute at Pusa
Servants of the Company in Indian (Bihar) and Engineering Institute at
languages and customs (closed in AD Roorkee.
1802).
Third Phase (1854-1900)
nt

•
Second Phase (1813-1853) In 1854, Charles Wood prepared a
. For despatch on an Educational System
the first time, the British Parliament
included in 1813 Charter, a clause under for India, which came to be called the
ie

which the Governor-General-in-Council Magna Carta of Education in the

was bound to keep a sum not less than one country. According to Wood's scheme
lakh rupees, for education. However, the (i) The government needed to spread
company used this fund for promoting Western education through English
jm

Indian language and literature. medium for higher education. But

. Vernacular primary schools should
The charter allowed the Christian
be set-up in rural areas.
missionaries to spread their religious ideas
in India. grants-in-aid
(iü) A system to
@

encourage private enterprises

•
The greatest importance of the 1813 Act involvement in education.
was that the Company, for the first time,
A department of public instruction
acknowledged state responsibility for (i)
to be set-up in each of the five
promotion of education in India.
. provinces.
Establishment of Caleutta College in 1817
(iv) Universities in Calcutta (1857),
with the eforts of Raja Ram Mohan Roy
for imparting Western education. Three Bombay (1857) and Madras (1857)
were established.
Sanskrit colleges were set-up at Calcutta.
(v) Teacher's training institutions.
•
In 1823, a General Committee of Public
(vi) Promotion of Education for
Instruction was appointed to look after the Women.
development of education in India, but
failed due to Orientalist-Anglicist • Most of Wood's proposals Were
controversy over the nature of education implemented, which led to
ie. traditional or Western and the medium Westernisation of the Indian
of instruction. Educational System.
 84 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

In 1882, Lord Ripon appointed the Hunter

Sergeant Plan, 1944 Commission under Sir WW Hunter. The
The Sergeant Plan, worked out by the commission's views were restricted to
Central Advisory Board of Education in primary and secondary education. It
1944, called for elementary and higher emphasised over the state's role in extending
secondany schools, universal, free and education, female education and to involve
compulsory education for children in the private enterprise in education.
6-11 age group and a six-year school
As a result, Punjab (1882) and Allahabad
cOUrse for the 11-17 age group.
(1887) Universities were established.
Though, the plan aimed to reconstruct
education in 40 years, it was later
restricted to 16 years.
Fourth Phase (1901-1920)

e
Lord Curzon appointed University
Sir John Sergeant was the Educational
Commission under Sir Thomas Rayleigh
Advisor to the Government of India.
Based on his report, the Indian Universities

nc
Act was passed in 1904.

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL UPRISINGS

ra
Brahmo
.
Samaj •
Established a Vedanta College (1825), in
Founded by Raja Rammohan Roy which courses both in Indian and Western,
nt

(1771-1833). Social and Physical sciences were offered.

• He is regarded as the • He wrote A Gift to monotheists
frst great Or

leader and reformer of modern "Tuhafat-ul-Muwaihidin' in Persian in l809.

India. He was one of the earliest • Other important leaders of Brahmo Samaj
ie

propagators of modern education. were Devendranath Tagore, who joined in

He started Atmiya Sabha in 1814. 1848 and Keshab Chandra Sen in 1858.
Brahmo Sabha in 1828 and Brahmo Later, there was a split and in
jm

Samaj in 1830. 1866-Devendranath Tagore founded Adi

.
He was deeply influenced by Brahmo Samaj and Tattva Bodhini Sabha
monotheism, anti-idolatry of Islam, and Brahmo Samaj of India was founded
Sufism, ethical teachings of under the leadership of Keshab Chandra
Christianity, liberal and rationalist Sen.
@

doctrine of the West. Anand Mohan Bose started Sadharan

• He laid emphasis on
human dignity Brahmo Samaj.
and criticised social evils. Justice MG Ranade founded the Prarthana
.
He launched a movement for the Samaj.
abolition of Sati through his journals
Sambad Kaumudi (1819), Precepts Brahmo ldeas
of Jesus in 1820.
. The purpose of Brahmo Samaj was to purify
He was a gifted linguist. He knew Hinduism and to preach monotheism. It was
Inore than a dozen languages
opposed to idol worship, priesthood and ritualistic
including Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, worship; Emphasised on worship through prayer,
English, French, Latin, Greek and
meditation and reading from the upanishada.
Hebrew. He was opposed to Sanskrit
system of education.
.
He gave enthusiastic assistance to Arya Samaj
David Hare, who founded the • The first Arya Samaj unit was founded by
famous Hindu College in Calcutta Swami Dayanand Saraswati in 1875 in
in 1817. Bombay.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History 85

• Swami Dayanand Saraswati was born He urged people to inculcate the spirit of
in 1824 in Gujarat. His original name liberty, equality and free thinking.
was Mula Shankar. • He worked for emancipation of women.
. He emerged as a preacher of Neo
He was known as the earliest
Neo-nationalist. He looked on the Hinduism. He advocated the Doctrine of
Vedas as 'India's Rock and Ages'. His Service-the service of all human beings.
motto was go back to the Vedas and He was considered as the Spiritual Father
India for the Indians. of the Modern Nationalist Movement.
• Arya Samaj stood for four-fold Varna Irish woman Margaret Noble (Sister
System determined by merit and not by Nivedita) popularised Ramakrishna
birth; for equal rights for men and Mission after Vivekananda's death.

e
WOmen.
.
Opposed untouchability
Dharma Sabha
caste • The orthodox Hindus organised the

nc
discrimnination, child marriage and
supported widow remarriage and Dharma Sabha under leadership of Raja
intercaste marriages. Radhakant Dev in 1830 to counter
Brahmo Samaj.
•
He Wrote three books-Satyartha • It was opposed to reforms and protected
Prakash, Veda-Bhashya Bhumika orthodoxy, but played an active role in
ra
and Veda Bhashya.
•
promoting Western Education even to
In 1886, Lala Hansraj instituted girls.
Dayanand Anglo Vedic (DAV) school in
Lahore. In 1902, Gurukul Pathshala Paramhansa Mandali
nt

was established at Haridwar. • Founded by Dadoba Pandurang and Bal

• After the death of Davanand in 1883. Shastri Jambhekar in 1849. The Mandalis
difference occured in Gurukul section believed in One God.
• Members took food cooked by low caste
and DAV section. While Gurukul
ie

section laid emphasis on the traditional people. Believed in permitting widow

pattern of education, the DAV stood for remarriage and in education of women.
the spread of English education. Veda Samaj
.
jm

The Arya Samaj started the Shuddhi •

Movement to convert non-Hindus to
Called Brahmo Samaj of the South.
Hinduism. Other prominent Arya Started by Sridharalu Naidu.
Samajists were Lala Hansrai. Pt Guru He translated books of Brahmo Dharna
Dutt, Lala Lajpat Rai and Swami into Telugu and Tarmil.
@

Shraddhanand. The Prarthana Sabha

• Founded in 1867 by MG Ranade.
Ramakrishna Mission Prominent leaders were Dr Atmaram
was established by Swami
Pandurang and RG Bhandarkar and NG
Vivekanand to carry on humanitarian Chandavarkar.
relief and social work after death of his . It
rejected idolatry, denied the vedas, and
Guru Ram krishna Paramhansa in
1897.
adopted the method of Congregational
Worship.
• His original name was Narendranath
Dutt. He was born in Calcutta in 1863.
• He stressed on social action and .Young Bengal Movement
During the late 1820 and early 1830, there
proclaimed the essential oneness of all emerged a radical intellectual trend
religions and condemned any among the youth in Bengal, which canme to
narrowness in religious matters. be known as the 'Young Bengal
• He Movement'
attended the Parliament of religions
held at Chicago in 1893 and published It was founded by Henry Louis Vivian
two papers Prabhudha Bharata in Derozio. He was a teacher in Hindu
English and Udbodhana in Bengali. College in Calcutta.
 86 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

• They believed in truth, freedom and Seva Sadan

religion. Supported women's education.
• Founded by Behramji M Malabari in
Derozio edited the papers-Calcutta Bombay in 1885.
Gazzette and India Gazette.
Campaign against child marriage,
SwamiNarayan Sampradaya enforced widowhood and care for
socially exploited women.
Founded by Swami Sahajananda in Gujarat
to protest against Iuxurious practices of Indian National Social
Vaishnavism.
Conference
Namdhari/Kuka Movement Founded by MG Ranade and

e
. Raghunath Rao in Bombay in 1887.
Founded by Bhai Balak Singh and Baba
Ram Singh, in North-West frontier Focus was to abolish polygamy and
Kulinism promote intercaste

nc
province, Ludhiana, in 1841. and
Spread the true spirit of SikhisIm, opposed marriages. The conference is also
to all caste distinctions. referred as Social Reform Cell of the
INC.
Indian Reform Association Madras Hindu Association
ra
• Founded by Keshab Chandra Sen in
Calcutta in 1870. Founded by Viresalingam Pantalu in
. Madras in 1892. Movement concerned
Objective was to create public opii10n with plight of women
against child marriages amd for legalising devadasi system. and to combat
nt

the Brahma form of marriage. Promoted

intellectual and social status of women. Bharat Dharma Mahamandala
Theosophical Society Founded by Pandit Madan Mohan
Malaviya and Pandit Din Dayal
ie

• Founded by Madam HP Blavatsky and Sharma in Varanasi (1929).

Col HS Olcott in New York in 1875. •
It was an organisation of orthodox
•
In 1882, its headquarters were shifted to Hindus.
jm

. The Theosophical
Adyar (Tamil Nadu).
Society of India was The Servants of India Society
founded by Annie Beasant. She founded Founded by Gopal Krishna Gokhale in
Central Hindu College in 1898, which Bombay (1905).
later became Banaras Hindu University in
@

Worked for famine relief, tribal welfare.

1916.
• They drew inspiration from Indian Poona Seva Sadan (1909)
thought and culture. It advocated the Founded by GK Devadhar and Ramabai
revival and strengthening of ancient Pande in Pune for economic upliftment
religion of Hinduism, Zoroastrianism and and employment of women.
Buddhism. It accepted the law of Karma
and was inspired by Upanishada,
Niskam Karma Math (1910)
Sankhya, Yoga and Vedanta. Founded by Dhondo Keshav Karve of
Pune. Worked for social reform, selfless
Deccan Education Society service to mankind, educational progress
. Ranade, VG in women.
Founded by MG
. Chibdonkar, GG Agarkar in Pune 1884. The Bharata
Objective was to contribute to the cause of StriMandal (1910)
education and culture in Western India.
The sOciety founded the Ferguson Founded by Saralabala Devi
Chaudharani in Calcutta. It was the First
College. All India Women Organisation.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History 87

Seva Samiti (1914) Lokahitawadi

Founded at Allahabad by Pandit Started by Gopal Hari Deshmukh. He
Hridayanath Kunzru to promote advocated Western education and free
education and reform criminal and fallen education for upliftment of women. As a
elements in the society. votary of national self-reliance, he attended
Delhi durbar in 1876, wearing hand spun
The Indian Women's khadicloth.
Association
Founded by Annie Beasant in Madras
Radha Swami Movement
•
(1917), for upliftment of women. Started by Tulsi Ram (Shiv Dayal Saheb
or Swami Maharaj) in 1861.

e
.
Rabanumai Mazdayasan Sabha He was a banker of Agra.
.
Founded in Bombay by SS Bengali., He preached belief in guru's supreme

nc
Naoroji Furdonji and JB Nacha (1831l). It position, one supreme being and on
was the Socio-religious organisation of the simple social life.
Parsis, founded for the restoration of
Zoroastrian religion to its pristine glory Deva Samaj
and social regeneration of the Parsi •
ra Started Shiv Narain Agnihotri
by
Community through modern education. in 1887.
•
Khudai Khidmatgar Movement It preached high moral and social
conduct.
Started by Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan in •
Deva Shastra tells us about the ideals of
nt

NWFP (1929). Deva Samaj.

Caste Movements and Organisations

ie

Movernents Location Leaders Courses

Satya Shodhak Maharashtra Jyotiba Phule Tofight against Brahaminical
Sarmaj (1873) domination and to liberate low
jm

caste people by educating them.

Started a school for untouchables.
His books Ghulamgiri and
Savajanik Satyadharma Pustak
questioned the traditional customs
@

and beliefs of the society.

Shri Narayan Kerala Shri Narayan Guru This movement was opposed to
Dharma Paripalan He also launched religious disabilities against lower
Yogam or SNDP the Araipuram castes. Demanded free entry of
Movemnent
movement people of lower castes to the
(1902-03) temples.
Ternple Entry Kerala TK Madhavan To allow lower castes to enter into
Movement Sri Narayana Guru the temples.
NKumaran Asan
Bahujan Samaj Satara Mukundrao Patil Opposed to exploitation of the
(1910) Maharashtra lower castes by the upper caste
Brahmin landlords and merchants.
Self-respect Madras EV Ramswami Anti-Brahmin; advocated wedding
Movement without priest, forcible temple entry.
Harijan Sevak Pune Mahatma Gandhi For removal of untouohabilily and
Sangh (1932) SOcial discrimination against
untouohables.
Dravid Monnetra Madras CN Annadurai
Kazhagam (1949)
 88 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

Tribal Movements
Revolts Year Area
Chaur Uprising 1966-70 Bengal and Bihar
Kol Uprising 1824-28, 1839, 1899 Gujarat
Bhil Uprising 1818-31 Western Ghat
Rampa Rebellion 1879 Coastal Andhra
Khasi Rising 1846-48, 1855, 1914 Orissa
Kuki Rising under Rani Gaidilieu 1917-19 Manipur

e
Ho Aising 1820,1822, 1832 Singhbhum and
Chhotanagpur

nc
Singpo Rising 1830-39 Assam
Kol Rising under Buddha Bhagat 1831-32 Ranchi, Singhbhum, and
Hazaribagh
Khond Rising under Chakratbisai 1846-48, 1855, 1941 Khandmal area in Orissa
Naikad Revoli under Roop Singh and
ra
1858-59, 1868 Gujarat
Joria Bhagat
Kachhag Revolt under Sambhudaan 1882 Chhachar area of Assam
Bhil Rising under Govind Guru 1913 Baswana and Durgapur area
of South Rajasthan
nt

Oraon Revolt under Jatra Bhagat 1914-15 Chhotanagpur area

Tharo Kuti Aising under Jadonand and 1917-19 Manipur
Rani Gaidilieu
ie

Munda Revolt under Birsa Munda 1899-1900 Chhotanagpur area

Rampa Rebellion under Alari Sita Ram 1923-24 Andhra Pradesh
Raju
jm

Muslim Socio-Religious Movements

Moverment Location Leaders Courses
@

Fairazi Faridpur, Haji Emphasis on strict monotheism and to rid the

Movement Bengal Shariatullah, Muslim society of non-Islamic social customs.
(1804) Dudhi Miyan
Deoband Deoband Mohammad Against Western education and promoted classical
Movement Qasim studies in Islam.
(1867) Nanutavi,
Rashid Ahmed
Supported Indian National Congress and opposed
the Aligarh Movement.
Ganghoi
Aligarh South Sir Syed Ahmed Liberalisation of Indian Islam and modernisation of
(1875) Khan Indian Muslim thrOugh religious reinterpretation and
modern education.
Urdu Journal-Tahzib-al-aklag.
Founded Aligarh school in 1875, that grv into
Aligarh Muslim University.
Ahmadiyya Faridkot Mirza Ghulam Believed in universal religion for all humanity,
Movement Ahmed of opposed to Islamic orthodoxy and spread of Eastern
(1889-90) Qadiyan liberal education among the youth.
Ahrar Riza Khan and Against Aligarh Movement.
Movement Ali Brothers
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE - Indian History 89

THE INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT

THE INDIAN Objectives and Methods
NATIONAL CONGRESS of Work
• The National Conference 1883, Moderate Phase, (1885-1905)
decided to invite prominent public men • Development
and associations to discuss questions on
and consolidation of
feeling of national unity irrespective of
general concern. race, caste, religion or province.
• Indian National Union-1884 was formned .
Peaceful constitutional agitations,

e
by AO Hume. The National Conference and peutitions
prayer and Were the
the Indian National Union merged to form instruments of work.

nc
the Indian National Congress in 1885. • They succeeded in passing the Indian
• The first meeting of INC was organised by
Councils Act of 1892, which allowed
A0 Hume at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit some members to be indirectly elected
College on 28th December, 1885 in by Indians, but keeping the official
Bombay. AO Hume was a retired British majority intact.
Civil Servant. Meeting was presided over
ra
by Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee and
Moderate
. AO
Leaders
attended by 72 delegates. Hume, DB Naoroji, Badruddin
It was the first organised expression of the Tayabji, MG Ranade, WC Banerjee, SN
Indian National Movement on an all India
nt

Banerjee, Pherozeshah Mehta, C

scale. In 1886, the delegates to Congress Shankaran Naiyar, MM Malviya, VS
became 436. Shrinivas Shastri, Tej Bahadur Sapru,
.
The venue of first meeting was Pune but it GK Gokhale, Anand Mohan Bose, E
was changed to Bombay due to out break of Dinesh Wacha, Ras Bihari Ghosh,
ie

Cholera in Pune. Mohanlal Ghosh, P Anand Charlu, CY

• Kadanmbini Ganguly was the first woman Chintamani, RC Dutt, S Subrahmanyam
graduate of Calcutta University to address Aiyer, KT Tailang, Madhusudan Das,
jm

the Congress Session in 1889. Rahimtulla M Sayani.

•
Safety Valve Theory British historians They worked to create a strong public
argue that Hume's maim purpose was to opinion to arouse consciousness and
provide a safety valve to the growing national spirit. They persuaded the
discontent among the educated Indians. British Government and British public
@

• Opposition to Congress By Syed Ahmed opinion to introduce reforms in India.

Khan, Raja Shiva Prasad of Banaras and
Lord Dufferin (then Viceroy). Extremist Phase (1905-17)
Quick Digest Cause for the Rise of Extremists
- WC Bonnerjee • Dissatisfaction with the methods and
Ist President of INC
Ist Woman President Annie Besant achievements of moderates.
• Growing consciousness about the
Ist Muslim President Badruddin Tayabji
Ist English President George Yule exploitative character of the British
•
Ist Indian Women Sarojini Naidu rule. Loss of Britain in the Boer wars
(1899-1902) demolished the myth of
President whitemarn supremacy.
Gandhi became President 1924, Belgaum • Reactionary Curzon
policies ot
Jawaharlal Nehru became 1929, Lahore University Act (1904), Indian Official
President
Secrets Act (1904) to restrict freedom
Subhash Bose became 1938, Haripura of press and partition of Bengal.
President .
Extremists gave the idea of India's
JB Kriplani INC President at
independence the central place in
Independence India's politics.
 90 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

Methods of the Extremists Banaras Session of INC, 1905- Presided

by GK
• Promotion of Swadeshi and Boycott of Gokhale-first call for Swadeshi.
foreign goods. Non-Co-operation with Meeting of INC at Calcutta 7th August
Britishers (Passive Resistance). 1905-Aesolution to boycott British goods
was adopted.
Extremist leaders- Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal
Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, SiT
Aurobindo Ghosh, Chakravarti Bose, The Swadeshi and Boycott
T Prakasham and Chidambaram Pillai.
. They want to
(1905-1908)
take the movement outside •
It had its origin in the Anti-Partition
Bengal. movement of Bengal. Mlass meetings
were held all over Bengal, where

e
Partition of Bengal Swadeshi or the use of Indian goods
• Through a royal proclamation, Lord and the boycott of British goods were

nc
Curzon ordered Partition of Bengal proclaimed and pledged. Public
creating East Bengal and Assam out of rest burning of foreign cloth were organised
of Bengal on 16th October, 1905. and shops selling foreign cloths were
picketed.
•
The objective was to set up a communal • An important aspect of the Swadeshi
gulf between the Hindus and Muslims.
ra
• The Indian National Movement entered its Movement was the emphasis placed on
self reliance or Atmashakti.
. second
phase after the Partition of Bengal. • Acharya PC Roy organised his famous
The British said that the existing province
Bengal Chemical Swadeshi stores.
of Bengal was too big to be efficiently
nt

administered by a single Provincial The Swadeshi Movement had several

consequences like flowering of
Government. nationalist journalism,
• The Indian National Congress and the
poetry,
self-reliant and opening many national
nationalists of Bengal firmly opposed the
ie

educational institutions.
Partition. Within Bengal, different sections .
Nationalist Educational Institutions
of population zamindars, merchants, were founded e.g., Bengal Technical
lawyers, students and even women rose up
. Institute, Bengal National College.
jm

in spontaneous opposition to the partition of BC Pal and Chidambram Pillai led

their province. Vandemataram Movement in Madras.
.
Divide and Rule The nationalists could Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh led the
see that it was a deliberate attempt to
movement in Punjab. Syed Haider
divide the Bengal's territory on religious
@

Raza led the movement in Delhi.

grounds as for Eastern part Muslims will
be in majority and for the Western part, VWhy Swadeshi Movement
. the Hindus. Failed?
.
Rabindranath Tagore composed the Severe government repression.
National Song Amar Sonar Bangla for the •
Split in nationalists at Surat.
occasion. This song was adopted as •
Lack of effective organisation.
National Anthem by Bangladesh in 1971, .
after its liberation from Pakistan. The movement was rendered
leaderless.
The
.
Anti-Partition Movement Formation of Muslim League
The Anti-Partition movement was initiated . Set-IID in 1906, under the leadership of
on 7th August, 1905. On that day, a
Aga Khan, Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka
massive demonstration against the and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk.
partition, was organised in the Town Hall • League supported Partition of Bengal,
in Calcutta. opposed the Swadeshi Movement,
.
The partition took effect on 16th October, demanded special safeguards for its
1905. community and separate electorate for
Muslims.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History 91

Calculta Session of INC (1906) Dadabhai Annulment of Partition In 1911, the

Naoroji, the President of the session, government announced annulment of the
declared that Self Govern- ment or Swaraj. Partition of Bengal. Western and Eastern
like that of United Kingdom was the goal of Bengal were to be reunited.
Indian people.
Ghadar Party (1913)
•
Formed by Lala Hardayal, Taraknath Das
.SURAT SPLIT
(1907) and Sohan Singh Bakhna.
The INC splited into two groups during The war period witnessed the growth of
the session at Surat in 1907. Extremists revolutionary movement not only in India,
were led by Lal, Bal, Pal, while
but outside India as well, by the Indians.
Moderates were led by GK Gokhale.

e
Indian revolutionary in the United States
of America and Canada had established
Moderates

nc
the Ghadar (Rebellion) Party in 1913.
• They demanded mild constitutional Most of the members of the party were
reforms, economic relief, Punjabi Sikh peasants and ex-soldiers,
administrative reorganisation and who migrated.
protection of civil rights. .
The party was built around the weekly
ra paper The Ghadar', which carried the
Extremists
. They
caption Angrezi raj ka Dushman.
were dissatisâed with the Headquarters were at San Francisco.
.
achievement of the moderates. They The outbreak of the first World War
realised that the true nature of British
nt

provided the Ghadarites with an

was exploitative. opportunity to free India from a
There were 3 groups of extremists The government, which was indifferent to
Maharashtrian group (headed by Bal their cause.
group •
They began to return India in thousands
ie

Gangadhar Tilak), the Bengal

(represented by BC Pal and Aurobindo) for a revolt, but unfortunately the
and the Punjab group (led by Lala authorities came to know about their
Lajpat Rai). plans and took immediate action. The
jm

• Aurobindo published New lamps for rebellious regiments were disbanded and
old in the Indu Prakash in 1893-94. It their leader were either inprisoned or
was the first systematic critique of the hanged.
•
Imoderates. Some of the prominent Ghadar leaders
were-Baba Gurumukh Singh, Kartar
@

Indian Councils Act of 1909 Singh Saraba, Sohan Singh Bakhna,

Ali Shah, Bhai Paramanand and
or the-Morley Minto Rahmat
Mohammad Barkatullah.
Reforms To carry out other revolutionary activities,
• Number of elected members in the "Swadesh Sevak Home'" at Vancouver and
United India House at Seattle was set-up.
imperial and provincial legislative
councils increased. Separate
electorates introduced for Muslims.
Komagata Maru Incident (1914)
• Non-official members to be elected Komagata Maru was
a
Japanese steam
ship that carried Sikh and Muslim
indirectly. Thus, election introduced for
the first time. immigrants from Punjab to Vancouver,
. Canada. But the ship was forced to return
Legislatures could pass resolutions, ask back to India by the Canadian authorities.
questions and supplementaries and vote The ship docked at Budge Budge
for separate items on the budget. in Calcutta. The Britishers considered the
• One Indian to be taken in Viceroy's passengers as dangerous political agitators
executive council. Satyendra Sinha was and tried to arrest Baba Gurdit Singh from
first Indian member to the executive among them. Police opened fire on them
council. and 19 passengers died in the incident.
 92 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

Home Rule Movement Lucknow Session of the

(1916) Congress (1916)
• After Tilak's return, having served Presided by a moderate Ambika Charan
sentence of six years in Mandlay, he Majumdar. The growing nationalist
tried securing the readmission of feeling in the country produced two
himself and other extremists into the historic developrments at the Lucknow
Indian National Congress. With the Session of the Indian National Congress
need being felt for popular pressure to in 1916. Firstly-the two wings of the
attain concessions, disillusionment with Congress were reunited, i.e., brought
Morley-Minto reforms and wartime about an union of moderates and

e
miseries, Tilak and Annie Besant extremists.
readied to assume leadership. • Secondly at Lucknow, the Congress and
•
The Home Rule League was pioneered the All India Muslim League sank their

nc
on lines of a similar movement in old differences and put up a common
Ireland. Muslim League supported the political demand for representative
Imovement. Its objective was to work for government and dominion status, before
social and political reforms. the government. Congress accepted the
ra separate electorates. This led to
Tilak's Home Rule Congress-League Pact.
Movement Montague Declaration (1917)
.
It started in April, 1916 at Poona. Tilak's A
British policy was announced after the
nt

league was to work in Maharashtra,

Karnataka, Central Province and Berar Lucknow pact, which came to be known
as the August Declaration. It aimed at
excluding Bombay. Tilak linked up the
question of Swaraj with the demand for "increasing association of Indians in
the formation of linguistic states and every branch of the administration for
ie

education in Vermacular language. progressive realisation of responsible

. government in India. The declaration
He gave the slogan "Swaraj my birth
right and I shall have it." Tilak's formed the basis of
jm

newspapers Maratha and Kesari were Montague-Chelmsford Reforms, of

organs for home rule. 1919.

Annie Besant's Home Rule Rowlatt Act (1919)

Movemnent •
In 1919, a Sedition Committee headed
@

by Justice Rowlatt led to the Rowlatt

Started with George Arundale as
Secretary at Adyar in September, 19l6. Act. This act authorised the government
to imprison any person without trial and
Annie Besant's league worked in rest of
India. conviction by the Court of Law for 2
years. The law also enabled the
• Annie Besant's newspapers New India government to suspend the right of
and Commonweal became important
for this movement. She coined the term
Habeas Corpus, which had been the
Commonwealth. foundation of Civil Liberties in Britain. It
led to a countrywide agitation and
•
Many moderate nationalists, who were marked the foundation of
dissatisied with the Congress inactivity, Non-Cooperation Movement.
joined home rule agitation. In June •
During March and April 1919, the
1917, Annie Beasant was arrested, country witnessed a remarkable political
popular pressure forced the government awakening. There were hartals, strikes,
to release her in September, 1917.
processions and demonstrations.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History 93

Gandhi's Return to India On 13th March, 1940, Sardar Udham

Singh killed Dyer, when the latter was
• Gandhi returned to India in January, addressing a meeting in Coxton Hall,
1915. He did not join any political London.
organisation that did not accept the
Creed of non-violent Satyagraha.
The Khilafat Movement
During 1917 and 1918, he was involved
in three struggles. (1920-1922)
.
During the first World War, Turkey allied
Champaran Satyagraha with Germany and Austria against British.
(1917) The Indian Muslim regarded the Sultan of
Turkey as their spiritual leader, Khalifa.

e
• Ist Civil Disobedience Movement.
• To look into
After the war, the British removed the
the problems of indigo Khalifa from his power and fragmented

nc
planters (tinkathia system) Turkey. Hence, the Muslim started the
Khilafat Movement in India, for the
Ahmedabad Mill Strike restoration of Khalifa's position.
(1918) The leaders were Ali brothers (Shaukat Ali
First hunger strike. To settle disputes
ra and Mohammed Ali), Maulana Azad,
between the mill owners of Ahmedabad Hakim Ajmal Khan and Hasrat Mohani.
and the workers. Gandhi saw this as an opportunity to bring
about Hindu-Muslim unity against the
Kheda Satyagraha (1918) British, although CR Das opposed it
nt

initially.
First Non-Cooperation Movement. Due
to failure of crops, the farmers, with The Central Khilafat Committee met at
Gandhi, withheld the revenue to get Allahabad. The meeting was attended by
remission based on revenue code. number of Congress and Khilafat leaders. In
ie

this meeting, programme of

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre non-cooperation towards the government
was declared. This included boycott of
(13th April, 1919) titles conferred by the government, boycott
jm

• The dissatisfaction against Rowlatt Act

of civil services, army and police, i.e., of all
led to mass agjtations. A large but government services.
unarmed crowd had gathered on 13th
April, 1919 at Amritsar (Punjab) in Non-Cooperation Movement
@

the Jalianwala Bagh, to protest

against the arrest of their popular
(1920-1922)
leaders Dr Saif-ud-din Kitchlew and It was the first mass based political
Dr Satyapal. movemnent under Gandhi.
. The decision to not cooperate in the most
General Dyer, the Military
Commander of Amritsar, decided to peaceful manner with the government and
terrorise the people of Amritsar into its laws, was endorsed at the annual session
complete submission. Jallianwala of the Congress held at Nagpur, in 1920.
Bagh was large open space, which
a The Nagpur Session also made changes in
was enclosed on three sides and had the Constitution of the Congress.
only One exit. General Dyer Anti-Rowlatt agitation, Jallianwala Bagh
surrounded the Bagh, closed the exit tragedy Khilafat Movement, general
with his troops and then ordered his economic distress during and after the war
Imen to shoot into the crowd. were the reasons for Non-Cooperation
Thousands were killed and wounded. Movement.
•
Rabindranath Tagore returned his The Tilak Swarajya Fund started
knighthood in protest. financing the Non-Cooperation Movement.
•
Hunter Commission was appointed to The movement envisaged boycott of
inquire into it. school, colleges, law courts, foreign cloth
and advocated the use of Charkha.
 94 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

Revolutionary Organisations in India

Organisation Year Founder Place
Mitra Mela 1899 Savarkar Brothers Poona
Anushilan Samiti () 1902 Gyanendranath Bose Midnapur
Abhinav Bharat 1906 VD Savarkar Poona
Swadesh Bandhav Samiti 1905 Ashwini Kumar Dutt Barisal
Anushilan Samiti (0) 1907 Barindra Ghosh and Bhupendra Dhaka
Dutt
Bharat Mata Society 1907 and Amba Prasad
Ajit Singh Punjab
Hindustan Republican 1924 Jogesh Chandra Chatterji Kanpur
Association Sachindranath Sanyal

e
Naujawan Sabha 1926 Bhagat Singh Lahore
Hindustan Socialist Republican 1928 Chandrashekhar Azad Delhi

nc
Association

Revolutionary Organisations Formed Outside India

Organisation Year Founder Place
ra
India House 1905 Shyamaji Krishna Verna London
Abhinav Bharat 1906 VD Savarkar London
Indian Independence League 1907 Tarak Nath Das USA
Ghadar Party 1913 Lala Hardayal, Tarak Nath-Das San Francisco
nt

and Sohan Singh Bhakna

Indian Independence League 1914 Lala Hardayal and Birendra Berlin
Government Indian
Independence League Ras Bihari Bose Tokyo
1942
ie

Indian National Army 1942

Boycott of the forthcoming visit of Prince Spread ofNon-Cooperation

jm

of Wales in November, 1921.

.
Popularisation of Charkha and Khadi Movement
and Jail Bharo by Congress volunteers.
• United Province becamne a strong base
. for the Non-Cooperation Movement.
The movement demanded-Swaraj or
@

self rule and Redressal of the Punjab Agrarian-riots under the leadership of
Wrongs and Khilafat issue. Baba Ramchandra, Eka Movement
. under Madari Pasi.
Lala Lajpat Rai organised educational •
Boycott in Punjab. In Punjab-Akali Movement for reform
• CR Das, C Rajagopalachari, Saif-ud-din and control of Gurudwaras.
Kitchlew, VB Patel, Aruna Asaf Ali and In Andhra Pradesh, the Non
Motilal Nehru gave up their legal Cooperation Movement was a great
practice. success. Alluri Sitaram Raju organised
• The Congress Session at Allahabad in the tribals in Andhra and combined their
December, 1921 decided to launch a demands with those of the
Civil Disobedience Movement. But Non-Cooperation Movement.
before it could be launched, the angry
peasants (mob) attacked on a police
The Swvarajists
station at Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur Major developments in Indian politics
district of Uttar Pradesh on 5th February, occurred during 1922-28. Differences
arose among leaders after the
1922. This changed the whole situation
withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation
and Gandhiji was compelled to withdraw Movement. One school of thought
the Non-Cooperation Movement. headed by CR Das and Motilal Nehru
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History 95

o
advocated that nationalists should end the The National Congress decided to
boycott of legislative council, enter them, boycott the commission in its Madras
obstruct their working according to official Session in 1927, presided over by Dr
plans, expose their weaknesses, transform Ansari.
them into arenas of political struggle and The Muslim League and Hindu
thus use them to arouse public Mahasabha decided to support the
enthusiasm. They were 'pro-changers' Congress.
• Sardar VallabhbhaiPatel, Dr Ansari, Babu • The Commission's arrival in India led
Rajendra Prasad and others opposed to a powerful protest. On 3rd February,
council entry. They were knon as 'no 1928, the Commission was greeted
changers'. with Hartals and black flag
.

e
In December, 1922, CR Das and Motilal demonstrations, under the slogan
Nehru formed Congress- Khilafat Swarajya Simon Go Back.
Party, with CR Das as President and

nc
The government used brutal
Motilal Nehru as Secretary. It worked suppression and police attacks to break
within the Congress. the popular opposition.
.
In the 1923 elections, the Swarajists won At Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai was severely
42 seats out of the 101 elected seats in the beaten in a Lathi charge and he
ra
Central Legislative Assembly. With the succumbed to his injuries on 17th
cooperation of other Indiar group, they November, 1929.
repeatedly out-voted the government in
the Central Assembly and in several of the
provincial councils.
Nehru Report (1928)
nt

• All important Indian leaders and parties

• Swarajists were split by Communalism.
tried to meet the challenge of the Simon
The responsivists offered cooperation to Commission by getting together and
the government to safeguard the Hindu trying to evolve an alternative scheme of
ie

interests. Madan Mohan Malaviya and Constitutional Reforms. Nehru report

Lala Lajpat Rai founded the Independent was tabled in 1928 by Motilal Nehru.
Congress Party, later in 1933. It was It remains memorable as the first major
recognised as Congress Nationalist Party. Indian effort to draft a constitutional
jm

framework for whole India with lists of

Simon Commission (1927) central and provincial subjects and
.
In 1927, the British Government Fundamental Rights.
appointed the Indian Statutory However, the recommendations evoked
@

Commission, known popularly by its a debate concerning the goal of

chairman Simon to go into the question of India-Dominion status or Complete
further Constitutional Reform. independence.
.
The committee had to review the working Other members of committeeTej
of the dyarchy system, introduced by Bahadur Sapru, Ali Imam, MS Aney,
Montague Chelmsford Reform of 1919 Mangal Singh, Sohaib Qureshi, GR
and to report to what extent a Pradhan and SC Bose.
Tepresentative government Can be
introduced in India. Outcome of the Nehru Report
• All
the members of the commission were • It demanded responsible government
white. both at the centre and in the provinces.
• But, it advocated dominion status, not
The Indians protested, against the Simon
Commission, because of the exclusion of complete independence.
• It demanded Universal Sufftage. It
Indians from the Commission and in the
fear that the foreigners would discuss and rejected separate communal electorate.
decide upon India's fitness for self It proposed Muslim reservation in the
government. centre and provinces, where they were
in minority.
 96 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

• The report recommended equal rights Salt production had geographical limitations.
for women, freedom to form unions So, in other parts of the country, the
and disassociation of the state from movement included- picketing of liquor
religion in any fornm. shops and auctions, no revernue campaign in
• It demanded for reorganisation of the Bardoli, defiance of forest laws in
North-VWest provinces on lingustic Maharashtra, Karnataka and the central
basis. provinces, refusal of chaukidari tax in
Eastern India, prabhat pheris-singing of
Jinnah's 14 points .
National Songs.
The notable feature of the movement was a
(9th March, 1929) wide participation of women.
•
Jinnah, the leader of Muslim League

e
did not accept the Nehru Report and Spread of Civil Disobedience
drew up a list of fourteen demands,
Movement

nc
which became famous as 14 points of •
Jinnah. Peshawar Under the leadership of Khan
Abdul Gaffar Khan popularly known as the
Lahore Session (1929) frontier Gandhi, The Pathans organised the
.
presided by society of Khudai Khidmatgars (servants
This session was
ra
of God) known popularly as Red Shirts.
Jawaharlal Nehru. Gandhi came back They were pledged to non-violence and
to active politics by that time.
freedom struggle. Two platoons of Garhwali
• Draw in talks broke down on the issue soldiers refused to open fire on non-violent
of dominion status, which the British mass demonstrations.
nt

were reluctant to give. • North-East India Manipur took a brave part

• This session passed a resolution of in it and Nagaland produced a brave
Poorna Swaraj (Complete heroine, Rani Gaidilieu, who at the age of
independence) as its ultimate goal. 13 responded to the call of Gandhi. The
ie

• On 31st December, 1929 the newly young Rani was captured in l932 and
adopted tricolour, was hoisted and sentenced to life imprisonment. She was
26th January, 1930 was ixed as the released only after the independence of
jm

First independence day. India. Chittagong Armoury raided by

• The Congress Session also announced Surya Sen in 1930.
a Civil Disobedience Movement under • Dharsana A raid on Dharsana salt works
was led by Sarojini Naidu, Imam Saheb and
the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi.
. Maniklal Gandhi.
Congress decided to boycott the first
@

Round Table Conference. • In Madras, Rajagopalachari led a march

from Trichionopoly to Vedaranyam along
Civil Disobedience the Coromandal coast. In Kerala,
K Kelappan marched from Calicut to
Movement (1930)
. Payannur.
Before starting the Civil Disobedience e
The govermment, adopted ruthless
Movement, Gandhiji placed repression, lathi charges and firing on
Eleven point ultimatum before Irwin unarmed crowd of men and women. Over
for administrative reforms and stated 90000 Satyagrahis including Gandhiji and
that if Lord Irwin accepted them, then other Congress leaders were imprisioned.
there will be no agitation. Congress was declared illegal.
• The Civil Disobedience Movement Meanwhile, the British Government
was started by Gandhi on 12th March, summoned the First Round Table
1930 with his famous Dandi March. Conference in London, in 1930, to discuss
Together with 78 chosen followers, the Simon Commission report. But, the
Gandhi walked nearly 375 kn from National Congress boycotted the
Sabarmati Ashran to Dandi, a village conference and its proceedings proved
on the Gujarat sea-coast. abortive.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE - Indian History 97

First Round Table Conference Poona Pact (Conmunal

(12th November, 1930) Award) (1932)
• Congress boycotted the conference. • McDonald announced the proposal
. represented on minority representation, known
Muslim League was by
Mohammad Ali, Agha Khan, Fazlul Hag, MA as the Communal Award in 1932.
Jinnah and Hindu Mahasabha by Moonje and Under this the depressed classes
Jayakar. (Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians,
. Tej Anglo Indians, Women and
Bahadur Sapru, Chintamani and Srinivas
Shastri (Liberals) appeared. Backward Classes) were to be
• Princes of Hyderabad, Mysore
attended it. No considered as a minority, would be
result came out of the conference. entitled to the right of separate

e
electorate. Gandhi reacted strongly
•
The government now made attempts to to the proposal. He considered the
negotiate an agreement with the Congress, so

nc
depressed class as the integral part
that it could attend the Round Table of Hindu society.
Conference.
• Moderate
• He thought that there was no need
statesman Jaikar, Sapru and to protect the depressed classes
Srinivas Shastri initiated efforts to break through representation, rather the
the ice between Gandhiji and the government.
ra
need was to eradicate
The negotiation between Irwin and Gandhi in untouchability.
5th March, 1931 came tc be known e
Gandhi-Irwin Pact or known Delhi Pact. Gandhi restored to fast unto death
in Yervada Jail (Poona) against this
Gandhi-Irwin Pact separate electorate for depressed
nt

class, which Ambedkar was

Under this pact, the government agreed to release
insisting on. This resulted into the
all those political prisoners, who had remained
Poona-Pact between Gandhi and
non-violent. The Aight to make salt for consumption
was agreed to. Ambedkar on 25th September,
ie

1932.
The Congress was to suspend Civil Disobedience 147 seats were to be alloted to the
Movement and take part in Second Round Table depressed classes in the provincial
Conference. legislature as against 71 provided
jm

by the Communal Award. The pact

Karachi Session (1931) also called for adequate
• representation of depressed classes
It endorsed the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. This in civil services.
Session is also memorable for its resolution on
@

• Gandhiji coined the word Harijan

Fundamental Right and National Economic
Programmne, with the efforts of Jawaharlal for depressed classes and their
Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose. upliftment became his prime
Concern. AI India Anti
• Six days before this session, Bhagat Singh,
Untouchability League was started
Sukhdev, Rajguru were executed. in September, 1932. On 8th May
Second Round Table Conference 1933 Gandhiji decided to begin a
21 day fast for self purification for
.(1931) the Harijan cause.
Gandhiji went to England in September, 1931,
along with Sarojini Naidu, Mahadev Desai, GD
Impacts ofCivil
Birla and Madan Mohan Malviya to attend the
Disobedience Movement
Second Round Table Conference. But the • The Congress swept polls in mnost
British Government refused to concede the provinces in 1937. The left parties
basic nationalist demand for freedom on the emerged as an alternative in
basis of the immediate grant of dominion politics.
status with complete control over defence, .
external affairs and finance. Some Congress activists formed
Socialist group.
On his return, Gandhiji resumed the Civil
Disobedience movement in 1932 and finally Nehru and Subhash Bose emerged
as leaders.
withdrew it in 1934.
 98 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

Third
.
Round Table Conference August Offer (1940)
in 1932.
. Held in London The Viceroy Linlithgow put forward a
The Congress did not participate. proposal that included
• The discussion led to Government of Dominion status in the unspecified
India Act, 1935. future.
-
A post war body to enact Constitutiom.
Government of India .
Expansion of Governor-General's
Act, 1935 council with representation of the
• The discussions of the Third Round minorities.
Table Conference and Simon •
Establishment of a War Advisory Council.
.

e
Commission report eventually led to the Congess rejected this offer as there was
passing of the Goverment of India Act of no suggestion for a National Government.
1935. The act provided for the Muslim League accepted it.

nc
establishment of an All India Federation
and a new system of government for the Individual Satyagraha
Provinces on the basis of provincial • Congress rejected the August offer
autonOmy.
• It abolished
because Congress was convinced that
ra
the Council of India, the British would not modify their policy
established by the Govermment of India in India. Gandhi decided to start the
Act, 1858. Individual Satyagraha in September
• The act provided for a Federal Court and 1940.
a Federal Bank. .
Vinoba Bhave was the first to offer
nt

.
The Congress rejected the 1935 Act and individual Satyagraha, followed by
demanded the convening of a Jawaharlal Nehru and Brahma Dutt.
constitutional assembly elected on the Delhi Chalo Movement began.
basis of adult franchise to frame a
ie

Constitution for independent India. Cripps Mission, 1942

• A
mission under Sir Stafford Cripps was
Second World War sent to India in march 1942. He proposed
.
jm

Lord Linlithgow declared India to be at a Dominion status. The British

war without the prior assent of the Government's refusal accepting
Central Legislature. The Congress immediately the Congress demand of
Ministry resigned in the wake of the war. forming a National Government was the
• Congress agreed to support Britain only cause of failure of the mnission.
@

in return ofindependence being ganted.

Constitutional Proposal of
viceroy could promise this only after
Thewar.
the In October-November 1939, the the Cripps Mission
Congress Ministries resigned in protest. (a) Dominion status to be granted after
The Muslim League observed this as the the war.
Deliverence Day (22nd December, (b) Constitution making body to be
1939). The Satyagraha was kept limited elected from provincial assemblies
so as not to embarass Britain's var effort
and nominated by the rulers in case of
by a mass upheaval in India.
. princely states.
The viceroy refused to accept (c) Individual princes could sign a
preconditions set by the Congress. separate agreement with the British.
(Constituent Assembly for establishment (d) British would however, control the
of Responsible Government at the defence for wa period.
Centre). But, the British Government
desperately wanted the active
The British Government undertook to
accept and implement the Constitution
cooperation of Indians in the war effort. on two conditions:
To secure this cooperation, it sent to
Any province(s) unwilling to accept the
India in March, 1942, a mission headed
by a Cabinet Minister Sir Stafford Cripps Constitution could form a separate
and before that the August Offer. union with separate Constitution.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History 99

• The new Constitution making body and The merchant community and capilatist
the British Government would negotiate did not participate. Muslim League kept
a treaty to sort out imatters arising out of aloof and the Hindu Mahasabha
transfer of power to Indian hands. condemned the movement. Communist
. party did not support the movement.
Gandhi termed this proposal as post
a
dated cheque in erashing bank. Rajagopalachari also did not participate.
• Though, Cripps proposal failed but it
provided legitimacy to the demand for Demand for Pakistan
Pakistan by accomodating it in the• In 1930, Md Iqbal for the first time
provision for provincial autonomy. suggested that the Frontier Province,
Sind, Baluchistan and Kashmir be made
Quit India Movement, 1942

e
the Muslim state within the federation.
• The AII India Congress Committee met e Chaudhary Rehmat Ali coined the term
at Bombay on 8th August, 1942. It

nc
'Pakistan' (later Pakistan).
passed the famous Quit India resolution The fear of Muslims to be subjugated by
and proposed to start a
off non-violent Hindus in free India was realised by
mass struggle under Gandhi's Jinnah and he demanded for the
.
leadership. creation of Pakistan.
It is also called Warha propOsal and . Pakistan Resolution Muslim League
ra
leaderless revolt. first passed the proposal of Separate
• Gandhi told the British to quit and leave
Pakistan in its Lahore Session in 1940
India in God's hand. His message was Do (called Jinnah's Two-Nation theory). It
or Die.
nt

was drafted by Sikandar Hayat Khan,

.
Repressive policy of the government and moved by Fazlul Haq and seconded by
indiscriminate arrest of the leaders Khaliquzzaman. It rejected the federal
provoked people to violence. scheme envisaged in the Government of
• Nehru was lodged in Almora jail,
ie

India Act, 1935.In December 1943, the

Maulana Azad in Bankura and Gandhi Karachi Session of the Muslim League
was kept in Agha Khan's palace, Poona. adopted the slogan-Divide and Quit'.
In many areas, government lost control
jm

and the people established Swaraj. Gandhijis Fast

Parallel governments were established. (10th February-7th March, 1943)
• In Satara, Pratisarkar was set up
under
Nana Patil and in Baliya under Chittu Gandhiji undertook a 21 day fast for
Pande. Others were in Talcher and condemning the violence of the people during
@

Bihar. In Bengal, Tamluk Jatiya Sarkar the Quit India Movement.

functioned in Midnapore.
.
Underground revolutionary activity also Rajagopalachari
started by Jaiprakash Narain and Formula (1944)
Ramanandan Mishra escaped from
Hazaribagh Jail and organised an
• Also known as Rajaji formula (1944),
underground movement. Rajagopalachari proposed that a
. commission could be appointed for
In Bombay, the socialist leaders
continued their underground activities demarcating district in the North-West
under leaders like Aruna Asaf Ali. and East, where Muslims were in
Congress radio was established with absolute majority. Plebiscite would be
Usha Mehta as its announcer and held on the basis of adult suffrage, that
Rammanohar Lohia in Bihar. would ultimately decide the issue of
• School and college students and women separation from Hindustan.
actively participated, workers went on If majority decides in favour of forming a
strikes. There were no communal separate sovereign state then such could
clashes during the movement. be accepted.
100 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

• objected this as he wanted

Jinnah INA Trials
Congress to accept two-nation theory and •
wanted only Muslims of the North-West The INA commanders PK Sehgal,
and East to vote in the plebiscite. Shah Nawaz and Gurbaksh Dhillon
were put on trial at the Red Fort.
• Desai-Liaqat Pact reached no settlement • Defence of INÀ prisoners in the court
between the league and Congress. was organised by Bhulabhai Desai, Tej
Shimla Conference or Bahadur Sapru, Kailash Nath Katju,
Nehru and Asaf Ali.
Wavell Plan (1945) • Muslim League also joined the country
. wide protest. 12th November, 1945 was
Proposed by ILord Wavell.
• Suggested to set up a new executive celebrated as INA Day.

e
council with only Indian members. The
viceroy and commander in chief would be Ihe Cabinet MisSion (1946)

nc
the only non-Indian memnbers of the The Attlee Government announced in
council. February 1946, the decision to send
•
a high powered mission of three
It would work under the exsting
Constitution. But the door was open for British Cabinet members (Patrick
discussion of new Constitution. Lawrence, secretary of state for India,
ra
• Stafford Cripps, President of the
Hindus and Muslims would have equal Board of Trade and AV Alexander, first
representation. Jinnah demanded the Lord ofAdmirality) to India to find out
Muslim League to have absolute choice in ways and means for a negotiated and
choosing the Muslim members, so he peaceful transfer of power to India.
nt

rejected the plan. .

The British bid for a united and friendly
India and they rejected the demand for
The Indian National Army a full-fledged Pakistan.
• Arny (INA)
The idea of Indian National The Congress demanded that power
ie

was first conceived in Malaya by Mohan should be transferred to one centre

Singh, an Indian officer of the British and that minorities would demands be
Indian Army worked out only after the British left
jm

• The Japanese
handed over the Indian the country. Congress and league
prisoners of war to Mohan Singh, who tried differed on the issue of the nature of
to recruit them into an Indian National grouping. Congress wanted the
By men were grouping to be optional till the
Army. the end of 1942, 40000
ready to join the INA. The outbreak of the formation of Constituent Assembly,
@

Quit India Movement gave a to

fillip the INA. but Jinnah was in the favour of
• In March, 1942, a conference of India was
compulsory grouping.
held in Tokyo and Indian Independence
League was formed. At Bangkok
Jinnah's Direct Action
Conference, Ras Bihari Bose was elected Resolution
as President of the league. He was alarmed by the election results
• Subhash Bose escaped to Berlin in 1941 of the Constituent Assembly (Congress
won 209 of the total 273 seats) and
and set-up Indian League there. was afraid of being totally eclipsed in
• In 1943, he arrived at Singapore. Earlier, he
had left the Congress after having, On the Constituent Assembly.
29th Julk 1946, Jinnah withdrew
differences with Gandhi and formed the
Forward Bloc in 1939.
his earlier acceptance to the plan and
. fixed 16th August, 1946 as Direct
In Singapore, he was assisted by Ras Bihari Action Day. Calcutta, Noakhali and
Bose. In October, 1943, he set up a Garmukteshwar Were the storm
provisiomal Indian Government with centres. Jinnah celebrated Pakistan
headquarters at Rangoon and Singapore. Day on 27th March, 1947.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History 101

Mountbatten's formula was to divide

Interim Government (1946)
. India, but retain maximum unity.
Interim Government headed by Punjab and Bengal Assemblies would
Jawaharlal Nehru was sworn on 2nd
1946.
meet in two groups, Hindus and
September, Muslim League Muslims, to vote for partition.
refused to join initially. Wavell
persuaded the league to join in October,
The Legislative Assemblies of Punjab and
Bengal decided in favour of partition of
1946. Liaqat Ali Khan of Muslim League
was made the Finance Minister. The these two provinces. Thus, East Bengal
Constituent Assembly begins its and West Punjab joined Pakistan. West
session in 9th December, 1946 and Dr Bengal and East Punjab remained with
Rajendra Prasad was elected its India. Referendum in Sylhet resulted in

e
President, but, the league did not the incorporation of that district in East
Bengal.
attend.

nc
Attlee's Statement Indian Independence
(20th February, 1947) Act, 1947
• A
deadline of 30th June, 1948 was fixed
•
On 18th July, 1947, British Parliament
for transfer of power, even if the Indian ratified the Mountbatten Plan as the
ra
politicians had not agreed by that time Independence of India Act, 1947.
on the Constitution. The act provided for the creation of two
independent dominions of India and
• British power and obligations vis-a-vis
the princely states would lapse with Pakistan. Each dominion was to have a
Governor- General to be responsible for
nt

transfer of power but these would not be effective operation of the act.
given to any successor government.
. Sovereignity of British power was to be
Mountbatten was to replace Wavell as abolished.
the Viceroy.
ie

•
Partition of the country was implicit in
the provision that if the Constituent
INDDEPENDENCE OF
Assembly was not fully representative, INDIA
than power would be transferred to
jm

more than one Central Governments. On l5th August, 1947, India got
independence. India requested
Mountbatten to continue as the
Mountbatten Plan Governor-General of India. Jinnah
(3rd June, 1947) became the first Governor-General of
@

• As Viceroy, Mountbatten proved more Pakistan.

decisive and quick in taking decisions Assembly and Councils of thestates were
than his predecessors. to be automatically dissolved.
• His task was to explore • For the transitional period that is till a
the option of
unity or division till October, 1947 and new Constituion was adopted by each
then advise the British Government on dominion, the government of the two
the form of transfer of power. dominion were to be carried on in
.
3rd June Plan In case of partition, two accordance with the Government of
dominions and two Constituent India Act, 1935.
Assemblies would be created. The plan
declared that power would be handed Integration of States
over by 1l5th August, 1947. Vallabhbhai Patel, played the most
. important role in the integration of
The referendum in NWFP decided in
favour of Pakistan. states. Except Kashmir, Hyderabad and
• Princely states were given the option to Junagarh, all states signed an instrument
join either of the two dominions or
of accession with Indian Government.
remain independent. On October 1947, the Pakistani troops
. invaded Kashmir and in the crisis, the
Boundary Commission was to be set up Maharaj of Kashmir acceded to the
if partition was effected. Indian Union.
102 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

• Through a referendum in the state of Integration of French Colonies

Junagarh in February 1948, Junagarh Pondicherry, Chandranagar, Mahe,
was merged in the Indian Union. The Karaikal and Yaman were integrated by
Nawab left for Pakistan. the end of 1954.
• Due to the pressure of internal anarchy Integration of Portuguese Colonies
and military action (operation Polo) in Dadra and Nagar Haveli (1954); Goa and
the state, the Nizam of Hyderabad was Daman and Diu (1961).
forced to join the Indian Union.

IMPORTANT NATIONAL LEADERS

e
Dadabhai Naoroji (1825-1917) .
He joined INC in 1891 and moved an

nc
• He was the first Indian to demand Arms Act Resolution.
Swaraj in the Calcutta Session INC, of He celebrated the Ganapati pooja and the
Shivaji festival.
. 1906.was
He also known as the Indian •
He collaborated with Agakar and set up
ra
Gladstone, Grand Old Man of India. institutions to give economically feasible
• He was first Indian to be elected the education to people.
House of Comnons on Liberal Party He was called Bal, Lala lajpat Rai was
ticket. called Lal and Bipin Chandra Pal was
nt

•
He highlighted the draining of wealth . called Pal.
from India by the British and its effect They were called as the trio of Lal, Bal,
in his book Poverty and Un-British Rule Pal, an extremist group.
.
in India (1901). He founded the Home Rule League in
ie

1916 and helped in ushering the Lucknow

Annie Besant (1847-1933) Pact and the Reforms Act at the Amritsar
• She founded the Theosophical Society Congress in 1919.
He demanded swaraj and gave the slogan
jm

in India and started the Home Rule

League. Swaraj is my birth right and I shall have
• She established Central Hindu School it
and College at Banaras (later BHU). •
Valentine Chirol described him as the
.
She was elected the President of the Father of Indian unrest.
@

Calcutta Session of INC, 1917. •

He wrote the books The Artic Home of
•
She did not 1920 at Vedas and Gita Rahasya.
attend the Session
to
Nagpur due growing differences with
Gandhiji, as she felt that Government Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay
of India Act, 1919 were a means to firee (1833-1894)
India. •
He was a great scholar best known for the
•
She edited famous Newspapers New
composition of the hymn Bande Mataram.
India and Commonweal. •
His first novel was Durgesnandini,
• She prepared The Lotus Song, a published in 1864 and he started the
translation of Gita into English. journal Bangadarsan.
Bal Gangadhar Tilak Bipin Chandra Pal (1858-1932)
(1857-1920) •
He was awarded with the title Mightiest
• He was awarded with the title Prophet of Nationalism by Aurobindo
Lokmamya. Ghosh.
. •
He established new English school at He supported the Age of Consent Bill,
Poona. He was the editor of Maratha in (1891), Swadeshi Movement and fought
English and Kesari in Marathi. for the cause of the Assam tea-gardeners.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History 103
• He started Newspapers- Paridaashak Gopal Krishna Gokhale
(weekly): Public Opinion and Tribune
(1866-1915)
(editor); Swaraj (English weekly in
London): Hindu Review (English Gandhiji regarded him as his political
monthly): Indepemdent (daily): and guru.
Democrate (weekly). He was the President of the Banaras
Session of INC, 1905, supported the
Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) Swadeshi Movement.
.
He was a poet, philosopher, educationist, He was the founder of the Servants of
internationalist and a patriot. Indian Society in 1905, to train people,
• His elder brother, Satyendranath Tagore national
who would work as
was the first Indian to become an IC$.

e
. missionaries.
His first poem was published in the
'Amrita Bazar Patrika' and then he Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948)

nc
WIote Banaphul' (story) and • Gandhi came to India in 1915. He
Bhanusinher Padavali' (series of lyrics). already had Satyagrahas in South
• He founded Shantiniketan near Bolpore Africa. In 1907, Satyagraha was done
on 22nd December, 1901. against compulsory registration and
• He wrote Gitanjali, which fetched him
ra passes for Indians. In 1910, against
the Nobel Prize in 1913. immigration restrictions, and
. de-recognition of Non-Christian Indian
He inaugurated Raksha Bandhan festival
to oppose the Partition of Bengal (1905). marriages.
the Vishva Bharati He followed the doctrine of Ahimsa.
nt

• He founded
University. • The Champaran Satyagraha in 1917,
.
In 1915, British Crown granted him a against the Tinkathia System led by him
was his first success in India.
knighthood, which he renounced after
•
ie

the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre. The Ahmedabad Satyagraha, where

• His compositions were chosen as there was a dispute between the mill
National Anthem by two nations oWner and workers over the plague
1. India-Jana Gana Mana bonus' was also a success. Gandhithen
jm

2. Bangladesh-Amar Sonar Bangla advised the worker to go on strike and he

undertook a hunger strike, after which
Lala Lajpat Rai (1865-1928) the mill owners were pressurised to
accept the tribunal award of 35 per cent
•
He was a courageous man so, he was
increase in wages.
@

called The Lion of Punjab •

(Sher-a-Punjab). Kheda Satyagraha The peasants of
.
He was inspired by Mahatrma Hans Raj. Kheda district were in extreme distress
Being an Arya Samajist, he helped in due to the failure of crops and the
government ignored their appeals for the
establishment of the DAV College at
Lahore. remission of land revenue. Gandhiji
• advised them to withhold the revenue
He withdrew his lame from the and fight until death.
presidency list of the INC at its Surat
session. He was the President of the
special session of the Congress at •
Facts about Gadhi
Calcutta, 1920. Name Mohan Das Karam Chand
Gandhi.
• He opposed the withdrawal of
Non-Cooperation Movement in 1922. He Titles:
founded Swaraj Party with Motilal Nehru Mahatma (by Rabindranath Tagore,
and CR Das. 1917).
• Malang Baba/Nanga Fakir (by Kabailas of
• He was injured during a demonstration
against Simon Conmission in 1928. North-West Frontier, 1930).
.
• He was the editor of the Bande Matram, Indian/Traitor Faqir (by Winston
The Punjab and The People. Churchill, 1931).
104 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

• Half Naked Saint (by Frang Mores, •He held the post of
the
1931). General-Secretary of the INC in
• Rashtrapita (by Subhash Chandra Bose, 1921-1922 and was a member of
1944). Congress Working Committee from
•
Birth 2nd October, 1869 at Porbandar in • 1922 to 1924.
Gujarat. He started the Civil Disobedience
•
Mother Putali Bai. Movement in Tamil Nadu and was
. arrested for leading a Salt March from
Father Karam Chand Gandhi. Trichinapoly to Vedaranniyam on the
•
Political Guru Gopal Krishna Gokhale. Tanjore coast.
•
Private Secretary Mahadev Desai. • He was elected as the Chief Minister of

e
• Madras in 1937 elections.
Influenced by John Ruskin (Unto the
last); Leo Tolstoy; Thoreau; Emerson; the He resigned from Indian National

nc
Bible; the Gita. Congress in 1942 for not accepting the
.
As an Editor Cripps' Proposal.
• • He prepared the CR Formula for
Indian pinion (1903-15) in English,
Gujarati, Hindi and Tamil. Congress-League Cooperation.
•
Harijan (1919-31) in English, Gujarati• He served as the Governor of Bengal
ra
and Hindi. (August-November, 1947) and was the
• Young first and last Indian Governor-General
India (1933-42) in English and of India (1948-50).
Gujarati. .
• Literary He became the Minister of Home
works
nt

Affairs in the country's first cabinet.

Hind Swaraj (1909) • He founded the Swatantra Party in
My Experiments with Truth (Auto 1959. His rational ideas are reflected in
Biography, 1927). the collection Satyameva Jayate.
• He was awarded with the Bharat Ratna
ie

Sarojini Naidu (1879-1949) in 1954.

.
Popularly known as the Nightingale of
India, she was a nationalist and poetess Dr Rajendra Prasad (1884-1963)
jm

from Uttar Pradesh. .

He participated in Swadeshi Movement
• She was married to Dr Govindarajulu (established Students,
Bihari
Naidu in 1893. Conference), Champaran Satyagraha,
• Non-Cooperation Movement, Civil
Under the guidance of Gopal Krishna
woman
@

Gokhale, she became the first to Disobedience Movement and Quit India
participate in the India's struggle for Movement.
• He founded
independence. the National College at
She participated in the Dandi March with Patna.
Gandhiji and presided over the Kanpur He was elected as the Minister Incharge
Session of Congress in 1925. of Food and Agriculture in the Interim
She was the first woman to become the Government (1946).
Governor of Uttar Pradesh State. • He was the President of the Constituent
Her famous books includeThe Golden Assembly.
Threshold (1905), The Feather of the He became the first President of the
Dawn; The Bird Time (1912) and The
of Indian Republic. He was honoured with
Broken Wing (1917). Bharat Ratna in 1962.
• He edited
the newspaper-Desh (Hindi
Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari weekly).
(1879-1972)
.
He was a politician and lawyer from Tamil Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964)
• He became the General Secretary of the
Nadu.
• He gave up his practice during Indian National Congress in 1928 and
Non-Cooperation Movement. its President in 1929.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History 105
.
The Independence resolution was passed Subhash Chandra Bose
under his Presidentship at the Lahore (1897-1945)
Session.
• He was
the first Prime Minister of He passed the Indian Civil Services
Republic India (from 1947 to 1964), also Examination in 1920 in England, but
known as Architect of Modern India. He left it Gandhiji's call of
authored the Doctrine of Panchseel and • Non-Cooperation Movement.
believed in the policy of non-alignment. He founded the independence for India
• Books-The Discovery League with Jawaharlal Nehru.
of India, •
Glimpses of World History, A Bunch of He was elected as the President of INC
Old Letters, The Unity of India, at its Haripura Session (1938) and

e
ndependence and After, India and the Tripuri Session (1939), but resigned
World, etc. from Tripuri due to differences with
Gandhiji.

nc
• His autobiography
was entitled as .
Auto-biography. He founded the Forward Bloc (1939)
and Kisan Sabha.
Dr Bhimrao Ambedkar •
He escaped to Berlin in 1941 and met
(1891-1956) Hitler. He took the charge of Indian
ra
• Dr Ambedkar was the great leader of the Army (Azad Hind Fauz) in 1943 in
Singapore and set up Indian Provisional
depressed class and an eminent jurist
. Government there.
He set up a network of colleges in the •
name of People's Education Society. He addressed Mahatma Gandhi as the
nt

• Father of the Nation.

He founded the Depressed Classes •
He supposedly died in a plane crash in
Institute (1924) and Samaj Samata
Sangh (1927).
• He participated in all the Three Round
1945.
He gave the famous slogans - Dilli
ie

Table Conferences of London and signed Chalo and Jai Hind.

the Poona Pact with Gandhiji in 1932.
•
The India Struggle Was his
• He was in the autobiography.
Governor-General's
jm

Executive Council from 1942 to 1946 Bhagat Singh (1907-1931)

and organised the Indian Labour Party
and Scheduled Caste Federation.
•
He was a member of Hindustan Socialist
• He Republican Association.
became the Chairman of the Drafing •
Committee of Indian Constitution. He started the 'Militant Naujavwan
@

. As Bharat Sabha' in Punjab.

the first Law Minister of the
Independent India, he introduced the He killed British official Saunders in
Hindu Code Bill. 1928 and was involved in Lahore
• He started The Republican Party Conspiracy and bombed the Central
.
in 1956. Legislative Assembly.
He embraced Buddhism towards the end •
He was executed on 23rd March, 1931.
of his life.
106 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

Books/Journals and Newspapers

Author/Editor Work Author/Editor Work
Aurobindo Ghosh Karmayogi Deenbandhu Mitra Neel Darpan
New lamp for old Derozio East Indian
Bhawani Mandir Devendranath Indian Mirror
Bankim Chandra Anand Math Tagore
Chatterjee Durgesh Nandini EV Ramaswamy Kudi Anasu
BR Ambedkar Mook Nayak Naiker
G Subramaniya Swadesh Mitram
Bahishkrit Bharat
Rast Goftar Aiyar
Dadabhai Naoroji

e
G Subramaniya The Hindu
Voice of India Aiyar,
Poverty and Un-British

nc
Viraraghavachari
Rule in India
and Subba Rao
Dayanand Veda Bhasya Bhumika Pandit
Saraswati Satyartha Prakash Ghulam Hussain Inquilab
Gopal Krishna Nation Harish Chandra Hindu Patriot
Gokhale Sudharak
ra Mukherjee
Javwaharlal Nehru Discovery of India Henry Vivian India Gazette
National Herald Derozio
Wither India Hunters Indian Musalmans
Soviet Asia Ishwar Chandra Som Prakash
nt

MK Gandhi Navjeevan Vidyasagar

Young India and James Augustus Bengal Gazette
Harijan Hicky (1780)
Indian opinion Jyotiba Rao Phule Ghulam Giri
ie

Madan Mohan Hindustan KK Mitra Sanjivani

Malviya Leader KM Panikkar The Hindustarn Times
m
RN Tagore Letters from Russia MA Azad India wins freedom
jm

Gora MG Ranade Essays in India

Raja Ram Mohan Sambad Kaumudi economics
Roy Mirat-ul-Akhbar MN Roy India in Transition
Barga-Dutta Madam Bhikaji Bande Mataram
@

Vivekanand Prabhudha Bharat Cama

Udbodhana Maulana Abul Al-Hilal
Prachya aur Kalan Azad
Pashchaya Maulana Comrade
Annie Beasant New India, Moharmmad Ali
Commonwealth Mukundrao Patil Din Mitra
BG Tilak Kesari and Maratha Muzaffar Ahmed Navyug
BK Nanda Biography of Gokhale PC Rai History of Hindu
BUpadhyay Sandhya Chemistry
Bal Shastri Darpan Pherozshah Mehta Bombay Chronicle
Jambekar RC Dutt Economic History of
Barindra Kumar Yugantar British India
Ghosh and RP Dutt India Today
Bhupendra Dutta
Robert Knight Indian Statesman
Bhartendu Harish Kavivachan Sudha
Chandra Robert Knight and Bombay Times
Thomas Bennett
Bipin Chandrapal Paridarshak
Curzon Philosophy of the East SA Dange The Socialist
Subhash Chandra Indian struggle
Dayal Singh Tribune
Majeetia Bose
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE - Indian History 107

Important Dates/Years of India's Freedom Struggle

Date/Year Importance
1905 Partition of Bengal announced; to come in force from 16th October 1906.
1906, December 30 Muslim League founded at Dacca
1908, April 30 Khudiram Bose executed.
1908, July 22 Tilak sentenced to six years on charges of sedition.
1909, May 21 Morley-Minto Reforms of Indian Councils Act, 1909.
1911 The coronation or Delhi durbar held at Delhi, in which the Partition of Bengal
is cancelled.

e
1911 Delhi becomes the new capital of India.
1912, December 23 Bomb thrown on Lord Hardinge, on his entry into state Delhi.

nc
1914, November 1
Ghadar Party formed at San Francisco.
1914. June 16 BG Tilak released from jail.

1914, August 4 Outbreak of the First World War.

1914, September
ra
Komagatamaru ship reaches Budge Budge (Calcutla port).
29
1915, January 9 Gandhiji arrives in India.
1915, February 19 Death of Gopal Krishna Gokthale.
nt

1916, April 28 BG Tilak finds Indian Home Rule League with its headquarters at Poona.
1916, September Another Home Rule League started by Annie Besant.
25
ie

1917, April Mahatma Gandhi launches the Champaran campaign in Bihar to focus
attention on the grievances of indigo planters.
1917, August 20 The Secretary of State for India, Montague, declares that the goal of the
British Government in India is the introduciion of Responsible Government.
jm

1918 Beginning of Trade Union Movement in India.

1918, April Rowlatt (Sedition) Committee submits its report. Rowlatt Bill introduced
on February 16, 1919.
1919, April 13 Jallianwala Bagh tragedy
@

1919,December 5 The House of Commons passes the Montague-Chelmsford Reformns or

the Government of India Act, 1919. The new reforms under this act came
into operation in 1921

1920 First meeting of the All India Trade Union Congress.

(under Narain Malhar Joshi).
1920, December The Indian National Congress (INC) adopts the Non-Cooperation
Resolution.
1920-22 Non-Cooperation Movement, suspended on February 12, 1922 after the
violent incidents at Chauri Chaura on February 5, 1922.
1922, Auqust Moplah rebellion on the Malabar coast.
1923, January 1
Swarajist Party formed by Motilal Nehru and others.
1924 The Communist Party of India starts its activities at Kanpur.
1925, August Kakori Train Conspiracy case.

1927, Novermber 8 The British Prime Minister announces the appointrment of the Simon
Commission to suggest future constitutional reforms in India.
Simon Commission arrives in Bombay on February 3, 1928 and all-India
hartal. Lala Lajpat Rai assaulted by police at Lahore.
108) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

Date/Year Importance
1928 Nehru Report recommends principles for the New Constitution of India.
All-parties conference considers the Nehru Report, August 28-31, 1928.
1928, November 17 Death of Lala Lajpat Rai.

1929 Sharda Act passed prohibiting marriage of girls below 14 and boys below
18 years of age with effect from 1930.
1929, March 9 All-Parties Muslim Conference formulates the Fourteen Points' under the
leadership of Jinnah.
1929, April 8 Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt throw a bomb in the Central
Legislative Assembly.

e
1929, October 31 Lord Irin's announcement that the goal of British policy in India was the
grant of the Dominion status.

nc
1929, December 31 The Lahore Session of the INC adopts the goal of complete
independence-Poorna Swarajya for India; Jawaharlal Nehru hoists the
iricolour of Indian Independence on the banks of the iver Ravi at Lahore.
1930, January 26 First Independence Day observed.
1930, February 14 The Working Committee of the INC meets at Sabarmati and passes the Civil
ra
Disobedience resolution.
1930, March 12 Mahatma Gandhi launches the Civil Disobedience Movement with his epic
Dandi March (March 12 to April6). First phase of the Civil Disobedience
movement: March 12, 1930 to March 5, 1931.
November 30 First Round Table Conference begins in London to consider the report of
nt

1930,
the Simon Commission.
1931, March 5 Gandhi-Irwin pact signed. Civil Disotbedience Movement suspended.
1931, March 23 Bhagat Singh, Sukh Dev and Rajguru executed.
ie

1931, September 7 Second Round Table Conference.

1931, December 28 Gandhiji returns from London after the deadlock in Second Round Table
Conference. Launches Civil Disobedience Movement. The Indian National
Congress declared illegal.
jm

1932, January 4 Gandhiji arrested and imprisoned without trial.

1932, August 16 British Prime Minister Ramsay Macdonald announces the infamous
"Communal Award".
1932, September Gandhiji in jail, begins his epic "fast unto death" against the Communal
@

20 Award and ends the fast on 26th September, after the Poona Paci.
1932, November 17 The Third RoUnd Table Conference begins in London (17h November to
24th December).
1933, May 9 Gandhiji released from prison as he begins his fast for self-purification.
Indian National Congress suspends Civil Disobedience Movement but
authorises Satyagraha by individuals.
1934 Gandhiji withdraws from aclive politics and devotes himself to constructive
programmes.
1935, August 4 The Government of India Act (1935) passed.
1937 Eleclions held in India under the Act of 1935 (February 1937). The Indian
National Congress contests elections, and forms ministries in several
provinces (July, 1937).
1938, February Haripura session of Indian National Congress. Subhash Chandra Bose
19-20 elected Congress President.
1939, March 10-12 Tripuri session of the Indian National Congress.
1939, April Subhash Chandra Bose resigns as the president of the Indian National
Congress.
1939, September 3 Second World War (1st September). Great Britain declares war on
Germany; the Viceroy declares that India too is at war.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE Indian History 109

Date/Year Irmportance
1939, October 27 The Congress ministries in the provinces resign in protest against the war
November 5 policy of the British Government.
1939, December 22 The Muslim League observes the resignation of the Congress ministries as
Deliverance Day.
1940, March Lahore Session of the Muslim League, passes the Pakisian Resolution.
1940, August 10 Viceroy Linlithgow announces August Offer.
1940, August 18-22 Congress Working Committee rejects the August Offer.
1940, October 17 Congress launches Individual Satyagraha Movement.
1941, January 17 Subhash Chandra Bose escapes from India; arrives in Berlin (March 28).

e
1942, March 11 Churchill announces the Cripps Mission.
1942, August 7-8 The Indian National Congress meets in Bombay; adopts 'Quit India'

nc
resolution.
1942,August 9 Gandhiji and other Congress leaders arrested.
1942, August 11 Quit India Movement begins; the Great August Uprising.
1942, September 1
Subhash Chandra Bose establish the Indian National Army 'Azad Hind
Fauj'.
ra
1943, October 21 Subhash Chandra Bose proclaims the formation of the Provisional
Government of Free India.
1943, December Karachi Session of the Muslim League adopts the slogan 'Divide and Quit'.
Wavell calls Shimla Conference in a bid to form the Executive Council of
nt

1944, January 25
Indian political leaders.
1946, Fetbruary 18 Mutiny of the Indian naval ratings in Bombay.
1946, March 15 British Prime Minister Attlee announces Cabinet Mission to propose a new
ie

solution to the Indian deadlock; Cabinet Mission arrives in New Delhi (14th
March); issues proposal (16th May).
1946, July 6 Jawaharlal Nehru takes over as Congress President.
Wavell invites Nehru to form an Interim Government; Interim Government
jm

1946, August 6
takes office (2nd September).
1946, December 9 First session of the Consütuent Assembly of India starts. Muslim League
boycotts it.
1947, February. 20 British Prirme Minister Attlee declares that the British Government wOuld
@

leave India not later than June, 1948.

1947, March 24 Lord Mountbatten, the last British Viceroy and Governor-General of lIndia,
sworn in (March 24, 1947 to June 21, 1948).
1947,June 3 Mountbatten Plan for the patition of India and the announcement (4th
June) that transter to power will take place on 15th August.
1947, August 15 India wins freedom.
110 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

ART AND CULTURE OF INDIA

RELIGION •
After his death, Islam divided into the
Religion is a collection of belief systems, Shia and the Sunni cults. His
successors were known as Khalifa.
cultural systems and world views that relate
•
humanity to spirituality and sometimes to The Turkish ruler, Mushtafa Kamal
moral values. Religion is different from private Pasha, ended the designation of
belief in its social character. Khalifa.
•
The birthday of Muhammad Saheb is

e
Hinduism celebrated as Eid-mild-un-Nabi.
• It consists of a collection of intellectual and
Zoroastrianism (Parsi)

nc
philosophical points of views, rather than a
rigid system of beliefs. Parsi religion was founded by Prophet
.
.
There is no specific founder of the religion. Zoroaster (Zarathustra).
Its roots can be traced to the historical Vedic His teachings are compiled in the
religion of the Iron age India. holybook-Zend Avesta. His followers
ra
•
Hinduism is the third largest religion in the believed in one God-Ahur.
world after Christianity and Islam. Sikhism
•
Prominent texts are Vedas, the Ramayana •
Guru Nanak is the founder of Sikhism.
and Mahabharata.
nt

•
Guru Granth Sahib is the Holy book
Christianity of Sikhism. Sikhism is the third
• This religion was founded by Jesus Christ. largest religion of India.
•
He was born to Mother Mary in Bethlehem Sikhism developed in India during
ie

near Jerusalenm. His birth day 16th and 17th centuries.

(25th December) is celebrated as the holy
festival, Christmas. Buddhism
Mahatma Buddha is the founder of
jm

• His fârst two disciple, Andrews and Peter:

were hanged in AD 33 by the Roman Buddhism.Buddhism is the
Governor Portius. indigenous religion of India.
•
Bible is the holy book of Christians and the Holy book of Buddhism are the
sign of 'Cross' is their holy symbol. Tripitakas.
@

•
The three Jewels of Buddhism are
Islam Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha.
. . generally
Hazrat Muham mad Saheb is believed to be Buddhists classify
the founder of Islamic religion. He was born themselves as either Theravada or
to Amina (mother) and Abdullah (father) at Mahayana.
Mecca in AD 570.
• He was married to Khajida (a widow) at the Jainism
age of 25 yrs. His daugher, Fatima, was •
Mahavira Swami is the founder of
married to Ali Hussain. Jainism.
.
Hazrat Muhammad attained supreme •
Jainism is a religion indigenous to the
knowledge or enlightment in AD 610 in the Indian subcontinent.
Hira Cave near Mecca. Holy book of Jainism is the Kalpa
• 24th September (AD 622), Sutras.
the day Hazrat
Muhammad started his journey from Mecca The main doctrines of Jainism are
to Medima marks the beginning of the Hijri Anekantavada, Syadvada and
Era. Nayavada. The two sects of Jainismn
• He died on 8th June, AD 623 and was are Svetambara and Digambara.
buried at Medina. Jaina holy texts consist of Purvas,
Agamas, Angas and Upangas.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History 111

LANGUAGES Tamil
Tamil is the mother language of the
Sanskrit Dravidian language family.
• Sanskrit is the mother of many Indian •
The Sangam literature is a collection of
languages. long and short poems composed by
. various poets in praise of numerous
The Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas and
Dharmasutras are all written in Sanskrit. heroes and heroines.
-
It is one of the twenty-two languages listed There are about 30000 lines of poetry,
in the Indian Constitution. which are arranged in eight anthologies
. called Ettuttokai.
The Dharmasutras, the Manusmriti,

e
Arthashastra and Gita Govinda are the
Persian and Urdu
. famous books in Sanskrit.
Panini, Kautilya, Kalhana and Jayadeva •
Urdu emerged as an independent

nc
are the famous writers of Sanskrit. language towards the end of the AD 4th
centur.
Pali Urdu as a language was born out of the
Pali is an Indo-Aryan language, which was interaction between Hindi and Persian.
ra
used for the earliest Buddhist scriptures. Urdubecame more popular in the early
Pali literature is mainly concerned with 18th century.
Theravada Buddhism. The earliest Urdu poet is supposed to
be Khusrau.
Telugu
nt

Urdu has given us a new form of poem,

•
The Vijyanagara period was the golden age that is called a nazm.
of Telugu literature.
• Eight Telugu literary luminaries are Hindi
ie

popularly known as Ashtadiggajas. •

Hindi is a direct descendant of the
• Ramakrishna author Sanskrit language, through Prakrit and
was the
of Panduranga Mahatmayam, which was Apabhramsha.
considered as one of the greatest poetical It is spoken largely in North India.
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works of Telugu literature. •

Evolution of Hindi literature can be
better understood through four stages
Kannada
. of Adi Kal, Bhakti Kal, Riti-kavya Kal
Kannada language developed fully after and Adhunik kal.
@

the AD 10th century. The earliest known

literary work in Kannada is Kavirjamarg, ILITERATURE
written by the Rashtrakuta King
Nripatunga Amoghavargha I. Bengali Literature
• Pampa, known as the father of Kannada, •
Raja Ram Mohan Roy wrote in Bengali
wrote his great poetic works Adi Purana and besides English, which gave an impetus
Vikramarjiva Vijaya in the AD 10th centur:. to Bengali literature.
Ishwar Chandra Vidhyasagar
Malayalam
. (1820-91l) and Akshay Kumar Dutta
The language of Malayalam emerged (1820-86) were the two other writers of
around the AD 1lth century. By l5th this early period.
century Malayalam was recognised as an
Sharat Chandra Chatterji (1876-1938)
independent language. and RC Dutta, a noted historian and a
• Bhasa Kautilya, a CoIMmnentary On prose writer, too contributed to the
Arthashastra and Kokashndisam are two making of Bengali literature.
great works.
. But the most important name that
Rama Panikkar and Ramanujan influenced the whole of India was that
Ezhuthachan are well known authors of of Rabindra Nath Tagore (1861-1941).
Malayalam literature. Novels, dramas, short stories, criticism,
112 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

music and essays, all flowed from his

pen. He won the Nobel Prize for
Indian Literature in Englsh
literature in 1913 for his Geetanjali. Language
• English came into India with the British
Assamese Literature and soon became a language of formal
• Like Bengali, Assamese also developed in education. Some of the early Indian
response to the Bhakti movement. works in English were written by Raja
• Shankaradeva, who
introduced Rammohan Roy Henry Vivian Derozio
Vaishnavism in Assam helped in the and Madhusudan Dutt. Aurobindo
growth of Assamese poetry. Even the Ghosh wrote his epic poem Savitri: A
Puranas were translated in Assamese. Legend and a Symbol' in English.

e
. Assamese
• India's only Nobel laureate in literature
The earliest literature
consisted of buranjis (court chronicles). Rabindranath Tagore wrote some of his
work originally in English and did some

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Shankaradeva has left several devotional
of his own English translation from
poems, which people sang with
rapturous pleasure, but it was only after Bengali. Sarojini Naidu and Jawaharlal
1827 that more interest was shown in Nehru also wrote in English. Nehru's
producing Assamese literature. The Discovery of India' and 'Glimpses of
World History' are quite popular.
ra
• Some notable Indian poets, who write in
Oriya Literature
• English are Nissi Ezekiel, Dom
Oriya language shows the maximum
Moraes, Arun Kolakar and Dilip Chitre.
influence of Sanskrit. It originated in Other notable Indian writers are
nt

the AD 9th century and its literary Khushwant Singh, Salman Rushdie,
development took place in the 13th Vikram Seth, Arundhati Roy, Kamala
century.
Markandaya, Kiran Desai, Jhumpa
• Worth mentioning in Oriya literature are Lahiri etc.
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Fakirmohan Senapati and Radha Nath

Ray, whose writingsdeserve considerable MUSIC
attention in the history of Oriya
literature. The music of India is said to be one of the
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• The works of Upendra Bhania oldest unbroken musical traditions in the

(1670-1720) were important as they World.

ushered a new period of Oriya literature. Many different legends have grown up
In Odisha, the works of Saraladasa are concerning the origin and development of
@

regarded as the first works of Oriya Indian classical music.

literature.
Hindustani Music
Punjabi Literature Classical Music
• Punjabi is a language with several •
shades. It is being written in two scripts, Hindustaniclassical music originated in
Gurumukhi and Persian. North India around the l3th and 14th
• Guru Nanak was
the first poet in centuries. In contrast to Carnatic music,
Punjabi. Some other contemporary the Hindustani classical music was not
only influenced by ancient Hindu
poets, mostly Sufi saints, used to sing in
this language. musical traditions and Vedic philosophy,
. but also by the Persian elements.
Guru Gobind Singh, the 10th guru, was • Hindustani music is based on the Raga
educated in Patna (Bihar), where he system. The Raga is a melodic scale,
learnt Persian and Sanskrit. comprising of notes from the basic seven
He has composed two savaiyyas in -
Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha and Ni.
Punjabi, but these are not a part of the • On the basis of notes included in it, each
Adi Granth. Similar is the popularity of raga attains a different character. The
Bulley Shah, who was a Sufi saint. He
form of the raga is also determined by
has composed a large number of songs.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE - Indian History 113

the particular pattern of ascent and Gwalior Gharana

descent of the notes, which may not be This is
the oldest among all the Khayal
strictly linear.
. Gayaki (vocal) styles. Its distinctive
Hindustani classical music is primarily feature is its lucidity and simplicity. It is
vocal-centric. The major vocal forms founded by Hassu Khan and Nathu Khan.
associated with Hindustani classical
music are the khayal, ghazal, dhrupad, Agra Gharana
Tappa, tarana and thunri. The Agra Gharana places great
importance on developing forcefulness
Khayal and deepness in the voice, so that the
It is a form of vocal music adopted from notes are powerful and resonant founded

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medieval Persian music. It is based on by HajiSujan Khan.
imagination and improvisations of the
performer:. Kirana Gharana

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It derives its name from the birth-place of
Dhrupad Abdul Kharim Khan of Kirana near
It is the oldest form of Hindustani music, Kurukshetra. In the Kirana style of
traditionally performed by male singers. It is singing, the swara is used to create an
mostly a poetic forn. Tansen Sang in emotional mood by means of elongation
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dhrupad style. and use of Kana-s.
Tappa Rampur Sahaswan Gharana
It is developed in 18th century from the folk In Rampur Sahaswan Gharana, there is a
nt

songs of camel riders of Punjab. They are stress on the clarity of swara and the
essentially folklore of love and passion and development and elaboration of the raga
written in Punjabi. Developed as a form of is done through a stepwise progression.
classical music by Mian Ghulam Nabi Shori. Founded by Inayat Khan.
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Tarana Patiala Gharana

It is a medium to fast paced song usually Founded by Inayat Khan. Regarded as an
performed towards the end of the concert. It off-shoot of the Delhi Gharana, the
jm

consists of a few lines of poctry with Patiala Gharana is characterised by the

rhythmic syllables. use of greater rhythm play and by
Layakari with the abundant use of Bols,
Thumri particularly Bol tans founded by ustad
Fateh Ali Khan.
@

It is an informal vocal form of Hindustani

classical music and is said to have begun DelhiGharana
with the court of Nawab Wajid AI Shan,
ie The Delbi Gharana was represented by
Nawab of Oudh.
Tanras Khan and Shabbu Khan. The
Ghazal highlights of Delhi Gharana are pleasing
vistaar
It is a poetic forn consisting of rhyming Founded by and exquisite compositions.
Ustad Manman Khan.
couplets on love and devotion.
It is an ancient form originating in 6th Banaras Gharana
centur Arabic poetry. It spread into South The Banaras Gharana evolved as a result
Asia in the 12th century, due to the influence of geat tilting style of khayal singing
of Sufi mystics. known by Thumri singers of Banaras and
Gaya. Founded by Pt. Gopal Mishra.
Gharana
There is a rich tradition of Gharanas in Mewati Gharana
classical Hindustani music. These schools The Mewati Gharana gives importance to
or Gharanas have their basis in the developing the mood of the raga through
traditional mode of musical training and the notes forming it and its style is Bhava
education. Every Gharana has its own Pradhan. It also gives equal importance
distinct features. to the meaning of the text.
114 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

Musical Instruments and Instrumentalists

Instruments Instrumentalists
Stringed Instrumnents
1. Rudra Veena Asad Ali Khan, Zia Moin-ud-din Dagar
2. Santoor Shiv Kumar Sharma,
3. Sarod Buddhadev Dasgupta, Ali Akbar Khan, Amjad Ali khan, Bahadur Khan,
Sharan Rani, Zarin S Sharma
4. Sarangi Ustad Binda Khan
5. Sitar Ravi Sharnkar, Hara Shankar Bhattacharya, Nikhil, Banerjee, Vilayat Khan,

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Mustag Ali Khan
6. Surb Ahar Sajad Hussain, Annapurna

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7. Veena Doraiswamy lyengar, Chittibabu, Emani Sankara Shastri, Dhanammal, S
Bala Chandran, KR Kumaraswamy
8. Violin Gajanan Rao Joshi, MS Gopal Krishnan, TN Krishnan, Baluswamy,
Dikshitar, Dwaran Venkataswamy Naidu Lalyuli G Jayararman, Mysore T

Chowdiah, VG Jog
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Wind Instruments
9. Flute TR Mahalingam, N Ramani, Hari Prasad Chaurasia, Pannalal Ghosh
10. Nadaswaran Sheikh Chinna Moula, Neeruswamy Pillai, Rajaratanam Pillai
11. Shehnai
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Bismillah Khan
Percussion (Striking Thumping) Instruments
12. Mridangam Palghat Mani lyer, Karaikudi R Mani, Palghat Raghu
13. Pakhawag Pt Ayodhya Prasad, Gopal Das, Babu Ram Shanker Pagaldas
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14. Tabla Zakir Hussain, Nikhil Ghosh, Kishan Maharaj, Alla Rakha Khan, Pandit
Sarmta Prasad, Kumar Bose, Latif Khan
15. Kanjira Pudukkotai Dakshinamurthi Pillai
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Instruments Vocalists
Carnatic MS Subbulakshmi, Balamuralikrishna, Bombay Jaishree, HK Raghavendra,
Aryakudi Ramanujan lyenegar Venkataram, Sitarajam, Mani Krishnaswamy.
Akhil Krishnan, ML Vasanthakurmari, MD Ramanathan, GN Balasubrarnaniarm
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Dhrupad Ustad Rahirm Fahim-ud-din Dagar, Zahir-ud-din Dagar, Wasif-ud-din Dagar,

Bundecha Bandhu, PiAbhay Narayan Mallick, Pt Ritvwik Sanyal, Uday Bhawalkar
Hindustani Shubha Mudgal, Madhup Mudgal, Mukul Shivputra, Pandit Jasraj, Parveen Sultana,
Naina Devi, Girija Devi, Ustad Ghulam Mustafa Khan, Gangubai Hangal, Krishna
Hangal, V Rajput, Kumar Gandharva, Faiyyaz Khan, Mallikariun Mansur.
Thurni Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan, Ustad Mazhar Ali Khan, Ustad Zawad Ali Khan,
Poornima Chaudhary, Shanti Heerananda, Naina Devi, Rita Ganguly
Qawwali Ghulam Hasan Niyazi, Sultan Niyazi, Ghulam Farid Nizami, Hussain Khan
Bandanawaji, Aslam Sabaari, Chand Nizami

DANCE
Indian Classical Dances
India has an old tradition of thousands of years in regard to classical and folk music and
dances. Indian classical dances traces their origin from Bharat Muni's Natyasastra and
Nandi Kesvar's Abhinava Darpan. Classical dance forms that originated and evolved in
India are Bharatnatyam, Kathak, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Manipuri, Mohiniattam, Odissi
and Sattriya.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE Indian History 115

Bharatnatyam Manipuri
• Bharatnatyam is classical dance of Manipuri is classical dance form of Manipur.
Tamil Nadu. The most striking part of Manipuri dance is
• The music accompanying this dance its colourful decoration, lightness of dancing
is Carnatic music. It evolved out of foot, delicacy of abhinaya (drama), lilting
the Devadasi system of South Indian music and poetic charm. Manipuri dance is
temples. Two famous styles are not only a medium of worship and delight
Pandanallur and Tanjore. but also essential for all socio-cultural
.
Famous dancers associated with ceremonies of Manipuri people. Popular
Bharatnatyam are E Krishna Iyer, exponents are Javeri sisters, Rita Devi,
Rukmini Devi Arundale and Anna Nirmala Mehta, Guru Bipin Singh etc.

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Pavlova.
Mohiniattam
Kathak

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• Mohiniattam from Kerala is a solo female
• Kathak is said to be derived from the dance and is known for its rhythmic and
word katha, meaning the art of unbroken flow of the body movements.
storytelling. Mohiniattam has the grace and elegance of
• Famous centres are Lucknow and
Bharatanatyam and vigour of Kathakali.
ra
Jaipur. Lucknow school depicts . Famous exponents of this dance form are
Mughal Court etiquette, while the Kalyani Amma, Vaijayanthimala, Bharati
Jaipur school depicts stories of Shivaji and Hema Malini.
Rajput kings and Gods. Famous
exponents are Sitara Devi, Sambhu Odissi
nt

Maharaj, Uma Sharma Shovana

Odissi is one of the famous classical Indian
Narayan etc.
dances from Odisha state.
• It is a graceful and sensous dance style and
Kathakali
ie

• Kathakali is the classical dance form involves the tribhanga (three bends)
posture.
of Kerala. The word Kathakali
literally means story play. The (three bends) symbolise the means to
jm

escape the limitations of the body.

• Kathakali is considered as one of the
most magnificent theatres of Famous dancers of Odissi are Indrani
imagination and creativity. Rehman, Sonal Mansingh, Kiran Sengal,
• Famous exponents of Kathakali are Rani Karna, Sharon Lowen and Myrta
@

Barvie.
Vallathol Narayan Menon, Kunju
Kurup, Guru Gopinath etc. Sattriya
Kuchipudi Sattriya is the classical dance form from
Assam. It was created by Vaishnav Saint
•
Kuchipudi is the classical dance
Sremanta Sankaradeva in l5th centur.
forms of Andhra Pradesh. Kuchipudi
It is traditionally performed by bhokos (male
exhibits scenes from the Hindu
epics, legends and mythological monks) in monasteries, but now by female
tales. also. The dance is based on mythological
themes.
• Famous exponents of Kuchipudi are
Lakshmi Narayan Shastri, Raja and It is performed on Assamese music called
Borgeet and instruments used are Khol
Radha Reddy, Swapana Sundari and
Yamini Krishnamurti. (drum), Talas (cymbals) and Flute.
116 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

Folk Dances and Tribal Dances in India

States Dances
Maharashtra Kathakeertan, Lezim, Dandaniya, Tamasha, Gafa, Dahikala, Lavani,
Mauni, Dasavtar
Karnataka Huttari, Suggi Kunitha, Yakashagana
Kerala Kaikottikali, Kaliyattam, Tappatikkali
TarmilNadu Kolattarm, Pinnal Kolatarn, Kummi, Kavadi, Karagam
Andhra Pradesh Ghanta Mardala, Veedhi Natakam, Burrakatha
Odisha Ghumara Sanchar, Chadya Dandanata, Chhau

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Paschim Banga Kathi, Chhau, Baul, Kirtan, Jatra, Lama
Asom Bihu, Khel, Gopal, Rash Lila, Tabal Chongli, Canoe

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Punjab Giddha (women), Bhangra (men)
Jammu and Kashmir Rauf, Hikat
Himachal Pradesh Jhora, Jhali, Dangli, Mahasu, Jadda, Jhainta, Chharhi
Haryana Jhumar, Ras Leela, Phag dance, Daph, Dhamal, Loor, Gugga, Khoria,
Gagor
ra
Gujarat Garba, Dandiya Rass, Tippani, Gomph
Rajasthan Ginad, Chakri, Gangore, Teratali, Khayal, Jhulan Leela, Jhuma, Suisini
Bihar Jata Jatin, Jadur, Chhau, Kathaputli, Bakho, Jhijhiya, Samochakwa,
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Karma, Jatra, Natna

Uttar Pradesh Nautanki, Thora, Chappeli, Raslila, Kajri
Madhya Pradesh Karma
Meghalaya Laho
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Goa Mando
Mizoram Khantumm
Uttarakhand
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Choliya, Pandav Nritya, Jagars, Jhora

Classical Dancers of India

Dance Dancer
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Bharatnalyam Bala Saraswati, CV Chandrasekhar, Leela Samson, Mrinalini Sarabhai, Padma

Subramanyam, Rukmini Devi, Sanyukta Panigrahi, Sonal Mansingh, Yamini
Krishnamurti
Kathak Bharti Gupta, Birju Maharaj, Damayanti Joshi, Durga Das, Gopi Krishna,
Kumudini Lakhia, Sambhu Maharaj, Sitara Devi
Kuchipudi Josyula Seetharamaiah, Vempathi Chinna Sathyan
Manipuri Guru Bipin Sinha, Jhaveri Sisters, Nayana Jhaveri, Nirmala Mehta, Savita
Mehta
Odissi Debaprasad Das, Dhirendra Nath Patnaik, Indrani Rahman, Kelucharan
Mahapatra, Priyarnbada Mohanty
Kathakai MrinaliniSarabhai, Guru Shankaran, Namboodripad, Thottam Shankaran,
Kutti Nayyar, Shankar Kurup, KC Pannikar, TT Ram Kulti Nayyar, etc
Mohiniyatam Protima Devi, Sanyukta Panigrahi, Sonal Mansingh, Pankaj Charan Das,
Kelucharan Mahapatra, Madhvi Mudgal, etc
Sattriya Jatin Goswami, Sharodi Saikia, Indira Bora, Maniram Datta, Anita Sharma,
Pradip Chaliha etc.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History 117
•
The Indo-Islamic style was neither
ARCHITECTURE strictly Islamic nor strictly Hindu.
.
Indian architecture, which has evolved The earliest building of this period is
through centuries, is the result of Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque and the
socio-economic and geographical Qutub Minar at Delhi.
conditions of the region. Indian
architecture evolved in various stages in PUPPETRY
different parts and regions of the country.
Apart from the natural evolution Indian • The early puppet shows in India dealt
architecture was generally affected by mostly with histories of great kings.
many great and important historic Princes and heroes and also political
satire in rural areas.

e
developments.
.
There are four types of puppetry in
Rajput Architecture India--String puppets, Shadow puppets,

nc
• The Rajputs were great patrons of art and Rod puppets and Glove puppets.
architecture, the finest examples being
their forts and palaces. The Rajput
palaces are complex compositions built
PAINTING
as inner citadels surrounded by the city The history of Indian paintings is just about
ra
and enclosed by a fortified wall as at as old as the history of the people of India.
Chittorgarh and Jaisalner. Some forts, The most primitive instances of paintings
such as those at Bharatpur and Deeg, in India can be traced back to cave
were protected by wide moats. paintings of Bhimbetka.
.
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The palaces of Jaisalmer, Bikaner,

Jodhpur, Udaipur and Kota represent the Mughal School
maturity of the Rajput style. •
This school has a specific style of South
Asian painting. Usually, it was confined
Deccan Style
ie

. to miniatures either as book depictions

The architecture of the Deccan is or as individual works to be kept in
marked by its distinct originality and albums.
independence of style, unlike the • This practice materialised from Persian
jm

architectural styles of the other miniature painting, with Indian

provinces, which combined both the
influences Hindu, Buddhist and Jain.
of
temple architecture and the Islamic
It wonderfully blossomed during the
building ideals. It derived its elements
Mughal Empire. Later, this school of
@

from the architectural styles of the

Sultan of Delhi and that of the distant painting reached other Indian courts of
Persia. Muslims and Hindus and afterwards
• Some key features of this style are the Sikhs.
presence of bulbous domes with lotus Akbar and Jahangir were exceptionally
neck, military style of architecture, great patrons of this painting. Mughal
presence of thick walls and combination School of painting revolved around court
of gateway and mosque-like Charminar. scenes, portraits, hunting scenes, lovers,
battle fronts etc.
Mughal Style School
• The medieval period saw great Rajput
developments in the ield architecture. • This school progressed and thrived
of
With the coming of Muslims to ndia, during the 18th century in the majestic
many new features came to be Rajputana courts.
introduced im buildings. The This school of paintinglooded from the
development of Muslim style of approach of Mughal painting.
architecture of this period can be called . A typical style of painting with particular
the Indo-Islamic architecture or the common characteristics came up in
Indian architecture influenced by every Rajput realm.
Islamic Art.
118 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian History

• This school illustrated an assortment of themes like landscapes, events from the
Mahabharata, Ramayana, Krishna's life and about human beings.
Bengal School
• This school was a fashion of art, which progressed during the British Raj of India in
early 20th century.
• Indian Nationalism was greatly linked to this painting. British art administrators also
supported and promoted it.
• Raja Ravi Verma and Abanindranath Tagore were amongst the pioneer artists of this
school. Today's renowned artists, who belong to this School include Nilima Dutta,
Sudip Roy, Paresh Maiti and Bikash Bhattacharjee.

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Cultural Heritage

nc
Site State
Mahabodhi Temple Bihar
Red Fot Delhi
Qutub Minar Delhi
ra
Humayun's Tomb Delhi
Champaner Achaelogical Park Gujarat
Churches of Old Goa Goa
Jantar Mlantar Jaipur
nt

Hampi Karnataka
Pattadakal Karnataka
Chhatrapati ShivajiTerminus Mumbai, Maharashtra
ie

Ajanta Caves Maharashtra

Ellora Caves Maharashtra
Sanchi Stupa Madhya Pradesh
jm

Khajuraho Madhya Pradesh

Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka Madhya Pradesh
Elephanta Caves Maharashtra
Konark Sun Temple Odisha
@

Mahabalipuram Tamil Nadu

Great Living Chola Ternples Tamil Nadu
Agra Fort Uttar Pradesh
Taj Mahal Uttar Pradesh
Fatehpur Sikri Uttar Pradesh
Mountain Railway of India Paschim Banga
Nalanda Maha Vihara Bihar
Hill Forts of Rajasthan Rajasthan
Ahmedabad City Gujarat
Jaipur City Rajasthan
Rani kiVav Gujarat
Capital Complex Chandigarh
Victorial and Art Deco Ensemble of Maharashtra
Murmbai
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History 119

WORLD HISTORY
Mesopotamian Civilisation • In the Battle of Marathon (490
• It is the oldest civilisation of the world. BC), Greeks defeated King Darius
Mesopotamia is the land between the rivers I. Alexander was the greatest Greek
Tigris and Euphrates. ruler.
• Mesopotamiarns were the first to use potter's The Olympic Games originated in
Greece. Iliad and Odyssey ae
wheel, to make iron implements to make glass among the best epics of the world
ware, to evolve a proper systen of writing

e
called Cuneiorm. Cuneiform script was written by Homer.
deciphered by Henry Rawlinson.
Roman Civilisation

nc
Mesopotamians discovered sexagesimal • was the centre of the
Italy
system of counting (based on sixties),
civilisation. The city of Rome was
Pythogoras theorem, lunar calendar and
founded by Romulus in 1000 BC on
calculated the length of day and night. the bank of river Tiber.
ra • The war between Carthage and
Chinese Civilisation Rome is known as Punie War (264
• The earliest civilisation was by the Shang BC to l46 BC).
(Chou) Dynasty, followed by the Chin and
Han dynasties.
•
Julius Caesar, one of the generals,
. murdered Pompey, another general
nt

In 3rd century BC, the ruler of China dynasty and occupied the throne. He was
built the Great Wall. attached to the Egyptian queen
• Chinese script was pictographic and Cleopatra. Caesar was succeeded
their
calendar was a combination of solar-lunar by Octavian and Diocletion.
ie

calendar. • Romans worshipped the planets.

Silk became the chief item of export during They developed the Latin
the Hans. language.
jm

• The two major religions were Taoism and ucretius, Seneca, Cicero and
Confucianism. They invented water clock, Marus were the famous Roman
abacus, umbrella, paper and seismograph. philosophers and Horace and Virgil
were the poets. Tacitus and Pliny
were the historians.
Iranian Civilisation
@

• • They invented 'concrete', useful

This civilisation developed in around 6th
century BC by the Achaemenid Empire under for constructing buildings.
its first ruler, Cyrus. His capital was at
Pasaragadae. Renaissance
•
The Renaissance or"Revival of
• His successors were Darius I and Darius III.
The Achaemenids introduced the use of gold learning" started in the AD 14th
and silver coins. century in Italy. The fall of
constantinople by the Turks in
•
Their main religion was Zoroastrianism, 1453 led to the dispersal of
founded by Zarathustra or Zoroaster. Their scholars from Europe to Itlay.
official language was Aramaic. • Renaissance led to the revival of
classical learning, and
Greek Civilisation architecture and
art
propelled
.
The civilisation developed around 800 BC, humanism. Renaissance
when the small villages clustered to form writers-Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio
city-states.
and Machiavelli, came to the fore.
• They worshipped Zeus (Sky God), Poseidon . Renaissance painters--Leonardo
(Sea God), Apollo (Sun God), Athena (Goddess da Vinci (The last Supper and
of victory), Dionysus (God of Wine) etc. Monalisa), Michelangelo (The last
120 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

Judgement and the fall of man) and Raphael on a ship of East India Company into
(Madonna). the sea. This was because of the
. problem on tea tax.
The Imovement also helped in the
development of printing press. •
On 4th July 1776, the Declaration
of Independence was issued
Reformation (16th Century) authored by Thomas Jafferson.
.
This movement was started in Germany by The war ended with the Treaty of
Martin Luther, by publicly protesting the Paris in AD 1783.
sale of Letters of Indulgence. •
Benjamin Franklin established the
.
It was a revolt against Roman Catholic American Philosophical Society.
Church. As a result, Western Europe was Americans were the fìrst to have a

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split between Roman Catholic and protestant Written Constitution.
Countries.

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French
.
Revolution
Glorious Revolution of The Revolution initiated On

England (1688) 5th May, 1789 during the kingship of

• Louis XVI.
This revolution started against the policies of
King James II. He tried to secure freedom of French society was divided into three
ra
worship for Catholics. estates (Clergy. Nobility and
• Commoners).
This united the Whigs and Tories of •
Anglican Church against him, and they The immediate cause of the
invited William of Orange to occupy English revolution was the extravagant
nt

throne. expenditure and inefficiency by

• Louis XV and Louis XVI.
James II threw the great seal into the
river Thames and fled to France. The event Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau
is known as Glorious were the French writers and thinkers
ie

Or Bloodless
Revolution. of the period.
• It ended the despotic rule of the Stuarts, Liberty, Equality and Fraternity
were the watch word of the
established Supremacy of Parliament. The
jm

revolution.
Bill of Rights (1689) was passed that settled
down the problem of succession.
Unification of Germany
.
Industrial Revolution This was the result of the Blood and
Iron Policy of Bismarck, the Prime
@

• It began in Britain in AD 1750 with the

invention of Spinning Jenny by Hargreaves, Minister of King William I (Prussia).
•
Water frame by Richard Arkwright (1769), After the Napoleonic war
Mule by Samuel Crompton (1779), Power (1803-15), the 38 independent
loom by Emmund Cartwright (1785) and states were unified under the king
Steam engine by James Watt (1769). of Prussia. From 1815 to 1850,
• This fastened the production of cloth and Austria ruled over the German
confederation.
better quality yarn were produced. The
economic progess also affected the cultural Bismarck defeated Austria and
and social life of the people. dissolved the German confederation.
•
He founded a new confederation of
American Revolution 22 states in 1866. The unification
• A struggle by which 13 English colonies of was completed with the
North America got independence from Prussia-France War (1870), in
Britain. which the French Emperor Louis
• Bonaparte was defeated.
George Washington, the first President of
America was the pioneer of this revolution.
• William I, the king of Prussia was
• Boston Tea Party (1773) A group of citizens declared as the Enperor of Germany
at Versailles in France.
of Boston dumped the crates of tea, loaded
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History 1211

IMPORTANT WARS OF THE

20th CENTURY
Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) Korean War (1950-1953)
The conflict arising from the rivalry of Conflict between North Korea, supported by
Russia and Japan for control of Manchuria China and South Korea, supported by UN
and Korea resulted in the war. Russia was forces dominated by the USA. Negotiations
forced to surrender Korea, the Liaotung continued for two years before a truce was
Peninsula and Sakhalin to Japan. agreed on in July 1953.

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First World War (1914-18) Vietnam War (1954-1975)

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International conflict began between Austria Conflict between US backed South Vietnam
and Serbia. The chief contestants were the and the Viet Cong, who had the Support of
Central Powers (Germany and Austria) and communist North Vietnam. It followed the
the Triple Entente (Britain, France and partition of Vietnam. In 1975, South
Russia). Many other countries joined as the Victnam was overrun by North Vietnamese
war began. War ended with the Treaty of
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forces, and the country was united under
Versailles. Communist rule.

Sino-Japanese Wars (191-33) Iran-Iraq War (1980-1990)

Tvo wars between China and Japan, War began shortly after the Iranian
nt

marking the beginning and the end of Revolution of 1979. Iraq wanted control over
Japanese imperial exparnsion on the Asian oil-rich Iranian border territory.
Imainland. The first war in 1894-95 arose
from rivalry for control of Korea. The second Falkland War (1982)
ie

war in 1937-45 developed fromn Japan's Military conflict between Great Britain and
seizure of Manchuria. Argentina on the question of sovereignty
over the Falkland Islands led to the war.
Second World War (1939-45) Britain won the war.
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International conflict arising from disputes

provoked by the expansionist policies of
Gulf War (1991)
Germany in Europe and Japan in the far Military action by a US led coalition to expel
East. The axis powers- Germany, Italy and Iraqi forces from Kuwait. Kuwait was
@

(after Septermber 1940) Japan-controlled liberated (26th February, 1991) and a

most of Europe and much of Northern ceasefire was declared on 28th February.
Africa, China and Asia. The United States
slayed out of the war until 7th December, Bosnian War (1992-98)
1941. The Allies (led by USA, Britain and Ethnically rooted war in Bosnia and
USSR) were the victors. Herzegovina, a republic of Yugoslavia with a
multiethnic population-Muslims, Serbs and
Arab-Israeli War Croats.
(1948-1949, 1956, 1967, 1973-1974)
Conflict between Israel and the Arab states. US-Afghan War (2001)
After the creation of the state of Israel Military action by US against Afghanistan in
(14th May, 1948), troops from Egypt, Iraq. protest against the 11th September's, attack
Lebanon, Syria and Trans Jordan (Modern on WTC Towers.
Jordan) invaded the new nation.
Simmering Arab-Israeli hostilities Gulf War II (2003)
exploded into war in l967, when Israel, Military action by a US led coalition to oust
assailed by Palestinian guerillas, launched Saddam Hussain from power in lraq. It was
a massive primitive strike against Egypt, conducted on the pretext of Irag possessing
the Arab world's leading state. Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD).
122 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History

FAQs (Indian History)

1. Who was the first Governor-General of 25. Who was first to decipher the Brahmi script
Bengal? of Ashoka?
2. The Battle of Wandiwash (1760) was 26. Charaka was the famous court physician of
fought between whom? which king?
3. Whogranted the permission to establish 27. The first President of All India Trade Union
the French factory at Masulipatnam? Congress was
4. The trade monopoly of East India 28. The first Governor General and Viceroy of
Company was ended by which Act? British India was
5. Sir Thomas Roe visited the court, of 29. Which Chinese general defeated

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which Mughal emperor? Kanishka?
6. In which year was Harappan Civilisation 30. Who was the founder of pattini cult related

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discovered? to worship of Kannagi?
7. Water Managenment System 31. The silver coins of Gupta period were
Harappan timeshasbeen unearthed at? Known as
8. Which animal was not represented on 32. The second session of INC was presided
the seals and terracotta art of the ndus Over by
ra
Valley Civilisation? 33. Whowas the first Muslim President of INC?
9. Which Governor General is assSociated 34. Who was the first Indian to become
with Doctrine of Lapse? member of the British Parliament?
10. Which place was the capital city of Tipu 35. Which period marks the beginning of
nt

Sultan? Indian temple architecture?

11. Patanjali is known for the compilation of 36. Which extremist leader dominated the
which book? Lucknow Pact in December, 1916?
12. Which Veda contains an account of 37. The Prayag Prasasti/Allahabad Pillar
ie

magical charms and spells? Inscription is associated, with which ruler?

13. In ancient India, the earliest capital of
38. The rock-cut temples of Mahabalipuram
Magadh kingdom was at were built under the patronage of king?
14. A Buddhist council during the reign of
39. Two great religious coníerences were held
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Ashoka was held at by Harshavardhan at

15. Where did Lord Buddha breathed his 40. The subject matter of Ajanta painting
last? pertains to to religion
16. Who founded the independent Sultanate 41. In which movement did Gandhiji made the
@

of Bengal? first use of Hunger Strike?

17. Who is also known as Nigantha 42. From where did Acharya Vinoba Bhave
Natoputra? start the individual Satyagraha in 1940?
18. Chinese traveller Hiuen-Tsang studied, 43. Use of white marble, long legs and slender
at which university? frames-were the characteristic features of
19. Under whichh system of assessment, the which ancient art iorms of India.
Britishers collected revenue directly 44. First major inscription in classical sanskrit
from the farmers? is that of
20. Who started the Public works Depart 45. Who attended the Congress of Oppressed
ment in India (1848)? Nationalist at Brussels in 1927,on behalf of
21. Who gave the theory of economic drain the Indian National Congress?
in his book, "Poverty and the Un British 46. Who was the last British Viceroy of India?
Rule in India"2
47. Who was the President of Indian National
22. Megasthenes was an ambassador, of Congress, when the Mountabatten Plan
which Greek king? was accepted?
23. The division of Mauryan society in 7 48. The final arrangements for Indian
classes is particularly mentioned, in independence was worked out by which
which book?
plan?
24. Who was the first Mauryan ruler to
Conquer Deccan? 49. Who constructed the Jagannath temple at
Puri?
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian History 123

50. Who advocated on behalí of Indian National Army

in 1946 in the Red Fort trials? Answers
51. Alberuni visited India, with which musliminvader? 1. Warren Hastings, 2. English and
52. For which movement did Gandhiji give the French, 3. Abdulla Qutub Shah,
slogan,'Do or Die'? 4. Charter Act of 1833, 5. Jahangir,
53. The khilji Sultans of Delhi were, of which tribe? 6. 1921,7. Dholavira, 8. Cow,
54. Whowas the Governor General of India during the 9. Lord Dalhousie,
launch of Civil Disobedience Movement? 10. Srirangapattanam, 11. Yoga
55. Qutub Minar was completed, by which Sultan? Sutra, 12. Atharava Veda,
56. Who Presided over the All India Khilatat 13. Rajgir (Girivaraja),
Conference at Delhi(1919)? 14. Pataliputra, 15. Kushinagar,

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57. In the sultanate period, the highest rural authoritly 16. Murshid Quli khan,
for land revenue was 17. Vardhman Mahavira,

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58. Which Committee was appointed by the British 18. Nalanda, 19. Ryotwari, 20. Lord
Government to investigate in Jallianwala Bagh Dalhousie, 21. Dada Bhai Naoroji.
massacre? 22. Seleucus Nikator 23. Indica of
59. The city of Jaunpur was founded in the memory of Megasthenes, 24. Bindusara,
60. The congress in Travancore launched a Civil 25. James Princep, 26. Kanishka,
ra
Disobedience Movement against, which Dewan 27. Lala Lajpat Rai, 28. Lord
of Travancore state?
Canning, 29. Pen chao,
61. Who was the Chairman of Joint Parliamentary 30. Sengattivan, 31. Rupyaka,
Committee (1935), that led to the framing of the 32. Surendranath Banerjee,
Act of 1935?
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33. Badar-ud- din Tayabji,

62. Which Congress President negotiated with both 34. Dadabhai Naoroji, 35. Gupta
Cripps Mission and Lord Wavell?
63. Who Constructed the monumental period, 36. Bal Gangadhar Tilak,
ayegopurams
Ra in Tront of temples at Hampi and 37. Samudragupta, 38. Pandya
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Kings, 39. Kannauj and Prayag,

64. 'A Forgotten Empire,' written by the historian 40. Buddhism, 41. Ahmedabad
Robert Sewell refers to which empire? Strike, 1918, 42. Pavnar in
jm

65. Tulsidas composed his 'Ramcharitamanasa' in Maharashtra, 43. Amravati School

the reign of of Art, 44. Rudradaman,
66. Which Maratha Peshwa followed the ideal of 45. Jawaharlal Nehru, 46. Lord
'Hindu pada-Pashahi"? Mountbatten, 47. JB Kripalani,
67. The Laxman Era was started in AD 1119, by which 48. Cabinet Mission Plan, 49. Anant
@

dynasty? Varman, 50. Bhulabhai Desai,

68. Mahaballipuram was established by the 51. Mahmud Ghaznavi, 52. Quit
69. The Balkan Plan ior fragmentation of India was India Movement, 53. Turks,
framed by 54. Lord Irwin, 55. lItutmish, 56. MK
70. Who organised the Chittagong Amoury raid? Gandhi, 57. Choudhary, 58. Hunter
71. The leader of Bardoli Satyagrah(1928) was Commission,59. Mohammad-bin
72. Yahya bin Ahmed Sirhindi, the author of Tarikh Tughlaq, 60. CP Rama Swami
-i-Mubaraqshahi, lived in the period of which Aiyer, 61. Lord Linlithgow, 62. Abul
dynasty? Kalam Azad, 63. Krishna Deva
73. In the Delhi Sultanate, an administrative unit Raya, 64. Vijayanagara Empire,
called Pargana was headed by 65. Akbar, 66. Baji Rao I,
74. Which muslim ruler was hailed as the Jagadguru 67. Senas, 68. Pallavas, 69. Lord
by his subjects because of his belief in Mountbatten, 70. Surya Sen,
secularism?
71. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel,
75. Where is the Vijaya Vithala temple, having its 56
72. Sayyid, 73. Amil, 74. lbrahim
carved pillars emitting musical notes located?
Adil Shah-lI, 75. Hampi, 76. Khwaja
76. Who was the founder of Sufi order in India?
Muin-ud-din Chisti
 GEOGRAPHY

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WORLD GEOGRAPHY
• Geography is the science that studies The fields of human geography are as follow:
ra
the lands, the features, the inhabitants Cultural geography
and the phenomena on the Earth. • Development geography
• The discipline of geography was
Economic geography
invented in the 2nd century BC by the Transport geography
nt

Greek Scholar Eratosthenes. Historical geography

Branches of Geography • Political geography
Geography is divided into two main Population geography
ie

•
branches i.e. physical geography and Settlement geography
human geography.
Physical Geography
Some Contributors Physical geography deals with the physical
jm

to Geography environment and the various process that

bring about changes in the physical
Eratosthenes was the first person to
calculate the circumference of the Earth environment on the Earth surface.
The fields of physical geography are as follow:
and also calculate the tilt of the Earth's
@

axis.
• Geomorphology It is the scientific study of
Anaximander created the first map of
world. landforms and processes that shape them.
Varahamihira's Brihatsamhita gave a Hydrology It is the study of the
thorough description of planetary movement, distribution and quality of
movements, rainfll, clouds etc. water on Earth, including the hydrological
Ptolemy first presented India on the cycle, water resources and environmental
world map. watershed sustainability.
The History of Mankind was written by Climatology It is the study of climate,
Friedrich Ratzel. which is scientifically defined as weather
conditions averaged over a period of time.
Human Geography Pedology It is the study of soils in their
natural environment.
Human geography is a branch of the
geography that studies the world, its Glaciology It is the study of glaciers and
ice sheets.
people, communities and cultures, with
an emphasis on relations of land across Biogeography It is the study of
space and place. relationships of organisms with their
environment.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 125

Universe
• The universe is commonly defined as the states that although the universe is
totality of everything that exists expanding, it nevertheless does not
including all physical matter and energy change its appearance over time and
the planets, stars, galaxies and the it has no beginning and no end.
contents of intergalactic space. (ii) The Pulsating Theory According to
• The study of universe is known as
this theory, the universe is supposed
Cosmolog. to be expanding and contracting
• The universe comprises of billions of alternately i.e. pulsating. At present,
galaxies. The galaxies are made up of the universe is expanding.
millions of stars held together by the NASA

e
has launched the Cosmic
force of gravity and these stars account Background Explorer (COBE) and the
. for most of the masses of the galaxy. Willkinson Microwave Anistropy Probe

nc
Our own galaxy is called the Milky Way (WMAP) missions to study the radiation
(or the Akash Ganga) and it contains present in the universe.
about 300 billion stars and one of these is
.Stars are
the Sun. Planets and other objects
revolve around the Sun and make up the Stars heavenly bodies made up of hot
ra
solar system with the Sun at the burning gases. They produce their own
centre.Andromeda is our nearest galaxy. light.
• In AD 140, Ptolemy propounded the
theory that the Earth
wvas
the centre of A neutron star is about 20 km in
the universe and the Sun and the other diameter and has a mass of about 1.4
nt

heavenly bodies evolved around it. times that of the Sun. Neutron stars are
• In
l543, Copernicus said that the Sun formed by supernova explosions. A
and not the Earth is the centre of pulsar is a highly magnetised and
universe. rotating neutron star.
ie

A star's colour indicates the temperature

•
Kepler supported Copernicus but said
that the Sun is the centre of solar system of its surface. Blue colour denotes
and not the universe. maximum temperature. White, yellow,
orange, red stars have sequentially
jm

• In 1924, Edwin Hubble first

demonstrated existence of galaxies declining range of temperatures.
beyond Millky Way. Evolutionary Stages ofa Star
• Structurally, the galaxies are found in 1. Proto Star Itis the stage, where the
three forms helium core become increasingly
@

(1) Spiral galaxies have a central heavy, accompanied with expanding

nucleus with great spiral arms. Milky outer layers.
Way and Andromeda are the
2. Red Giant This stage resulis into
examples. the swelling and reddening of the
(ii) Elliptical galaxies are without spiral outer regions of the star. Such stars of
arms and have ellipsoid shape. gigantic dimension is called Red Star.
(iii) Irregular galaxies have no shape. 3. White Dwarf If the mass of the star
is relatively small like that of our Sun,
Evolution of Universe the gases that reach the outer layer
The three main theories put forward to
are expelled. As these expelled gases
explain the origin and evolution of the cool and contract, the star becomes a
ZUniveSe are White Dwarf.
(i) Big Bang Theory (Proposed by Stars: Quick Digest
Georges Lemaitre) Big Bang was an Brightest star outside solar system is Sirius,
explosion that occurred 13.8 billion
years ago, leading to the formation of also called as Dog Star.
galaxies of stars and other heavenly Closest star to our solar system is Proxima
bodies. Centauri (4.2 light years away) followed by
Alpha Centauri (4.3 light years away) and
(i) Steady State Theory Bondi, Gold and Barnard's Star (5.9 light years away).
Fred Hoyle developed this theory. It
126 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE Geography

Conceptof BlackHole and The end of Solar System is about 122

Chandrashekhar Limit AU (Astronomical units) away from
the Sun.
•A renowned Indian Physicist Chandra
shekhar had predicted an iupper limit to the Components ofthe
mass of stars, which is called as
Chandrashekhar limit. It is 1.44 times the Solar System
mass of the Sun. Our Solar System consists of
• The Sun, Eight planets (excluding
• Above
the upper limit, two conditions are
possible. Pluto) and their respective satellites.
1. Explosion of the star to form neutron •
Interstellar debris such as asteroids,
meteoroids, comets.

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star.
2. Collapse and compaction of the stars to The electrically charged gases, called
form Black Hole. Plasma.

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.
The black holes are formed due to collapse Interplanetary dust particles.
and compaction under gravity, at the end of the components of solar system other
the life cycle of a star. than planets, dwarf planets and
• Some of the
units used for the calculation of satellites are called as Small Solar
ra
distances in universe are as follous: System Bodies (SSSB).
Units of Distance
Unit Description of the Urnit
Origin of the Solar System
Various theories were givern to explain
Light year It is the distance that light can
nt

the Origin of the Solar System.

travel in 1 year. It is equal to almost
946x 1o12 kn. Hypothesis Propounder
Astronomical It is the average distance Gaseous Hypothesis Kant
unit between the Sun and the Earth.
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1AU= 150 million km Nebular Hypothesis Laplace

is the distance from the Earth to
Planetesimal Chamberline and
Parsec It
a star that has parallax of 1 arc Hypothesis Moulton
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second. The actual length is Tidal Hypothesis SirJarnes Jeans

about 3.262 light years. and Harold Jeffreys
Binary Star Hypothesis HN Russell
SOLAR SYSTEM Supernova Hypothesis FHoyle
Dust
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•
The solar system comprises the Sun. 8 Interstellar
Hypothesis
Oto Schmidt
planets, their satellites and other
Electromagnetic
non-stellar objects, which are believed to Hypothesis
H Alven

have been developed from the

condensation of gases and other lesser Protoplanet Hypothesis Dr Von Weizsacker
G Kuiper
bodies. and
Nopluno
THE SUN
• The Sun accounts for more than
Solun
Umnua
99 per cent of the mass of the Solar
Mors System and due to this, the Sun
exerts immense gravitational pull on
Jupllor
hlorcur\ Earh
the planets to keep them rotating
SUN around it in definite elliptical orbit.
•
The Sun is the major source of energy
The Sun is at the centre of the solar system in the solar system. The energy is
and all the planets revolve around it in an provided by the nuclear fusion
elliptical orbit. It is the nearest star to the reaction, that converts hydrogen into
Earth. helium in the core of the Sun.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 127

• The glowing surface of the Sun that we see •

Aurora The constituent particles of
is called Photosphere. Above the the solar wind are trapped by the
photosphere is the red coloured Earth's magnetic field and enter the
Chromosphere and beyond it is the Earth's upper atmosphere as Aurora. It
magnificent corona, which is most easily is described as Aurora Borealis in the
visible during eclipses. Northern hemisphere and Aurora
Hydrogen and helium are the main gases Australis in Southern hemisphere.
present in the Sun. • Plages and Sunspots The
The sun has a surface temperature of chromosphere of the Sun is
about 6000°C. continuously changing. Bright spots on
It takes 224 million years to complete one the chromosphere are called Plages

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circle (revolution) around the centre of and dark spots are called Sunspots.
the Milky Way. This is known as a Cosmic The Sunspots are cold and dark regions
year. on the Sun's surface with a periodicity

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The Sun is 1300000 times bigger than the of 11 years. These spots greatly
Earth in terms of volume. influence the global climate.
• Superimposed on Sun's white light are
hundred of dark lines called Fraunhofer PLANETS
lines. Each line indicates some elements
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existing as gases in the Solar System.
• Planets are celestial bodies, which
continuously revolve around and are
Hydrogen
burning lighted by a star. There are eight
Core planets in the solar system that revolve
nt

around the Sun in an elliptical orbit.

Radiative
layer
•
The sequence of planets according to
their size (in descending order) is
Convection
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune,
ie

layer Earth, Venus, Mars and Mercury.

•
The sequence of planets according to
Chromosphere their distance from the Sun is Mercury,
Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
jm

Photosphere
Corona
Sunspot Uranus and Neptune.
Layers of the Sun Classification of Planets
Sun Fact sheet 1. Inner Planets Include Mercury,
@

Average dislance from

Venus, Earth and Mars.
149600000 km
the Earth 2. Outer Planets Include Jupiter,
Diametre 1391980 km Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
Temperature of the core 15000000°C Inner Planet Outer Planet
Rotation speed 25.38 days (with
respect to equator); 33 They are called as They are called as
days (with respect to Terrestrial or Rock Jovian or Gaseous
poles) planets. They are planels.
nearer to the Sun. They are far away
Time taken by sunlight 8 min and 16.6 sec
to reach the Earth from the Sun.
They have very few They have a large
Concepts Associated with the Sun natural satellites (or number of naural
moons) or no satellites (or moons).
• satellites.
Solar Winds The Sun is continuously
emitting streams of photons in all They have a core of They are formed
directions either as spiral streams called molten rocks. mainly of gases, with
a small rocky core.
Solar Wind or bouts of incandescent
material called Solar Flares. Solar flares They move faster and They move rather
increases ionisation in upper atmosphere have a shorter period slowly and have a
of revolution. longer period of
and thus pose danger to satellite revolution.
communication.
128 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

Planets Fact sheet Hottest Planet Venus

Biggest Planet Jupiter Densest Planet Earth
Biggest Satellite Ganymede Fastest Rotation in Solar Jupiter
(Jupiter) System
Blue Planet Earth Morning Star Venus
Green Planet Uranus Nearest Planet to Earth Venus
Brightest Planet Nearest Planet to Sun Mercury
Venus
Brightest Star Outside Sirius (Dog Star) Red Planet Mars
Solar System Slowest Revolution in Solar Neptune
Closest Star of Solar Proxima Centauri System

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System Slowest Rolation in Solar Venus
Coldest Planet Neptune System

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Smallest Planet Mercury
Evening Star Venus
Smallest Natural Satellite Deimos
Farthest Planet from Sun Neptune
Planet with Maximum Saturn Earth's Twin Venus
Number of Satellites Only Satelite with an Titan
ra Atmosphere Like Earth
Fastest Revolution in Solar Mercury
System
A Comparative Study of the Planets of the Solar System
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Planets Special Characteristics Rotation and Important Physical Satellite

Revolution Properties Systerms
Time
Mercury Smallest and the innermost Rotation: It has the maximum No satellite
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planet. It has no 58.65 days diurnal range of

atmosphere. Ii has a Revolution: 88 days temperature.
cratered surtace, much like (Fastest Revolution
the Moon. in the Solar System).
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Venus Also called as the veiled It has the slowest Rotates from East No satellite
planet as iË
rotational speed. It
is surrounded to West unlike the
by thick clouds known as has almost equal other planets. It is
(Evening and Morning rotation and the holtest planet.
star) as it is seen in the revolution. Rotation
@

East in morning and in the (Clockwise) 243

West in the evening. lE is days and
the brightest planet in solar Revolution: 224.7
system because of almost days.
70% albedo.
It contains 90 to 95% CO,.
The night and day
temperature are almost the
same.
Earth The Earth is neither too hot Rotation :24 hours; Itis the densest of Moon is ihe
nor too cold.It is called as Revolution: 365 alland is unique for only natural
the Blue Planet as 71% of days and 6 hours. the presence of satellite.
Surface is made up of higher forms of life.
water.

Mars Known as Red Planet. It Rotation 24.6 hour. Itis marked by Tvo satellites
has a thin atmosphere (almost equal to dormant volcanoes. Phobos and
comprising of nitrogen and Earth) Revolution: Olympus Mons is Deimos.
argon. 687 days. the highest
mOuntain, which is

three times higher

than the Mount
Everest.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography 129

Planets Special Characteristics Rotation and Important Physical Satelite

Revolution Properties Systerns
Time
Jupiter It is the largest planet in the Fastest rotational It is too massive to It
has 67
solar system with a mass velocity (9.8 hrs) solidify as a planet satellites.
2.5 imes greater than the Revolution :
but not massive Some of the
combined mass of all the 11.8 years enough to develop prominent
remaining planels, Nuclear fusion and satellites are:
satellites and asteroids put become a star. It Europa,
together. gives off more Callisto and
It contains hydrogen, energy than it Ganymede.
helium, methane and receives from the These are

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ammonia. A great red spot Sun, because ot called as
is detected on it. the heat inside. Galileon
Moons.

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Saturn It is the 2nd largest planet Rotation in 10.3 It has the least It has 82
and surrounded by a set hours. Revolution
is density of all the satellites, the
of eight rings, which are planets. 30 times argest being
In 29-years.
made up of primordial dust less dense than the Titan.
and ice particles. Earth.
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Uranus It is unique as its axis of Unlike the others, SurrOunded by a It
has 27
rotation is inclined at 98° to which spin on their systerm of 9 faint satellites. The
its orbital plane. axis, Uranus actually rings. prominent
rolls, apparently from are Miranda
to outh.
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North Ariel etc.

Rotation:17.2 hours
Revolution : 84 years
Neptune Itis farthest planet from the Rotation 16 hours It has 5 faint rings. It
has 14
Sun. It has a dynamic It appears as vivid
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and Revolution 165 satellites. The

atmosphere, which years. blue in colour. prominent
contained an Earth sized are Triton and
called the Great Dark Nereid.
Spot that is similar to the
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Jupiter's Great Red Spot.

Pluto is not a Planet Now

• Pluto was discovered by Clyde Tombaugh in 1930.
@

• The redefinition of planet by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) on 24th

August, 2006 states that, in the solar system, a planet is a celestial body that
it is in orbit around the Sun.
it has sufficient mass so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape.
" it has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit.
• A non-satellite body fulfilling the first two rule is classified as a Dwarf planet. So, Pluto
was reclassified as a Dwarf planet.
130 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE-Geography

Rotation Period 27 day, 7 h, 43 min and

THE MOON 11.47s
The study of Moon is called Selenology. Atmosphere Absent
Part of Moon not visible 41%
Specifics of the Moon from Earth
Distance from Earth 384400 km Maximurm distance 406000 km
from Earth (Apogee)
Diameler 3475 km
Mass (with respect to 1:81 Minimum distance from 356400 kn
Earth (Perigee)
Earth)
Ratio of Gravitational Circumference 11000 km
1:6
Pull of Moon and • Moon is also knowm as the fossil planet.

e
Earth
Highest Mountain 18046 ft • The Moon is the only natural satellite of
(Hugyens Mountain) the Earth.

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Time Taken by 1.3 s • The Moon has no atmosphere and no
Moonlight to Reach
twilight.
Earth .
Rotation speed 3680 krnph The size of the Moon is one-fourth (1/4th)
3680 krnph the size of the Earth.
Speed of Revolution
ra
around Earth Gravitational pull of the Moon is one-sixth
Revolution Period 27 days, 7h, 43 min (1/6th) that of the Earth.
around Earth and 11.47s • Silicon, iron, magnesium etc elements are
found mainly on the Moon's surface.
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Interstellar Debris:
Asteroids, Meteoroids, Comets
ie

Various Asteroids or Comets Meteoroids/Meteors

Aspeots Planetoids
Constitutents Composed of rocks, Comets may originale in Meteoroids are small fragments
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and Genesis dust and metal. a huge cloud called the of rocks and metal. Under the
They cannot retain Oort cloud that is Earth's gravitational field, they
their atOsphere thought to surround the burn and become white hot
due to small size. solar system. It is through friction as they fall
Compos of frozen through the atmosphere and are
gases dust. seen as the Meteors or
@

Shooting stars.
Shape and No definite shape, Comets have a head No delinite shape.
Size rather same as of and tail, where the tail
Planetoids or small always points away
planet. from the Sun because
of the solar wind and
the radiation pressure.
Orbit They orbit the Sun in They have an extremely Meteoroids travel through space.
the asteroid belt. eccentric orbit but with Meteors are scattered in the
which lies between definite periodicity interplanetary space of the solar
the orbits of Mars system.
and Jupiter.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE Geography 131

The Earth
• Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the densest and the fifth-largest of the eight
planets in the solar systenm.It is also the largest of the solar system's four terrestrial
planets. Earth is also called as Blue Planet.
•
The age of the Earth is estimated about 4.6 billion years. The history of the Earth is
studied in terms of geological eras, periods and epochs. The whole history is divided
into three Eras-Palaeozoie, Mesozoic and Cenozoie.
Geological History of the Earth

e
Cenozoic Era Beginning Remarks
Period
(years before present)

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Ouarternary Period Holocene Epoch 10000 Modern man
Pleistocene Epoch 2 million Homo Sapiens
Tertiary Period Pliocene Epoch 5 milion Early human ancestors
Miocene Epoch
ra24 million Flowering plants and
trees
Oligocene Epoch 38 million Early horses, cals,
dogs, camels
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Eocene Epoch 55 million Rabbits, Hare

Small marnmals rats,
:
Palaeocene Epoch 63 million
mice
Mesozoic Era Cretaceous Period 138 million Extinction of dinosaurs
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Jurassic Period 205 million Age of dinosaurS

Triassic Period 240 million Frogs and turtles
Palaeozoic Era Permian Period 290 million Reptiles dominate,
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Replace amphibians
Lower Carboniferous 330 million 1st Reptiles
Period
Upper Carboniferous 360 million Fish
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Period
Devonian Period 410 million Amphibiarns
Silurian Period 435 million Corals
Ordovician Period 500 million Graptolites
Cambrian Period 570 million Trilobites
Pre-Carmbrian Period 4.5 billion Bacteria
132 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Earth Fact Sheet THE EARTH'S

4.6 billion years
Age MOVEMENT
Mass 5.9 x 10 kg
The Earth moves in space in two distinct
Volume 1083 x 1012 Km ways:Rotation and Revolution.
Mean Density 5.513 g/om (i) It rotates on its own axis from West
to East once in every 24 hours. It
Shape An oblate
causes day and night.
spheroid or a
geoid (iü) It revolves around the Sun in an
Radius of Earth 6400 km orbit once in every 365% days. It
causes the seasons and the year.

e
Total surface area 509700000 sq
km
Rotation of Earth

nc
Land area (29%) 148400000 sa
Spins on its imaginary axis from West to
km
East in 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4.09
Water area (71%) 361300000 sq seconds.
km
The rotational speed at equator is
Rolation time 23 hours 56
ra maximum (1667 km/hr) and then
minute and 4.09 decreases towards the poles, where it is
seconds
Zero.
Revolution time 365 days, 5
hours, 48
The days and the nights are equal at the
equator.
nt

minutes and
45.51 seconds The rotation of the Earth has the following
inplications such as:
Orbit speed about the Sun 29.8 krn/second
Causation of day and night.
Mean surface temperature 14°C Change in the direction of winds and
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Highest termperature 58°C Ocean Currents.

recorded A-Aziziyah Rise and fall of tides everyday.
Mean Distance from the Sun 149598500 km A difference of one hour between the
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or 150 million
two meridians which are l5° apart.
km (1AU)
Inclination of polar axis from 23° 26 min and
orbital plane 59 s
Revolution of Earth
• It is the Earth's motion in elliptical orbit
Deepest ocean point 11034 m,
@

around the Sun. It takes 365 days, 5

Mariana Trench
(Pacilic Ocean) hours, 48 minutes and 45.51 seconds. It
leads to one extra day in every fourth year.
Time coordinale of Earth Longitudes The revolution of the Earth esults in
Termperature Latitudes changes of season.
COoordinate of Earth
variation of the length of the days and
nights at different times of the year.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE Geography 133

Shifting of
thewind belts.
The figure given below shows the revolution of the Earth and its effects on seasons
and the variations of lengths of day and night.
NP

hermisphere SUmmer
Shemisphere inler
,N n in N hemísphhers
h
hitumnin
23rd nemisphere
September
Soringin
ere
NP

e
Equator

22nd December
Sun

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21st June
Equator
hemsisphere
um sohere
mer
erin inS hemisphrere hemisp
21st March
ra S
Nhemisphere Autumnin N
Springio
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Revolution of the Earth

Major Difference Between Rotation and Revolution of Earth

ie

Rotation Revolution
Spinning of Earth on its own axis. Movement of the Earth around ihe Sun in an elliptical
orbit.
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Earth takes 24 hours to complete one The Earth iakes 365.25 days to complete one revolution.
rolation.
Rolation causes day and night. Revolution along with inclination of the Earth on its axis
causes change in seasons.
Earth's Position wrt Moon
@

Apogee Perigee
The period of the farthest distance between the The period of the nearest distance between ihe
Moon and the Earth is called Apogee. It is about Moon and the Earth is called Perigee. It is about
406000 kn. 356400 kn.

Earth's Position wrt Sun

Perihelion Aphelion
The period of the nearest distance The period of the farthest distance between the Earth and the
between the Earth and the Sun is Sun is Aphelion. IE happens on 4th July and the distance is
Perihelion. It happens on 3rd 152 million krn.
January and ihe dislance is 147
million km.

Tilt of the Earth's Axis

.
The axis of the Earth is inclined to the plane of ecliptic (the plane, in which the Earth
orbits round the Sun) at an angle of 664°, giving rise to different seasons and varying
lengths of day and night.
134 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

• If the axis were perpendicular to Longest day in the Northern 21st June
this plame, all parts of the globe hemisphere
would have equal days and Shortest day in the Northern 22nd Decermber
nights at all times of the year. hemisphere
. Equal day and night in the 21st March and 23rd
The Earth is ilted about 23.5° Northern hernisphere September
from a line perpendicular to 22nd December
Longest day in the Southern
eciptic plane. hemnisphere
Perpendicular Shortest day in the Southern 21st June
Mo
Pole hemisphere
Equal day and night in the 21st March and 23rd
o Southern hernisphere September

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Eclilpic
Ecliptic
Plane Plane
Seasons
• They are the periods into which the year can be

nc
divided as a result of the climatic conditions,
noSoulh mainly due to the changes in duration and
Pole intensity of solar radiation.
There are four seasons:
ra
Surmmer Auturmn Winter
Equinoxes Spring
When the When the Sun When the Sun The Sun is
•
These are the days, when days Sun is is directly returns to the at the
and nights are equal. Under this directly Overhead the equator and the Tropic of
situation, the Sun is vertically Overhead Tropic of North Capricorn
nt

overhead at the equator It the Cancer -ihe termperate zone and the
happens on two days of the year equator. North experiences the North
i.e. 21st March and 23rd (21st termperate zone season of temperale
March) ummer.iences autumn. (23rd Zone
September. (21st Seplermber) experience
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• 21st March: Vernal Equinox. June) S winter.

• 23rd September: Autumnal (22nd
December)
Equinox.
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Summer Solstice Latitude

• After the March equinox, the • Latitude is the angular distance of a point on the
Sun appears to move Northward Earth's surface from the centre of the Earth,
and is vertically overhead at the measured in degree. These lines are called
@

Tropic of Cancer on 2lst June. parallels of latitude and on the globe they are
This is known as Summer represented as circles. The circumference of the
Solstice. circles decreases from equator to pole and at the
• On 21st June, the Northern pole it converges to a point.
hemisphere will have its longest • The distance between any two parallels of
day and shortest night. The latitude is always equal. One degree latitude =
Southern hemisphere will have 111 km (approx). The most important lines of
shortest day and longest night. latitudes are Equator (0), the Tropic of Carncer
(234°N), the Tropic of Capricorn (23V°S), the
Winter Solstice Arctic Circle (664°N) and the Antarctic Circle
(662°S).
• On 22nd December, the Sun is
overhead at the Tropic of
Capricorn. This is the winter
Longitude
Longitude is the angular distance of point on
a
solstice, when the Southern
hemisphere will have its longest the Earth's surface along the equator, East or
day and shortest night. West from the Prime meridian. On the globe,
A summary of daylight hours in they form semi-circles from pole to pole passing
the Northern and Southern through the equator
hemisphere is as follows:
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 135

• Prime meridian is the semi-circle from pole to time, which is 5 hrs 30 mins ahead
pole, from which all the other meridians of the Greenwich Mean Time.
radiate Eastwards and Westwards up to 180°. • The Earth is divided in 24
In 1884, it has been decided that the zero longitudinal zones, each being l5
degree meridian is the one that passes through degree or 1 hour apart in time (360
the Royal Astronomical Observatory at degree = 24 hours, 360/24 =15
Greenwich near London. 180° meridian degree in I hour) or l degree in 4
(International Date Line) is exactly opposite to minute are called Standard Time
the prime meridian. Such points are called Zones.
antipodal points. • Larger countries such as USA,
North Polo
(90"N Loliludo)
Russia and Canada, which have
Laliludes greater East-West stretch have to

e
Longiludes

LAralio Clrcle 66.5°N adopt several time ZOnes for

practical purposes.

nc
Tropio ol Cancor 29.5'N • Russia has as many as 11 time zones.
• Both USA and Canada have five
Equalor
time zones, viz, the Atlantic,
0
Lotitudo
L

Tropic ol Capricom Eastern, Central, Mountain and

23 5°S
Pacific time zones.
ra
PrirmoAnlarclic CioeIIN 66.8 • A simple memory aid for time is
CMeridion
(0 Longiludo)
East-Gain-Add (EGA) and West
South Polo Lose-Subtract (WLS).
(90'S Lolnudo)

Latitude and Longitude on the Earth International Date Line

nt

•
Universal Time (Standard time) It is the 180 degree meridian
running over the Pacific Ocean,
and Time Zones deviating at Aleutian Island, Fiji,
• To avoid confusion about having many local Samoa and Gilbert Island.
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times within one country, a particular At the International Date Line, the
meridian is chosen for the whole country, date changes by exactly one day,
whose time is known as standard time. when it is crossed.
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• The Indian Government has accepted the Samoa and Tokelau shifed its
meridian of 82.5 degree East for standard position to the West of the date line
on 30th December, 2011.

ECLIPSE
@

• An eclipse occurs when the Sun, the Moon and the Earth are in a straight line. There
are two types of eclipses-Solar and Lunar eclipse.
• Generally, a total of seven eclipse including solar and
lunar ecipses, take place in a
year.

Lunar Eolipse Solar Eclipse

It isthe situation, when the Earth comes between It is the situation, when the Moon
Sun and Moon. comes between Sun and Earth.
It occurs only on a full Moon day. But, it does not It ocCurs only on a new Moon day.
occur on every full Moon day because the Moon But, it does not 0ccur on every new
is so smalland the plane of its orbit is tilted about Moon day because of the inclination
5 degree with respect to the Earth's orbital plan. of the Moon's orbital plan.
Umbra
Earth Moon
Umbra

Sun Sun
Penumbra Penumbra

Diagramatic Representations of Lunar and Solar Eclipse

136 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

• The average density of this layer is about 5.68

EARTHS INTERIOR gm/cm.
The interior of Earth is divided into • The transitional zone separating the mantle
three parts from the core is called the Gutenberg
i) Crust (i1) Mantle (i) Core Discontinuity.

The Crust The Core

• The crust is the outermost and the The core is the imnermost layer of the Earth
thinnest layer of the Earth. This and occupies its centre. It is about 3500 km in
layer has the least density and its radius.
.
thickness varies about 8 to 40 km. The core is further divided into two layers :

e
Mohorovicie Discontinuity or core core.
Moho, marks the lower limit of the . Outerouter and inner core
The part of the is believed to have

nc
Crust. This discontinuity is the properties of a liquid and the innermost
identified on the basis of rock
part of the core (about 1255 km in radius)
density. may be called solid or crystalline.
.
Thickness of the crust is more in • This layer is also known as
the continents and lesser in the
Nile (nickel and
rairon), because this layer contain large
oceans while density of continental
concentration of iron and nickel.
crust is lower than oceanic crust. • Temperature of the core is between 2200°C
• The rocks forming
the upper layer and 2750°C.
of crust of the Earth are rich in • Density of this part of the
Earth is
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lighter minerals like silica and

13.6 gm/cm° and is many times greater than
aluminium. Hence, this layer is
also called as SiAI (silica and the average density of the Earth
(5.53 gm/cm").
aluminium). The average density of
ie

this layer is 2.7 gm/cm

• Due to presence of minerals like
silica and magnesium in the lower Conrad Disgonlinuily Upper Crust (SIAL)
part of Earth's crust, it is also Lower Crust (SllMA)
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Crust
known as SiMa (silica and bilohorovicc
40 km
magnesium). /250 km
Aalhenosphere
Upper lonle
Repelli Disconlinuity
• Sial and Sima together form
Earth's 700 km
CIust.
@

Lower Monle
onlinuity
The Mantle 2900 km
•
This layer is the intermediate layer Liquid -Ouler Core
of the Earth in terms of both its Leimon
(NiFe)
Oinconiulty/
location and density. 5150 km
• It is about 2900 km in thickness,
composed of minerals in a semi Solid
solid state. Inner Core
(NIFe)
• It is divided into further two layer
upper mantle and lower mantle. 6371 km

The upper part of the mantle is

called the Asthenosphere, which is
about 250 km thick. Internal Structure of the Earth
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE- Geography 137

Discontinuities Sea Floor Spreading Theory

The various layers are separated by The concept of sea floor spreading was first
discontinuities, which are evident in seismic formulated by Harry Hess in the year
data. 1960.
- According to this theory, the mid oceanic
Conrad discontinuity lies between upper
crust and lower crust. ridges were situated on the rising thermal
Mohorovicic discontinuity lies between convective current coming from mantle.
crust and mantle. The oceanic crust moves in opposite
Repetti discontinuity lies between upper directions from mid oceanic ridges and
mantle and lower mantle. thus there is continuous upwelling of new

e
Gutenberg discontinuity lies between molten materials along the mid oceanic
core and mantle. Here, the Earth's density ridges. These molten masses cool down
as wellas velocity of 'P' waves increases. and solidify to form new Crust.

nc
Lehmann discontinuity divides outer Core Plate Tectonics Theory
and inner core.
• Plate tectonic theory is a scientific theory
that describe the large-scale motions of
Composition of the
ra Earth's lithosphere.
Earth's Crust • The wvord tectonics comes from the Greek
Elerments Percent- Elerments Percent word meaning builder.
age (b) age (%) The theory of Plate tectonics states that
nt

Oxygen 46 Caloium 3.6

the lithosphere is divided into several rigid
segments, which include both oceanic and
Silicon 28 Sodium 2.8
continental crusts. These segments are
Aluminium 8 Potassium 2.6 called plates and they are moving on the
Iron 6 Magnesium 1.5 asthenosphere, which is not a liquid, but a
ie

semi-solid which flows under stress.

Continental Drift Theory About 20 such plates have been identified.
• There are seven major plates such as
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This theory is given by Alred

Eurasia, Antarctica, North America, South
Wegener, in 1915, to explain the
America, Pacific, African and Indian Plate.
origin and evolution of the continents
and the oceans. According to this There are various intermediate sized plates
theory, about 250 million years ago, such as China, Philippine, Arabian, Iran,
@

there wvas only one huge continental Nazca, Cocos, Caribbean and Scotia
landmass named Pangea and it was Plates.
surrounded by one huge mass of water
body, named Panthalassa. Plate Margins
upon the type of movement. plate
•
The present shape of he continents Depending
un of MaTgiIS aTe of three types
:

and oceans is due to the break

Pangaea. (i) Divergent Plate Margin (Constructive
• process margins)
This breaking started about
200 million years ago. (ii) Convergent Plate Margin (Destructive
• margins)
The Northern rift cuts Pangea from
(iii) Parallel Plate Margin (Conservative
East to West creating Laurasia in the
North and Gondwanaland in South. A margin or Transfornm Boundary)
shallow sea called Tethys was situated Collision can occur between two oceanic
between the Laurasia and the plates, one oceanic and one continental
Gondwanaland. plate or two continental plates.
138 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

Types of Plate Boundary

Divergent Plate Bourndary Corvergent Plate Boundary Transfo Faut Boundary
When the plates move apart A convergent plate boundary is They are located, where
with the upwelling of material one, where two plates collide, one plales slide past one another
from the mantle, divergent plate bending downward and without the creation
plate boundary are formed. subducting below the other. destruction of crust.
Formation of the mid-oceanic Deep oceanic trench is formed San Andreas fault along the
ridges are the example of adjacent to the zone of subduction. West ooast of Mexico is a
divergent plate margin. Fold mountains are the result of famous transform fault.
convergent plate boundary.

e
FORCES AND PROCESSES AFFECTING THE

nc
EARTHS CRUST
•Appearance of the surface of the Earth keeps changing.
•
These changes are produced under the influence of two type of forces.
These are given below :
ra
EXOGENETICOR EXTERNAL FORCES
•
The forces occurring on the surface of the Earth are called the external or exogenetic
nt

forces.
• Weathering and Erosion are the examples of external forces.

Weathering
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It is the process of disintegration or decomposition of rocks in situ by natural agents.

There are three types of weathering
1. Physical Weathering
(or mechanical weathering) Process
The of Chemical Weathering
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• It involves rock disintegration Process Mechanism of Chermical Weathering

without any change in the Solution It involves the dissolution of soluble

chemical constituents of the particles and minerals from the rocks

with of water.
the help
rocks.
represents addition of oxygen to form
@

• The Oxidation It
factors responsible for Oxides.
physical weathering are It is the reaction of carbonate or
Carbonation
temperature change, bicarbonate ions with minerals.
crystallisation of water into Hydration It is the process of addition of vwaler to
ice, the pressure release the minerals.
mechanism. Hydrolysis It is the process wherein both minerals
2. Chemical Weathering It of rocks and water moleclues
involves the decomposition due decompose and react in such a way that
new mineral compounds are formed.
to chemical changes. There are
various chemical processes,
which cause chemical weathering such as Solution, Oxidation, Carbonation,
Hydration, Hydrolysis and Chelation.
3. Biological Weathering It is mainly controlled by plants and animals and human
beings. It is divided into three types
(i) Faunal weathering (ii) Floral weathering (ii)Anthropogenic weathering

Erosion
• It involves removal of rock material and their transportation. Erosion is performed by
mobile agents such as rivers, streams, winds, waves and underground water.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 139

ENDOGENETIC OR Orogenetic Force

movement is caused due to
•
INTERNAL FORCES Orogenetic
endogenetic forces working in horizontal
. movement. Horizontal forces and movements
The forces originating in the
are also called as tangential forces.
interior of the Earth are called the
internal or the endogenetic forces.Orogenetic or horizontal forces work in two
• These forces are of two types ways, namely
i) in opposite direction from each other and
Sudden Endogenetic (ii) towards each other:.
or
Forces Catastrophic • When it operates in opposite direction it is

e
Forces called tensional force. Tensional force create,
• Sudden endogenetic forces are the
faulting cracking and fracture. Tensional
forces are also called as divergent forces.

nc
result of long periods of •
preparation deep within the Earth. The force, when operates face to face, is called
compressional force or convergent force.
• But
their cumulative effects on Compressional forces create folding and
the Earth's surface are quick and
sudden. warping.
ra
• Volcanoes, and Earthquakes are Forces Affecting the Earth's Crust
the examples of sudden
endogenetic forces.
Endogenelic Forces Exogenelic Forces
Slow and Gradual
nt

Endogenetic Forces or Sudden Slow and Gradual Erosion

- Wealhering
Diastrophic Forces
.
Endogenetic Endogenetic Forces
Diastrophic forces include both Forçes
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vertical and horizontal movements

which are caused due to forces
deep within the Earth. These Valcanoes Earthquake
diastrophic forces operate very
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Faulting
slowly and there effects become
Cracking
visible after thousands and millions Epirogenetic Orogenelic -Tension Fraclure
of years. Force Force
• -Compression
These forces termed
@

constructive forces affects larger Folding

areas of the globe and produce Warping
Upward Downward movement
Imeso-level reliefs e.g. mountains, movement
plateaus, plains, tectonic lakes,
big faults etc.
.
These diastrophic forces are EARTHQUAKES
further subdivided into tvo groups
namely epirogenetic forces and • It refers to the vibration on the Earth's surface
orogenetic forces. caused by the catastrophic endogenetic forces.
• The magnitude or intensity of energy released
Epirogenetic Force by an earthquake is measured by the Richter
These are vertical movements. Scale, whereas the damage caused is measured
It causes upliftment and by modified Mercalli Intensity Scale.
subsidence of continental masses •
through upward movemnents. The place of origin of earthquake is called
These forces and resultant focus. The place on the ground surface, which
movements affect larger parts of is perpendicular to the focus or hypocentre is
the continents. These are further called Epicentre.
divided into two type: upward Seismology is the special branch of geology
movement and downward that deals with the study of earthquake.
movenment.
140 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~Geography

EARTHQUAKE WAVES Earthquakes occur Assam,

Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Tripura,
Earthquake waves are seismic waves that Manipur, Mizoram, Andaman and
are created when energy builds up in rocks Nicobar Islands, Jammu and Kashmir,
and they fracture. the North-Western region of Uttar
Earthquake waves are basically of Lwo Pradesh and the Northern region of
Bihar etc.
types : body waves and surface waves.
Distribution of Earthquakes
Body Waves
Most of the world's earthquakes occur in
They are generated due to the release of
energy at the focus and move in all the zones of youmg fold mountain
directions travelling through the body of the zones of folding and faulting

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the Earth. The body waves interact with the zone of junction of continental and
the surface rocks and generate new set of oceanic margin

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waves called Surface Wave. There are two
the zone of active volcanoes
types of body waves, Primary and
Secondary waves. along diferent plate boundaries
The traditional zones of earthguakes are
Primary Waves
1.
Circum Pacific belt
ra Mid Continental belt
Primary Waves (P Waves) These are the
waves of short wavelength and high Mid Atlantic belt
frequency. They are longitudinal waves Epicenter

and can travel through solid, liquid and S-WavGb Pand

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gases. s

2. Secondary Waves
Secondary Waves (S Waves) These are the
waves of short wavelength and high
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frequency. They are transverse waves, Liguid

oulor Solld
innor dorb
which travel through only solid particles. Coro

108°

Surface Waves or Long Pawovo PNrOve

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shodon:2onc, hodo zono

Waves (LWaves)
They are the waves of long wavelength, and Nlantle

they travel through the Earth's crust. It

@

causes most of the structural damage on

SVnvos
the surface of Earth during an earthquake. No dirocl -Lnovos
Snovos
Earthquake Waves
THE EARTHQUAKE
ZONES IN INDIA SHADOW ZONE
The Indian plate is moving from South to
There are some specific area where
North at the speed of 5 cm/year and the earthquake waves do not occur or occur
Eurasian Plate is static at its own fixed rarely. Such areas are termed as Shadow
position, so there is a collision between
ZOnes.
Indian Plate and Eurasian Plate. Due to
this collision, the earthquakes occurs in the It is located betveen 105° and 140° from
Himalayan region of India. The collision epicentre.
also results in the increase of the height of
Himalayas at the speed of 1 em/year. VOLCANISM
• An important earthquake zone is located
parallel to Punjab and Rann of Kachchh. Volcanism includes all phenomena
It occus due to the movement between connected with the movement of heated
the transform boundaries of Eurasian material from the interior towards the
and Indian Plates. surface of the Earth.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 141

a vent or opening, through which heated molten materials consisting of

•A volcano is
gases, water, liquid Java, fragments of rocks are ejected from the highly heated and
melted interior to the surface of the Earth.
Volcanic eruptions are closely associated with several integrated processes such as:
• Gradual increase in temperature with increasing depth, due to the
heat generated by
degeneration of radioactive elements inside the Earth.
.
Origin of magma due to the lowering of the melting point caused by reduction in
pressure of overlying rocks which is due to fractures caused by splitting of plates.
• Origin of gases and water vapour due to heating of water.
• Ascent of magma due to pressure from gases and vapour.
• Occurrence of
volcanic eruption.

e
Classification of Volcanoes

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On the Basis of Mode of Eruption
Central Eruption or Explosive Type Fissure Eruption or Quiet Eruption
Here the magma comes with great force Large quantities of lava quietly ilow up from
through the small vent and forms volcanic fissures and spread out over the Surrounding
ra
cones. e.g. Hawaian type, Strombolian type, areas. Successive flow of lava results in the growh
Pelean type, VesuviOus type, etc. of lava plaleau. e.g. Deccan Plateau.

On the Basis of Periodicity of Eruptions

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Active Volcanoes Dormant Volcanoes Extinct Volcanoes

Those volcanoes that Those volcanoes that have been Volcanoes that have not erupted at
frequently erupt or they known to erupt and show signs all in historic times but they retain the
have erupted in recent of possible eruptions in future. features of a volcano.
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times. e.g. Mt. Etrna in e.g., Mt. Kilimanjaro in Africa e.g. Mt. Chimborazo in Ecuador
Italy.
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Volcanic Belts
•
Circum-Pacific Belt (Fire girdle of the Pacific or the fire ring of the Pacific). It
extends across the Kamchatka Peninsula, Kurile Islands, the Islands of Japan,
Philippines, New Guinea, New Zealand and the Soloman Islands.
•
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Major volcanic peaks in the circumpacific belt includes Mt. Krakatoa, Mt. Saint
Helens, Mt. Ruapehu, Mt. Fuji, Mt. Popo Catepte, Mt. Ojas Del Salado, Mt. Okmok etc.
• Mid-Continental Belt (Volcanic ZOnes of convergent continental plate
Margins). It includes volcanoes of Alpine mountain chain, the Mediterranean sea
and the fault zone of Easterm Africa of Stromboli, Vesuvius, Etna, Kilimanjaro etc.
•
Mid-Atlantic Belt, in which the volcanoes are fissure eruption type, e.g. lceland,
Canary Islands, Cape Verde, Azores etc.
Important Volcanic Mountains
Narmes Height (m) Country Last Eruption
Visuvius 1281 (m) Italy 1944 AD
St. Helens 2550(m) U.S.A 1980 AD
Krakatoa 813(m) Indonesia 2019 AD
Mauna Loa 4169(m) U.S.A (Hawaii) 1984 AD
Cotopaxi 5897(m) Ecuador 2015 AD
Fujiyama 3776(m) Japan 1707 AD
Popo Ceteptl 5426(m) Mexico 2016 AD
Ojas Del Salado 6893(m) Chile-Argentina 700 ± 300 AD
142 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

Rocks Extrusive Rocks They are formed

•
due to cooling and solidification of hot
• An aggregate of one or more minerals
and molten magma at the Earth
found on the surface of Earth is known as surface, e.g. Basalt, Gabbro etc.
Rock.
• Rocks may be hard, soft and varied in On the basis of Silica Content
colours. • Acidic: It has more silica content e.g.
• Various Minerals are obtained from rocks. Granite.
Rocks are classified in three main types Basic : It has less amount of silica
depending on the process of their formation content e.g. Gabbro.
i) Igneous (ii) Sedimentary
Sedimentary Rocks

e
(ii) Metamorphic
• The word 'Sedimentary' is derived from
Igneous Rocks the Latin word sedimentum, which

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• Formed due to the cooling, solidification means settling.
• It is formed due to the aggregation and
and crystallisation of hot and molten
magma. compaction of sediments derived from
• They are known as the primary rocks as the older rocks Or dead remains of
all the other rocks are
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or plants, animals and contains fossils of
formed directly
indirectly from the igneous rocks. plants.
• The sedimentary
• It is believed that the igneous rocks are rocks can be
formed during each period of geological classified on the basis of the nature of
:
history of Earth. sediments mechanically, chemically
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and organically formed rocks.

• They are hard, granular and crystalline
rocks, less affected by chemical Mode of Formation
weathering.
Mechanically Chemically Organically
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• Moreover, it does not have any fossil or

does not form any strata or layers of lava. Formed Formed Formeod
Sandstone Gypsum, Salt Limestone,
(Sedimenlary Conglomerate rock Coal, Peat,
jm

Wealhering,
Heat and/or Dolomite
erosion,
pressure
transport.,
deposilion, Metamorphic Rocks
These are the changed form of Igneous
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The and Sedimentary rocks.

lgneous Rock (Metamorphic • These are the rocks, which change
Cycle
either in form or composition without
disintegration.
• Already formed igneous, sedimentary
Intrusion Burial and even metamorphic rocks are
or eruption extreme heat
changed to other forms and this
Magma process is called metamorphosis.
• The agents of metamorphism are heat,
The Formation of Rocks Compression and solution.
CLASSIFICATION OF Rock Transformation
IGNEOUS ROCKS Original Rock Metarnorphic Rock
On the basis of Mode of Occurrence Limestone Marble
Sandstone Quartzite
•
Intrusive Rocks They are formed due to
the solidification of rising magna below Shale/Clay Slale, Phyllite, Schist
the surface of the Earth, e.g. Granite, Coal Diamond
Lapolith, Batholiths, Sills etc Granite Gneisse
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE Geography 143)

Landforms
Classification of Landforms mountains or horsts or it subsides into a
• There are four major landforms formed depression termed as Rift valley or
Earth's surface. These are Graben.
nountains, hills, plateaues and plains. Horsts
Landform % of the total Global
Graben
Surface Area
Plains 41

e
Plateau 33
Hills 14

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Mountains 12
Block Mountains
Mountains • Example of Block mountain : Vindhyan
Based on their mode of formation four and Satpura in India, the Vosges in France
nain types of nountain can be and Black forest in Germany (through
ra
distinguished. which Rhine river flows).
Fold Mountains Volcanic Mountains
• It is formed due to the face to face • They are formed due to the accumulation
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orogenetic movements generated by of volcanic material.

endogenetic forces. They are also called Mountains of
• Example of fold
moutains : Himalayas, Accumulation.
Alps, Andes, Rockies, Atlas etc. • Examples : Mt Fuji (Japan), Cotopaxi in
ie

On the basis of age, fold mountains are Andes, Vesuvius and Etna in Italy, Mt
grouped into Mayon (Philippines) etc.
(a) Young/New Pold Mountains It came
into existence after the continental Residual or Dissected Mountains
jm

drift and plate movements. eg. • They are formed as a result of erosion of
Himalayas, Andes, Rockies, Alps. plateaus and high planes by various
Himalayas are regarded as the agents of erosion.
youngest mountains in the world. • Examples : Catskill
mountains of New
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(b) Old Fold Mountains They were York, Sierras of Central Spain, Highlands
once young fold mountains. But
of Scotland, Parasnath, Girnar, Deccan
now, they have denuded due to
Plateau and Rajmahal of India.
erosional processes.
e.g. Pennines (Europe), Appalachians Major Mountain Ranges
(US), Aravallis (India) etc.
Ranges Locations Length (km)
Andes South America 7200
Himalayas, South Central 5000
Karakoram and Asia
Hindu kush
Rockies North America 4800
Fold Mountains
Great Dividing East Australia 3600
Range
Block Mountains Atlas North-West 1930
• It is formed when great block of Earth's Africa
crust may be raised or lowered due to Caucasus Europe 1200
tectonic activities. Alps Europe 1200
• The land between the two paralled Alaska USA 650
faults either rises forming Block
144 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~Geography

Plateaus Volcanic Plateau These are formed by

e.g. North-Western
• Tabular upland having relief of more accumulation of lava.
part of Deccan Plateau (India).
may be defined as plateau.
. than 500 feet
Tibetan plateau (5000 m) is the process ofPlateau
Dissected Through the continual
weathering and erosion by
highest plateau in the world. running water, ice and winds, high extensive
Major Plateaus plateau are gradually worn down, and their
surface becomes irregular. For example, the
Plateau Location Scottish Highlands.
Tibetan Plateau Between Himalayas
and Kunlun mountains
Plains

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• A
relatively low-lying and flat land surface
Deccan Plateau Southern India
with the least difference between its
Arabian Plateau South-West Asia highest and lowest points is called a Plain.

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Plateau of Brazil Central-Eastern South •
The plains are divided into structural,
Armerica erosional and depositional plains.
Plateau of Mexico Mexico Classification of Plains
Plateau of Colornbia USA
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Structural Erosional Plain Depositional
Plateau of Madagascar Plain Plain
Madagascar
Formed Formed when the Formed by
Plateau of Alaska North-West North due to ihe elevated tract of filling up of
America uplift of a land is worn down
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sediments into
part of the to a plain by the depressions
Plateau of Bolivia Andes Mountains sea iloor process of along the
Great Basin Plateau South of Colormbia e.g. the erosion. e.g. Plain foothills, lakes
Plateau, USA Great Plain of North Canada. and seas e.g.
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of USA. Indo Ganga

Colorado Plateau South of Great Basin Plain.
Plateau, USA
Kimberley Plateau Australia
ATMOSPHERE
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Antolia Plateau Turkey

Argentina Atmosphere is a thick gaseous envelope
Patagonia Plateau surrounding the Earth from sides and
Iberian Plaleau Spain attached to the Earth through the force of
gravity.
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Kalango Plateau Dermocratic Republic

of Congo Significance of Atmosphere
According to their mode of formation and • Acts as a filter because it absorbs the
their physical appearance, plateaus may harmful Ultraviolet radiation.
be grouped into the following types: • Source of various life supporting gases
Tectonie Plateau These are formed by such as Oxygen, carbon dioxide etc.
Earth movements which cause uplift. Supports life forms in biosphere.
They are normally of a considerable size
and fairly uniform altitude. Extent
. ofAtmosphere
• Examples of Tectonic Plateau are: Though the exact attitude of atmosphere
Tibetan Plateau between the is not known, but it is estimated that it
Himalayas and the Kunlun and the extends till 10,000 km above the Earth's
Bolivian Plateau between two ranges of surface.
the Andes. • The vertical distribution of atmospheric
• When plateau are enclosed by Fold
layers is not uniform.
moutains, they are known as • Almost 98% of atmospheric mass is
Intermont Plateau. e.g. Bolivian limited to an altitude of 30 km from the
Plateau. surface of Earth.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 145)

Composition of Atmosphere
• The atmosphere is composed of gases, water vapour and particulates.
• Gases such as Helium, Ozone and Hydrogen etc are present in traces.
• Ozone gas absorbs the ultraviolet radiations and protects the biosphere from its
adverse impact.
The percentage composition ofthe various gases in atmosphere upto 50 km is given below:
Gases Percentage Composition Significance
Nitrogen 78.08% Acts as dilutent and is generally chemically inactive.
Oxygen 21% Inhaled by biotic components for survival. Oxygen is

e
also essential for combustion of burning matter.
Argon 0.93% Inert gas.
Being a greenhouse gas, it maintains the

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Carbon 0.03%
dioxide termperature of the lower almosphere.
Neon 0.0018% Inert gas
Helium 0.0005% Inert gas
ra •
Layers of Atmosphere Stratosphere is free from dust
particles and also from atmospheric
Troposphere turbulence. Hence, this layer is
• It extends upto an average altitude of 18 considered ideal for flying of jet
aircrafts.
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km from the Earth's surface. Thickness

varies from 8 km at the poles to 18 km at
the equator. Mesosphere
• At every 165 m, there is a drop of 1°C (or Mesosphere extends above the
stratopause up to a height of about 80
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6.4°C per km). This is called Normal

km.
Lapse Rate of Temperature.
• Tropopause separates troposphere rom this layer, the temperature
decreases with height like in the
jm

stratosphere.
•
troposphere and it falls from about
This layer accounts for practically the 0°Cat its base to about 100° Cat an
entire water vapour, all dust particles and height of 80 km. It is considered the
most of the Carbon dioxide contained in coldest layer of the atmosphere.
the atmosphere. Due to this all weather The upper limit of the mesosphere is
@

phenomena such as condensation,

marked by the Mesopause, a
precipitation and storms etc occur in the
troposphere only. transitional layer separating it from
the ionosphere.
Stratosphere Meteoroids burn in this layer which
prevents them from colliding with the
• The stratosphere extends up to about 50
km, where stratopause separates it rom Earth's surface.
the mesosphere.
•
Ionosphere
In this layer, the temperature increases
with increase in height. This phenomenon Ionosphere is located above the
is known as temperature inversion. mesosphere and extends up to about
• 600 km. This layer is called
The temperature rises in this layer from
about-60°C at the tropopause to 0°C at ionosphere because it Contains
stratopause. electrically charged ions that reflect
• the radio waves back to the Earth
The part of the stratosphere, in which there which makes radio communication
is a concentration of ozone is often called
possible. Absorption of solar radiation
0zonosphere. It absorbs ultraviolet by ionised particles causes an increase
radiation, which is harmful for life forms in in temperature with increasing height
the biosphere. in the ionosphere.
146 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Thermosphere
• The zone between the 85 km and 600 km above the surface is often called
Thermosphere. In this layer, the temperature increases with increasing altitude. The
upper limit of the thermosphere, the thermopause is generally taken at an altitude of
about 600 km.
• The day temperature at 600 kn altitude exceed 1400° C while night temperature
remain about 225° C.
• The upper part of the thermosphere contains only the lighter gases like helium and
hydrogen.
Exosphere and Magnetosphere

e
• The outermost part of the atmosphere of the Earth is called Exosphere.

nc
• This zone of the atmosphere is about 10,000 km thick.
• The upper limit of the exosphere is uncertain as this layer acts as a transitional layer
between the Earth's atmosphere and the outer space. The outer part of the exosphere
is called Magnetosphere.
ra Temperature
Exosphere more than
1000°C
Thermosphere
600 km 600 krn
Thermosphere
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Temperalure
lonosphere increases
with height
Reflects
radio K
Mesopause Waves
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80 km 80 km
(-100°C) Meteors (-100°C)
Mesosphere Temperature
jm

decreases
with height
50 km Stratopause
k-oNOco
50 km
(0°C) Meteors (0°C)
Temperature
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Stralosphere increases
with height
TropopauMt EVerest 18 km
(-80°C)
8 km
Temperature
(-45°C) Troposphere
decreases
Earth with height
Structure of the Atmosphere

Chemical Composition of the Atmosphere

On the basis of chemical composition, the atmosphere is divided into
• Homosphere The atmosphere upto 80 km altitude is known as homosphere. There is
a homogeneous composition of various gases like nitrogen, oxygen, argon, CO, etc. in
the Homnosphere. Due to growing industrialisation, the homogeneity of this layer has
been disturbed.
• Heterosphere This layer starts from 80 km and coincides with the thermosphere.
There are distinct layers of gases in the atmosphere, which are arranged according to
their mean molecular weights. Four distinct layers of gases are formed- N,, 0, He, H.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 147)

These layers in the order of height are The remaining 51 units reach the Earth's
Layers Height (km) surface and are absorbed by the Earth
due to which the surface gets heated.
Molecular Nitrogen 100-200
The heated surface of the Earth starts
Atormic Oxygen 200-1100 radiating energy in the form of long waves
Helium Layer 1100-3500 and this process is called Terrestrial
Hydrogen No upper limit Radiation.
Out of the total 51units given up by the
The order is in decreasing order of the surface in the form of terrestrial
atomic mass. radiation, the atmosphere (mainly CO,
and water vapour) absorbs about 34
Insolation

e
•
units and the remaining 17 units escape
Solar radiation that is intercepted by to space.
the Earth is known as Insolation.

nc
In this way, the atmosphere receives a
Insolation is measured with the help of total of 14 + 34 = 48 units and this
Pyranometers. amount is radiated back to space by the
The amount of insolation depends on atmosphere.
following factors:
The total loss of energy to space thus
ra
(i) The area and nature of the surface. amounts to 100 units. 35 units reflected
(iü) The inclination of the rays of the Sun. by the atmosphere, 17 units lost as
(iii) Distance between the Earth and the terrestrial radiation and 48 units from the
Sun. atmosphere.
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(iv) Length of the day. In this way, no net gain or loss of energy
(v) The transparency of the atmosphere. 0ccurs on the Earth's Surface.
• As the angle of
the Sun's rays decreases At equator, the amount of incoming
poleward, the amount of insolation radiation is more than outgoing radiation,
ie

received also decreases in that direction. whereas the amount of outgoing

• The Earth's surface does not absorb all radiation is ImOre than incoming
radiation in polor regions. The transport
the energy that it receives. The of surplus heat from equator to poles is
jm

proportion of the solar radiation

known as 'Meridional Transport of Heat'.
reflected back from the surface is called
.
Albedo. AtmosphericPressure
On an average, insolation is highest
near the equator, marginally lower at Air is a mixture of several gases having
@

the tropics and lowest at the poles. their own weight. The pressure exerted
by air due to its weight is called
Heat Budget of the Earth atmospheric pressure on the Earth's
surface.
• The Earth receives energy continuously
Atmospheric pressure is neither the same
from the Sun but its temperature is still
almost constant. This is because the for all the regions nor the same for one
atnosphere loses an amount of heat region all the time.
equal to the amount of heat gain Atmospheric pressure is affected by
through insolation. This mechanism of various factors Such as altitude,
maintaining the balance between temperature and Earth's rotation.
incoming and outgoing heat in the
atmosphere is called the Heat Budget Influence on the
or Heat Balance. Atmospheric Pressure
• Let us assume that 100 units of energy Altitude Air pressure increases, when air
reach the top of the atmosphere of the descends. This due to the decrease in
Earth. 14 units are absorbed directly volume of the air. When air raises its
by the atmosphere and 35 units are lost volume increases and the pressure of its
to space through reflection. molecules is spread over a larger area so, its
pressure decreases.
148 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Temperature The pressure of air rises, when is temperature falls. Low temperature at
the poles cause the air to contract-high pressure develops; whereas the high temperature
along the equator cause the air to expand-low pressure develops.

THEGLOBAL PRESSURE BELTS

Descending air NP
Polar Easterlies

Ascending air 60°N

Ferrel cell Westerlies

e
Descending air 30°N

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North-East Trade Winds
Hadley cell 5°N
Ascending air ---L Inler Tropical Convergence Zone -t--
Hadley cell South-East Trade Winds

Descending air /30°N

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Ferrel oell Westerlies

Ascending air 60°N

Polar Easterlies
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Descending air SP
Pressure Belts
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Equatorial Low Pressure Belt • Here the convergence of winds at

• It is located on
either side of the higher altitude above this zone results
geographical equator in a zone extending in the subsidence of air. Subsidence
jm

between 5N and 5°S. Its location is not results in concentration of their

stationary and there is a seasonal drift of volume and ultimately causes high
this belt with the Northward (summer pressure in this zone.
solstice) and Southward (winter solstice) This zone of high pressure is also
migration of the Sun. called Horse Latitude.
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• It is thermally
induced because of the
intense heating of the ground surface by the Sub-Polar Low Pressure
almost vertical Sun rays. Belt
• It represents
the zone of convergence of . It extends between 60° to 65°
North-East and South-East trade winds. latitudes in both the hemisphere.
This convergence zone is characterised by The low pressure belt does not appear
light and feeble winds. And because of the to be thermally induced because
frequent calm conditions, this belt is known
as a belt of calm or doldrums. there is low temperature throughout
the year. Naturally, there should have
high pressure belt instead of low
Subtropical High Pressure Belt been pressure belt. But as it is dynamically
• It extends between 30 to 35° latitudes in
induced low pressure is formed.
both the hemispheres. It is more developed and regular in
• It is not thermally induced,
but dynamically Southern hemisphere than in
induced as it is formed by the rotation of the Northern hemisphere because of the
Earth and sinking and settling down of over dominance of water (ocean) in
winds. the Southern hemisphere.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 149

deflected to the left in the

Polar High Pressure Belt Southern hemisphere with
• High pressure persists at the poles throughout respect to the rotating Earth.
the year because of the prevalence of very low
temperature all the year round. This is referred to as Ferrel's Law.
The Coriolis force is absent along
• Thus, it is thermally induced pressure belt. the equator, but increases
progressively towards the pole.
Shifting of Wind Belts
The factors that control the air
• The entire system of pressure and wind belts motion on Earth's surface are as
follows the movement of midday Sun. In June, follows:
when the Sun is over the Tropic of Cancer, all
Pressure gradient
the belts move about 5°-10° North of their

e
average position. Rotation of Earth and Coriolis
force
•
In the same manner, when the Sun is overhead

nc
Frictional force
at the Tropic of Capricorn in December, all the
belts shift 5°-10° South of their average Centrifugal action of wind
position. The winds blowing parallel to the
isobars generally at the height of
ra 600 m is called geostrophic wind.
Lou
Pressuro40"N
Lo Pressurel
40°N
Primary Wind Movement
Low Prassure (Permanent Winds)
nt

30°N These vinds include trade wind,

High
Pressure High westerlies and polar winds.
Prassure Hlgh
Pressure
Low Pressure Trade Winds
• These are steady currents of air
ie

Summer Low PresSure LO PresSure

(June) Normal posilion blowing from the sub-tropical high
(March and Seplember) Winler pressure belt towards the
(December) equatorial low pressure belt.
jm

Shifting Wind Belts Under the influence of the Coriolis

forces they flow from the
Wind System North-East in the Northern
• The pressure difference is the major cause of hemisphere and from South-East
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the genesis of the wind system. The air in the Southern hemisphere.
moves from high pressure to low pressure.
• The slope of pressure from high to low is called Westerlies
as pressure gradient, which also called as The permanent winds blowing
barometric slope. from the sub-tropical high
• pressure belt to the sub-polar low
The imaginary line joining the points having
same pressure is called isobars. Ideally, the pressure belt in both the
direction of air movement should be hemisphere is called Westerlies.
perpendicular to the isobars but the winds are The general direction of the
deflected due to the Coriolis force caused by westerlies is South-West to North
the rotation of the Earth. East in the Northern hemisphere
and North-West to South-East in
Wind Direction the Southern hemisphere.
Because of the dominance of the
and Related Laws land masses in the Northern
• The Coriolis force generated due to the hemisphere the Westerlies become
rotation of Earth acts as a deflective force to more complex and complicated.
the wind direction. Because of the Coriolis They become less effective during
force, all the winds are deflected to the right in SuIminer seasoIs and more
the Northern hemisphere while they are vigorous during winter seasons.
150 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

The Westerlies become more rigorous in the Southern hemisphere because of the lack
of land and dominance of water surface.
•
Their velocity increases Southward and they become stormy so they are called roaring
forties between 40°-50° South latitudes, furious fifties at 50° South latitude and
sereaming sixties at 60° South latitude.

Polar Winds
Polar winds blows from polar high pressure belt to sub-polar low pressure belt. They are
North-Easterly in Northern hemisphere and South-Easterly in the Southern hemisphere.
Secondary Wind Movement

e
Secondary wind movements include those wind patterns that are not permanent like the
primary winds. Secondary Wind Movement includes seasonal periodic winds. Seasonal
winds are the winds, which reverse their direction completely every 6 months with

nc
change in season. The best example is Monsoon winds.
Tertiary Movement (Local Winds)
Wind Nature Region
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Land Breeze Warm Land breeze blows from land to sea.
Chinook (snow ealer) Warm Rockies (USA and Canada)
Fohn Warm Alps/Europe
Zonda Warm Argentina, Chile/Andes
nt

Santa Ana Warm USA (California)

Berg Warm South Africa
Yoma Warm Japan
Sirocco Hot North Africa
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Khamsin Hot Egypt

Harmattan (The Doctor) Hot Sahara to Guinea Coast (Ghana, Nigeia etc)
Brick Fielder Hot Australia
Samun Ho Iran
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Norwester Hot Wind New Zealand

Leveche Hot Algeria, Morocco, Spain
Karaburan Hot Tarim Basin (Central Asia)
Black Roller Hot/Dusty North America
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Kalbaisakhi Hot North India

Sea Breeze Cold Sea breeze blows from sea to land.
Blizzard Cold Siberia, Canada, USA
Bora Cold Yugoslavia
Southerly Buster Cold Australia
Purga Cold Russian, Tundra
Marin Cold France
Cape Dctor Cold South African coast
Levant Cold Wind Spain
Mistral Cold France to Mediterranean (Ahine valley)

CYCLONES
Cyclones are the centres of low pressure surrounded by closed isobars having increasing
pressure outwards due to low pressure at the centre, there is continuous flow of air
towards the centre.
• Air blows inward in anti-clockwise direction in the
Northern hemisphere.
• Air blows inward
in clockwise direction in the Southern hemisphere.
Cyclones are mainly of two types
() Tropical Cyclone (i) Temperate Cyclone
GENERAL KNOVWLEDGE~ Geography 151)

Naming of Cyclones in Different They are high pressure system and

common in sub-tropical belts and
Regions
practically absent in the equatorial
Narne of Cyclone Region region.
Typhoons South China Sea They are generally associated with
Tropical Cyclones Indian Ocean rainless fair weather and that's why they
Hurricanes Caribbean Sea are knoWn as weatherless phenomena.
Tornadoes USA
Willy Willies Northern Australia
Thunderstorms
• Thunderstorms are local storms
Differences Between Tropical and characterised by Swift upward

e
Temperate Cyclones movement of air and heavy rainfall with
cloud thunder and lightening.
Tropical Cyolone Termperate Cyolone .

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Structurally, thunderstorms consist of
They are found in the Normally found several convective cells, which are
trade wind belt, between 30 to 65
between 8-20 degree degree North and characterised by strong updraft of air.
South in the sub-polar
North and South. But
not found between 0 to frontal zone, where
Tornado
ra Tornadoes are very strong ropical
8 degree as there is no cold polar air mass
coriolis force there. meets the warm cyclones of smaller size. In the
tropical air mass. Mississippi valley (US), they are called
It travels from East to It moves from West to
Twisters.
West in the Easterly East ernbedded in the
They are more destructive than cyclones
nt

wind belt. Westerly wind belt.

as the speed of winds is very high,
Tropical cyclones are They form over a
Much smaller with a Much large area with exceeding 220 km per hour.
diameter of about 200 a diameter 300 to
to 500 km. 1500 krTI. Jet Stream
ie

Tropical cyclones are Termperate cyclones • The strong and rapidly moving
non frontal in nalure. are frontal in nature. Circumpolar Westerly air circulation in a
It is formed only over It is formed either narrow belt of a few hundred kilometres
the oceans. Over con- tinents or width in the upper limit of troposphere
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Over the oceans. is called Jet Stream.

Tropical cyclone can They can form both in
Their circulation path is wavy and
form only in the SUMImer. SUmmer as well as in
Winter. meandering.
It does not have It takes More time to The extent of the Jet Streams narrows
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definite lifecycle and dissipate as it has a down during the summer season
they dissipate as they more definite
because of their Northward shifting
pass over the land lifecycle.
Surface. while these extend up to 20° North
latitude during winter season.
Anticyclone HUMIDITY
• They are the wind systems, which have
the highest air pressure at the centre • Humidity of air refers to the content of
and lowwest at the outer margins. the water vapour present in the air at a
The wind blows from the centre to particular time and place. Humidity is
outward in clockwise direction in measured by an instrument called
Northern hemisphere and from centre to hygrometer. Another instrument used
outward in anti-clockwise direction in for the same purpose is sling
Southern hemisphere. psychronmeter.
152 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

The atmospheric hunidity is expressed ina Fog is made from the droplets of water
number of ways such as: Suspended in the lower layer of the
atmosphere. Fog is not considered as a
Way of Measurerment Definition form of precipitaion. Visibility of less
of Humidity
than 1 km is the internationally
Humidity Capacity The capacity of air recognised definition of fog.
of certain volume at •
certain termperature Haze is formed by water particles that
to relain maximum have condensed in the atmosphere and
amount of moislure visibility lie between 1 km to 2 km.
content. Frost is the moisture on the ground
Absolute Humidity The tolal weight of surface that condenses directly into ice,

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moisture content i.e. when condensation occurs below
per volume of air at
definite freezing point.

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temperature is
called absolute
humidity.
RAINFALL
Speciic Humidity The mass of the On the basis ofits origin, Rainfall may be
waler vapour n classified into three main types
grams Contained
ra in
Convectional Rainfall It occurs due to
a kilogram of air. It

represents the thermal convection currents caused

actual quantity of due to insolational heating of ground
moisture present in surface.
a definite amount
nt

of air.
Relative Hurnidity Itis the ratio of the Clouds Clouds
amount of water
vapour actually
Relative Humidity
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Absolute hurmidity -x
present in the air
100 having definite Rainfall ij
Hurmidity capacity volume and
temperature (i.e.
Wind from land
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absolute humidity)
to the maximum Convectional Rainfall
amount the air can
hold (i.e. humidity • Orographic Rainfall occurs due to
capacity). ascent of air forced by a mountain
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barrier.
Condensation and Its Forms
• Windward Leeward
When the relative humidity reaches side side
100%, the air is completely saturated. The Rainlall Hot,
drv
air temperature is said to be at dew-point. Wind becoming vind
cold and mois
• It is the change of physical state of matter Aising
from gaseous phase into liquid phase and
is the reverse of vaporisation. The
process of condensation depends upon Orographic Rainfall
the amount of Relative Humidity present
Frontal Rainlall or Cyelonic It occurs
in the air. due to upward movement of air caused
• Smog (Smoke + Fog) is a form of fog that by convergence of cold air masses
occurs in areas, where the air contains a against warm air masses.
large amount of smoke.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 153)

Characteristics of RainfalI
Convectional Orographic Frontal or Cyolonic
It occurs daily in the The windward slope Rainíall associated with the
afternoon in the equatorial receives the maximum temperate cyclone occurs,
regions. amount of rainfall, when two extensive air
It very short duration
is of whereas the leeward side masses of different physical
but occUrs in the form of receives less rainfall. properties converge.
heavy rainfal. The windward slopes of In temperate regions, two
It oocurs through thick, dark the mountains at the time extensive air masses of
and extensive cumulo of rainfal are similar physical properties
nimbus clouds. characterised by converge to form temperate

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It is accompanied by cloud, Cumulus clouds while cyclones that cause heavy
thunder and lightening. leeward slope has rainfall in these regions.
stratus clouds. It can

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OCour in any season.

Clouds
• Clouds are the masses of small water droplets or tiny ice crystals.
•
ra
Clouds are classified according to their appearance, form and height.
There are four groups
High Clouds 6 to 20 km
(1)
(iü) Middle Clouds 2.5 to 6 km
nt

(iii) Lov Clouds below 2.5 km

(iv) Clouds of great vertical extent upto 9000 m
The different types of clouds are given Latin names, which are the combination of the
following words:
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Cirrus means looking like a feather and used to describe the very high clouds.
Cumulus means looking like a heap. It is used to describe the clouds having flat bases
and rounded tops.
Stratus means lying in level sheets. It is used for layer type of clouds.
jm

Alto means at middle altitudes.

Nimbus means rain cloud.
Types of Clouds
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High Clouds Middle Clouds Low Clouds Clouds with Great

Vertical Extent
Cirrus Composed of Alto-cumulus Strato-cumulus Large Cumulus Round topped
Small ice crystal, Composed of globular masses, bumpy and lat based forrming a
transparent white, water droplets looking, soft and grey in whitish grey globular
and fibrous in in layers and appearance forming a mass, consisls of
appearance. patches. pronounced regular and individual cloud units.
sometimes wavy pattern.
Cirro-cumulus Alto-stratus Nimbo-stratus Dark grey Cumulo-nimbus They
Composed of ice Composed of and rainy looking, dense have a great vertical
crystals, but globular water droplels, and shapeless, often extent, white or black
or rippled in
forming sheels gives continuous rains. globular masses, whose
appearance. of grey or blue rounded tops often
colour clouds. spread out in the form of
anvil. It is characterised by
convectional rain, lightning
and thunder.
154 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Types of Clouds
High Clouds Middle Clouds Low Clouds Clouds with Great
Vertical Extent
Cirro-stratus Looks Stratus These are low, Noctilucent clouds They
like a thin white grey and layered, almost are made of ice orystals.
almost transparent fog like in appearance, They are normally too
sheet, which causes bringing duil weather and faint to be seen as they
the Sun and Moon to often acCompanied by form in the upper parts of
shine through it with drizzle. atmosphere.
a characteristic
'halo'.

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Climate and Weather
Weather refers to the sum total of all the atmospheric conditions in terms of

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temperatures, pressures, wind, moisture, cloudiness, rainfall etc of a particular place at
any given time. The climate of a place is defined as an aggregate weather conditions over
a considerably long period of time.
World Climatic Types
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Climatic Zone Climatic Types Rainfall Natural Vegetation
Equalorial Zone 1. Hot, wet equalorial Rainíall all the year Equatorial rain
(0°-10°N and S) (80 inches) forests
Tropical Zone 2. Tropical Monsoon Heavy summer rain Monsoon forests
nt

(10°-30°N and S) (60 inches)

3. Sudan type Rain mainly in Savana (Tropical
Summer (70 inches) grassland)
4. Desert Little rain (5 inches) Desert vegelation
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(a) Saharan type and scrub

(b) Mid latitude iype
Warm Temperate 5. Western margin Winter rain (35 inches) Mediterranean
Zone (30°-45°N (Mediterranean type) forests
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and S) 6. Central Continental type Light summer rain (20 Steppe, temperale
(Steppe type) inches) grassland
7. Eastern Margin Heavier summer rain Warm, wet foresls
(45 inches) and bamboo
(a) China type or Gull Type
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Cool Temperale 8. Western Margin Rain in autumn and Deciduous forests

Zones (British Type) winter (30 inches)
(45°-65°N and S) 9. Central Continental Light summer rain ConiterOus foresls
(Siberian Type ) (25 inches)
10. Eastern Margin Moderate summer Mixed forests
(Lauritian Type )
rain (40 inches) (coniferous and
deciduous)
Cold Zone 11. Arctic or Polar Very light summer rain Tundra, mosses,
(65°-90°N and S) (10 inches) lichens
12. Mountain Climale Heavy rainfall Alpine, fern,
(variable) coniferous,
pastures, snow
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 155)

Hot Wet Equatorial Climate

Distribution Climate Natural Vegetation Economy
Found between 5° Mean monthly Tropical rain forest Sparsely populated
-10° latitudes on temperature around with multitude of primitive people live as
either side of 24-27 degree C. evergreen trees such hunter and gatherer in
equator. Diurnal and annual range as mahogany, ebony. the forests.
IE
is found mainly in of termperature is small. Climbers like lianas, Practice of shifting
the lowlands of Convectional rainfall with epiphytic and parasitic cultivatlion is prevalent.
Amazon, Congo, average annual rainfall of plantsS are also found.
Malaysia and the 250 cm.
East Indies.

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Tropical Monsoon

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Distribution Climate Natural Economy
Vegetation
Found between Summer and winter seasons Normally Agriculture
5°-30° latitudes are sharply differentiated due deciduous. based
on either side of
ra
to the North and Southward Most of the economy.
the equator. It is movement of the Sun. Agriculture crops
forest yields
found mainly in Average temperature of valuable includes rice,
India. Burma, warm dry summer months timber like sugarcane, jute
Thailand, ranges between 27-32° C. teak, sal, etc.
nt

Laos, Cambodia, Orographic and Cyolonic acacia etc.

Northern Rainfall
Australia.
Monsoon rain through
South-West mons0on winds.
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The Sudan or Savanna Climate

Distribution Clirmate Natural Vegetation Econormy
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Located between Alternate hot, rainy and Characterised by Tribes live in

5°-20° latitude on Cool dry season. Mean tall graSS and short the Savanna
either side of the high temperature trees (flat top). lands.
equator. throughout the year is Trees are Some tribes
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Mostly found in belween 24 and 27

C.
deciduous and live as
Llanos of Orinoco degree hard. Pastoralists
valley, the The extreme diurnal range Scrubland is well like the
Campos of Brazil. of temperature is a represented bya Maasai.
hilly areas of characleristic of Sudan number of species Hausa are
Central America, type of climate. in Australia like settled as
Southern Zaire The average annual mallee, mulga, cultivators in
etc. rainfall ranges between spinifex grass etc. Northern
100 cm and 150 cm. Nigeria.
156 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Hot Desert and Mid - Latitudinal Desert Climate

Distribution Climate Natural Vegetation Economy
Major hot deserts Lie on the sub Vegetation is
Inhospitable
are located on the tropical high pressure mostly Xerophytic conditions of the
Western coasts of belt, where air is or drought deserts are barrier
continents descending. resistant scrub. to economic
between 15°-30° Relative humidity is Plants that exist in development.
latitudes in both extremely low. deserts have The Bushmen of
the hemispheres. Rainfall is highly specialised the Kalahari and
Convectional type means of the Bindibu of
with violent thunder adapting Australia are

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storm. themselves to the primitive tribes.
The diurnal range of arid environment
Such as few or no

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temperature is very
high. leaves, needle
shaped leaves
etc.

:
Warm Temperate Western Margin
ra Mediterranean
Distribution Climate Natural Vegetation Economy
This is found in The olimate is Evergreen trees Economy is
California, in parts Such as oak and based on
nt

characterised by hot,
of Western and dry summers and cool, eucalyptus, jarrah cultivation of
South Australia, in wet winters. and kari are fruits, wine
South-Western During summer, regions found. making and
South Africa, of Mediterranean Evergreen cereal growing
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parts of Central olimate are dominated coniferous trees and a wide

Chile and around by sub-tropical high are pines, firs, range of citrus
the Mediterranean pressure cells causing cedars and fruits.
region. no or little rainfall. cypresses.
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Temperate Continental Steppe Climate

Distribution Climate Natural Vegetation Economy
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Pustaz of Hungary, Continental It has the scanty Grazing

of

Prairies of North climate with vegetation of the animals,

America, Pampas of extremes of sub-arid lands of extensive and
Argentina and temperature. continental Eurasia. mechanised
Uruguay, Bush Veld WintersS are very They are treeless, wheat
of South Africa. Cold. having very short cultivation.
grasses.

Warm Temperate Eastern Margin : China Type or Gulf Type Climate

Distribution Climate Natural Vegetation Economy
Found on the Characterised by warm Evergreen broad Rice, tea and
Eastern margin moist suMmer and a leaved forests mulberries are
of the cool dry winter. and deciduous extensively grown
Continents in Uniform distribution of forests. in monsoon
warm rainfall throughout the China.
temperate year is an important Other important
latitudes. feature. crops are corn,
tobacco and
cotton.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 157)

Cool Temperate Western Margin : British Type

Distribution Clinate Natural Vegetation Econormy
From Britain, this It under the
is DeciduOUs forest Fishing is
belt stretches far permanent influenoe vegetation. Some important in
inland into the of the Westerlies. of the Common Norway and
lowlands of Summers are in fact species are oak, British
North-West Europe never very warm. elm, birch, beech, Columbia.
including regions Winters are mild. poplar etc. Market
such as Northern As the rain bearing gardening is
and Western winds come from widely
France, Belgium, the West, the practised in
the Netherland,

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Western margins North-Western
Denmark, Western receive the heaviest Europe.
Norway. rainfall.

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Cool Temperate Continental : Siberian (Boreal Type)
Distribution Climate Natural Vegetation Economy
Experienced only in Characterised Here the Saw mills for the
by a bitterly softwood are
Northern
ra ConiferOus forest
hemisphere. Cold winter of belt of urasia and prevalent.
On its polar side, long duration North America are Many of the
it merges into the and a Cool brief the richest source Samoyeds and
Arctic Tundra and in SUmmer. of the softwood. Yakuts of Siberia
nt

Southern side, The winter The major species and some of the
it fades into the precipitation is are pine, fir, sprUce Canadians are
temperate steppe in the form of and larch. engaged in hunting,
climate. Snow. trapping and fishing.
:
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Cool Temperate Eastern Margin Laurentian

Distribution Climate Natural Vegetation Economy
It is found in North It has cold, dry Generally, the Lumbering and
jm

Eastern North America winter and warm, forest is assooiated

and the Eastern Coast of wet summers. Coniferous. Some industries like
Asia. Winter of the important timber, paper
It is absent in Southern temperature may species are oak, and pulp are
hemisphere because be well below maple and birch. the most
only a small portion of
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freezing point important

Southern continents and snow ialls to economic
extend South of the 40° quite a depth. activities.
South latitude.

Arctic and Polar

Distribution Clirmate Natural Vegetation Economy
It is
found Characterised There are no trees The few people, who live in
mainly by a very low in the Tundra. the Tundra live a semi
North of the mean annual The greatest iactor nomadic life. Eskimos live
Arctic oircle. temperature. inhibiting the in Greenland, Northern
Winters are growth of trees is Canada and Alaska.
long and lack of sunlight. In the Eurasian Tundra,
severe, Such an there are other nomadic
Summers are environment can tribes such as the Lapps of
cool and brief. Support only the Northern Finland and
Precipitation is lowest form of Scandinavian, the
mainly in the vegetation, Samoyeds of Siberia,
form of snow mosses, lichens Yakuts, Koryaks and
fall in winters. and sedges. Chuckchi of North- Eastern
Asia.
158 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

Famous Grasslands HYDROSPHERE

of the World
The water component of the Earth is called
Grasslands Countries hydrosphere which covers about 70% of the
Steppe Eurasia surface of Earth. It includes the oceans, seas,
lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.
Pustaz Hungary
Prairie USA Composition of Hydrosphere
Parnpas Argentina Storage Component % of Water
Veld South Africa Oceans 97.6
Downs Australia lce caps and glaciers 2.05

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Cantebury New Zealand Ground waler 0.68
Soilmoisture 0.001

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Great Deserts Saline lakes and inland seas 0.006
Lakes 0.013
Narne Country/
Freshwater rivers 0.0001
Region Atmosphere 0.0009
Sahara (ibyan, Nubian) North
ra
Africa
Australian (Gibson, Simpson, Australia
OCEANS
Viclorian, Great Sandy)
There are four oceans. In the order of their
size they are: Pacific ocean, Atlantic ocean,
nt

Arabian (Aub-al-Khali, Arabia

An-Nafud) Indian ocean and Arctic ocean. The average
Dast-e-Lut (Barren Desert) Iran depth of oceans on Earth is about 4 km.
Dast-e-Kavir (Salt-e-Kavir) Iran
Major Oceans
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(Salt Desert)
Sechura Desert
Ocean Important Information
Peru
Pacific Itis the largest and deepest of ocean.
Atacama North Chile Most of the Islands of the ocean are of
jm

Patagonia Argentina volcanic or coral origin. Mariana

Trench, the world's deepest trench with
Kalahari Botswana depth 11033 kn is in Pacitic ocean.
Narmib Namibia Atlantic It has the longest coast line. It is the
busiest ocean for trade and oommerce
since its sea rOutes connect the two
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Some Important Isopleth most industrialised regions, namely

Weslern Europe and North-Eastern
Isopleth Represents United States of America. Atlantic ocean
is still widening. Puerto Aico Trench is
Isohels Sunshine the deepest point of this ocean.
Isohyets Rainfall Indian Only ocean named after a country. It is
Isonif Snow deeper than the Ailantic ocean. Here
the number of continental islands is
Isocline Slope more than that of volcanic islands.
IsotherMs Termperature Sunda Trench (earlier known as Java
Trench) is the deepest point of this
Isobars Equal Pressure Ocean.
Equal depth in sea Arctic It ocean and lies within
is the smallest
Isobath
the Arctic circle. The North pole lies in
Isohaline Salinity the middle of the Arctic ocean. Most of
Isohypse Elevation above sea-level the pat of the ocean is frozen and
hence it is least saline and the
Isodapane Equal transportation cost shallowest among all the oceans.
Isobronts Thunder storm at the same Nansei Trench is the deepest point of
this ocean.
time
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE- Geography 159

•
Relief of the Ocean Basin The boundary between shelf and slope is
known as shelf break, which is a seaward
Continental Shelf .
edge with an abrupt drop.
• The shallow submerged extension of the They cover about 8.5% of the total ocean
continent is called the continental shelf. area.
• Extends to a depth of 100 fathoms
(1 fathoms = 18 m). Continental Rise
• Average width 70 km; average slope of Continental rise is an area at the foot of
about 1°. the slope, slightly rising due to the
• Continental shelf covers 8.6% of total accumulation of debris transported over
area of the oceans. It extends over 13.3% the slope.

e
of the Atlantic ocean 5.7% of Pacific • Average slope-0.5° to 1°.
ocean and 4.2% of Indian ocean. • Oil deposits occur here.

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•
If mountains extend along the coast, the
shelf will be narrower. Abyssal or the Deep
• About 20% of oil and gas are found here. Sea Plains
They also provide the richest fishing
grounds in the wvorld.
• It is an underwater vast and flat plain on
ra
the oceanic floor.
Continental Slope • Average depth 3000 m to 6000 m.
•
Extends seawards from the continental It coveIs about 40% of total oceanic area.
shelf. • Parts of the Abyssal plains are occupied
nt

• by raised ridges or submarine mountains

Depth-200-2000 metres.
• and by very deep trenches or canyons.
Average slope is 2 to 5 degrees.
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Sea mount
Deep sea plain (forming island)
Land Shelf Break Guyot
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Continental shelf

Continenlal slope Submarine ridge

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Continenlal rise
Trench
Relief of the Ocean Basin
Deeps/Trenches Oceanic Ridges
• Trenches are narrow and steep side • Oceanic Ridges are formed by the
depressions. Trenches are formed, when volcanic activity along the divergent
one plate of Earth's crust is subducted boundary of plates.
below the other. • It is a thousand km long and hundreds of
• Mariana trench (Challenger deep) is the km wide mountain range on the oceanic
deepest point in the world situated in the floor.
NW Pacific ocean, near Philippines. It is. Their summits may rise above the sea
more than 11 km deep. level in the form of Islands i.e. Azores
Island of Iceland.
160 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Sea Mounts and Guyouts Barrier Reefs

• A ridge rising more than 1000 m • The barrier reef lies at a distance away from
above the ocean floor is called the coast. Hence, a broad lagoon separates the
seamount. Flat topped sea mounts reef and the shore.
are called Guyouts. The Great Barrier Reef of Australia is the
• Both of
them are formed by the largest barrier reef in the world. In India, it is
volcanic activity. found in Nicobar and Lakshadweep.
• Largest
number of sea mounts and
Guyouts are found in the Paciâc Patch Reefs
Ocean. Patch reefs are isolated and discontinuous

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patches lying shoreward of offshore reef
Submarine Canyons structures. These are found in the Palk Bay,
• Submarine canyons are
the deep Gulf of Mannar and Gulf of Kutch.

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gorges on the ocean floor and are
restricted to the continental Atoll
shelves, slopes and rises. A reef of narrow growing corals of horse shoe
• Many
submarine canyons are shape and crowned with palm trees is called an
ra
atoll.
found along the mouths of major
rivers e.g. Hudson canyon. It is formed around an island or in an elliptical
form on a submarine platform.
CORAL REEFS Funafuti atoll of Ellice Islands is a famous
atoll. They are also found in Lakshadweep and
nt

• Coral reefs are formed due to

Nicobar.
accumulation and the compaction
of skeletons of ime secreting Coral Bleaching
organisms known as Coral Polyps. When corals are stressed by changes in conditions
ie

.
Corals are found mainly in the such as temperature, light or nutrients, they expel the
tropical oceans and seas because symbiotic algae living in their tissues, causing them
they require high mean annual to turn completely white, this phenomenon is known
jm

temperature ranging between 20°C as coral bleaching.

to 25°C.
• Corals do not live in deeper waters
due to lack of sufficient sunlight SALINITY
and oxygen.
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Salinity is defined as the total amount of salt

On the basis of nature, shape and content in grams contained in 1 kg of sea
mode of occurrence, the coral reefs are water and is expressed as part per
classified into four types: thousand. The oceanic salinity not only affects
the marine organism and plant community,
Fringing Reefs but also affects the physical properties of the
• It develops along the
continental Ocean such as temperature, pressure, density,
or waves and curents.
. margins along the islands.
The seaward slope is steep and Average salinity in Southern hemisphere is
vertical while the landward slope is more than that of Northern hemisphere.
gentle. • Iso-halines represent the salinity distribution
• They are usually
attached to the in the surface of the sea. These are the lines
coastal land, but occasionally they joining places having an equal degree of
are separated from the shore by a salinity. The main source of salinity is
shallow and narrow lagoon called dissolution of the rocks of oceanic crust, which
Boat Channel. contain various salts.
. • Poles have minimum salinity because of
These type of reefs are found near
Rameshwaran in the Gulf of
addition of fresh wvater in the form of icebergs
and excessive snowfall.
Mannar and Andamans.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 161

• Variation in salinity causes Controlling Relation with Salinity

vertical circulation of water. Factor
More saline water freezes slowly
Evaporation Greater the evaporation, higher the
while the boiling point of saline salinity.
water is higher than the fresh
water. Preoipitation Higher the precipitation, lower the salinity.
. Salinity also increases Influx of river Big voluminuOus rivers pour down
the
waler immense volume of fresh water into the
density of water. Oceans and salinity is reduced at the
Composition of Sea Water mouth.
Atmospheric Anticyclonic conditions with stable air and
Salt Percentage pressure high termperature increases the salinity of

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Composition (0) the surface water of the ocean.
Sodiurm 77.8 Circulation Ocean currents affect the spatial distribution
of salinity by mixing sea waters.

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Chloride of oceanic
waler
Magnesium 10.9
Chloride
Magnesium 4.7
MOVEMENTS OF OCEANIC
Sulphate WATER
ra
Calcium 3.6
Sulphate Waves
Potassium • Waves are the oscillatory movements in water
2.5
Sulphate mainly produced by winds, manifested by an
nt

Others 0.5 alternate rise and fall of the sea surface.

The waves are the important agents of erosion in
Most Saline Water Bodies the coastal regions, where they carve out various
landforms like caves, bays, gulfs, capes and cliffs.
Water Percentage
ie

Seismic waves or Tsunamis are the waves caused

Bodies Cormposition (0) by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions at the sea
Lake Assel 34.8 bottom.
(Djibuti)
jm

The Tsunamis, which hit the coast in South-East

Dead Sea 33.7 Asia on 26th December, 2004, caused very heavy
(West Asia) damage in that region.
Great Salt Lake 32.0 Tsunamis in the Indonesian Islands of Sulawesi,
(USA)
Java and Sumatra in 2018 killed many and injured
@

Lake Van 23 a large number of people.

(Turkey)

Salinity on an average decreases

Ocean Currents
from equator to poles. The An ocean current is a continuous, directed
highest salinity is recorded near movement of ocean water generated by the forces
the tropics rather than the acting upon it, such as breaking waves, wind,
equator because of the heavy coriolis effect, temperature and salinity
precipitation in the equatorial differences and tides caused by the gravitation
region. pull of the Moon and the Sun.
Ocean currents circulate in clockwise direction in
Factors Controlling Northern hemisphere and in anti-clockwise
Oceanic Salinity direction in Southern hemisphere.
Ocean currents are of two types:
The salinity of oceans and
different seas depends on a (i) Warm Currents The ocean currents flowing
number of factors such as from lower latitude to higher latitude are
evaporation, precipitation, influx known as warm Currents.
of the river water, prevailing wind, (iü) Cold Currents The ocean currents flowing
ocean Currents and sea waves etc. from higher latitude to lower latitude are
known as cold Currents.
162 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

CURRENTS OF NORTH CURRENTS OF

PACIFIC OCEAN NORTHATLANTIC
Warm Currents OCEAN
•
North Equatorial Current It Alows Warm Currents
Westwards from the Western Coast of
Mexico to the Philippines. North Equatorial Current It is present
between Equator and 10°N.
• Kuroshio Current It is an extension of
Cayenne Current It flows adjacent to
North Equatorial Current near Japan
Coast. It flows towards North. French Guinea and enters into

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•
Carribean Sea and Gulf of Mexico.
North Pacific Drift Kuroshio current
extends further Northwards to form North Florida Current Cayenne current near
Florida (US Coast) is called Florida

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Pacific drift. The warm North Pacific drift
Current.
keeps the Alaskan Ports Ice free. •
Antilles Current It flows to the East of
Cold Currents West Indies and Other Islands.
• Oyashio Current It flows down from Gulf Stream It flows from US coast
ra
Bering Sea towards Japan from North towards North-West Europe under the
pole. Itjoins Kuroshio currents. influence of westerly winds.
•
Kuril Current It flows down from
sea of North Atlantic Drift Gulf Stream
Okhotsk and joins Kuroshio current to the bifurcates into
nt

North of Japan. (i) North Atlantic Drift (warm)

• California Current It is an extension of (ii) West Wind Drift (cold) and
North Pacific drift. It finally joins the Canaries current (cold)
North Equatorial current and completes
Cold Currents
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clockwise circulation of water.

Labrador Current It orginates in
Currents of South Pacific Baffin Bay and Davis Strait and merges
with Gulf Stream near Newfoundland.
jm

Ocean Newfoundland is a famous zone of

Warm Currents fishing, commonly known as Grand
• East Australian Current or Great Bank.
Barrier Current It flows towards East Irminger Current or East Greenland
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coast of Australia from equator towards Current It flows between Greenland

the Pole. and Iceland and merges with North
•
South Equatorial Current It originates Atlantic drift.
due to South-East trade winds and flows Canaries Current It flows along the
Westwards. It bifurcates near New
Western Coast of North Africa between
Guinea. Madeira cape verde and it joins North
•
Counter Equatorial Current It flows equatorial current.
exactly on equator from West to East
between the North and South equatorial CURRENTS OF SOUTH
Currents.
ATLANTIC OCEAN
Cold Currents
•
Peruvian Current (Humboldt current). It
Warm Currents
•
flows from South pole towards equator on South Equatorial Current It flows
the Coast of Chile and Peru. between equator and 10° latitude.
• West Wind Drift It flows from Tasmania Brazilian Current It flows to the East
to Chile Coast of South America in Coast of Brazil from equator towards
40°-50° S latitudes. It flows under the pole.
influence of Westerlies.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 163

Cold Currents
•
Falkland Current It flows along the South-East Coast of South America from South to
North.
• Benguela Current It flows from South to North near the 'Cape of Good Hope'.
•
West Wind Drift It is a continuation of Brazilian and Falkland current.
•
Guinea Current It flows near Coast of Guinea (Africa).
Currents of the Indian Ocean
.
The Asiatic Monsoon influences the currents of the North Indian Ocean, while the
currents of South Indian ocean are influenced by the atmosphere's anti-cyclonic

e
circulation.
• North Equatorial Current This current flows from East to West and upon reaching
the East Coast of Africa, a good portion turns Southward, crosses the equator, and

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becomes the Mozambique current.
• Mozambique
Current The Mozambique current flows South along the East Coast of
Africa near the equator to about 35°S, where it becomes Agulhas Stream.
• Agulhas Streamn The Agulhas stream flows Westward along the
Southern West of
ra
Madagascar and joins the Mozambique current along the East African coast.
•
West Wind Drift Current It flows across the Indian ocean to the waters of South-West
of Australia.
•
North-East Monsoon Drilt It flows along the coast of India during winter.
nt

•
South-West Monsoon Drift It flows along the coast of India during Summer.
•
South Equatorial Current It is a significant Pacific, Atlantic and Indian ocean current
that flows East-West between the equator and about 20 degrees South.
•
Somalia Current It is an ocean boundary current that runs along the coast of Somalia
ie

and Oman in the Western Indian ocean. It is similar to the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic
Ocean.
•
West Australian Current It flows along the West coast of Australia from poles to the
jm

equator.
There is no counter eguatorial current in the Indian ocean rather only monsoonal
currents which change their direction with respect to seasons.

Cold currents
@

Cold water
sinking
Cold currents
Upwelling of
cold water
Warm currents North equalorial
CUrrents
Counter equalorial 0

Curent
South equalorial
Currents
Warm currenls Cold currenls
Cold water
sinking
Upweling of
cold water
Cold currenls West wind drift

Pattern of Oceanic Current Movement

164 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

TIDES
• The periodic rise and fall of the sea level as a result of the gravitational forces between
the Earth, the Moon and the Sun is called a tide. The time interval between two tides
is 12 hours and 26 minutes.

Spring Tides
• When the Earth, the Moon and the Sun are in a straight line (SYZYGY) the Sun
assists the gravitational pull of the Moon, creating a condition of higher high tides and
lower low tides known as spring tides.

e
Neap Tides
• When the Sun and Moon are at right angles to the Earth (Quadrature), the Sun

nc
partially reduces the gravitational pull of the Moon, producing lower high tides known
as a Neap tide.
First quarler

lide
Low tide Spring Neap
ra
Tides Tides
tide lide
New Low Low
Earh Moon SUN Earhl
nt

Low tide High lide

Third quarter
SYZYGY
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Quadralure
Tides

Continents of the World

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Asia, Africa, North America, South Population 4.46 billion (largest)

America, Europe, Australia and oceans and Seas Arctic Ocean, Pacific
Antarctica are the seven continents. Ocean, Indian Ocean, Red Sea, Gulf of Aden,
@

Area of the Continents Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman, Arabian Sea,

Bay of Bengal, China Sea, Yellow Sea, Okhotsk
Continents % of Earth Area and Bering Sea.
Asia 29.5
Africa 20.4
North America 16.3
South America 11.8
Antarctica 9.6
Europe 6.7
Australia 5.3

ASIA Highest Point Mt Everest (8848 m)

It has 49 countries and 5 disputed other Lowest Point Dead Sea (-396 m)
straits Strait of Malacca, Bering Strait,
nations.
Hormuz Strait, Dardenelles Strait
Latitude 10° S and 80° N
Islands Kurile, Sakhalin, Honshu, Hokkaido,
Longitude 25° E and 170° W Taiwan, Borneo, Sumatra and Java, Celebes,
Area 44579000 sq km New Guinea, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Bahrain
(approx 29.5% of the world) and Cyprus.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 165)

Peninsulas Kamchatka Peninsula, Quinling mountains divide China into

Peninsula of Korea, Peninsula of Indo-China, . North and South China.
Malay Peninsula, Indian Peninsula and Amur river forms the boundary between
Arabian Peninsula. Russia and China.
.
Description Yangtze Kiang the longest river of
is Asia.
• It is the largest continent in the world both Mekong river flows through China,
in terms of the population and area. Thailand-Laos border, Cambodia and
• Vietnam into the South China Sea.
It is situated entirely in the Northern
hemisphere except some of the islands of Laos is the only landlocked country in
Indonesia. South-East Asian Peninsula.
• Indonesia is the largest group of Island

e
• To the North ofit lies the Arctic ocean, to or archipelago in the world.
the East the Pacific ocean, to the South,
the Indian ocean and to the West lies
•
Irawaddy river is knowIn as the lifeline

nc
Mediterranean sea. It is separated from of Myanmar. It falls into Gulf of
Europe by the Ural mountains, the Martaban where pearls are found.
Caspian sea, the Black sea, the Caucasus Lake Van of Turkey is the most saline
mountain and the strait of Dardanelles in water body in Asia.
the West.
ra
Fujiyama, a volcanic mountain is the
highest peak of Japan.
Important Information about Asia
• Caspian Japan is the most industralised nation
Sea is the world's largest lake and of Asia.
five times larger than the Lake Superior It
nt

Myanmar is called land of mountains

separates Europe from Asia.
• and rivers.
Dast-e-Kavir is the largest salt desert of Pakistan is called country of canals.
the world situated in the Northern Iran. • Japan is called land of Rising Sun.
• Lop Nor Lake in China is a site for
ie

numerous nuclear tests. • Dead Sea is one of the saltiest water

body in the world, is a landlocked sea. It
• Hwang Ho is known as China's Sorrow. It
flows through loess land, hence it is also lies between Israel and Jordan and its
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shores are considered as lowest land

called as Yellow river. based elevation on Earth.
Physical Aspects of Asia
Mountains Himalayas, Karakoram, Kailash, Kunlun Shan, Tienshan, Altai, Sayan,
@

Yablonovy, Stanvoy, Kolyma, Verkhoyansk, Pegu Yoma, Arakan Yoma,

Hindukush, Elburz, Sulaiman, Kirthar, Makran, Zagros, Pontic, Taurus.
Rivers Ganga, Ob, Yenisey, Amur, Yalu, Hwang Ho, Si kiang. Mekong. Tigris,
Eupharates, Amu Darya and Syr Darya.
Lakes Baikal, Balkash, Van, Turnool, Assad, Dead Sea, Tonle Sap,
Toba, Lop Nor, Caspian Sea and Sea of Gallilee.
Plains Manchurian,Great Plain of China, West Siberian Plain, Mesopotamian.
Deserts Rub-al-Khali, AlNafud, Dasht--Kavir, Dastht --Lut, Gobi, Thar, Takla Makan, Syrian
desert.
Plateaus Ladakh, Tibet, Yunan, Parmir, Armenian, Iranian, Mongolia, Indo-China, Shan,
Deccan, Balochistan, Arabian, Anatolia, Loess.
Mountains from South-West: Sulaiman
Parmir Knot South-East: Himalaya, Karakoram and Kunlun
North-East: Tien Shan
North-West: Hindukush
Mountains frorm South-West: Taurus
Armenian Knot South-East: Zagros
North-East: Elburz
North-West: Pontic
166 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

It is also knovwn as Dark Continent

AFRICA because the greater part of its vast
It has 54 countries. interior remained little known to the
Latitude 35° S and 37° N outside world until the last century.
Longitude 50° E and 17° W Physical Aspects of Africa
Population 1216100000 (2nd largest) Mountains Atlas, Ethiopian Highlands, Mt
Area 30065000 sq km (approx 20.4 % of and Kenya, Mt Elgon, Mt Kilimanjaro,
the world) Plateaus Drakensberg, Mt Cameroon, Mt
Rouwenzori, Katanga Plateauand
Jos Plateau
Nile, Zaire or Congo, Niger,

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Rivers
Orange, Limpopo, Zambezi
Kariba, Nyasa, Mvweru,

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Lakes
Tanganyika, Edward, Tana,
Nasser, Chad, Volta and Assal,
Victoria
Deserts Sahara, Libyan, Arabian, Nubian,
ra Namib and Kalahari

Oceans and Seas Indian Ocean, Red Sea, Important nformation about
Atlantic Ocean, Madagascar Sea. Gulf of Afrca
nt

Guinea, Mediterranean Sea. •

Lake Victoria is the largest lake of
Highest Point Kilimanjaro (5895 m) Africa, which is located betwveen Uganda,
Lowest Point Lake Assal (-155 m) Kenya and Tanzania. It is source of White
Straits Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb and Strait Nile river. The equator passes through it.
ie

of Gibraltar Mozambique channel. Nasser lake is a man-made lake, which

lies on Nile river and located between
Islands Madagascar, Cape Verde Islands, Egypt and Sudan.
the Comoros, Zanzibar, Mauritius and
Seychelles. •
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Nile river is the longest river of the world

Plateaus The entire continent is a and life line of Egypt.
plateau. The White Nile and the Blue Nile meet at
Deseription Khartoum (Sudan) to form river Nile.
•It is the second largest continent after Congo river cuts equator twice.
@

Asia and about nine times the size of Port Harcourt of Niger is located on
India. Niger Delta.
• It is situated South of Europe and The Zambezi river includes the Vietoria
South-East of Asia. It is bound by fall, one of the largest falls in the world. It
Mediterranean sea in the North, the makes the natural political boundary
Atlantic ocean in the West and between Zambia and Zimbabwe.
South-West, the Indian ocean in the The Orange river forms the natural
East and Red sea in the North- East. boundary betwveen South Africa and
• Africa belongs to all four hemispheres Namibia.
and bulk of the continent lies in tropics. The Limpopo river cuts the Tropic of
It is joined to Asia by the narrow isthmus Capricorn twice and it separates South
of Suez and separated from Eurasia at Africa from Botswana and Zimbabwe.
three different points (Strait of
The highest peak of Africa is
Gibraltar, Suez canal and the Strait of
Bab-el-Mandeb). Mt Kilimanjaro and is located in
•
Tanzania.
It is the only continent, which is
The three points, where Africa almost
intersected by Tropic of Cancer, Equator touches Eurasia are Gibraltar, Suez and
and Tropic of Capricorn. Bab-el-Mandeb.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE Geography 167

• The highest temperature in the world Lowest Point Death Valley (-86 m)
has been recorded at Al-Azzyah Deseription
(Libya) at 58°C making it the hottest •
place in the world. It is the 3rd largest continent after Asia
and Africa. It is surrounded by the
•
Swahili is a famous language spoken in Atlantic ocean in the East, Gulf of
Tanzania. Mexico in the South, the Pacific ocean in
•
Sahara desert is the largest single the West and the Arctic in the North. To
stretch of desert, which is 5500 km from the North East it is separated from the
East to West and 1900 km from North to Easternmost tip of Siberia by the Bering
South. Strait.
• Kalahari desert is the home of the . 49° latitude parallel forms the boundary

e
Africa's one of the oldest races, the between Canada and USA and 100º W
Kalahari Bushmen. longitude divides the North America into

nc
• Food crops such as wheat, rice, maize more or less two equal parts.
and cash crops such as cotton, coffee,
cocoa, oil palm, sugarcane, rubber, Physical Aspects of North
tobacco are grown in Africa. America
• Africa is rich in mineral deposits and Mountains Brook's range, Alaska, Aleutian
ra
these minerals are mostly found on the Range, Cascade range, Rocky
plateau region, South of the Equator. mountain, Coast range, Sierra
Nevada etc.
The minerals found in Africa are
diamond, gold, copper, bauxite, Rivers Mississippi-Missouri, St Lawrence,
nt

platinum, iron Ore, petroleum, Colorado, Colunbia, Sacramento,

Aio Grande, Yukon, Mackenzie,
manganese etc. etc.
Nelson, Saskatchewan, Peace
Lakes Great Bear, Great Slave,
NORTH AMERICA Athabasca, Winnipeg, Superior,
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Michigan, Huron, Erie, Ontario,

It has 23 countries. Great Salt and Mead.
Latitude 7° Nand 84° N Plaleaus Columbia-Snake, Colorado and
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Longitude 20° W and 180° W Mexican.

Area 24235280 sq km (approx 16.3 %) Peninsula Ungava, Yucalan and Kenai.

Population 589313359 (4th largest)
Major Deserts Chihuahuan, Colorado,
Important Information About
Noth America
@

Mojave, Sonoran
•
Canada has the longest coast line in the
world.
•
Canada is the second largest country (in
area) in the world.
• USA is the fourth largest country in area
and third largest country (in population)
in the world.
.
49th parallel forms the boundary
between Canada and USA. It is the
longest boundary between two countries.
Oceans and Seas Atlantic Ocean, • Erie Canal, Great Lakes waterways, St
Caribbean Sea, Gulf of California, Gulf of Lawrence Seaway are some of the most
Alaska, Bering Sea and Hudson Bay. important Canals of North America.
Islands Greenland, Baffin, Victoria, New North America is rich in mineral
Foundland, Cuba, Jamaica and Haiti, resources such as iron ore, petroleum
Bermuda, Hawai. and natural gas, copper, gold, silver,
nickel, sulphur, coal etc. The Prairie
Highest Point Mckinley also known as region of North America is ideally suited
Denali (6194 m) for the cultivation of wheat.
168 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

• The coniferous forests of the North It is situated to the South of North

America provides large quantities of soft America, mostly in Southerm
wood. The prominent trees are fir, pine, hemisphere. It is surrounded by
larch and spruce etc. Caribbean sea in the North, Atlantic
•
Lake Superior is the largest sweet water ocean in the East, Southern ocean in
lake in the world. the South and Pacific ocean in the West.
wheat and barley are the
• Maize, • South America as well as Mexico,

important cereals grown in North Central America and West Indies are
collectively knovwn as Latin America.
. America.
Canada is the largest producer of Physical
Aspects
newsprint in the world. of South America

e
• The
Panama Canal connects Atlantic
and Pacific ocean. By using Panama Mountains Western Mountains, Andes,

nc
canal, the distance from New York to San Brazilian highlands and
Guiana Highlands
Francisco can be shortened by nearly
23200 km. Rivers Amazon, Magdalena, Orinioo,
Parana and La Plata
SOUTH AMERICA Lakes Maracaibo, Titicaca, Popo
ra
It has 13 countries. Plaleaus Bolivian, Patagonia, Altiplano

Latitude 12° N and 55° S

Longitude 35° W and 81° WN
Important Information About
South America
nt

Area 17820770 sq km (approx 12 %) • It has the world's highest waterfall i.e.

Population 418762546 (5th largest)
Angel falls in Venezuela on Orinoco
river.
ie

• It has the world's 2nd longest river after

Nile and the largest river by volume ie.
Amazon river.
• The longest mountain range of the
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world i.e. the Andes lies in South

America.
Moreover, the driest place on Earth i.e.
Highest Point Aconcagua (6960 m) Atacama desert, the largest rain forest
@

i.e. the Amazon rain forest, the highest

Lowest Point Laguna del Carbon (-104 m) capital city ie. Lapaz (Bolivia), the
Straits Strait of Magellan, Drake Passage highest commercially navigable lake i.e.
Deserts Atacama and Patagonia Lake Titicaca are situated in South
Description America.
• South America has been divided into three Llanos and Campos are the Savanna
physical divisions namely two Eastern grassland in South America. Selvas are
highlands, the central plains, the Western the equatorial rainforests of Amazon
mountains and the Western coastal strips. basin. Some of the countries of South
• Cotopaxi in Ecuador is one of the highest America are specialised in coffee
active volcanoes in the world. plantation (Brazil, Ecuador, Columbia
• Paraguay and Bolivia are the only and Venezuela etc), maize cultivation
Jandlocked countries. and wheat cultivation.
• South America is rich in minerals such
• Pampas is the most fertile region of
as petroleum, aluminium, bauxite,
South America and Alfa-Alfa grasses are copper, gold, lead, nickel, nitrates,
found here.
diamond coal etc.
• It is
the fourth largest continent and . Brazil has the world's largest reserves of
roughly triangular in shape. iron in Serra dos carajas mountains.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE - Geography 169
• Brazil is also known as the coffee bowl It is the second smallest continent in the
of the wvorld, because it is the largest world, by area, after Australia.
producer of coffee. • Europe is situated between Ural
• Brazil is the only country through mountains in the East and Atlantic ocean
which both equator and one of the in the West, in the West of Asia and North
tropics (Tropic of Capricorn) pass. of Africa.
• To the North of Europe lies Arctic ocean,
EUROPE to the South lies the Mediterranean sea,
the Black sea and the Caucasus mountain
Latitude 35° N and 73° N and to the East Ural mountains and the
Longitude 25° W and 65° E Caspian sea.
Area 10530750 sq km (approx 6.7 %)

e
Balkan States It is a group of 9 countries
Population 783849000 (3rd largest) namely Serbia, Montenegro, Slovenia,
Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, North

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Macedonia, Bulgaria, Greece, Romania,
Albania and Kosovo. However,
Montenegro became an independent state
in 2006 and Kosovo in 2008.
ra •
Baltic States It is a group of three
countries namely Estonia, Lithuania and
Latvia. Norway, Sweden and Denmark are
collectively called as Scandinavian
Ocean and Seas Atlantic Ocean, Arctic countries. The world's most Northerly
nt

Ocean, Mediterrarnean Sea, Caspiarn Sea, capital is Reykjavik (lceland).

Black Sea, White Sea, North Sea,
Norwegian Sea, Baltic Sea, Gulf of Physical Aspects of Europe
Bothnia, Gulf of Finland, Bay of Biscay, Mountains Vesuvius, Appennine, Vosges, Alps,
Aegean Sea and Adriatic Sea.
ie

Mt Etna, Dinaric Alps, Carpathian,

Highest Point Mt Elbrus (5642 m) Pindus, Ural, Caucasus, Black
Forest, Mt Stromboli, Kjolen,
Lowest Point Caspian Sea (-28 m) Pennines, Canlabrian Pyrenees,
Straits Dardenelis Strait, English
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Sierra Morena and Sierra Nevada

Channel, Strait of Gibraltar Rivers Po, Tiber, Rhine, Ebro, Garonne,
Lakes Lake Ladoga, Onega, Peipus, Loire, Seine, Weser, Elbe, Wista,
Vanern, Vattern Onega, Dvina, Mezen, Volga, Don,
Dnieper, Dnister and Danube,
Islands British Isles, Iceland, Sardinia, Ahine
@

Sicily, Cete Peninsula Iberian, Balkan and Kola

• Greenland is the world's largest island
and it belongs to Denmark. Important Information About
Important Gulf and Bays Europe
.
Copenhagen, capital of Denmark is
Gulf/Bay Location known as the key to the Baltic.
Gulf of Bothnia Sweden and Finland • Finland is known as the land offorests and
English Channel Britain and France lakes.
Gulf of Lions South of France Both intensive and extensive cultivation
are done in Europe with a great variety of
Bay of Biscay France and Spain crops due to the occurrence of different
kinds of soil and climate. On the steppes,
Description
wheat, sugar beet and sun flowers are the
•Wheat is the most important crop of major CIops, whereas in the
Europe. The Ruhr in Germany is the Mediterranean region, fruit cultivation is
biggest and richest coal field of Europe. prominent. Moreover, cattle, sheep and
Other coal fields in Germany are Saar pigs are reared for meat, milk and other
and Saxony. products.
170 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

• The continental shlf areas around Europe Physical Aspects of Australia

including Dogger Bank are rich in fish.
• Europe is rich in minerals such as iron ore, Mountains Great Dividing range,
Darling range, Musgrave,
petroleum, coal, copper etc. Flinders and Australian
• United Kingdom is the name given to
the Alps
combination of Great Britain and Northern Deserts Gibson, Great Sandy,
Ireland. Great Britain consists of England, Great Victoria, Simpson,
Scotland and Wales. Little Sandy, Western
. UK one desert, Rangipo and
is of the most industrialized nations of
Tanami etc
the world, though it lacks the raw material. It
is self sufficient in oil production. Rivers Murray, Darling and Swan

e
• France is the third largest country in Europe.
Russia is the largest country of the world and Important Information

nc
the highest populated country of Europe. About Australia
• Vatican city is surrounded by Rome, Italy. It is • Australia is known as Forgotten
the smallest country of the world both in terms land. It was discovered by Captain
of area and population. James Cook in 1770.
ra • It is divided into six states. The six
AUSTRALIA states are Western Australia,
Australia is an island continent. Northern Territory, Queensland,
New South Wales, South Australia
Latitude 10°41'S and 39°S and Victoria.
nt

Longitude 114°E and 154°E • Largest city of Australia is Sydney.

Area 7830682 sq km (5.3%) • The highest peak of Australia Mt
Population 25356092
Kosciusko (2228 m).
Highest Point Mt. Kosciusko (2228 m) • Great Barrier reef is the world's
ie

longest coral Reef and is located in

the North-East of Australia. The
largest lake of Australia is Eyre.
jm

• The first European to dicover New

Zealand was Abel Tasman.
. The highest peak of New Zealand is
Mt Cook (3724 m).
@

• Agriculture is carried out in the

Lowest Point Lake Eyre (- 15.8 m) Murray Darling Basin, around the
•
Islands Tasmania, Fraser, Kangaroo, Lord river Swan in Perth and along the
Kowe. rainy East coast. Wheat and
Deseription Sugarcane are important crops.
. is Moreover, commercial farming is a
It the smallest continent of the world. It lies
big business in Australia.
entirely in the Southern hemisphere. The
Tropic of Capricorn runs almost through the Coal, iron ore, bauxite, uranium,
middle of the continent and divides the gold and petroleum are the major
continent in two equal parts. mineral resources of Australia.
• Being a dry country, forest do not
• It is
the only continent that is also a country
and it lies between Pacific and Indian ocean. It occur in continuous belt, however
is surrounded by Timor sea in the North-West, tropical forests are found in the
Arafura sea and Gulf of Carpentaria in the North coastal region, which gets
North, Great Barrier Reef in the North-East mons00n rain.
and Great Australian Bight in the South. To The Australian trade is based on
the South-East of the mainland lies the agriculture, animal rearing and
mountainous island of Tasmania. minerals.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 171

ANTARCTICA
• It was discovered in 1820.
• Roald Amundsen was the first man to reach geographical South pole in Antarctica.
• It is known as the continent for science because it provides unique opportunity to
scientists to learn about the Earth.

e
nc
• Mt
Erebus is the only active volcano on Antarctica.
•
ra
Mt Vinson (4897 m) is the highest peak of Antarctica.
• Deep Lake, Vest fold hills (-50 m) is the lowest point in Antarctica.
• It is the only continent, which is completely frozen. It is, therefore, known as White
Continent.
nt

Highest/Lowest Points of Various Continents

Continent Highest (m) Lowest (m)
Mt Everest (8848)
ie

Asia Dead Sea (-396)

Africa Mt Kilimanjaro (5895) Lake Assal (-155)
North America Mt McKinley (6194) Death Valley (-86)
jm

South America Mt Aconcagua (6960) Laguna del Carbon (-104 m)

Europe MtElbrus (5642) Caspian Sea (-28)
Australia Kosciusko (2228) Lake Eyre (-16)
Antarctica Vinson Massif (4897) Deep lake, Vest fold hills (-50)
@

Important Straits of the World

Strait Water Bodies Joined Area
Bab-al- Mandeb Red Sea and Arabian Sea Arabia and Africa
Bering Arctic Ocean and Bering Sea Alaska and Russia
Bosporus Black Sea and Marmara Sea Turkey
Dover North Sea and English Channel England and France
Florida Gulf of Mexico and Atlatic Ocean Florida and Bahamas Islands
Gibralter Mediterranean Sea and Aftlantic Ooean Spain and Morocoo
Malacca Andaman Sea and South China Sea Indonesia
Palk Bay of Bengal and Palk Bay India and Sri Lanka
Magellan South Pacific and South Atlantic Ocean Chile
Sunda Java Sea and Indian Ocean Indonesia
172 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

Important Canals of the World City River

Warsaw (Poland) Vistula
Canal Connects
Yangon (Myanman) Irawady
Panama Pacific Ocean with Caribbean Sea
Suez Mediterranean Sea to Red Sea
Major Rivers of the World
Erie Atlantic Ocean to Great Lakes
Kiel North Sea to Baltic Sea River Origin
Nile Lake Victoria
Amazon Andes (Peru)
Oceans of the World (Area wise)
Yangtze Tibelan Plateau
Ocean Deepest Point (Tanggula Mountain)

e
Pacific Mariana Trench Mississippi- Itaska Lake (USA)
Atlantic Puerto Rico Trench Missouri
Yenisei Mungaragiyn-Gol Mountain

nc
Indian Sunda or Java Trench
Huang Ho Kunlun Mountains
Arctic Litke Deep in Eurasian Basin
Ob Altai Mountains, Russia
River Side Cities Congo Lualaba and Luapula rivers
Amur Onon river-Shilka river
City River
ra Lena Baikal Mountains
Sittwe (Myanmar) Kaladan Mekong Tibelan Highlands
Baghdad (Iraq) Tigris Niger Guinea Highlands
Basara (lraq) Tigris and Euphrates
Belgrade (Serbia) Confluence of Sava Important Lakes of the World
nt

and Danube
Berlin (Germany) Spree Lake Location
Bristol (UK) Avon Caspian Europe and Asia
Budapest (Hungary) Danube Superior North America
ie

Cairo (Egypt) Nile Victoria Africa

Wuzhou (China) Si-Kiang Huron North America
Glasgow (Scotland) Clyde Michigan North Armerica (USA)
jm

Hamburg (Germany) Elbe Tangaryika Africa

Baikal Asia (Russia)
Jarmshedpur (India) Confluence of Kharkai
and Subarnarekha Great Bear North America (Canada)
Kabul (Afghanislan) Kabul Aral Asia (Kazakhstan-Uzbekislan)
@

Karachi(Pakistan) Indus Great SIlave North America (Canada)

Khartoum (Sudan) Nile
Lahore (Pakistan) Ravi List of Waterfalls
Lisbon (Portugal) Tagus Rank Waterfall Location
London (UK) Thames 1 Angel Falls Venezuela
Lucknow (India) Gormti
2 Tugela Falls South Africa
Montreal (Canada) Ottawa 3 Tres Hemanas Falls Peru
Nanking (China) Yang-tse-Kiang 4 Olo'upena Falls United Sates
New Castle (UK) Tyne 5 Calarata Yumbilla Peru
New Orleans (USA) Mississippi
New York (USA) Hudson Major lslands of the World
Paris (France) Seine Rank Island's Area (km) Country
Philadelphia (USA) Confluence of Name
Schuylkill and
Delaware
1
Greenland 2130800 Denmark
Rome (ltaly) Tiber 2 New Guinea 785753 Indonesia
Yang-lse-Kiang
and Papua
Shanghai (China) New Guinea
Srinagar (ndia) Jhelum
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE- Geography 173

Rank Island's Area (km)? Country Agrioultural Produce Leading Producer

Narme Wheat China
3 Borneo 743330 Brunei, Maize USA
Indonesia Wool Australia
and Malaysia
Sisal Brazil
Madagascar 587041 Madagascar
Cloves Indonesia
5 Baffin Island 507451 Canada
Surmatra 473481 Indonesia Industrial Cities
Minerals of the World Country Industry
Anshan (China) Iron and Steel
Mineral Leading Produoer

e
Baku (Azerbaijan) Petroleum
Gold China
Belfast (Northern Ireland) Ship building
Bauxite Australia

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Copper Chile Birrningham (UK) Iron and Steel
Chicago (USA) Meat packing
Platinum South Africa
Chromium South Africa Detroit (USA) Automobile
Vanadium China Havana (Cuba) Cigars
ra
Antimony China Hollywood (USA) Films
Tungsten China Johannesburg Gold Mining
Phosphate Morocco (South Afica)

Manganese South Africa Kansas City (USA) Meat packing

nt

Diamond Russia Kawasaki (Japan) Manufacturing

Iron ore China Kimberley Diamond mining
(South Africa)
Petroleum USA
Krivoi Rog (Ukraine) Iron and Steel
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Mines of the World Leeds (UK) Woollen textiles

Saint Pelersburg (Russia) Ship building
Mine Mineral
Los Angeles (USA) Pelroleum
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Kimberley (South Africa) Diamond

Lyon (France) Silk textiles
Lubumbashi(Democratic Copper
Republic of Congo) Saint Petersburg (Russia) Iron and Steel
(Zaire) Manchester (UK) Cotton textile
Hwange (Zimbabwe) Coal
@

Milan (ltaly) Automotives

Witwalersrand Gold Multan (Pakislan) Pottery
(South Afica)
Munich (Germany) LenseS
Katanga (Democratic Copper and Cobalt
Republic of Congo) Nagoya (Japan) Automobiles
Kasai Province Diarnond Philadelphia (USA) Locomotives
(Democratic Republic of Pittsburg (USA) Advance
Congo) Manufacturing
Plymouth, Massachusets Ship building
Agriculture (USA)
Agricultural Produce Leading Producer Rourkela (India) Iron and Steel
Coffee Brazil Shefield (UK) Cutlery
Rubber Thailand Vladivostok (Russia) Ship building
Tea China Wellington Dairying
Oil Palm (New Zealand)
Indonesia
Cocoa Ghana Arizona (USA) Mining
Coconut Philippines Bhiwandi (India) Textile
Date Palm Egypt Bhagalpur (India) Silk Textile
Cotton India
174 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

Changed Names of Cities, Important International

States and Coutries Boundary Lines
Old Narme New Name Narme of In Between Countries
Abyssinia Boundary Line
Ethiopia
Radoliffe Line India and Pakistan
Angora Ankara
Macnohan Line India and China
Basutoland Lesotho
Durand Line Pakistan and Afghanistan
Batavia Jakarta
Hindenburg Line Germany and Poland
British Guiana Guyana
Maginot Line France and Germany
Burma Myanmar

e
Order Neisse Line Germany and Poland
Cape Canaveral Cape Kennedy
Siegfried Line Fortification between Germany

nc
Cawnpore Kanpur and France
Central Provinces Madhya Pradesh 38th Parallel Line North and South Korea
Ceylon Sri Lanka 49th Parallel Line USA and Canada
Christina Oslo 24th Parallel Line Pakistan claims that it is the
ra
(Sir Creek) boundary between India and
Cochin Kochi Pakistan in Aann of Kutch
Constantinople Istanbul 17th Parallel Line North Vietnarm and South
Daoca Dhaka Vietnam (now abandoned)
Dutch East Indies Indonesia
nt

Famous Tribes of the World

Dutch Guiana Surinarme
Abhors Mongoloids living in North-Eastern part
Gold Coast Ghana of India
Holland The Netherlands Afridis Tribes residing in the North-West Frontier
ie

(Pakistan)
lvory Coast Cote D'voire
Bantus Negroes living in the Central and South
Madagascar Malagasy Africa
jm

Nippon Japan Boers The Dutch settlers of South Africa

Northern Rhodesia Zambia Cossacks People living in the West and Central
regions of Russia
Nyasaland Malawi
Eskimos Inhabitants of Siberia, Alaska, Canada &
Peking Beijing Greenland
@

Persia Iran Flernings A term used for the people native to

Belgiumn
Petrograd Leningrad
Harmites Inhabitants of North-West Africa
Quilon Kollam
Khirgiz People native to Central Asia
Rangoon Yangon Kurds Tribes living in Kurdistan (South eastern
Rhodesia Zimbabwe Turkey, North Western Iran, Northern Iraq
Ho Chi Minh City and North Syria)
Saigon
Magyars Inhabitants of Hungary
Sandwich Islands Hawaiian Islands
Maoris Inhabitants of New Zealand
Siam Thailand Mostly native to Africa
Negroes
South-West Africa Narmibia Pygmies Short slalured people found in Congo
Spanish Guinea Equatorial basin in Africa
Guinea Red Indians Original inhabitants of North America
Zaire Democratic Semites Caucasian people of ancient times
Republic of
Zulus People of South Africa living in certain
Congo part of Natal
 INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
• India is the 7th largest country in the world with an area of 3287263 sq km, which is
2.42% of world's area.
• India is the second most populous country in the world with a population of 1.21
billion (2011), which is 17.44% of the world's population.
•
Indian sub-continent is located in the Northern and Eastern hemisphere.
• India shares longest boundary with Bangladesh (4096 km), followed by China (3488
km), Pakistan (3323 km), Nepal (1751 km), Myanmar (1643 km), Bhutan (699 km)

e
and Afghanistan (106 km).
• In India, the Tropic of Cancer (23.5°N latitude) passes through 8 States (Gujarat,
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura and

nc
Mizoram).
•
Islands Andaman and Nicobar Island group in the Bay of Bengal; Lakshadweep,
island goup in the Arabian Sea.
•
Indian Standard Time (IST) The 82°30' E longitude is taken as the Standard
ra
Meridian of India, as it passes through middle of India (from Naini, near Allahabad).
• The 82° 30' E Meridian also decides the time in SriLanka and Nepal.
• On the South-East, the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait separates India from Sri
Lanka.
nt

INDIA : BASIC INFORMATION

Latitudinal extent 8°4' North to 37° 6 North
Longitudinal extent 68°7 East to 97° 25 East
ie

North-South extent 3214 km

East-West extent 2933 km
Land Frontiers 15200 km
jm

Total Coastline 7516.6 km

Number of Sates 28
Number of Union Territories 8
Land Neighbours (7) Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal,
Bhutan, Bangladesh and Myanmar
@

Slates with Longest Coastline Gujarat

Active Volcano Barren lsland in Andaman and Nicobar lslands
Southern most point Indira Point or Pygmalion point in Great Nicobar
Southern most tip of mainland Kanyakumari
Northern most point Indira Col
Westem most point West of Guhar Mota in Gujarat
Eastern most point Kibithu in Arunachal Pradesh
Indian States Situated on the Border
Country Indian States Shaning their Borders
Pakistan (5) Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab, Ladakh and Jammu and Kashmir
Afghanislan (1) Ladakh
China (5) Ladakh, Utarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh
Nepal (5) Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar, West Bengal, Sikkim
Bhutan (4) Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh
Bangladesh (5) West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram
176 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

PHYSICAL FEATURES

INDIA: PHYSICAL

hakn
CHINA
SALKRAYGE
RRad
TIBET

e
RTaonppo
NEPAL
RGange

nc
(Greal Indlan YaHUTAT1 y

Deserts CHant Ghaghoro

RKoQ! (HASI JAITUA
R GANGE
CBANGLA
NULMIPLATEAU R,
HOTNoNGPUR Daa
modn ESH/
NDH
ra
MAHAD
FUITEAL
HILLS
R
Noma
GiR
HLS
R,Sahno NtANMAR
DECCAN
R. Godavuri
nt

PLATEAU

R,Kuhno
DANI
ie

N AJD
GIRI
NCOBAR
jm

RCouvo

I8U
LAKSHADWEEP
(INDIA)
Sculo1: 1a,oto,c00
SRI bKdanetua 100 0 100 200 M0 400HInba
LANKA
@

Physiographic divisions ofIndiaare as follows: They stetch from the Indus river in
• The Himalayan Range of Mountains the West to the Brahmaputra river in
. the East.
The Peninsular Plateau
• The Great Plains of India
•
The Pamirs, popularly known as the
• The Coastal Plains Roof of the World is the connecting
• The Islands of India link between the Himalayas and the
high ranges of Central Asia.
•
The Himalayas The total length is about 2500 km
• Himalayas means 'Abode of snow'. These with varying width of 240 to 400 km
and a total area of 595000 km².
are young fold mountains of tertiary period,
They consists of three parallel ranges
which were folded over Tethys sea due to such as:
inter-continental collision.
• They are one of the youngest fold (i) Himadri (Greater Himalayas)
mountain (i) Himachal (Lesser Himalayas)
ranges in the world and comprises mainly
(iii) Shiwaliks (Outer Himalayas)
sedimentary rocks.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 177

Greater Himalaya (Himadri) Important Passes in

•
Northern most part of the Himalayan Middle Himalaya
range, it is one of the world's highest Pass Location Connectivity
regions with an average altitude of 61 00
m above sea level. Pirpanjal Jammu and Jammu-Srinagar road
Pass Kashmir passes from this
• It includes world's highest peak, Mt
pass
Everest (8848 m) located in Nepal. It is Banihal
Jammu and Jammu-Srinagar
known as Sagarmatha in Nepal and Pass Kashmir NH-44 passes from
Chomolungma in China. this pass. Jawahar
. range on tunnel (India's
Zaskar is situated the Western
longest road tunnel)
part of Greater Himalayas. It includes

e
Nanga Parbat (8126 m) in Kashmir Rohtang Himachal Kullu valley with
Himachal region) and Dhaulagiri Pass Pradesh Lahaul and Spiti

nc
valley in Himachal
(8172 m) in Nepal. Pradesh
Other Important Peaks Average altitude of the Middle Himalaya
•Kanchenjunga (8598 m, Sikkim) is 3700-4500 km.
Makalu (8481 m, Nepal), Mansalu
ra Important hill resorts are Shimla,
(8156 m, Nepal), Nanga Parbat (8108 Ranikhet, Almora, Nainital and Darjeeling.
m, Gilgit Baltistan), Kamet (7756 m,
Uttarakhand) and Nanda Devi (7816 m, Outer Himalayas (Shiwalik)
Uttarakhand). These are the Southern most Himalayan
nt

Important Passes in Greater mountain range.

Himalaya Their average altitude varies from 600 to
1500 metres.
Pass Location Conneotivity
They are knowm as Jammu hills in
ie

Karakoram Ladakh India to China Jammu and Dafla, Miri, Abor, Mishmi
Pass hills in Arunachal Pradesh.
Burzil Pass Pok Kashmir valley
They are the youngest part of Himalayas.
jm

to Gilgit
Zojila Pass Srinagar to They form the foothills of Himalayas.
Ladakh
Leh
Shimla to
Trans Himalayan Zones
Shipki la Pass Himachal
Pradesh Gartok (Tibet) This zone lies to the North of the Great
@

Jelep la Pass Sikkim Sikkim to Himalayas.

Lhasa (Tibet) Some important ranges of this zone are
Yangyap Pass Arunachal Entry of Karakoram and Ladakh etc. The highest
Pradesh Brahmaputra peak in region is K2 or Godwin Austin or
river Qagir (861lm, in Pak occupied
Kashmir). Mount K2 is also the 2nd
Middle Himalaya or Lesser highest peak of the world and the highest
Himalaya (Himachal) peak of India, located in Karakoram
• Tange.
From West to East middle Himalaya is
Mt Rakaposhi is the highest peak in
divided into following ranges:
Ladakh range and the steepest peak in
Pirpanjal range (Jammu and the world.
Kashmir). It is longest range of the
middle Himalaya Siachin glacier is second longest glacier
of the world outside the polar region
Dhauladhar range (Himachal Pradesh)
(75 km) and is located in Nubra valley.
Mussoorie range (Uttarakhand) Ladakh, Baltoro, Biafo, Batura, Hispar
Nagtibba range (Uttarakhand) are the other important glaciers in this
Mahabharat range (Nepal) region.
178 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

Mountain Peaks : Quick Digest The Great Plain

Highest peak of India MtK, or Godwin • To the South of the Himalayas and to
Austin (8611 m) the North of the peninsula lies the
Highest peak of Satpura Dhupgarh great plains of North India.
Highest peak of Aravalli Gurushikhar in Mount • It extends from West to East for 2400
Abu (1722 m) km having an average width in
Highest peak of Western Anaimudi (2695 m) between l50-300 km.
Ghat The plains are formed by depositional
Highest peak of Eastern Mahendragiri works of three major rver systems
Ghat (1501 m)
Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra.
Doda Beta (2637 m) . The vast plains of North India are

e
Highest peak of Nilgiri
Highest peak of Naga hills Sararnati (3826 m) alluvial in nature and the Western
most portion is occupied by the desert.

nc
Highest peak of Andaman Saddle peak (731 m)
and Nicobar • It is composed of Bhangar (old
alluvium), Khadar (new alluvium) in
Himalayan Mountain Peaks the river bed, Bhabhar (plains
Peak Height (m) Country containing porous gravel and pebbles
ra where the streams disappear) and Terai
Mt Everest 8848 Nepal-China
(damp, thick forest area, where Bhabhar
Mt K2 8611 Pok (India) streams reappear).
Kanchenjunga 8586 Nepal-India
Lholse 8516 Nepal-China Difference Between
nt

Makalu 8481 Nepal-China

Bhangar and Khadar
Cho oyu 8201 Nepal-China Bhangar Khadar
Dhaulagiri 8172 Nepal
These are low The new deposit of fresh
ie

Manaslu 8163 Nepal plains, alluvium every year

Nanga Parbat 8125 Pakistan composed of brought by the Himalayas
8091 older alluvium. rivers makes this belt in
Annapurna Nepal the Northern plains.
jm

I
Gasherbrum 8080 Pakistan-China Itcontains Itdoes not contain
Broad peak 8051 Pakistan-China calcareous calcareous deposits of
deposits locally calcium.
Mountain Peaks in India known as
Kankar.
@

Highest Peak Hejght (m) State

Mt K2 PoK (India)
8611 Difference Between
Kanchenjunga 8586 Sikkim Terai and Bhabar
Nanda Devi 7817 Utarakhand
Jammu and Terai Bhabar
Saltoro 7742
Kashmir Terai is a broad long Bhabar is a long
Arunachal Zone South of Bhabar narrow plain along
Kangto 7090
Pradesh plain. the foothills of
Himalayas.
Reo Purgil 6816 Himachal Pradesh
It is a
IE
is a marshy damp pebble
Saramati 3841 Nagaland area covered with studded zone of
Sandakphu 3636 West Bengal porous rocks.
dense forest.
Khayang 3114 Manipur It is 20-30 km wide. It is 9-16 km wide.
Anaimudi 2695 Kerala It
IE
is most suitable for is unsuitable for
Doda Bela 2636 Tanil Nadu agriculture. agriculture.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE- Geography 179

Sub-Divisions of the Great Plain Narmada, which flows through a rift

valley divides the region into two parts:
The Thar or Great Indian desert is the
Rajasthan Weslern most region of the Great the Central Highlands in the North and
Plain Indian plain. A semi•arid plain, the Deccan plateau in the South.
lying to the East of Thar desert is The Deccan plateau is the largest plateau
known as Rajasthan Bagar. The in India.
Luni is the only South-West
ilowing river of the region.
Plateaus of Peninsular India
The It extends from Punjab in the
Punjab West to Yamuna (Haryana) in The Central Highland
Haryana East. They are composed of •
Plain Dhaya (Heavily gullied bluffs) The Central Highlands lie to the North of
the Narmada river covering a major area

e
and Bets (Khadar Plains).
It extends from Delhi to Kolkata
of the Malwa plateau.
The
The Aravalis range is bounded by the

nc
Ganga across the states of Utar
Plain Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. Central Highlands on the North-West
The Ganga and its tributaries and Vindhyan range on the South.
deposit large amount of alluvium It is also known as Madhya Bharat
and make this extensive plain
more fertile. Pathar.
ra
The Low level plain formed by The Deccan Plateau
Brahma Brahmaputra river system. It is
putra Plain situated between Eastern The Deccan plateau is a triangular land
Himalaya in North and lower Iying to the South of the river Narmada.
Ganga plain and Indo It is made up of lava flows in the
nt

Bangladesh border in the West. cretaceous era through the fissure

eruptions.
• The Punjab - Haryana plain is drained
by five rivers and the intervening area comprises Maharashtra plateau,
Karnataka plateau and the Telangana
ie

between the rivers is known as doab. Rayalseema plateau

From South to North, doabs are as and (Andhra
Pradesh).
follows:
The general slope is from West to East.
jm

Doab Region
The Eastern and Western Ghats
Bist Doab Between Beas and Sutlej demarcate the Eastern and Western edges
Bari Doab Belween Beas and Ravi of the Deccan plateau.
Rachna Doab Between Ravi and Chenab Meghalaya Plateau
@

Chaj Doatb Belween Chenab and This plateau is separated from main
Jhelum
block of the peninsular plateau by a gap
Sind Sagar Doab Belween Jhelum, Chenab called Garo-RajMahal gap.
and Indus From East to West, the plateau comprises
Garo, Khasi, Jaintia and Mikir hills.
The Peninsular Plateau
• Rising from
The Bundelkhand Upland
the height of 150m above
the river plains up to the average It is located to the South of Yamuna river
elevation of 600-1000 m is the irregular between Madhya Bharat Pathar and the
triangle known as the peninsular Vindhyan Range. It is composed of
granites and gneiss.
. plateau.
It is composed of the old cystalline,
The Marvar Upland
igneous and metamorphic rocks.
• It covers a total of 160000 km² (about It lies East of Aravali range. It is made up
half of total land area of the country). of sandstone, shale and limestone of
Vindhyan period.
180 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

Chhotanagpur Plateau • It runs from the South of the valley of

river Tapi to Kanyakumari.
• It covers mostly Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh .
and Purulia region of West Bengal. The Sahyadris upto 16° North latitude
• It is composed mainly of Gondwana rocks are mainly composed of basalt.
with patches of granites and gneisses and There are three important passes in the
Deccan lavas. Sahyadris
(i) Thalghat (between Mumbai and
HillRanges of the Peninsula Pune)
(ii) Palghat (between Palakkad and
Aravali Range Coimbatore)
• Aravalis are one of the world's oldest fold (iii) Bhorghat (between Mumbai and

e
mountains running in North-East to Nashik)
South-East direction from Delhi to • The Eastern and the Western Ghats

nc
Palanpur in Gujarat. It is an example of meet each other at the Nilgiri hill.
. relict mountain.
It separates the fertile regions of Udaipur Difference Between Eastern
cGhat and Western Ghat
and Jaipur regions from the semi-arid
regions of Rajasthan. Eastem Ghat Western Ghat
ra
• Piplighat, Barr, Dewair and Desuri passes Located East of Located West of
allow movements by roads and railways. Deccan Plateau. Deocan Plateau.
Vindhyan Range They are parallel of They are parallel to
Eastern Coast i.e. Western Coast, i.e.
nt

• This range acts as a water divide between Coromandel and Konkan, Malabar etc.
Ganga river system with the river system Northern Circar etc.
of South India. The Maikal range forms a Mahanadi, Cauveri, Narmada, Tapi,
connecting link between Vindhya and Godavari, Krishna etc Sabarmati and Mahi
rivers are drawn in this
etc rivers are drawn in
ie

Satpura.
region. this region.
Satpura Range Mahendragiri with an Anaimudi with an
. altitude of 1501 m is altilude of 2695 m is
It is a series of seven mountains running the hiahest peak here. the highest peak here.
jm

in East-West direction South of Vindhya

and in between the Narmada and Tapi.
• It comprises Rajpipla hills, Mahadeo hills
The Coastal Plains
and Maikal Range. On the basis of location and active
geomorphological processes, it can be
@

Eastern Ghats broadly divided into

• It comprises the discontinuous and Eastern coastal plain
low hills that are highly eroded by• Western coastal plain
the rivers such as the Mahanadi,
the Godavari, the Krishna. the CauVeri The Eastern Coastal Plain
etc. • The East coastal plain extends from the
• Some of the important ranges include the deltaic plains of the Ganga in the North
Javadi hills, the Velikonda range, the to Kanyakumari in the South for 1100
Nallamalai hills, the Mahendragiri hills km with an average width of 120 kn.
etc. • Utkal plain extends from deltaic plains
of Ganga to the Mahanadi delta for
Western Ghats about 400 km.
• Western ghats are locally known by Andhra coastal plain extends from the
different names such as Sahyadri in Southern limit of LUtkal plains to Pulicat
Maharashtra, Nilgiri hills in Karnataka lake (Andhra Pradesh). It has large
and Tamil Nadu and Anaimalai hills, deltas of Krishna and the Godavari
Cardamom hills in Kerala. rivers.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 181
.
Tamil Nadu plains extend from the Andaman andNicobar Group
North of Chennai to Kanyakumari in
It is located in Bay of Bengal.
the South. Coromandel coast is a part
of this plain. It has the deltaic plains of There ae nearly 325 islands in Andaman
group, whereas the Nicobar group of
Cauveri and is popularly known as the
Granary of South India. islands consist of 247 islands.
Ten degree channel separates Andaman
The Western Coastal Plain group from Nicobar group. Duncan
It is about l500 km long extending from passage lies between South Andaman and
Surat to Kanyakumari. Little Andaman group.
These plains are sub-divided into
sit Lakshadweep Group

e
:
Western Coastal Plain
Kachchh Plains It is an arid and
1. It is located in Arabian sea.

nc
semi arid region having salt deposits Minicoy is the second largest and Southern
Great Rann and Little Rann are most island and the Andrott island is the
located within it. largest island of this group.
2. Kathiawar Plains It extends from . Minicoy is separated from rest of
the
Rann of Kuchchh to Daman in the Lakshadweep by Nine Degree Channel.
ra
South. • Eight
degree channel separates
3. Gujarat Plains Lies to the East of
Lakshadweep group from Maldives.
Kachchh and Kathiawar, formed by
the rivers Narmada, Tapi, Mahi
DRAINAGE SYSTEM
nt

and Sabarmati.
4. Konkan Plains It extends from
OF INDIA
Daman to Goa for a distance of
.
about 500 km. Water drains in two directions of the main
water divide line of India. 90% of water
ie

5. Karnataka Plains It extends from

Goa to Mangalore in a narrow belt. drains into Bay of Bengal and the rest
6. Malabar or Kerala Plains It drains into Arabian sea.
extends between Mangalore and Those Himalayan rivers, which originated
jm

Kanyakumari. The backwaters, before the formation of Himalaya are

locally called kayals are the known as Antecedent rivers, Such
shallow lagoons. The largest among as-Indus, Brahmaputra and Sutlej.
these is Vembanad Kayal followed India is blessed with hundreds of large and
@

by Ashtamudi Kayal. small rivers, which drains the length and

breadth of the country.
Difference Between Eastern
and Western Coast In India, the rivers can be divided into two
main groups:
Eastern Coast Western Coast (i) Himalayan rivers (i) Peninsular rivers
Smooth outline Dissected outline
Occurrence of
The river basins have been divided into three
Occurrence
of
deltas estuaries paris such as:
Less rainfall More rainfall River Basins
Broader Narrower
Major Medium Minor
Long rivers Short rivers
River basins River basins River basins
with catchment with catchment with
Islands area of 20000
sq km and
area between
2000- 20000 sq
catchment
area below
• India has large number islands, most above. k. 2000 sg km.
of which are located in tvo groups It accounts for Ii accounts for It accounts
-
Andaman and Nicobar group 85% of the total 7% of the total for 8% of the
Lakshadweep group run off of all the run off. total run off.
• Group of islands is called rivers.
archipelago.
182 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

Himalayan Rivers The Ganga System

Himalayan rivers are divided into three The Ganga system is the second major
major river systems: drainage system of India.
• It rises in the Gangotri glacier near
The Indus Systenm Gaumukh (7010 m) in the Uttarakhand.
• The Indus, also known as Sindhu, is Here, it is known as the Bhagirathi. At Dev
the Western most of Himalayan rivers Prayag, the Bhagirathi, meets the
in India. Alaknanda, hereafter, it is known as the
• It is one of the largest river basins of Ganga. The Alaknanda has its source in the
the world covering an area of Satopanth glacier above Badrinath.
1178440 sq km (in India it is 321284 The Alaknanda consists of the Dhauli and

e
sq km) and a total length of 2880 km the Vishnu Ganga, which meet at Joshimath
(in India 709 km). Vishnu Prayag.

nc
• It originates from a glacier near The other tributaries of Alaknanda such as
Bokhar Chu in the Tibetan region the Pindar joins it at Karna Prayag, while
near Mansarovar lake. Mandakini or Kali Ganga meets it at Rudra
• In Tibet, it is known as Singi Prayag.
Khamban or Lion's mouth. • It
ra
is 2525 k long of which 1450 km is in
• In Jammu and Kashmir, its Uttarakhand and UP 445 km in Bihar and
Himalayan tributaries are Zanskar, 520 km in West Bengal.
Dras, Gortang, Shyok, Shiga, Nubra, • The left bank tributaries of Ganga are
Gilgit etc. Ramganga, Gomti, Kali Sharda,
nt

• Its most important tributaries, Gandhak, Kosi, Mahananda.

which join Indus at various places,• The right bank tributaries of Ganga are
are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Yamuna and Son. Yarmuna joins the Ganga
Sutlej. at Allahabad.
ie

• According to Indus Water Treaty • Kosi is called as Sorrow of Bihar while

signed between India and Pakistan in Damodar is called as Sorrow of Bengal as
1960, India can utilise only 20% of these cause floods in these regions.
jm

the total discharge of Indus, Jhelum Hooghly is a distributory of Ganga flowing

and Chenab. through Kolkata.
Indus River System • In terms of area and length Ganga is the
largest as well as longest river in India.
Source
@

River Length Falls

(km) into Ganga River System
Indus Near 2880 Arabian River Source Length (km)
Manasarovar (709 in Sea Ganga Gangolri Glacier 2525
Lake India)
Yamunolri Glacier
Yamuna 1376
Jhelum Verinag 724 Chenab Chambal Near Mhow (MP) 1050
Chenab Bara Lacha 1180 Indus Ramganga Garhwal district 596
Pass Near Gurla Mandhola 1080
Ghaghra
Ravi Near 725 Chenab peak South of
Rohtang Manasarovar
Pass Son Amarkantak Plateau 784
Beas Near 460 Sutlej Damodar Chhotanagpur 541
Rohtang Plateau
Pass
Gandak Tibet-Nepal border 425*
Sutlej Manasarovar- 1450 Chenab Kosi Sikkim-Nepa-Tibet 730*
Rakas Lake (1050 in
Himalaya
India)
length in India
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE Geography 183

The Brahmaputra System

• It is one of the largest rivers of the world.
• It is known as Tsangpo in Tibet, Dihang or Siang in Arunachal Pradesh,
Brahmaputra in Assam and Jamuna in Bangladesh.
• Brahmaputra forms large number of riverine islands. Majuli is the largest riverine
island in the world.
.
The combined stream of Ganga and Brahmaputra forms the biggest delta in the world,
the Sundarbans, covering an area of 40,000 sq km. Its major part is in Bangladesh.
Brahmaputra River System

e
Narme Source Total Length Information
Brahmaputra Rises in 2900 km Mariam La pass separates it from

nc
or Tsangpo Chemayungdung (900 km in India) Mansarovar lake. Important tributaries are
glacier in the Subansiri, Kameng, Dhansiri, Dihang, Lohit,
Kailash range. Tista, Manas, Dihing etc

The Peninsular River System

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Peninsular river system can be divided in two groups:
East Flowing Rivers
(or Delta forming rivers)
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• East flowing rivers form Delta.

• East flowing rivers fall in Bay of Bengal.
West Flowing Rivers (or Estuaries forming rivers)
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• West flowing rivers do not form delta.

.
West flowing rivers fall in Arabian Sea.
East Flowing Rivers
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Rivers Source Length Tributaries

Mahanadi North foothills of 857 km Seonath, Hasdeo, lb, Mand, Tel, Ong
Dandakarnaya and Jonk.
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Godavari Triambak plateau of North 1465 (longest Penganga, Wardha, Wainganga

Sahyadri near Nashik river of Peninsular Indravati, Sabari, Manjira.
India)
Krishna North of Mahabaleshwar in 1400 krm Bhima, Tungabhadra, Ghat Prabha,
the Western Ghats Malaprabha, Musi and Koyna.
Cauveri Rise in Brahmgiri range in 800 krn Herongi, Hemavati, Shimsa, Arkavati,
Western Ghals Kabani, Bhavani and Amravati etc.
184 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

West Flowing Rivers

River Souroe Length Description
Sabarmati Mewar in Aravalli 320 km It falls into Gulf of Khambat and its
range tributaries are Hathmati, Sedhi, Wakul.
Mahi Aises from 533 km Flows in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and
Vindhyan range Gujarat.
Narmada (largest Amarkantak 1312 km Hiran, Tawa, Banjar, Shar, Shakkar and
West flowing plateau Burhner. It flows into Gulf of Kharmbat. It
peninsular river flows through Madhya Pradesh,
systern) Maharashtra and Gujarat. Famous
waterfalls Dhuandhar and Kapildhara are

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located on this iver.
Tapi Rises from Multai 730 kI Also known as Twin or handmaid of
on the Satpura Narmada Tributaries are Purna, Betul,

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range Arunavati, Ganjal etc.
Luni Aises from 482 km salt river. It is finally lost in the
Also called
Aravalis marshy grounds at the head of the Rann of
Kachchh.
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Difference Between Delta and Estuary
Delta Estuary
It is the triangular deposition of alluvium at the It is the funnel shaped mouth of river.
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mouth of river at its fall into the sea.

Excess deposition of silt and soil forms a della. Tidal waves remove the sil: out and an estuary
is formed.
It is more fertile land. They provide critical habitats for many fish
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species.

Differences Between Himalayan River System and Peninsular System

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Himalayan Rivers Peninsular Rivers

They have large basins and catchment areas. They have sImall basins and catchment areas.
They are the example of antecedent drainage. They are the exarmple of consequent drainage.
They are perennial in nature, ie. the water They are seasonal in nature and receive water
ilows throughout the year.
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mainly from raintall.

These rivers are still in their youthful stage. These rivers have already reached their maturity
stage.
These rivers form meanders. There is little scope for meander formation.
Importarnt Waterfalls of India
Waterfall Height (krm) State
Barehipani 400 m Odisha
Nohkalikai 340 m Meghalaya
Dudhsagar 310 m Karnataka and Goa
Jog or Gersoppa 253 m Karnataka
Duduma 157 m Odisha and Andhra Pradesh
Bishop 135 m Meghalaya
Hundru 100 m Jharkhand
Shivasamundram 100 m Karnataka
Langshiang 85 m Meghalaya
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 185)

Important Indian Towns on Rivers

Town River Town River
Jamshedpur Confluence of Kharkai and Ahmedabad Sabarmati
Subarnarekha Patna Ganga
Delhi Yamuna Kola Charnbal
Kanpur Ganga Jabalpur Narmada
Surat Tapi
Panji Mandavi
Ferozpur Sutlej
Uijain Kshipra
Allahabad At the confluence of the
Guwahati Brahmaputra
Ganga and Yamuna

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Varanasi Ganga Kolkata Hooghly
Haridwar Ganga Cuttack Mahanadi

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Badrinath Alaknanda Hyderabad Musi
Ludhiana Sutlej Nashik Godavari
Srinagar Jhelum LucknoW Gomti
Ayodhya Saryu
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Important River Projects and their Beneficiary States
Project River Purpose Benefioiary States
Bhakra Nangal Project
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Sutlej Power and irrigation Punjab, Himachal Pradesh,

Haryana and Rajaslhan
Darmodar Valley Damodar Power, irrigation and Jharkhand and West Bengal
tlood control
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Hirakud Mahanadi Power and irrigation Odisha

Tungabhadra Project Tungabhadra Power and irrigation Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka
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Nagarjunasagar Project Krishna Power and irrigation Andhra Pradesh, Telangana

Gandak River Project Gandak Power and irrigation Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Nepal
(joint venture of India and Nepal)
Kosi Project Kosi Flood control, Power Bihar
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and irrigation
Farakka Project Ganga, Power, irrigalion, West Bengal
Bhagirathi removing accumulalion
of silt from Kolkata port
Beas Project Beas Irrigation and power Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab
and Himachal Pradesh
Indira Gandhi Canal Sutlej, Beas Irrigation Rajasthan, Punjab and
Project (Aajasthan Canal and Ravi Haryana
Project)
Charmbal Project Chambal Power and irrigation Madhya Pradesh and
Rajasthan
Kakrapara Project Tapi Irrigation Gujarat
Ukai Project Tapi Power and irrigation Gujarat
Tawa Project Tawa Irigation Madhya Pradesh
(Narmada)
Poochampad Project Godavari Irigation Telangana
Malaprabha Project Malaprabha Irrigation Karnataka
186 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

Projeot River Purpose Beneficiary States

Durgapur Barage Darnodar Irrigation and West Bengal and Jharkhand
navigation
Sardar Sarovar Darm Narmada Irrigation Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
Hydroelectricity Maharashtra, Rajasthan
lddukki Project Periyar Hydroelectricity Kerala
Rarnganga Multipurpose Chui sot Power and irigation Uttarakhand
Project stream near
Kalagarh
Matatilla Project Betwa Power and irrigation Uttar Pradesh and Madhya

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Pradesh
Tehri Dam Project Bhagirathi Hydroelectricity, Uttarakhand

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Irrigation

Rihand Dam Rihand Hydroelectricity Uttar Pradesh

ShivasaIudram Project Cauveri Irrigation Karnataka
Mahi Project Mahi
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Irrigation Gujarat
Thein Project Ravi Irrigation Punjab

THE CLIMATE OF Factors Influencing

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INDIA the Climate of India

. The factors influencing the climate of India are as
India has tropical monsoon type follows:
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of climate. It is greatly •
influenced by the presence of Location and Latitudinal extent The Tropic of
Himalayas in the North as they Cancer passes through the middle of the country.
block the cold air masses from The region to the South of Tropic of Cancer
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experiences tropical climate, whereas the region

Central Asia. It is because of the to the North of the Tropic of Cancer experiences
Himalayas that the monsoon warn temperate climate.
winds shed their water in India.
.
The Tropic of Cancer (23.5°N) Distance from Sea The areas near to the sea
experience maritime climate, whereas the areas
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divides India into two almost away from the sea experience continental
equal climatic zones, namely,
the Northern zone (sub-tropical) • climate.
and the Southern zone (tropical). The Northern Mountain Range The Northern
• The sub-tropical climate of the Himalayan range protects India from the bitterly
cold and dry winds of Central Asia during winter.
Northern zone gives it cold Moreover;, it acts as a physical barrier for the rain
winter season and hot SuMmer
season. bearing South-West monsoon.
• Physiography The physiography has great
• The
Southern tropical climate on
zone is warmer than the North impact the major elements of climate such as
and does not have a clear cut
temperature, atmospheric pressure, direction of
wind and amount of rainfall.
winter season. • Monsoon Wind
Itis the most dominating factor
The Southern zone has the of Indian climate. The South-West summer
midday Sun almost vertically monsoon from the Arabian sea and the Bay of
overhead at least twice every year Bengal bring rainfall to the entire country.
and the Northern zone does not Besides the North-East winter ImonsOOn
have the midday Sun vertically travelling from land to sea causes rainfall along
overhead during any part of the
the Coromandel coast after acquiring moisture
year. from the Bay of Bengal.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE-Geography 187
• The warming of tropical Pacific vwaters
Western Disturbances affect the global pattern of pressure and
These are the depressions generated ver the wind systems including the monsoon
Mediterranean sea and enter India after winds in the Indian ocean. La Nina is
crossing over Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan and the reverse of El-Nino. It is a harbinger
Pakistan under the influence of Westerly jet of heavy monsoon showers in India.
stream. After reaching India, they move
Eastwards, light rain
Southern Oscillation Whenever the
causing in the surface level pressure is high over the
Indo-Gangetic plains and snowfall in Himalayan
Indian ocearn, there is low pressure over
belt. the Pacific ocean and vice versa. This
inter-relation of high and low pressure
• Upper Air Circulation The upper air

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over the Pacific and the Indian ocean is
circulation of India is dominated by a called Southern Oscillation.
westerly flow. An important component of

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this flow is the Jet Stream. The Western
cyclonic disturbances experienced in
Seasons in India
North and North Western parts of the Indian climate is characterised by
country are brought in by this Westerly distinct seasonality. Indian
flow. Meteorological Department (IMD) has
.
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recognised the following four distinct
Tropical Cyclones The tropical cyclones
SeasonS:
generated in Arabian sea and Bay of Bengal
during the South-West monsoon and the (i) The cold season or winter season.
retreating monsoon seasons influence the (ii) The hot weather season Or
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weather conditions of the Peninsular India. Summer seasOn.

• EINino and La Nina El Nino is a narrow (ii) The South-West momsoon season
warm current, which occasionally appears Or rainy season.
off the coast of Peru in December by (iv) The season of the retreating
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temporarily replacing the cold Peru current. monsoon or cool season.

Seasons and their Climatic Features

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Season Termporal Precipitation Other Climatic Features

Aspect
Winter Season Novermber to Rainfall in sub- Himalayan belt Clear sky, low temperature and
humidity with high range of
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March by Western disturbances

temperature
Summer Season March to June Only 1% rainfall of total Indian Dry season, high termperature
(Pre-monsoon) rainfall mostly by stoms by and low humidity
Covective ourents
Rainy Season June to Rainfall through South-West High heat, high humidity,
Septernber monsoon extensive cloud and several
spells of moderate to heay
rainfall are the characteristics
Cool Season Mid September Retreating monsoon causes No clouds, severe and
to November rainfall in Tamil Nadu and devastating tropical cyclones,
adjoining areas of Andhra clear sky
Pradesh
188 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

Local Storms in India

Narne Significance
Norwester It is a spring storn shower and causes rainfall in Assam and West Bengal.

Mango Shower Thunderstorm causing rainfall in Southern plateau, helps in mango ripening.
Cherry Blossoms Thunderstorm causing rainfall in Karnataka, helps in flowering of coffee.
Kalbaisakhis Storms in West Bengal during summer due to the strong conveclive
Moverment.

Climatic Regions of India

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Trewartha's Classification
• Dr Trewartha's scheme has been most prominent of all classificatioms of the Indian

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climatic regions. He presented a modified form of Koppen's classification.
.
Dr Trewartha's classification divides India into four major regjons of the A, B. C and H
types. The A type refers to tropical rainy cimate, where high temperatures are
consistent. The B type stands for a dry climate with high temperatures, but little
rainfall. The C type indicates a region with dry winters, where there is low temperature
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range between 0°C and 18°C. The H type indicates a mountain climate. The A, B, and
C types are further sub-divided.
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Climatic Regions of India

Climate Type Areas Characteristics
Tropical Rain Forests Western Ghats, West High temperature throughout the year,
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Climate (Am) Coastal Plains, Parts of heavy seasonal rainfall, average annual
Assam and TripUra. rainfall 200 cm (May to Novermber).

Tropical Savanna Most of Peninsular region Dry winters, annual rainfall varies from
76 cm to 100 cm.
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Climate (Aw) (except leeward side of

Western Ghats).
Tropical Semi-Arid Rainshadow belt running Low rainfall, varies from
Sleppe Climate (Bs) Southward from Central 38 om to 80 cm and temperature from 20°
Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu to 30°C.
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Tropical and Punjab, Haryana, and Termperature varies from 12°-35°C.

Sub-tropical Steppes Kachchh region. Annual Rainfall declines to 50 cm.
Climate (Bsh)
Tropical Desert Western parts of Barmer, Scanty rainfall (mosily in form of cloud
Climale (Bwh) Jaisalmer and Bikaner burst), high ternperature.
districts of Rajasthan and
parts of Kachchh.
Humid Sub- tropical South of Himalayas, in the Mild winters and extrernely hot summers
Climate with dry Northern plains.
Winters (Caw)
Mountain Climate (H) Mountainous region (above Rainíall varies from 60 om to 250 cm.
6000 m). (Mostly during South-West Monsoon).

Annual Rainfall
India can be divided into the following regions depending upon the annual average
rainfall received by these regions
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 189

Distribution of Rainfall
Areas of Very High Areas of High Rainfall Areas of Low Areas of Very Low
Rainfall (100-200 cm) Rainfall Rainfall
(above 200 cm) (50-100 cm) (below 50 cm)
IE
includes almost whole of includes Eastern
It
includes large
It It
Includes arid and
Assarn, Nagaland, slopes of Western parts of Gujarat, semi-arid area and
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Ghats, major parts of Maharashtra, includes large areas of
Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Northern Plain, Odisha, Western Madhya Western Rajasthan,
parts of Mlanipur, West Madhya Pradesh, Pradesh., Andhra Kachchh and most of the
Bengal and the Western Andhra Pradesh and Pradesh and region of Ladakh

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Coast from Mumbai to Tamil Nadu. Eastern Rajasthan (Jammu and Kashmir)
Thiruvananthapuram. etc.

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FOREST AND NATURAL VEGETATION
According to state records, the forest area covers 23.34% of the total land area of the
cOuntry.
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Indian State of Forest Report (1SFR) 2021
As per the report, it has been revealed that total forest and tree cover in India has increased to over
807276 sq km. Other key facts of the report are as follows:
The total forest and tree cover in India is 24.62% of total geographical area of the country.
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Mizoram has the highest forest cover in terms of percentage geographical area i.e. 85.41%.
Madhya Pradesh has the maximum forest cover i.e. 77,482 sq km.
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INDIA :
NATURAL VEGETATION
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Wei Temperalure
Alpine and Sub-alpine
Himalayan Molst Termperde
Tropical Molst Declduous o

Sub-troplcal Deciduous
Tropical We! Evergreen
Tropical Thorny Vegetalion
Hoi Desert
 e
Forest in India 190

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Forest Type Distribution Climatic Conditions Characteristics Species
Tropi cal Evergreen Rainy slopes of Western Ghals. Rainfall > 200 om Height of trees is 40 Mahogany, Mahua, Bamboo,
Forests NE India except Arunachal Pradesh. Relative Humidity > 70% to 60 m. Canes, Ironwood, Kadam,
Irul, Jamun, Hopea, Rubber
Eastem part of West Bengal and Average temperature is about Leaves are dark
green and broad. tree, Toon, Telsur elc.
Odisha. 24° C.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Hot and Humid climate.
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Tropical Moist Eastern parts of Sahyadris (Western 100 to 200 om raintall per 30 to 40 m high Sal, Teak, Arjun, Mulberry,
Deciduous Forests Ghals). annum, trees. Kusum, Sandalwood, Siris,
Moderatetemperature. Haldi, Khair, Mango, Banyan
North-Eas tern part of Peninsula. Due to deficiency of
water, they shed their tree elc.
Middle and lower Ganga valley.
leaves in dry season
Foothills of Himalayas in Bhabar and (onset of summer).
Tarai regions.
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These cover about

20% India s forest GENERAL

area.
Tropical Dry Large parts of Maharashtra, 50to 100 om raintall. 6 to 15 m high trees. Teak, Sal, Bamboo, Mango,
Deciduous Forests Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. Moderate humidity. Roots are thiok and Acacia, Neem, Shisham elc.
Parts of Punjab, Haryana and Eastern long.
parts of Rajas than.
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Northern and Weslern parts of KNOWLEDGE

Madhya Pradesh.
Tamil Nadu.
Southern parts of Uttar Pradesh.
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Dry Forests or Arid Rajasthan and adjoining areas of Low rainfall (less than 50 cm Thorny vegetation. Caclus, Thorny Bushes,
Forests Haryana, Gujarat and Punjab, per annum). Roots are very long. Kikar, Babool, Date Palm,
Rainshadow areas ofPeninsular Relative humidity is less. Leaves are small. Acacia, Khair, Euphorbias
India. elc.
Geography

Mountainous In Himalayan regions Due to increase of altitude the m

Each vegelation belt Sal, Teak, Chir, Deodar, Oak,
Forests or temperature decreas es hence ocours at a height of Olive, Chestnut, Coifers,
Himalayan Forest Himalayan forests contain all 300 m or more in Spruce and Larch elc.
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the varieties of world exoept Eastern Himalayas.

equalorial forest.
 e
GENERAL

Soils in India

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Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has divided Indian soils into eight major groups.
Type of Soils Stales where Found/Occurrence Composition Crops Grow
KNOWLEDGE~

Alluvial Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh Bihar, Rich in Phosphorus, polash and lime, but Large variely of Rabi and Kharil crops
Jharkhand deficient in nitrogen. Such as wheat, rice, sugarcane, cotton
and jule.
Black (or Regur soi) Deccan Plateau, Valleys of Krishna and
ra
Rich in iron, lime, aluminium, magnesium, Cotton, sugarcane, jowar, tobacco, wheat,
Godavari, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya calcium, but lacks in nitrogen, rice.
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu phosphorus and humus.
Red Easlern parls of Deccan Plaleau, Tamil Rich in iron and pol ash, but delicient in Wheat, ice, cotton, sugarcane and
Nadu, Goa, Odisha and Meghalaya lime, nitrogen, phosphorus and humus. pulses. Geography

Laterite Summils of Easlern and Weslern Ghals, Rich in iron but poor in silica, lime, Tea, coffee, rubber, cashew and millels.
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Assam hills, Andhra Pradesh, Karnalaka, phosphorus, polash and humus.

West Bengal and Odisha
Desert West and North-West India, Rajasthan, Rich in soluble salts, but deficient in Generally unsuilable for cultivation, but
North Gujarat and Sout hern Punjab. organic matler, wilh irigalion useful for cultivation of
drought-esislant crops like lime, millels,
barley, cotlon, maize and pulses.
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Mounlain Hills of Jammuand Kashmir, Rich in iron and humus, but delicient in Withthe use of letilizers, tea, fruits and
Uttarakhand and Assam Hills lime. medicinal plants can be grown.

Saline and Alkaline Drier parts of Bihar, Jharkhand, Utar Many sals such as sodium, magnesium Unfit for agiculture.
Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Rajaslhan and calcium.
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and Maharashtra
Pealy and Marshy Kerala, coaslal regions of Odisha, Tamil Con lain large amount of soluble salls and Uselul for rice and jule cultivalion.

Nadu and Sundarbans of West Bengal organic matler, but lacks in polash and
phosphales,
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191
192 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

INDIA
SOILS

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nt

Red soil

::Alluvial soil
Black (Regur) soil
Desert sol
Lalerile soll
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Mounlain soll
Grey and Brown soils
Sub-mounlain soil
Snowfields
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AGRICULTURE IN Types of Farming

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INDIA Shifting Agriculture

India is essentially an agricultural land. • It is practised by the tribal groups in the
Two-thirds of its population still lives on forest areas of Assam, Meghalaya.,
agriculture. Agriculture is a primary activity Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram,
which includes farming, animal rearing and Arunachal Pradesh, Odisha, Madhya
fishing. There are three crop seasons in Pradesh, Jharkhand and Andhra
India Pradesh.
() Kharif Sown in Junel]uly, harvested in Various Names of Shifting
September/October. e.g. rice, jowar, Agriculture
bajra, ragi, maize, cotton andjute.
(ii) Rabi Sown in October/December, States Narmes of Shifting
harvested in Apri/May e.g. wheat, Cultivation
barley, peas, rapeseed, mustard, Assam Jhum
grains. Kerala Ponam
(iii) Zaid They are raised between April Andhra Pradesh and Podu
and June e.g. melon, watermelon, Odisha
cuccumber, toris, leafy and other Madhya Pradesh Bewar, asha,
vegetables. Penda and Bera
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE-Geography 193

• In this type of agriculture, a piece of forest The components ofGreen Revolution are as
land is cleared mainly by tribal people by follows:
felling and burning of trees and crops are • High Yielding Variety Seeds
grown. Irrigation
• Dry paddy, buck wheat, maize, small millets, Use of Fertilizers
tobacco and sugarcane are the main crops Use of Insecticides and Pesticides
grown under this type of agriculture.
Command Area Development
Intensive Farming • Consolidation of Holdings
•
This is a system of farming in which the Land Reforms
cultivator uses large amount of labour and Supply of Agricultural Credit

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capital on a relatively small area. • Rural Electrification
• In regjons, where the size of population is Rural Roads and Marketing

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big, but land is less, this type of farming
is. Farm Mechanisation
done. Agricultural Universities
• Agriculture is done with the help of manual
labour. Impact of Green Revolution
Extensive Farming
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• This is a system of farming in which the • Increase in agricultural production
cultivator uses a limited amoumt of labour . Reduction of the import of
and capital on a relatively large area. foodgrains
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•
This type of agriculture is practised in Capitalist farming
regions, where population size is small and • Industrial
land is enough. growth
• Rural employment
• Agriculture is done with the help of
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machines. Negative mpact

• Inter-crop imbalance
Green Revolution .
Environmental impacts
It is a phrase generally used to describe the
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spectacular increase in the production and Increase in regional imbalances

productivity of food grains that took place Unemployment due to
during 1970s. It was introduced by mecharnisation
MS Swaminathan and he is also considered as Negligence of other crops
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Father of Green Revolution.

Major Crops and Producing States

Crop Type Crop Name Major Producers
Cereals Wheat Utar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and Madhya Pradesh
Aice West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh
Gram Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu
Barley Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan
Baja Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan
Cash Crops Sugarcane Utar Pradesh and Maharashtra
Tobacco Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh
Oil Seeds Coconut Kerala and Tarmil Nadu
Linseed Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana
Groundnut Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Tarmil Nadu
Rape seed and Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana
Mustard
Sesarme West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan
Suntlower Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka
194 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Crop Type Crop Narme Major Produoers

Fibre Crops Cotton Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu
Jute West Bengal, Bihar and Assam
Silk Karnataka and Kerala
Plantations Coffee Karnataka, Kerala and Tarmil Nadu
Rubber Kerala and Karnataka
Tea Assam and West Bengal
Spices Pepper Kerala, Karnataka and Tarmil Nadu
Cashewnuts Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh
Ginger Meghalaya, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala
Turrmeric Andhra Pradesh, Tarmil Nadu and Karnataka

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Growing Conditions of Some Important Crops
Crop Ternperature Rainfall Soil
Rice Not above 25°0 150-300 cm Clay or Loamy, Alluvial
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Wheat 10°-15°C (Winter), 75-100 cm Well-drained loams and clay
21°-26°C (Summern) loam
Cotton 21°-30°C, but not 50-75 cm Black soil (Regur), alluvial or
below 20°C, 200 frost laterite soils
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free days
Sugarcane 32°-38°C 75-150 cm Any type of soil that can retain
mOistuUre

<100 cm Variety of soils including clayey

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Jowar Not below 16°C (Rabi)

26°-33°C (Khari) and sandy
Jute 24°-35C Rainfall of 150 cm, Light sandy or clayey loams
vith 90% humidity
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Tea 13°-32°0C 150-300 cm, grown Well drained, deep friable loams
on hill slopes or forest soils rich in organic
matter
Coffee 23°-28°C 150-200 cm Rich well-drained friable loams
@

Containing good amounts of

humus and minerals like calcium
and iron
Bajra 25°-30C 40-50 cm Sandy loams, red and black soils
Ragi 20°-30°C 50-100 cm Red, light black and sandy
loams
Pulses 20°-35°C 50-75 Cm Loamy light soil
Rubber 25°-35C 150-200 cm Aich wel-drained loarny soils

Tabacco 15°C- 35°C 50-100 cm Well-drained loamy soil, alluvial

or black soils
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 195

MINERAL RESOURCES
Three types of minerals found in India are as follows:
(i) Metallic Iron-ore, copper, aluminium, tin, lead, gold and silver.
(i) Non-Metallic Coal, mica, manganese, petroleum and sulphur.
(iii) Radioactive Uranium and thorium.
Metallic Mineral Mines
Metallic Mineral Mines
Iron Kemmangundi, Sandur and Hospet(Karnataka)

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Gorumahisani, Badampahar (Odisha), Bailadila and Dali-Rajhara
(Chhattisgarh), North Goa

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Manganese Found in Karnataka, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra
Chrormite Found in Odisha, Bihar, Karnalaka, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh
Copper Malanjkhand Belt (Balaghat Madhya Pradesh), Khetri-Singhana Belt
(Jhunjhun ), Singhbhum (Jharkhand)
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Bauxite Found in Odisha, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Chhatisgarh
Gold Kolar and Hutti (Kamalaka), Ramgiri in Anantapur (Andhra Pradesh)
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Non-Metallic Mineral Mines

Non-Metallic Mineral Mines
Limestone Found in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,
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Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Meghalaya

Dolomite About 90% of the dolomite is found in Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Maharashtra
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,
Asbestos Rajasthan Andhra Pradesh and Karnalaka
Gypsum Found in Rajasthan and Jammu and Kashmir
Graphite Occurs in Kalahandi, Bolangir (Odisha) and Bhagalpur (Bihar)
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Atomic Mineral Mines

Atormic Mineral Found in
Uranium Hazaribagh (Jharkhand ), Gaya (Bihar), Saharanpur (Uttar Pradesh),
Monazite sands of Kerala coast. Found as by-product in copper mines of
Udaipur
Thorium Derived from Monazite sand, found in Kerala, Jharkhand, Bihar, Tamil Nadu
and Rajasthan
Lithiurm Found in Lepidolite and Spodumene. Lepidolite is found in Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh. ,Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan
Zirconium Found along Kerala coast and alluvial rocks of Ranchi and Hazaribagh
districis of Jharkhand
Berylium Occurs in Nellore district, Andhra Pradesh, Sikkim, Jammu and Kashmir
Antimony Occurs is Lahaul and Kangra districls of Himachal Pradesh and some
districts of Madhya Pradesh
196 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Industries in India
Industries Details
Cotton Textile The first modern Cotton textile mill was established in Bombay in 1854 by
Industry
CN Dewar with the name of Bombay spinning and weaving company.
Mumbai is called Cottonopolis of India.
Ahmedabad is called Manchester of India.
Coimbatore is called Manchester South India.
Kanpur is called Manchester of Utar Pradesh.
Distribution Maharashtra (Mumbai, Solapur, Pune, Kolhapur, Satara,

e
Wardha, Aurangabad and Amravati), Gujarat (Ahmedabad, Vadodra,
Rajkot, Surat, Bhavnagar, Porbandar, Morbi and Viramgam), Tamil Nadu

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(Chennai, Tirunelveli, Madurai, Tuticorin, Salem,Virudhnagar and
Tiruchripalli and Perambur), Karnataka (Bengaluru, Belgaum, Mangalore,
Chitradurga, Gulbaraga and Mysore),
Uttar Pradesh (Kanpur, Etawah, Modinagar, Moradabad, Bareilly. Agra,
Meerut and Varanasi), Madhya Pradesh (Indore, Gwalior, Ujain, Bhopal),
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Rajasthan (Kota, Jaipur, Sriganganagar, Bhilwara and Udaipur).
Woollen The first Woollen textiles mill was set-up in 1876 at Kanpur. Jammu and
Textile Punjab leads in the production of woollen textiles. Kashmir is the large
Industry producer of handloom and powerloom product.
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Distribution Punjab (Dhariwal, Anritsar, Ludhiana, Ferozpur),

Maharashtra (Mumbai), Uttar Pradesh (Kanpur, Mirzapur, Agra,
Tanakpur).
Jute Textile First modern Jute millwas set-up in 1855 at Rishra near Kolkata. India is
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Industry the second largest producer of raw jute and jute goods, whereas it is
second largest exporter of jute goods after Bangladesh.
Distribution West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Odisha, Tripura
and Chhattisgarh.
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Silk Textile India is the second largest prouducer of natural silk, after China and is
Industry the only country producing all four varieties or natural silk viz Mulberry,
Tasar, Eri and Muga of which Golden yellow Muga silk is unique in India.
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Distribution Karnataka is the leading producer followed by West Bengal,

Bihar and Jammu and Kashmir etc.
Rubber The first factory of synthetic rubber was set-up at Bareilly.
Industry
Distritbution Bareilly (Uttar Pradesh), Baroda (Gujarat) Synthetic Aubber
Units-Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Amritsar-Reclaimed Rubber Units.

Tea Industry Tea cultivation in India was first started in the mid-19th century in
Darjeeling, Assam and Nilgiris.
Nearly 98% of the lea production comes from Assam, West Bengal, Tamil
Nadu and Kerala, while the rest of it comes from Karnataka, Terai regions
of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur and
Tripura.
Sugar Uttar Pradesh is the leading producer of sugar.
Industry Distribution Uttar Pradesh (Gorakhpur, Deoria, Basti, Gonda, Meerut,
Saharanpur, Muzafiarnagar, Bijnor and Moradabad), Bihar (Darbhanga,
Saran, Champaran and Muzaffarpur), Punjab (Phagwara and Dhuri)
Haryana (Ambala, Rohtak and Panipat), Maharashtra (Nashik, Pune,
Satara, Sangli, Kolhapur and Sholapur) and Karnataka (Munirabad,
Shivamogga and Mandya).
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 197)

Industries Details
Paper The first Paper mill in the country was set-up near Chennai (1817) and
Industry then at Serampore (Bengal) in 1832, both of which iailed. In 1870, a
Successful venture was started at Ballygunj near Calcutta. It was named
as the Royal Bengal Paper Mills.
:
Raw material Bamboo (70%), Salai wood (12%), Sabai (9%), Bagasses
(4%) and Waste paper and Rags (5%),.
Distribution Madhya Pradesh (Nepanagar), Hindustan Paper
Corporation, Vellore, Mysore Paper mill, Bhadravati, Maharashtra,
(Mumbai, Pune, Ballarpur and Kamptee produce Paper and Vikhroli),
Andhra Pradesh (Rajahmundry and Sirpur), Madhya Pradesh (lndore,

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Bhopal and Shahdol), Karnataka.

Distribution Bhadrawati (Kanataka), Jamshed pur (Jharkhand),

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Iron and Steel
Durgapur, Burnpur (West Bengal), Bokaro (Jharkhand), Rourkela
(Odisha), Bhilai (Chhattisgarh), Salem (Tamil Nadu) and Visakhapalnam
(Andhra Pradesh). ra
Ship Building Distribution Cochin Shipyard, Mumbai (Mazgaon Dock), Hindustan
Shipyard at Visakhapatnam and Kolkata (Hooghly Docks and Port
Engineer). Mazgaon dock at Mumbai builts Vessels for Indian Navy.

Aircraft Distribution Hindustan Aeronautics India Limited was formed by merging

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Industry two aricraft factories at Bengaluru and Kanpur. Four other factories are at
Nashik, Lucknow, Koraput (Odisha) and Hyderabad.

Fertilizer - The Fertilizer Corporation of India (FCI) was set-up in 1961.

Industry
National Fertilizer Limited (NFL) was set-up in 1974.
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Distribution Sindri (Bihar), Nangal (Punjab), Gorakhpur (Uttar Pradesh),

Durgapur (West Bengal), Namrup (Assam), Cochin (Kerala), Rourkela
(Chhattisgarh), Neyveli (Tamil Nadu), Vadodra (Gujarat), Kanpur,
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Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh), Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh) and Kota

(Rajasthan).
Machine Tool Itforms the basis for the manufacturing of industrial, defence
Industry equipments, automobiles, railway engines andelectrical machinery.
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Distribution Hyderabad, Bengaluru, Pinjore (Haryana), Kalamassery

(Kerala), Ajmer and Srinagar.
Heavy Distribution Bengaluru, Bhopal, Jammu, Tiruchirapalli,
Electrical Ramchandrapuram (Hyderabad) and Haridwar.
Equipments

Photo Films The Hindustan Photo Films Manufacturing Company at Udagamandalam

Industry (Tamil Nadu) is the only factory in the public sector, producing photo
paper and films.

Glass Distribution Uttar Pradesh (Firozabad, Balijoi, Hathras, Naini,

Industry Secunderabad, Maharashtra (Mumbai, Telogaon (Pune), Kolhapur, Tamil
Nadu (Salem, Chennai and Coimbatore) and Karnataka (Belgaum,
Bengaluru).
198 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

ENERGY Renewable Energy Plants

Types of Plants States
• India is a fast growing country and Energy
therefore the demand for energy is
Wind Energy Muppandal Tarmil Nadu
also continuously growing. India is
Perungudi Taril Nadu
exploiting almost all the sources of Tarmil Nadu
energy such as hydroelectricity, Kayahar
Satara Maharashtra
thermal energy, nuclear energy, Karnataka
solar energy and wind energy etc. Jogmatti
• Lamba Gujarat
Power development commenced in Tuppadahalli
India with the commissioning of Karnataka
Jaisalmer

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Rajasthan
Sidrapong hydel power station in
Darjeeling during 1897, followed by Geothermal Manikaran Himachal Pradesh
hydropower Energy Puga Valley Jammu and

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a station al
Kashmir
Sivasamudram in Karnataka during Tattapani
1902. Chhattisgarh
• Himachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Combay Gujarat
Groben
Nagaland, Sikim and Uttarakhand Surajkund Jharkhand
ra
are largely dependent upon
Tidal Energy Gulf of Gujarat
hydroelectricity. Khambat
• National Hydro Power Corporation
Gulf of Gujarat
(NHPC) was set-up in 1975, under Kachchh
public sector for the generation of
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Sundarban West Bengal

hydropower in India. Wave Energy Vizhinjarn Kerala
• National Thermal Power Karnataka
Solar Energy Pavagarh
Corporation (NTPC) was set-up in Kurnool Andhra Pradesh
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1975, for generation of thermal Kamuthi Tamil Nadu

energy. NTPC has 18 coal based
Charanka Gujarat
super thermal power projects and 7
gas/liquid based combined cycle The Maior
Atomic Power Stations
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projects.
• Atomic Energy
Institute at Trombay Power Station Location
was set-up in 1954 which was Tarapur Maharashtra
renamed as Bhabha Atomic Rawatbhata Rajasthan
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Research Centre (BARC) in 1967. Kalpakkam Tamnil Nadu

• Heavy Water Plants are at Baroda,
Narora Uttar Pradesh
Tuticorin, Kota, Thal, Hazira and
Manuguru. The first heavy water Kakrapara Gujarat
plant was set-up in Nangal in 1962. Kaiga Karnataka
• The Renewable Energy Kudankulam Tamil Nadu
Programme
started with the establishment of Chennai Tamil Nadu
the Department of
Non-Conventional Energy Sources Ultra Mega Power Plants (UMPP)
in 1982. Indian Renewable Energy
Development Agency was set-up in Plants States Capacity Awarded
(MW)
1987. 1992; DNES was
converted into Ministry of Sasan Madhya Pradesh 3960 Reliance
Non-conventional Energy Sources. Mundra Gujarat 4000 Tata
In 2006, it was again renamed as Krishna- Andhra Pradesh 3960 Reliance
Ministry of New and Renewable patnam
Energy (MNRE). Tilaiya Jharkhand 3960 Reliance
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 199

Major Thermal Plants

States Narmes of the Plant States Narnes of the Plant
Haryana Faridabad, Panipat Andhra Vijayawada, Ramagundam,
Punjab Bhatinda, Ropar, Mansa Pradesh Nellore, Visakhapatnam
Delhi Badarpur, Indraprastha Telangana Kothagudim, Ramagundam,
Manuguru
Rajasthan Kota, Bikaner, Barmer Tamil Nadu Ennore, Tuticorin, Neyveli
Uttar Son bhadra, Raebareli, Barauni, Kanti, Barh
Bihar
Pradesh Prayagraj, Etah, Kanpur, Jhansi
Jharkhand Bokaro
Gujarat Ukai, Sikka, Ahmedabad,
Sabarmati, Mundra Odisha Angul, Dhenkanal Talcher,
Rourkela
Madhya Satpura, Armarkantak, Pench

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Pradesh West Bengal Kolkala, Titagart, Durgapur,
Chhattisgarh Korba, Bhilai Bankura, Purulia
Kamrup, Bongaigaon

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Assam
Maharashtra Nagpur, Nashik, Uran
Chandrapur, Trombay, Jammu and Pampore
Dabhol, Jalgaon Kashmir
Tripura Rokhia, Baramura

Transport
ra
RAILWAYS Railway Zones
• India has the second largest railway Zone Headquarter
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network in Asia and the 3rd largest in Central Railway Mumbai

the World after the USA, RuSsia and Eastern Railway Kolkata
China. The Indian railway operate in Northern Railway New Delhi
three different gauges North-Eastern Railway Gorakhpur
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North-East Frontier Railway Guwahati

Gauge Routes (km) Southern Railway Chennai
Broad Gauges (. 676 m) 61680 South Central Railway Secundrabad
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Meter Gauges (1. 000 m) 3479 South-Eastern Railway Kolkala

Narrow Gauges (0.761 2209 Weslern Railway Murmbai (Church Gale)
and 0.610 m) East Central Railway Hajipur
• East Coast Railway Bhubaneshwar
It is the largest public sector
@

North Central Railway Allahabad

undertaking of the country and it
North-Western Railway Jaipur
is the vorld's second largest railway
network under single management. South-East Central Railway Bilaspur
• South-West Railway Hubbali
The first Indian railway line in India
was opened for public trafic in 1853 West Central Railway Jabalpur
Metro Railway
between Bombay and Thane over a Kolkata
distance of 34 km. South-Coast Railway Visakhapatnam
• The second train ran between Indian railways has the second biggest
Howrah and Hooghly in 1854. electrified system in the world after Russia.
• The first electric train in India was The total route covered is approximately
introduced on 3rd February, 1925 67368 km.
between Victoria Terminus and •
The third longest train route is of Himsagar
Kurla. Express' from Jammu to Kanyakumari. It
• The headquarters of Indian railway covers a distance of 3787 km and passes
is in New Delhi. through 12 states.
• The fastest train in India is Train 18 The first metro rail was introduced in
(also known as Vande Bharat Calcutta on 24th October, 1984. The tvo
Express) whose maximum speed is stations connected were Dumdum and
180 km/hr:. Belgachhia.
200) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography
• Delhi Metro is busiest metro in the world. • It is 8th longest in the world.
• The oldest steam engine 'Fairy Queen' • It was started to commemorate the l50th
was built by the British in 1855. birth anniversary of Swami
• Uttar Pradesh has largest railway Vivekananda.
network in India. • It isa weekly train witha total distance of
• Mumbai CST is busiest railway junction 4286 km.
of India. • Previously Himsagar Express was the
• Railway track electrification was longest express.
introduced in early 1920s. The first two
sections from Victoria Terminus to Kurla Konkan Railways
and from Victoria Terminus to Bandra • It runs from Mangalore to Roha (40 km
were electrified. About 19.9% of the rail South of Mumbai).

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lines have been electrified. • The network involves 3 states such as
• The newest Metro station in India is Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka.
opened in Kanpur;, Uttar Pradesh on It has a total length of 738 km.

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December 2021. • Almost 10% of the line passes through
tunnels.
Indian Railways Recognised
by UNESCO Railway Manufacturing Units
.
Railways
ra Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW),
Specialities
Darjeeling Narrow gauge railway from Chittaranjan : Electric locomotives.
. Diesel
Himalayan Siliguri to Darjeeling in the Locomotive Works (DLW),
Railways (1999) State of West'Bengal Varanasi Diesel and Electric
Chhalrapati It was completed in 1887 locomotives.
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Shivaji Terminus marking 50 years of Queen • Wheel Axle Plant (WAP), Bengaluru:
(2004) Victoria's rule. Wheel Axle plant
Nilgiri Mountain It connects the town of .
Diesel Component Works (DCW),
Ralways (2005) Mettupalayam with the hill Patiala : Diesel components and parts.
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station of Udagamandalam • Rail Coach Factory (RCF), Kapurthala,

in the Nilgiri hills.

Kalka-Shimla
Punjab : Rail coaches.
Narrow Gauge railway in • Integral Coach Factory (1CE), Chennai :
Railways (2008) North-West India travelling
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along a most Ountainous Rail coaches.

route from Kalka to Shirmla. • Bharat
Earth Movers Ltd. Bengaluru :
*The year in Brackef represents the year in Rail coaches for Delhi Metro Rail
which UNESCO has added the railway line to Corporation.
Durgapur and Yelahanka Wheel Axle
:
the World Heritage Site list. •
@

Committees Constituted plant.

for Rail Security • Jamshedpur :
Metre gauge steam
locomotives.
Committees Years . Bhilai :
Rail and Sleeper cars.
Shahnawaz Committee 1954 • Perambur : Rail coaches.
Kunzrou Committee 1962
Wahchoo Committee 1968
Diamond Quadrilateral Project
Sikri Committee 1978 The new government at centre has
promised to build the Diamond
Khanna Cormmittee 1998
Anil Kakodkar Cormmittee
Quadrilateral Project which would connect
2012
via high-speed rail the cities of Chennai,
Rakesh Mohan Committee 2012 Mumbai, Kolkata and Delhi.
Montek Singh Ahluwalia Committee 2014
Bibek Debroy Commitee 2015 Bullet Train in India
Arvind Panagariya Committee 2016 Railway Ministry in its white paper Vision
2020' envisages the implementation of
Vivek Express regional high speed rail projects to provide
• It has the longest train route in India services at 250-350 km/h. Six corridors
connecting Dibrugarh in Assam and have been identified for technical studies
• Delhi-Chandigarh-Amritsar
Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 201
• Pune-Mumbai-Ahmedabad National Highways
• Hyderabad-Vijayawada-Chennai Highway States thrugh which it passes
• Howrah-Haldia Number
• Nagur-Mumbai NH1 Jammu and Kashmir
• Delhi-Ahmedabad NH2 Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram
• Varanasi-Howrah NH3 Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Janmu
• Chennai-Bengaluru-Thiruvanan NH4 Andaman and Nicobar
thapuram NH5 Punjab, Chandigarh, Haryana,
• Delhi-Agra-Lucknow-Varanasi-Patna Himachal Pradesh
• The first high speed corridor between NH6 Meghalaya, Assarn, Mizorarm
Ahmedabad and Mumbai started NH7 Punjab, Chandigarh, Haryana.,

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construction in 2017. Himachal Pradesh, Utarakhand
NH8 Assam
Metro Rail

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NH9 Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Utar Pradesh
City Start Length (km) NH10 Sikkim, West Bengal
Calcutta 1984
NH11 Rajaslhan
27.2
NH12 West Bengal
Delhi 2002 348
ra
NH19 Delhi, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Bengaluru (Narnma) 2011 42.3 Jharkhand, West Bengal
Gurgaon 2013 11.7 NH20 Bihar, Jharkhand
Jaipur 2015 11.9 NH21 Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh
Chennai NH24 Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,
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2015 45.1
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assarn
Hyderabad 2015 69
NH44 Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal
Kochi 2017 27.8 (Longest Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Uttar
Lucknow 2017 23.7 NH in Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
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India) Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra

Ahmedabad 2019 6.5 Pradesh, Karnataka, Tarmil Nadu
Nagpur 2019 13.5 NH48 Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
Noida 2019 29.7
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NH53 Gujarat, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh,

Kanpur 2021 32 Odisha
Sorme of the important informalion regarding the
Mono Rail National Highways:
The Mumbai Mono Rail which started NH44 is thelongest National Highway in India.
@

its services in 2014 is the first, The National Highway 548 (5 km) is the
operational Mono Rail in India. Apart NH in the country.
from Mumbai, Chennai and Bengaluru, shortest NHA is located in Andaman and Nicobar
are also having plans for mono rail.
islands. It is known as Andaman Trunk Road.
• NH27 is an East-West National Highway starting
ROADWAYS at Porbandar and Terninating at Silchar.
In 1943, Nagpur Plan classified the NH85 is a National Highway running
Toads into four categories: East-West in South India. It connects Kochi
(i) National Highways with Tondi point.
(ii) State Highways
National Highway Development
(iii) District Roads
(iv) Village Roads Programme (NHDP)
•
Indian road network is the second National Highway Development Programme
largest in the world. consists of following projects:
over 1. The Golden Quadrilateral connects:
•
India has a road network of
8 million km. • Delhi to Kolkata 1453 km
•
National highways are constructed Delhi to Mumbai 1419 km
and maintained by Central Public• Mumbai to Chennai 1290 km
Works Department (CPWD). Chennai to Kolkata 1684 km
202) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography
Total length 5846 km, out of which improve efficiency of existing corridors by
maximum length is in Andhra Pradesh developing multimodal logistic parks.
(1016 km) followed by Uttar Pradesh improving the quality of roads.
(753 km) and Rajasthan (725 km). constructing 9000 kn of economic
2. North-South and East-West Corridors corridors.
(i) NS corridor connects Srinagar to • Improve port connectivity and coastal roads.
Kanyakumari. • Improving international connectivity.
(ii) EW corridor connects Porbandar
(Gujarat) to Silchar (Assam). AIRWAYS
3. To upgrade 12109 km of National • JRD Tata was the first person to take a solo
Highway with 4 lanes flight from Mumbai to Karachi in 1931.
Built-Operate-Transfer (BOT) basis. In 1935, the "Tata Air Lines' started its

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4. Converting existing single lane operation between Mumbai and
highways to two lane highways. Thiruvananthapuram and in 1937

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5. Converting a number of four lane • between Mumbai and Delhi.
highways to six lanes. In 1953, all the private airline companies
were nationalised and Indian Airlines and
6. Constructing 1000 km expressways
Air India came into existence.
that would connect major commercial • Vayudoot Limited
and industrial towns. started in 1981 as a
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private air carrier and later on it merged
7. Improving city road network by adding
with Indian Airlines.
ring roads to enable easier
International Airports Authority of India
connectivity with National Highways.
and National Airports Authority were
With the launch of Bharatmala Project, merged on 1995 to form Airports Authority
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NHDP will close by first half of 2018. of India. The Authority manages the Civil
10,000 km of construction remaining Aviation Training College at Allahabad and
under NHDP will be merged with the National Institute of Aviation Management
Bharatmala Project. The Bharatmala and Research at Delhi.
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Project was launched in 201b by, On January 2022, Government

of India
Government of India to handed over Air India (AI) to the Tata Group.
International Airports in India
jm

International Airport City

1. Rajiv Gandhi Internalional Airport Hyderabad (Telangana)
2 Calicut International Airport Kochikode (Kerala)
3 Mumbai (Maharashtra)
@

Chhatrapati Shivaji Inlernalional Airport

4 Kempegowda Airport Bengaluru (Karnataka)
5 Goa (Dabolim) Airport in Dabolim City Goa
6 Nelaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport Kolkala (West Bengal)
7 Thiruvananthapuram Internalional Airport Thiruvananthapuram (Kerala)
8 Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi Internalional Airport Guwahali (Assam)
Sardar Vallabhbhai Palel Internalional Airport Ahmedabad (Gujarat)
10. Indira Gandhi Intermalional Airport Delhi
11 Chennai Internalional Airport Chennai (Tamil Nadu)
12 Shri Guru Ram Das Jee Internalional Airport Amritsar (Punjab)
13 Cochin Internalional Airport Kochi (Kerala)
14 Coimbalore International Airport Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu)
15 Lal Bahadur Shastri Airport Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh)
16. Chaudhary Charan Singh Airport Lucknow (Utar Pradesh)
17. Ambedkar Airport Nagpur (Maharashtra)
18 Tiruchirapalli Airport Tiruchirapalli (Tamil Nadu)
19. Jaipur Airport Jaipur (Rajasthan)
20. Veer Savarkar Internalional Airport Port Blair (Andaman and Nicobar Islands)
21. Srinagar International Airport Srinagar (Jammu and Kashmin)
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 203

Waterways
Major Waterways of India
Nurmbers Stretches of the Water Way Specifications
NW1 Allahabad-Haldia (1620 km) Along Ganga River
NW2 Sadiya- Dhubri (891 km) Along Brahmaputra River
NW3 Kottapuram-Kollam (205 km) Along Champakara and Udyogamandal
Canal.
NW4 Bhadrachalam to Rajahmundry and Along Godavariand Krishna River
Wazirabad to Vijayvwada (1095 km)

e
NW5 Mangalgarhi to Paradeep and Along Mahanadi and Brahmini River System
Talcher to Dhamara (623 k)

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NW6 Lakhipur to Bhanga (121 km) Along Barak River

Under National Waterway Act, 2016, the Central Government has designated new 106
Inland waterways. As of January 2023, there are 111 National Waterways in India.
ra
Ports in India
• The Inland Waterways Authority in India divides Indian ports into three categories,
major, minor and intermediate ports.
• India has about 205 ports, with l3 major and the rest intermediate and minor ports.
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Eastern Coast Ports

Ports of Eastern Coast Important Fact
Kolkata (renamed as Shyama Oldest port, India's riverine port having two dock system.
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Prasad Mukherjee Port

Paradip It
handles iron-ore and some amounts of coal and dry cargo.
Allweather port having deep drafted berth, oil jetties, iron- ore
jm

Chennai
terminals elc.

Visakhapatnam Deepest port of India and deals with export of Iron ore to Japan.
Tuticorin Artificial deep sea harbour, all weather port offer direct weekly
Container service to USA. Also known as VO Chidambranar port.
@

Ennore First corporalised major port in India Mainly handles coal imports.

Western Coast Ports

Ports of Western Coast Important Fact
Mumbai Ithandles maximUm cargo. It is a natural harbour, it handles mostly
petroleum and dry cargo.
Kandla (renamed as Tidal port and is the largest port of India in terms of Cargo handled.
Deendayal Port)
Marmagao It handles iron ore. It has a naval birth.
New Mangalore It is an all weather port. It is the deepest inner harbour on West coast.

Cochin Major naural port in Willingdon Island, Kerala.

Jawaharlal Nehru It is an all weather Tidal pot. It is called as Nhava Sheva Port.

• Largest container port of India is Jawaharlal Nehru (Nhava Sheva) port in Mumbai.
The largest natural port is in Visakhapatnam.
• Kandla in Gujarat is a tidal port. It has been converted into a free trade zone.
• The Government is constructing a greenfield major port at Vadhavan in Maharashtra.
• Mumbai port is the busiest port of India.
204 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~Geography

Miscellaneous
Important Lakes of India
Narne of Lake State Important Fact
Chilika Lake Odisha IE
is a saline and lagoon lake. It is the largest coaslal
lagoon in India.
Kolleru Lake Andhra Pradesh IE
is a freshwater lake.
Manipur It is a freshwaler lake having floating
Loktak Lake vegelalion.
Lonar Lake Maharashtra lt is a meteorite crater lake in Buldhana area of
Maharashtra. The water is highly charged with
Sodium carbonates and Sodium chloride.
Pangong Lake Jammu and Kashmir IE
is a saline lake.

e
Pulicat Lake Nadu and
Tarmil IE
is a saline and lagoon lake.
Andhra Pradeshh border

nc
Sarmbhar Lake Rajasthan It a shallow lake, which is saline, localed near Jaipur.
is
Tsomarari Lake Jammu and Kashmir IE a saline lake.
is
Vembanad Lake Kerala IE
is a lagoon lake.
Wular and Dal Jammu and Kashmir Wular lake was created due to tectonic activities. Dal
Lakes lake is known as Srinagar's Jewel.
ra
Major Tribes of India
Tribal Found in Tribal Groups Found in
Groups
Kol
Abors Areas surrounding Assam Valley Madhya Pradesh and
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Uttar Pradesh
Angami Nagaland Kolam Telangana,
Chhattisgarh, Madhya
Pradesh
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Badagas Nadu
Tarmil Kuki Manipur
Baigas Madhya Pradesh Lahaulas Hirmachal Pradesh
Bakarwals Jammu and Kashmir Lepchas Sikkim
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Bhils Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan Lushai Tripura

Bhotias Uttarakhand Muria Chhattisgarh
Bharia Madhya Pradesh Meenas Rajasthan
Birhors Madhya Pradesh and Jharkhand Moplahs Kerala
Chang Nagaland Mundas Jharkhand
@

Chenchus Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Odisha Mishimi North-East

Gaddis Himachal Pradesh Nagas Nagaland
Galaong Nagaland Oraons Jharkhand and Odisha
Garos Assam arnd Meghalaya Onges Andaman and Nicobar
Gonds Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra Singpho North-East
Gujjars Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Santhals West Bengal, Odisha
Pradesh Jharkhand and Bihar
Irula Tamil Nadu Sangtarm Nagaland
Jaintias Meghalaya Sema Nagaland
Jarawa Little Andaman Sentinelese Andaman and Nicobar
Kanikaran Tamil Nadu Shompens Andaman and Nicobar
Katkari Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh Todas Tamil Nadu
Kharia Jharkhand, Odisha and Madhya Pradesh Uralis Kerala
Khond Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Wancho North-East
Maharashtra, Odisha, West Bengal and
Madhya Pradesh
Khas Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand Warlis Maharashtra
Khasis Assam and Meghalaya
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 205)

Nicknames of Important Indian Places

Nickname Place Hollywood of India Mumbai
Abode of the God Prayag (Allahabad) Manchester of India Ahmedabad
Blue Mountains Nilgiri Manchester of the North Kanpur
India
Boston of India Ahmedabad
Manchester of the South Coimbatore
City of Buildings Kolkata India
City of Castles Kolkala Old Ganga Godavari
City of Festivals Madurai Pink City Jaipur
City of Lakes Srinagar Pittsburg of India Jarmshedpur

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City of Nawabs Lucknow Queen of Arabian Sea Kochi
City of Rallies New Delhi Queen of the Mountains Mussooie

nc
City of Seven Islands Murmbai (Uttarakhand)
City of Temples Varanasi Sacred River Ganga
City of Weavers Panipat Silicon Valley of India Bengaluru
Deccan Queen Pune Soya Region Madhya
ra Pradesh
Egg Bowl of Asia Andhra Pradesh
Space City Bengaluru
Electronic City of India Bengaluru
Slale of Five Rivers Punjab
Garden City of India Bengaluru
Steel City of India Jarnshedpur
nt

Garden of Spices of Kerala (called

India Talanagar)
Galeway of India Mumbai Switzerland of India Kashmir
Golden City Amritsar Venice of the East Allepy
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Heaven of India Jammu and Kashmir

Famous Hill Stations

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Hill Stations Height from Sea Level (m) States

Coonoor 1860 Tamil Nadu
Dalhousie 1970 Himachal Pradesh
Darjeeling 2042 West Bengal
@

Gangtok 1650 Sikkim

Gulmarg 2730 Jammu and Kashmir
Kalimpong 1250 West Bengal
Kasauli 1895 Himachal Pradesh
Khandala 550 Maharashtra
Kodaikanal 2120 Tamil Nadu
Kullu 1278 Himachal Pradesh
Lansdowne 1780 Uttarakhand
Lonawala 620 Maharashtra
Mahabaleshwar 1353 Maharashtra
Manali 2050 Himachal Pradesh
Mandi 760 Himachal Pradesh
Munnar 1450 Kerala
Mount Abu 1220 Rajasthan
Mukteshwar 2171 Uttarakhand
Mussoorie 1880 Uttarakhand
206) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Hill Stations Height from Sea Level (m) States

Nainital 2048 Uttarakhand
Ooty (Udagamandalan) 2240 Tamil Nadu
Pahalgam 2740 Jammu and Kashmir
Panchgani Maharashtra
1200
Pachmarhi 1065 Madhya Pradesh
Periyar 915 Kerala
Ranikhet 1830 Uttarakhand
Shimla 2276 Himachal Pradesh

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Indian Town Associated with Industries
Town State Industries

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Ahmedabad Gujarat Cotton Textiles
Agra Uttar Pradesh Leather, Marble, Carpels
Aligarh Uttar Pradesh Locks, Cutlery, Dairy
Ankleshwar Gujarat Oil Refining
ra
Ambernath Maharashtra Machine Tools
Amritsar Punjab Woollen Textiles
Anand Gujarat Dairy Products
Aluva Kerala Fertilizer, Monazite Factory
nt

Ambala Haryana Scientific Instruments

Bokaro Jharkhand Steel Plant
Bengaluru Karnataka Telephones, Aircrafts, Machine Tools, Cotton
Textiles, Electronic and IT
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Batanagar West Bengal Shoes

Bareilly Uttar Pradesh Resin Industries, Match Factory
Bhilai Chhattisgarh Steel Plant
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Barauni Bihar Chermical Fertilizer, Petroleum Industry

Burnpur West Bengal Steel Plant
Bhurkunda Jharkhand Glass Industries
Bhagalpur Bihar Silk Industries
@

Bhandara Maharashtra Electronics, Silk

Bongaigaon Assam Petroleum
Bhadoi Uttar Pradesh Iron and Steel
Churk Utar Pradesh Cerment
Oyberabad Telangana Electronics, Computers, Information Technology
Chitaranjan West Bengal Locomotive
Cochin Kerala Ship Building, Coconut Oil, Rubber
Calicut Kerala Coffee, Coconut
Coimbatore Tamil Nadu Cotton Industries
Dhariwal Punjab Woollen Clothes
Durgapur West Bengal Steel
Digboi Assam Petroleum Relinery
Delhi Delhi Textiles, Electronic, DDT
Dalmianagar Bihar Cement
Darjeeling West Bengal Tea
Dindigul Tamil Nadu Cigar, Tobacco
Firozabad Uttar Pradesh Bangle works
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 207

Town State Industries

Guntur Andhra Pradesh Cotton Industries
Gwalior Madhya Pradesh Pottery, Tobacco
Gomia Jharkhand Steel Plant
Haridwar Utarakhand Heavy Electricials
Hatia Jharkhand Heavy Engineering
Haldia West Bengal Chermical Fertilizer
Hazira Gujarat Artificial Rayon
Jamshedpur Jharkhand Iron and Steel, Locomotives, Railway Coaches
Jalandhar Punjab Surgical Goods and Sports Articles

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Jaipur Rajastharn Cloth, Printing, Brassware
Jharia Jharkhand Coal Mines

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Jabalpur Madhya Pradesh Tobacco, IT, Garmenls
Zainakot Jarmmu and Kashmir HMT Watch
Hussainabad Jharkhand Cement
Kanpur Uttar Pradesh Coton and Woollen Mills, Leather, Sugar
Katni Madhya Pradesh
ra Cement
Korba Chhattisgarh Aluminium Factory, Thermal Plant
Koyna Maharashtra Aluminium Factory
Koyali Gujarat Petro-Chermical Industries
nt

Kolar Karmataka Gold Mining Center

Kolkata West Bengal Jute, Leather, Electric goods
Kota Rajasthan Atomic Power Plant
Kanchipuram Tamil Nadu Silk Clothes
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Karnal Haryana Dairy Product

Kandla Gujarat Chernical Fertilizers, Farmous Port
Khetri Rajasthan Copper Industries
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Ludhiana Punjab Hosiery

Lucknow Uttar Pradesh Embroidery Work, Chicken Work
Chennai Tamil Nadu Leather, Cigarette, Integral Coach Factory
Madurai Tamil Nadu Automobile, Aubber, Chemical, Granite
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Mirzapur Uttar Pradesh Carpet, Pottery, Brass Industries

Muradabad Uttar Pradesh Brassware, Cutlery
Mathura Uttar Pradesh Oil Refinery
Mysore Karnataka Sandalwood Oil, Silk Goods
Meerut Uttar Pradesh Publication Work, Sports Goods, Scissors Making
Mumbai Maharashtra Cinerma lndustries, Cotton Textiles
Modinagar Uttar Pradesh Nylon, Rayon, Silk
Moorie Jharkhand Aluminium
Majhagaon Maharashtra Ship Building
Nagpur Maharashtra Cotton Mills, Oranges
Nepanagar Madhya Pradesh Newsprint
Nashik Maharashtra Security Printing Press
Neyveli Tamil Nadu Lignite Indusiries
 208) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

TAJIKISTAN
i Jammu
India
Koohmir
Adacent Counlries
Ladakh
AFGHANISTAN

Hindg?

fParjab, China
PAKISTAN (Tibel)
NEPAL
Utar LysHuTAN
Pradesh
Rujuian
Miolain

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Trocic
lCeon
Maya Prpdsh *-Sinpi

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(DaODunun Non Noto ba fyonmar
(DSO) Hagr Hau (Inân)
atahanstnu
ARABIAN Bey of
SEA
sTinpni
Yanam
(Pududuy)
ra
Intomadonal Boundory
dor
Pudidury
Tumil Hos
Laaludap, Kauial
(Jrda) Andoman & Nicobar Islands
nt

(Puluzuny)
(India) }
SAI

Maldives
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80D km
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States/UTS of India
Andhra Pradesh
@

Capital Visakhapatnam (Executive) Visakhapatnam is the major port in

Amaravati (Legislative) the state.
• Andhra Pradesh is India's seventh
Kurnool (Judicial)
Data of Formation lst November, 1956 largest state by area and 10th largest by
(Reorganised in June 2014 by creating population.
Telangana as a separate state) It is the first state formed on linguistic
State Symbols basis in India.
Animal Blackbuck It is called the Rice Bowl of India and
egg bowl of Asia.
Bird Rose Ringed Parakeet
Tree Neem Andhra Pradesh has the second
Neighbouring States longest coastline of 972 km among all
the states of India.
Maharashtra, Odisha, Karnataka, Telangana,
Tamil Nadu.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 209)

Arunachal Pradesh Bihar

Capital Itanagar Capital Patna
Date of Formation 20th February, 1987 Date of Formation 26th January 1950
State Symbols State Symbols
Animal Mithun Animal Gaur
Bird Great Hornbill Bird Sparrow
Tree Hollong Tree Peepal
Flower Lady Slipper Orchid Flower Kachnar
Neighbouring States Neighbouring States
Assam, Nagaland.

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Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal
Neighbouring Countries
Neighbouring Country Nepal

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Bhutan, Myanmar, China • After the separation of
• It is the Easternmost State of India. Jharkhand from
Bihar, Bihar has become a mineral less
• Rajiv Gandhi University is
the oldest state, as the mineral-rich belt has gone to
university in the state of Arunachal Jharkhand.
Pradesh.
ra • Bihar is the 12th largest state
in terms of
• Agriculture is the main occupation of the geographical size and 3rd largest by
People of Arunachal Pradesh and Jhum population.
(shifting cultivation) is practised. • According to Census 2011, Bihar has
• Arunachal Pradesh is also known as land lowest literacy rate (63.82%).
nt

of the rising Sun in reference to its •

Gautam Buddha attained
position as the Easternmost State of
Enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, a town
India. located in the modern day district of
Gaya in Bihar.
Assam
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• Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th and the

Capital Dispur last Tirthankara of Jainism, was born in
Date of Formation 26th January, 1950 Vaishali in Bihar around 6th century BC.
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State Symbols
Animal Indian one-horned Chhattisgarh
Rhino Capital Raipur
Bird White-wing Wood Data of Formation lst November, 1956
@

Duck State Symbols

Tree Hollong Animal Wild Buffalo
Flower Fox-tail Orchid Bird Hill Myna
Neighbouring States Tree Sal
Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh and Neighbouring States
Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Telangana
West Bengal.
Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar
Neighbouring Countries Bhutan and Pradesh and Jharkhand.
Bangladesh. • 9th state in terms of area and 17th in
• Assam contributes 52% of the total tea terms of population.
production of the country. • More
than 80% of the population
• Assam is
surrounded by six of the other depends on agriculture. But, it is equally
seven sister states : Arunachal Pradesh, rich in mineral deposits.
• It is an
Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura important electrical power and
and Meghalaya. These states are steel producing state of India.
connected to he rest of India via a • Chhattisgarh is known for Kosa Silk and
narrow strip in West Bengal called the
Lost Wax Art.
Siliguri Corridor or Chicken's Neck.
210 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Goa Haryana
Capital Panaji Capital Chandigah
Date of Formation 3oth May, 1987 Date of Formation Ist November, 1966
State Symbols State Symbols
Animal Gaur Animal Black Buck Antelope
Bird Black crested Bird Black Francolin
Tree Peepal
Bulbul
Flower Lotus
Tree Matti
Neighbouring States
Neighbouring States Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Uttar

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Karnataka, Maharashtra Pradesh, Delhi, Rajasthan, Chandigarh.
• Goa is one
of the favourite Panipat is called the Weaver City for its

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destination of tourists, with its handloom products. Haryana is a landlocked
famous beaches. Marmagao is the State in Northern India.
major port. • Haryana is self-sufficient in food production
• It is the India's smallest state by
and the second largest contributor to India's
area and the fourth smallest by central pool of foodgrains.
ra
population. • Yamuna Nagar district is the largest industrial
• It also
has rich flora and fauna town wholly within Haryana. It has one of Asia's
owing to its location on the largest paper mill belt and one of Asia's largest
Western Ghats range, which is Sugar mill.
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classified as a biodiversity hotspot. Yamuna Nagar has a large timber industry, an

HPGCL thermal power plant, a hydro power
Gujarat plant and India's largest railway workshop.
Capital Gandhinagar Himachal Pradesh
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Date of Formation lst May, 1960 Capital Shimla (summer),

State Symbols Dharmsala (winter)
Animal Date of Formation 25th January, 1971
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Asiatic Lion
Bird Great Flamingo State Symbols
State Tree Banyan Animal Musk Deer
State Flower Marigold Bird Monal
Tree Deodar
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Neighbouring States
Flower Rhododendron
Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, Daman and Diu, Dadra Neighbouring States
and Nagar Haveli Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana,
Uttarakhand and Ladakh.
•
Gujarat is the main producer of
groundnut and cotton. Neighbouring Country China
•
Kandla port, on the coast of Gulf Population is divided into five major groups, the
of Kachchh lies in Gujarat. Gaddis,Kinners, Gujars, Pangwals and Lahaulis.
. It • Himachal Pradesh is known to be abundant in
has longest Coastline of
1600 km. natural beauty.
• The economy of the Himachal Pradesh is
• It is among one of
the most mainly dependent on services and Industry.
industrialised states of India and
has per capita GDP above the Apples are the important fruits produced.
• Excellent
national average. opportunities are available for
horticulture and cash crops.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 211

Jharkhand Kerala
Capital Ranchi Capital Thiruvananthapuram
Date of Formation l5th November, Date of Formation lst November, 1956
2000 State Symbols
State Symbols Animal Elephant
Animal Elephant Great Hornbill
Bird
Bird Koel
Tree Coconut
Tree Sal
Flower Flower Kanikonna
Palash
Neighbouring States Neighbouring States

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Bihar; Utar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh. Tamil Nadu, Karnatalka and Lakshadweep
Odisha and West Bengal. • Kerala has highest literacy rate (93.9%)
and highest sex ratio (1084) in India.

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•
Jharkhand is also known as the
storehouse of minerals. This is because it Kerala has the highest Human
accounts for 29% of country's coal Development Index in India, higher than
reserves, 26% of the iron ore, 18.5% of that of most developed countries.
its copper reserves. It also has mica and• Kerala is very rich in cash crops
ra
huge deposits of bauxite, quartz and especially spices.
. Kozhikode,
.
ceramics. Cochin are the important
The name Jharkhand' means The Land ports.
of Forests.
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•
Jharkhand has a concentration of some Madhya Pradesh
of the country's highly industrialised Capital Bhopal
cities such as Jamshedpur, Ranchi, Date of Formation 26th January, 1950
Bokaro Steel City and Dhanbad.
State Symbols
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Animal Barasingha
Karnataka Paradise Fly Catcher
Capital Bengaluru Bird
Tree Banyan
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Date of Formation lst November, 1956

Flower White Lily
State Symbols
Animal Elephant Neighbouring States
Bird Indian Roller Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar
Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.
@

Tree Sandal wood

• Madhya Pradesh, often called
Flower Lotus the heart
of India, is a state in Central India.
Neighbouring States Kerala, Goa, • It is the second largest state by area and
Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh fifth largest state by population. It is
and Tamil Nadu primarily an agricultural state.
• Bengaluru is the most famous IT • Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve in
destination.
• Karnataka is famous for its sandal soap
Satpura range and Amarkantak
Biosphere Reserves are two of the 18
and sandal wood oil. biosphere reserves in India.
• It stands first in the production of

electronic equipments and raw silk. Maharashtra

• New Mangalore is the major port. Capital Mumbai, Nagpur (winter)
• Many of
India's premier science and Date Formation lst May l960
of
technology research centres, such as State Symbols
ISRO, Central Power Research Institute, Aninal
Giant Squirrel
BEL and the Central Food Technological Bird
Green Imperial Pigeon
Research Institute are headquartered in Tree
Mango
Karnataka. Flower Jarul
212 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Neighbouring States • The State of Meghalaya is also known as

Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Telangana, the Meghalaya plateau. It mainly consist
Karnataka, Goa, Dadra and Nagar Haveli of Archean rock formations. These rock
and Chhattisgarh. formations contain rich deposits of
• It is the second most populous after valuable minerals like coal, limestone,
Uttar Pradesh and third largest state by uranium and sillimanite.
• More than 70% of the area is
area. under forest.
.
• It is the industrial powerhouse of India. The wettest place in the world,
• The world famous flm industry Mawsynram (in Cherrapunji district) is in
Bollywood is in Maharashtra, located in Meghalaya.
the economic capital of India, Mumbai.

e
.
Mumbai and Jawaharlal Nehru port are Mizoram
the major ports. Capital Aizwal

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Date of Formation 20th February, 1987
Manipur State Symbols
Capital Imphal Animal Hillock Gibbon
Date of Formation 21st January, 1972 Bird Mrs Hume's Pheasant
State Symbols
ra Tree Iron wood
Animal Sangai Flower Red Vanada
Bird Nongin Neighbouring States
Tree Uningthou Tripura, Assam and Manipur
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Flower Shirui Lilly

Neighbouring Country Myanmar
Neighbouring States • It is one of the seven sister states in
Mizoram, Assam and Nagaland North-Eastern India.
• Agriculture is the major occupation.
ie

Neighbouring Country Myanmar

• It is known for its rich biodiversity
Jhum or shifting cultivation is still
having a number of rare plants, trees prevalent.
• The biggest river in Mizoram is
and wildlife.
jm

• Agriculture is the major source of Chhimtuipi, also known as Kaladan.

.
livelihood for the people. Phawngpui tlang also known as the Blue
• There are
four type of forests in Mountain, situated in the South-Eastern
Manipur: part of the state, is the highest peak in
Mizoram at 2157 m.
@

1. Tropical Semi-Evergreen
2. Dry Temperate Forest
3. Sub- Tropical Pine
Nagaland
Capital Kohima
4. Tropical Moist Deciduous
Date of Formation Ist December, 1963
Meghalaya State Symbols
Capital Shillong Animal Mithun
Date of Formation 2lst January, 1972 Bird Blyth's Tragopan
State Symbols Tree Alder
Animal Clouded Leopard Flower Rhododendron
Bird Hill Myna Neighbouring States Manipur, Arunachal
Tree Gamhar Pradesh and Assam.
Flower Lady Slipper Orchid
Neighbouring Country Myanmar
Neighbouring State Assam • Agriculture is the most important
Neighbouring Country Bangladesh economic activity in Nagaland, with more
• Meghalaya is one of the seven sister than 90o of the population employed in
states of India. agriculture.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 213

• Nagaland is rich in flora and fauna.

About one-sixth ofNagaland is under the
Rajasthan
cover of tropical and sub-tropical Capital Jaipur
evergreen forests-including palms. Date of ormation 30th March. 1949
as
bamboo and rattan well as timber and State Symbols
mahagony forest. Animal Chinkara
Bird Godawan
Odisha Tree Khejari
Capital Bhubaneshwar Flower Rohida
Date of Formation lst April, 1936
Neighbouring States Gujarat, Madhya
State Symbols

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Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana
Animal Elephant and Punjab.
Bird Indian Roller

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Tree Sandalwvood Neighbouring Country Pakistan
Flower • It is the largest state of India in terms of
Lotus
area. Western Rajasthan is a desert
Neighbouring States
region (Thar).
Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand •
Zinc, silver, lead, salt are found in
and West Bengal
ra
• World's longest mainstream river dam, abundance.
Hirakud (on Mahanadi) is in Odisha.
• Paradip is
Sikkim
the major port in Odisha. Capital Gangtok
nt

Agriculture based economy and rice is

the main crop. The Chilika lake is a Date Formation 16th May, 1975
brackish water lagoon located in the State Symbols
Southern part of the Odisha coastal Animal Red Panda
ie

plains. Bird Blood Pheasant

Tree Rhododendron
Punjab Flower Noble Dendrobium
Capital Chandigarh
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Neighbouring State West Bengal

Date of Formation Ist November, 1966
State Symbols Neighbouring Countries China, Nepal
Animal and Bhutan
Blackbuck
• It is
Bird Baaz the least populous state in India and
@

Tree Sheesham the second smallest in area after Goa.

• It is a landlocked Indian state located in
Flower Lilium
. the Himalayan mountains.
Neighbouring States Jammu and Sikim is the only state in India with an
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana and ethnic Nepali majority.
Rajasthan
Neighbouring Country Pakistan Tamil Nadu
• Agriculture is the largest occupation in Capital Chennai
Punjab; it is the largest single provider of Date Formations lst November, 1956
of
Wheat to India. State Symbols
• Per hectare yield is maximum in Punjab. Nilgiri Tahr
Animals
• Bhakra dam (on Sutlej) is in Punjab. Bird Emerald Dove
• Punjab is
the only state in India with a Tree Palm
majority Sikh population. Flower Shen Kandhal
• Various small-scale industries are
operational in Punjab such as bicvcle Neighbouring States
parts, sewing machine, hand tools and Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and
Puducherry
machine tools etc.
214 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Neighbouring Country Sri Lanka • It is an agriculture based state.

• Tamil Nadu is home to many landlocked state
natural Tripura is in
resources, Hindu temples of Dravidian North-Eastern India.
architecture, hill stations, beach
resorts, multi-religious pilgrim sites Uttarakhand
and UNESCO world heritage sites. Its Capital Gairsain (Summer)
economny depends largely On Dehradun (Winter)
agriculture. Date of Pormation 9th November, 2000
.
Chennai, Tuticorin and Ennore are the State Symbols
major ports in the State of Tamil Nadu. Animals Musk Deer,
• Major
industries in Tamil Nadu are Himalayan Monal

e
Bird
cotton textiles, chemical fertilizers,
paper and its products, diesel engine, Tree Buran
Brahma Kamal

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iron and steel, railway wagons and Flower
coaches etc. Neighbouring States Uttar Pradesh and
Himachal Pradesh
Telangana Neighbouring Countries China and Nepal
Capital Hyderabad
ra • It has tremendous poten tial for hydel
Date of Formation 2nd June, 2014 power. The biggest project is the Tehri
State Symbols Dam Project on Bhagirathi river.
Animal Spotted Deer • Uttaralkhand is home to several important
Bird Indian Roller educational institutions, including the
nt

Tree Jammi Chettu oldest engineering colleges in Asia, the

Flower Thangedu Indian Institute of Technology at Roorkee
Neighbouring States Maharashtra, and Govind Ballabh Pant University of
Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Karnataka and • Agriculture and Technology in Pantnagar.
ie

Andhra Pradesh. Rishikesh is widely considered as the yoga

• Two major capital of the world.
Peninsular rivers; the
Godavari and the Krishna drains
the IIttar Pradesh
jm

states. About two-third catchment area

of both rivers lies in Telangana. Capital Lucknow
• Important hub of art and culture as Date of Formation 24th January 1950
many historical places, forts, temples State Symbols
are situated.
@

Animal Barasingha
• Most of
the population is involved in Bird Sarus Crane
agriculture as fertile land for Tree Ashok
agriculture is available. Flower Palash
Tripura Neighbouring
Himachal Pradesh,
States Uttarakhand,
Haryana, Delhi,
Capital Agartala
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Date of ormation 21st January 1972
Jharkhand and Bihar.
State Symbols Neighbouring Country Nepal
Animal Phayre's Leaf Monkey • Utar Pradesh is the India's most populous
Bird Green Imperial Pigeon state as well as the World's most populous
Tree Agarwood
sub-national entity (only5 nations have
Flower Indian Rose Chestnut more population than Uttar Pradesh).
Neighbouring States Assam and About 789% of the population depends on
Mizoram agriculture.
• Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer of
Neighbouring Country Bangladesh
• It is the third smallest state of India foodgrains, sugarcane.
(area-wise).
• Small Scale Cottage Industries are spread
through-out in Uttar Pradesh.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 215

• Kanpur is the largest economic hub of State Symbols

Uttar Pradesh. Kanpur is also the Animal
Dugong or Sea cow
economic capital of Uttar Pradesh. Andaman wood Pigeon
Bird
West Bengal Tree Andaman Padauk
Capital Kolkata
• Tourism and agriculture are the mainstay
of economy.
Date of Formation 26th Jarnuary 1950 •Andaman is a group of 325 islands, while
State Symbols Nicobar is a group of 22 islands. Out of
Animal Fishing Cat these, only 37 islands in Andamans and
Bird White-throated King Fisher 12 islands in Nicobars are inhabited.

e
Tree Chatim Mangrove forests are found in abundance
Flower Night flowering Jasmine in these islands.
•
India's Southern most point, Indira Point,

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Neighbouring States Odisha, Jharkhand,
Bihar, Sikkim and Assam is located, in Nicobar Islands.
Neighbouring Countries Nepal, Bhutan
Chandigarh
.and Bangladesh.
Kolkata, Haldia are the major ports in Capital Chandigarh
ra
West Bengal. Agriculture is the Date of Formation lst November. 1966
mainstay of economy. It is the largest State Symbols
producer of rice in the country. Animal Indian Grey
• West Bengal is noted for its cultural Mongoose
nt

activities, with the state capital Kolkata Bid Indian Grey Hornbill
earning the Sobriquet cultural capital Flower Dhak
of India. Tree Mango
ie

Delhi Neighbouring States Punjab and Haryana

Animal • Chandigarh is one of the most beautiful
Nilgai
Bird House sparrow and well-planned places in India. It was
jm

Capital New Delhi designed by a French Architect, Le

Corbusier. Chandigarh serves as a joint
Date of Formation lst February, 1992 capital of Haryana and Punjab.
Neighbouring States Haryana and Utar
Pradesh Dadra and Nagar Haveli and
@

• Delhi is the largest metropolis by area

Daman and Diu
and the second largest metropolis by Capital Daman
population in India. sq km
• It is the Area 603
ifth largest metropolis in the Neighbouring
world by population. States Gujarat,
• Delhi is the largest commercial centre Maharashtra
of Northern India and is the largest Until 2019, both Dadra and Nagar Haveli
centre of small industries. and Daman and Diu were governed as
• Delhi has greater different Union Territories. The
number of vehicles Parliament passed the Dadar and Nagar
than the total vehicles of Haveli and Daman and Diu (Merger of
Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai put Union Territories) Bill2019 in December,
together.
2019.
Andaman and The Merger Act came into effect on 26th
January, 2020. These two UTs have now
Islands
Nicobar been merged with Daman as the capital.
Capital Port Blair • Tourism and agriculture besides small
Date ormation lst November; 1956
of scale manufacturing is the mainstay of
economy.
216 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

• In 2018, Diu Smart City became Ist in

Jammu and Kashmir
India to run on 100% renevable energy.
Capital Jammu (winter),
Lakshadweep Srinagar (summer)
Capital Kavaratti Date of Formation On 31st October, 2019
It was organised into an Union Territory by
Date of Formation lst November, 1956 the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation
State Symbols Act, 2019.
Animal Butterfly Fish Neighbouring States Himachal Pradesh,
Bird Noddy Tern Punjab, Ladakh
Tree Bread Fruit Neighbouring Countries Pakistan

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Neighbouring States Kerala, Karnataka • People are engaged in
handicrafts like
.
It is the smallest Union Territory of carpet making, shawl making, wood

nc
India. carving etc.
• It is a group of 25 coral islands. • It is famous for it
natural beauty and
• Lakshadweep mainly produces coconut. picturesque locations.
• Jammu is famous for temples and
Puducherry Kashmir is famous for Lakes and Gardens.
ra
Capital Puducherry
Date of lst November, 1954 Ladakh
Formation Capital Leh
State Symbols Date of Formation 31st October, 2019
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Animal Squirrel By the Jammu and Kashmir

Bird Asian Koel Reorganisation Act, 2019.
Flower Cannon Ball, Tree flower Neighbouring States Jammu and Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh
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Tree Bael fruit Tree

• In September, 2006, the territory Neighbouring Countries Pakistan,
changed its official name from Afghanistan, China
Pondicherry to Puducherry, which Ladakh consists of two district namely
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means New Village' in the Tamil Leh and Kargil. It is famous for its
language. It is a former French colony, remote mountain beauty and distinct
consisting of four district Puducherry, Culture.
Karaikal, Yanam and Mahe.
@

RANK OF INDIAN STATES

AND UTs (CATEGORYWISE) CENSUS, 2011
Literacy Rate
Overall Literacy Male Literacy Fermale Literacy
Ranks State/UT Percentage States Percentage State/UT Percentage
1
Kerala 93.91 Lakshadweep 96.11 Kerala 91.98
2
Lakshadweep 92.28 Kerala 96.02 Mizoram 89.40
3. Mizoram 91.58 Mizoram 93.72 Lakshadweep 88.25
4 Tripura 87.75 Goa 92.81 Tripura 83.15
5 Goa 87.40 Tripura 92.18 Goa 81.84
6 Daman 87.07 Puducherry 92.12 Andaman and 81.84
and Diu Nicobar Islands
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 217

Overall Literacy Male Literacy Female Literacy

Ranks State/UT Percentage States Percentage State/UT Percentage
7 Puducherry 86.55 Daman and Diu 91.48 Chandigarh 81.38
8 Chandigarh 86.43 NCT of Delhi 91.03 Puducherry 81.22
Delhi 86.34 Himachal 90.83 NCT of Delhi 80.93
Pradesh
10. Andaman and 86.27 Chandigarh 90.54 Daman and Diu 79.59
Nicobar
Islands
11. Himachal 83.78 Andaman and 90.11 Nagaland 76.69
Nicobar lslands

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Pradesh
12. Maharashtra 82.91 Maharashtra 89.82 Himachal 76.60
Pradesh

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13. Sikkim 82.20 Uttarakhand 88.33 Sikkim 76.43
14. Tarmil Nadu 80.33 Sikkim 87.29 Maharashtra 75.48
15. Nagaland 80.11 Gujarat 87.23 Tamil Nadu 73.86
16 Manipur 79.85 Tarmil Nadu 86.81 Meghalaya 73.78
17. Uttarakhand 79.63 Manipur
ra 86.49 Manipur 73.17
18 Gujarat 79.31 Dadra and 86.46 Punjab 71.34
Nagar Haveli
19. Dadra and 77.65 Haryana 85.38 West Bengal 71.34
Nagar Haveli
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20 West Bengal 77.08 Nagaland 83.29 Gujarat 70.73

21. Punjab 76.68 Karnataka 82.85 Uttarakhand 70.70
22. Haryana 76.64 West Bengal 82.67 Karnataka 68.13
23. Karnataka 75.60 Odisha 82.40 Assam 67.27
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24. Meghalaya 75.48 Punjab 81.48 Haryana 66.77

25 Odisha 73.45 Chhattisgarh 81.45 Dadra and 65.93
Nagar Haveli
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26 Assam 73.18 Madhya Pradesh 80.53 Odisha 64.36

27. Chhattisgarh 71.04 Rajasthan 80.51 Chhattisgarh 60.59
28 Madhya 70.63 Utar Pradesh 79.24 Madhya 60.02
Pradesh Pradesh
29 Uttar Pradesh 69.72 Assam 78.81 Andhra Pradesh 59.74
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30. Jammu and 68.74 Jharkhand 78.45 Arunachal 59.57

Kashmir Pradesh
31. Andhra 67.66 Jammu and 78.26 Uttar Pradesh 59.26
Pradesh Kashmir
32. Jharkhand 67.63 Meghalaya 77.17 Jammu and 58.01
Kashmir
33. Rajasthan 67.06 Andhra Pradesh 75.56 Jharkhand 56.21
34 Arunachal 66.95 Arunachal 78.69 Bihar 53.33
Pradesh Pradesh
35. Bihar 63.82 Bihar 73.39 Rajasthan 52.66
National 74.04% 82.14% 65.46%
Average

(According to 2011 Census) Andhra Pradesh includes state of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.
218) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Geography

Sex Ratio
Ranks Sex Ratio Child Sex Ratio
State/UT Ratio State/UT Ratio
1 Kerala 1084 Mizorarm 970
2 Puducherry 1037 Meghalaya 970
Tamil Nadu Andaman and Nicobar Island
3. 996 968
4. Andhra Pradesh 993 Puducherry
967
Chhatisgarth 991 Chhattisgarh 969
5.
6. Manipur 992 Arunachal Pradesh 972

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7. Meghalaya 989 Kerala 964
8 Odisha 979 Assam 962

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9 Mizoram 976 Tripura 957
Himachal Pradesh West Bengal
10. 972 956
Goa Tarnil Nadu
11. 973 943
12. Karnataka 973 Nagaland 943
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13. Uttarakhand 963 Jharkhand 948
14. Tripura 960 Sikkim 957
15. Assam 958 Andhra Pradesh 939
West Bengal Karnataka
16. 950 948
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17. Jharkhand 949 Odisha 941

18. Maharashtra 929 Manipur 936
19. Lakshadweep 947 Bihar 935
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20 Nagaland 931 Dadra and Nagar Haveli 926

21 Madhya Pradesh 931 Goa 942
22. Rajasthan 928 Madhya Pradesh 918
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23. Arunachal Pradesth 938 Darman and Diu 904

24. Gujarat 919 Lakshadweep 911
25. Bihar 918 Himachal Pradesh 900
26. Utar Pradesh 912 Uttar Pradesh 902
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27. Punjab 895 Uttarakhand 890

28. Sikkim 890 Gujarat 890
29. Jarnmu and Kashmir 889 Rajasthan 888
30. Andaman and Nioobar Islands 876 Maharashtra 89

31. Haryana 879 Chandigarh 880

32. Delhi 868 Delhi 871
33 Chandigarh 818 Jammu and Kashmir 862
34. Dadra and Nagar Haveli 774 Punjab 846
35. Daman and Diu 618 Haryana 834
National Average 940 919
 ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT
• Ecology is a science, in which study of Functions of Ecosystem
organism is undertaken in relation to The main functions of an ecosystem are as
their environment. This science follows:
developed in response to the increasing (i) Materials or
of inter- relationships (ii) Biological or nutrient
cycle
awareness
ecological regulation
between plants, animals and their
physical habitats. Foodchain The flow of energy from of
The term ecosystem was first used by one organism to another in a sequence of
AG Tansley in 1935, who defined food transfer is known as a foodchain. A

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ecosystem as a particular category of simple foodchain is like the following
physical system, consisting of organisms Grass Insect- Frogs Snake Hawk

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and inorganic components in a relatively Food Web A network of foodchains or
stable equilibrium which is open and of feeding relationships, by which energy and
various sizes and kinds. nutrients are passed on from one specie of
living organism to another is called food
Components of Ecosystem web.
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• Abiotic Components are the non-living Trophic Levels Trophic levels are the
Components, e.g. air, water, soil, feeding position in a foodchain such as
suspended particulate matter etc. primary producers, herbivore, primary
•
Biotic Components includes plants, carnivore etc. Generally, green plants
form the first trophic level, the
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animals and micro-organism.

• The living organism in an ecosystem producers, herbivores form the second
can be divided into three categories trophic level, while carnivores and
omnivores form the third and even the
Producers fourth trophic levels.
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An ecological
• Producers are organisms that can make Ecological Pyramid
a
organic energy resources from abiotic pyramid is graphical representation
components of the environment. They designed to show the number of
produce their food thenselves. organisms, energy relationships and
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biomass of an ecosystem. They are also

Consumers called Eltonian Pyramids after Charles
• Consumers are those organisms that Elton, who developed the concept of
gather energy by consuming organic ecological pyramids. Producer organisms
material from other organisms. Primary (usually green plants) from the base of
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consumers are those organisms, who the pyramid, with succeeding levels
consume mainly producers. Primary
P:
above representing the ifferent tropic
consumers are also known as Herbivores. levels.
• Secondary are those
COnsumers Succeeding levels in the pyrarnid
Organisms, who Consume mainly represent the dependence of the
primary consumers. Tertiary consumers organisms at a given level on the
are organisms that consume secondary
consumers. Tlertiary ConSumers organisIms at lower level.
are
carnivores. Omnivores feed on both Pyramid of Biomass Biomass is
producers and other consumers. renewable organic (living) material. A
• Detritovores consume detritus pyramid of biomass is a representation of
(dead material of plants and animals). the amount of energy contained in
biomass at different trophic levels for a
Decomposers particular time.
• Decomposers are organisms that break It is measured in grams per meter or
down dead or decaying organisms. calories per meter. This demonstrates the
Decomposers are heterotrophic which amount of matter lost between trophic
means that they use organic substrates to levels.
get their energy and carbon and Pyramid of Energy The pyramid of
nutrients for their growth and energy represents the total amount of
development e.g. bacteria and fungi. energy consumed at each trophic level.
220 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

• An energy pyramid is always upright as the total amount of energy available for
utilisation in the layers above is less than the energy available in the lower levels.
Biome Biome is a large natural ecosysten, wherein we study the total assemblage of
plant and animal communities. Biosphere is the largest ecosystem on the Earth,
divided into biomnes.
• Ecological Niche Organisms in ecosystem get evolved for particular task.
This task or
role, which an organism plays in ecosystem is called as ecological niche.
Important Physical Characteristics Plants Animals
Biomes
Tundra Two seasons, dry and fr0zen No trees, dominated Insects, large hooved
deserts by mosses and marmmals (caribou,
lichens and grasses

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Winter extreme cold and snovy Musk, ox), bears,
Summer flooding, caused by snovy and some small wolves, small rodents
melt in the permafrost layer shrubs. (lermmings) migrate

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(permanently frozen about 3 m during the breeding
below the ground. season
Location far North and far South
towards the polar ice caps
Average Temperature 10°C
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Rainfall 25 cm/yr
Snow 10-20 cm/yr
Boreal Forest Long winter, short fall and spring, Trees 5-10 m high, Diverse array of
2-3 months of summer, wetter boreal forest, tree migrants from the
seasons, heavy rain and snow. species include tropics with few
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conifers pine, spruce, resident species

Location coniferous forests, far bog plants (ferns and (m0ose, bear, lynx,
far Southern latitudes mosses) íox, voles).
Northern and
Ternperale Four seasons Cormplex levels of Diverse array of
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Deciduous Rainfall 80-140 cm/yr vegetation including migranls from the

Forest deciduOUs trees. tropics and resident
species.
Savannah Three seasons Grasses, shrubs, Large ungulates, large
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short and 2m tall trees predators

Rainfall 90-150 crm/yr clumped together (10
m tall)
Location tropical to sub-tropical
Termperate Termperate and some subartic Grasses Large ungulales
Grassland grassland (extreme Northern
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Prairies-steppes and some

extrerne Southern grasslands
Pampas of Argentina) Rainfall
25-70 cm/yr
Mediterranean Mild wet winter followed by hot, Short trees and Diversity of marnmals,
dry, summer. Many plants shrubs birds, insects etc that
dependent on regular fires like dry habitals
associated with Chaparral
Location near ooastlines
(California, Chile, Mediterranean)
Desert Very dry Cactus, sagebrush, Small rodents, reptiles
Rainfall less than 25 cm/year creosote and shrubs
Location primarily equatorial but
Some reach into temperate regions
Tropical Very wel-heavy rainfall. Large trees-broad Highest diversity of
Rainlorest leaved evergreens, animals
Soilpoor in nutrients epiphytes, not much
forest iloor vegetation
Temperature constant throughout (itle sunlight) canopy
the year (wet and dry seasons) 30-40 m above
ground
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 221

.
POLLUTION Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were
generally used in great quantities in
Environmnental pollution is the effect of industry, for refrigeration and
undesirable changes in our surroundings air-conditioning and in ConSmer
that have harmful effects on plants, animals products.
and human beings. Ozone (O,) gas occurs naturally in the
Pollutants Pollutants are substances which upper atmosphere where it shields the
cause pollution. They could be in any from Earth from the Sun's dangerous
solid, liquid or gaseous.
• A primary pollutant is substance emitted ultraviolet rays. When found at ground
level, it's a pollutant.
directly from a sOurce.
Nitrogen Oxide and Sulphur Dioxide

e
•A secondary pollution is not directly are major contributors to smog and acid
emitted as such, but forms, when other rain. These gases both react with
pollutants (primary pollutants) react in

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volatile organic compounds to form
the atmosphere. smog, which can cause respiratory
problems in humans. Acid rain can
Primary pollutants harm vegetation, change the chemistry
• Sulphur dioxide (SO,), nitrogen oxides of river and lake water by lowering the
ra pH which is harmful to animal life and
(NO, ), carbon monoxide (CO), chloro
fluoro carbons (CFCS), carbon dioxide react with the marble statues and
(CO,), Suspended Particulate Matter buildings to decompose them.
(SPM) and Ammonia (NH,) volatile
etc.
Controls/Measures of Air
organic compounds, toxic metals
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Pollution
Secondary pollutants •
Suitable fuel selection
1. Particulate matter formed from• Modification in industrial processes
gaseous primary pollutants and Correct selection of manufacturing sites
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compounds in photochemical smog, More efficient engines

such as nitrogen dioxide. Awareness for using public transport so
2. Ground level ozone (O,) formed from that air pollution is minimised
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N, and Volatile Organic Comnpounds Water

(VOCs).
Pollution
3. Peroxyacety l Nitrate (PAN) similarly It is the contamination of water bodies
formed from NO, and VOCs. (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and
groundwater). Water pollution occurs
when pollutants are discharged directly
@

Air Pollution or indirectly into water bodies without

It is the contamination of air by a variety of adequate treatment to remove harmful
substances causing health problems and compounds.
damaging our environment. • Biological Oxygen Demond (BOD) It
is a measurement of amount of
Air Pollutants dissolved oxygen that is used by aerobic
Some ofthe most comnon air pollutants are micro-organisms when decomposing
as follows. organic matter in water. It is an
• important water quality parameter and
Carbon Monoxide (CO) is produced from
incomplete combustion of fuel such as is an indicator of organic pollution.
natural gas, coal and wood.
• It is also produced in tobacco smoke. It Control/Measures ofWater
slows our reflexes and makes us feel Pollution
sleepy. •Mass social awareness should be
•
Carbon Dioxide (Co,) is the principal generated.
greenhouse gas and is primarily Ground water pollution cai be
responsible for the greenhouse effect. It eliminated by maintaining strict
can be formed from all types of common restrictions regarding waste disposal.
human activities, such as burning fuels Industrial effluents should be effectively
and even breathing. recycled, before releasing in water.
222 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

•
Government Initiatives National Water Solutions for Land Pollution
Policy, 2002, Water (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act, 1974,
• Make people avare about the concept
establishment of pollution control boards, of reduce, recycle and reuse.
oil spill response centre etc are some
• Practicing organic farming which uses
government initiatives to control water no chemical pesticides and fertilisers
pollution. in agricultural activities.
• River Conservation
• Avoid buying packages items as they
National Plan, will lead to garbage.
Namami Gange programme have also
been slarted to cleanup the precious rivers No littering on ground and proper
in India. disposal of garbage.
• Using bio-degradable products.
Noise Pollution

e
• Organic gardening and organic food.
• Noise can be taken as a group of loud, e-Waste
non-harmonious sounds or vibrations that

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are unpleasant and irritating to ear. It is a term used to cover almost all types
Decibel is the standard for the of Electrical and Electronic Equipment
measurement of noise. (EEE) that could enter into the waste
• Noise pollution creates many diseases stream. Although e-waste is a general
cover TVs,
such as hypertension, hearing loss, sleep term, it can be considered to
ra
disturbances etc. Continuous noise can computers, mobile phones, white goods
Create panic situations or even increase (e.g. fridges, washing machines, dryers
frustration levels. It also impacts the etc) home entertainment and stereo
health of wildlife on land as well as oceans. systems, toys, toasters, kettles and almost
or business item with
Under the Environment Protection Act. any households
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1986, the Central Government has come circuitry or electrical components with
up with rules to curb the noise pollution. power or battery supply which have been
discarded.
Land Pollution
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• It refers to degradation or destruction of Radioactive Pollution

Earth's surface and soil, directly or
• It is the release of any radioactive
indirectly as a result of human activities. It material into the environment.
Radioactive pollution can be very
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explains any activity that lessens the

quality or productivity of the land as an dangerous because radiation mutates
ideal place for agriculture, forestation, DNA, causing abnormal growth and
construction, etc. possibly cancer and this radiation
remains in the environment for years,
Causes of Land Pollution
@

slowly diminishing over time.

• Deforestation and soil erosion. Radioactive pollution is mainly caused
• Agricultural Activities Use of highly toxic by nuclear accidents, nuclear
fertilisers and pesticides as wvell as mining explosion, accident during production
activities. or use of radioacive materials. There
• are techniques used to manage this
Overcrowded Landfills Garbage which pollution, however, we are far from
cannot be recycled become a part of the
landfills. keeping our planet clean of radioactive
pollution.
• Industrialisation Creation of more waste
by industries that needs to be disposed off.
Biodiversity
•
Nuclear Waste The left over radioactive
material contains harmful and toxic Biodiversity refers to the variety within
chemicals that can affect human health. the living world. The term is commonly
They are dumped beneath the Earth to used to describe the number, variety
avoid any casuality. and variability of living organisms.
•
Sewage Treatment Large amount of solid Often used as a synonym of Life on the
waste is leftover once the sewage has been Earth. It means genetic variation,
treated. The leftover material is sent to species variation ecosystem
landfill site which pollutes the variation within an area, biome or
environment. planet.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

• Biodiversity is often seen in the terms of

Ex-Situ (Off Site)
three fundamental and hierarchically Conservation of plants and animals
outside
related levels of biological organisation. their natural habitats. These include
• represents the botanical gardens, zoos, gene banks of seed,
Genetic diversity
heritable variation within and between tissue culture and cryopreservation.
population of organisms.
•
Species diversity refers to number of Threatened Species
species in a
site or habitat.
•
Threatened species are any species
Ecosystem diversity refers to diversity (including animals, plants, fungi, etc.)
of different organisms at the ecosystem, which are vulnerable to endangering in the
habitat or community level. near future. Species that are threatened
are sometimes characterised by the
Biodiversity Hotspots

e
population dynamics measure of critical
• A biodiversity hotspot is a bio-geographic depensation,
a mathematical measure of

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region with a significant reservoir of biomass related to population growth rate.
biodiversity that is under threat from This quantitative metric is one method of
humans. The concept of biodiversity evaluating the degree of danger.
hotspots was given by Norman Myers.
• To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot a IUCN
region must meet two strict criterias. It
ra The International Union for Conservation
must contain at least 0.5% or l500 of Nature (|UCN) is the foremost authority
species of vascular plants as endemics on threatened species, and treats
and it has to have lost at least 70% of its threatened species not as a single category,
primary vegetation. India has two but as a group of three categories,
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biodiversity hotspots Western Ghats depending on the degree to which they are
and Eastern Himalayas. Indo-Burma threatened :
Region and Sundaland (incuding Vulnerable species : A vulnerable species
Nicobar group of Islands). is one which has been categorised by the
ie

International Umion for Conservation of

Biodiversity Conservation Nature as likely to become endangered
Conservation is planned management of unless the circumstances threating its
natural resources to retain the balance in survival and reproduction improve.
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nature and retain the diversity. It Endangered species An endangered

emphasises on the wise use of natural species is a species which has been
resources by accepting the idea of categorised as indarnger and is likely to
sustainable development. Conservation of become extinct.
biodiversity is carried out in the following Critically endangered species
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A critically endangered (CR) species is

ways.
one which has been categorised by the
Method of Conservation International Union for Conservation of
The method of conservation of biodiversity Nature (TUCN) as facing a very high risk
can be classified into two groups. of extinction in the wild. It is the highest
risk category assigned by the IUCN Red
In-Situ (On Site) List for wild species.
Conservation include protection of plants IUCV Red List
and animals within their natural habitats
or in protected areas. Protected areas are The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
land or sea dedicated to protect and (also known as the IUCN Red List or Red
maintain biodiversity. Examples are Data List), founded in 1964, is the world's
Biosphere Reserves, National Parks, most comprehensive inventory of the global
Wildlife Sanctuaries, etc. conservation status of biological species.
224 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Difference Between National Park, Sanctuary and Biosphere Reserve

National Park Sanctuary Biosphere Reserve
A resenved area for preservation of A reserved area for Multipurpose protected area to
its natural vegelation, wildlife and preservation of preserve genetic diversity in
natural beauty. endangered species. representative ecosystem.
Boundaries are fixed by Boundaries are not Boundaries are fixed by
legislation. fixed. legislation.

Endangered Species of India

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Birds Great Indian Bustard, Forest Owlet, Bengal Florican, Himalayan Quail, Siberian
Crane, Indian Vulture, Satyr Tragopan, Nilgiri Flycatcher
Flying Squirrel, Red Panda, Pygmy Hog, Kondana Rat, Snow Leopard, Asiatic Lion,

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Mammals
One-Horned Rhinoceros, Bengal Tiger, Lion Tailed Macaque, Sangai
Reptiles Gharial, Hawksbill Turile, River Terrapin, Sispara Day Gecko
Amphibians Flying Frog, Tiger Toad, Toad Skimed Frog, Kaikatti Bushfrog, Amboli Toad,
Munnar Bush Frog.
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Wildlife Conservation in India Narne of Location
Year
Sanctuary/Park
Project
Corbelt National Park Uttarakhand
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Project Hangul 1970

Project Gir 1972 Dachigam Sanctuary Jammu and Kashmir
Project Tiger 1973 Dandeli Sanctuary Karnataka
Project Turtles 1975 Dudhwa National Park Uttar Pradesh
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Crocodile Breeding Scheme 1975

GandhiSagar Madhya Pradesh
Project Manipur Tharmin 1977 Sancluary
Project Ahino 1987
Ghana Bird Sanctuary Rajasthan
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Project Elephant 1992

Gir National Park Gujarat
Project Red Panda 1996
Project Vulture 2006 Gautam Buddha Bihar and Jharkhand
Sanctuary
Project Snow Leopard 2009
West
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Jaldapara Sanctuary Bengal

Project Dolphin 2020
Kaziranga Nalional Assam
Project Asiatic Lion 2020
Park
Important Sanctuaries and Khanchenzonga Sikkim
National Parks National Park

Nane of Location Nagarhole National Karnataka

Park
Sanctuary/Park
Namdapha Sancluary Arunachal Pradesh
Achanakmar Chhattisgarh
Sanctuary Pachmarhi Sanctuary Madhya Pradesh
Bandhavgarh National Madhya Pradesh Ranganathittu Bird Karnataka
Park Sanctuary
Bandipur Sanctuary Karnataka Sirmlipal Sancluary Odisha
Sundraban National West Bengal
Banerghatta National Karnalaka
Park Park
Bhadra Sanctuary Karnataka Sonai Rupai Sanctuary Assam
Chandraprabha Uttar Pradesh Tungabhadra Karnataka
Sanctuary Sanctuary
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

Biosphere Reserves of India

Narme State Type
Great Rann of Kachchh Gujarat Desert
Gulf of Mannar(UNESCO) TarmilNadu Marine
Sundarbans (UNESCO) West Bengal Gangetic Delta
Cold Desert Himachal Pradesh Western Himalayas
Nanda Devi (UNESCO) Uttarakhand West Himalays
Nilgii (UNESCO) Tanil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka Western Ghals
Dehang-Dibang Arunachal Pradesh East Himalayas
Pachmarthi (UNESCo) Madhya Pradesh Sermi-Arid

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Seshachalam Hills Andhra Pradesh Eastern Ghats
Simlipal (UNESCO) Odisha Deccan Peninsula

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Achanakmar Amarkantak Madhya Pradesh,Chhattisgarh Maikala Range
(UNESCO)
Manas Assam East Himalayas
Khangchendzonga (UNESCO) Sikkim East Himalayas
ra
Agasthyamalai (UNESCO) Kerala, Tarmil Nadu Weslern Ghals
Great Nicobar (UNESCO) Andaman and Nicobar Islands lslands
Nokrek (UNESCO) Meghalaya East Himalayas
Dibru-Saikhowa Assam East Himalayas
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Panna (UNESCO) Madhya Pradesh Catchment Area of Ken River

Climate Change fighting global warning. The UNFCCC

Climate change refers to long-term change is an international environmental
ie

treaty with the goal of achieving the

in the earth's climate, especially a change
due to an increase in average atmospheric "stabilisation of greehouse gas
temperature. In the past, Earth's climate has concentration in the atmosphere at a
gone through warmer and cooler periods, level that would prevent dangerous
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each lasting thousands of years. anthropogenic interference with the

climate system". The protocol was
initially adopted on 1lth December,
Greenhouse Effect and Global 1997 in Kyoto, Japan and entered into
Warming force on 16th February, 2005. Second
@

• The greenhouse gases (sometimes commitment period of this protocol

abbreviated as GHG) în the atmosphere started in 2013 and will end in 2020.
absorbs and emits radiation within the
• The Intergovernmental Panel on
thermal infrared range. The process is the Climate Change (lPCC) has predicted
fundamental cause of the greenhouse an average global rise in temperature of
effect. The primary greenhouse gases in 1.4C to 5.8°C betwveen 1990 and 2100.
the Earth's atmosphere are water vapour, If successfully and completely imple
carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide mented, the Kyoto Protocol will reduce
and ozone. In the Solar System, the that increase by somewhere between
atmosphere of Venus, Mars and Titan also 0.02°C and 0.28°C by the year 2050.
contain gases that cause greenhouse effects. Mission Included in Prime
• Global Warming is the increase of Earth's
average surface temperatue due to effect Minister's National Action Plan
of greenhouse gases, such as carbon for Climate Change (NAPCC)
• National solar mission
dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels
or from deforestation. National mission for enhanced energy
efficiency
Kyoto Protocol • National mission on sustainable habitat
. • National water mission
The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the
• National mission for sustaining the
United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC), aimed at Himalayan ecosystem
226 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography
• National mission for Green India
• Ozone Layer Depletion
National mission for sustainable • The ozone layer is located within the
agriculture Stratosphere, about 24 km above the Earth's
• National mission strategic surface.
knowledge for climate change • The layer consist of ozone gas molecules that
REDD ++ are formed as the sunlight reacts with oxygen.
. from The 0zone layer is very important as it
Reducing Emissions
Deforestation and Forest protects life on Earth by filtering the Sun's
Degradation (REDD) is an effort to dangerous ultraviolet radiation.
create a financial value for the Due to increased pollution on Earth, chemicals
carbon stored in forests, offering Such as Chloro Fluro Carbons (CFCs) are
incentives to developing countries to destroying this protective ozone layer, which

e
reduce emissions from forested lands could lead to increased health risks and
and invest in low carbon paths to damage agricultural and acquatic ecosystem.

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sustainable development. Montreal Protocol on Substances
•
REDD+' goes beyond deforestation
and forest degradation and includes that Deplete the Ozone Laver
the role of conservation, sustainable • It is an international treaty designed to
management of forests and protect the ozone layer from Chloro Fluoro
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enhancement of forest carbon stocks. Carbons (CFCs).
. The proper implementation of The treaty was opened for signature on l6th
REDD+ will contribute to protection September, 1987 and entered into force on
of biodiversity, resilience of forest Ist January, 1989, followed by a first meeting
ecosystems and poverty reduction. in Helsinki, May 1989.
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Important Environmental Organisations

Organisation Head Office Year
IUCN Gland, Switzerland 1948
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World vide Fund for nalure (wWF) Swizerland 1961

Green Peace Amsterdam, Netherlands 1971
World conservalion Monitoring centre Cambridge, UK 2000
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Global Environmental Facilily Washington, USA 1991

Internalional Solar Alliance Gurugram, India 2015
Environment Related Important InternationalAgreements/Conference
UN Conference on the Human Environment Stockholm (1972)
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Convenlion on Migratory Species Bonn (1979)

Convenlion for the Protection of the Ozone Layer Vienna (1985)
Protocol on Subslances that Deplete the Ozone Layer Montreal (1987)
Convention on the Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes Basel (1989)
Earth Summit (UN Conference on Environment and Developrmen) Rio de-Janeiro (1992)
Convenlion on Prior Inlormed Consent Rotterdam (1998)
UN Conference on Suslainable Development Rio de-Janeiro (2012)
Nagoya Protocol on Genetic Resources Nagoya (2010)
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD-CoP-11) Hyderabad (2012)
UN Climale Change Conlerence (CoP-20) Lima (2014)
Paris Olimate Change Conference (CoP-21) Paris (2015)
Marrakesh Climate Change Conference (CoP-22) Marrakesh (2016)
Bonn Climate Conference (COP-23) Bonn (2017)
Kalowice Climate Conference (CoP-24) Katowice, Poland (2018)
UN Climate Change Conference (CoP-25) Madrid, Spain (2019)
UN Climate Change Conference (CoP-26) Glasgow, UK (2021) originally
due to be held in 2020
but postponed due
to COVID-Pandermic
UN Climate Change Conierence (CoP-27) Sharm el-Sheikh Egypt (2022)
UN Climale Change Conierence (CoP-28) Dubai (Scheduled)
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 227

Glossary
Bio Fuels are produced from dry organic Environment The environment is the
matter or combustil oils from plants such biotic and abiotic surrounding of an
as alcohol from fermented sugar, black organisnn or population and includes
liquor from the paper manufacturing particularly the factor that have an
process, wood and soyabean oil. influence in their survival,
Biogas Gas rich in methane, which is development and evolution.
produced by the fermentation of animal Ecology It is the scientific study of the
dung, human sewage or crop residues in an relations that living organisms have

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airtight container. with respect to each other and their
Biomass Organic material, both above ground natural environment.
Ecosystem An ecosystem is a biological

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and below ground and living and dead, such
as trees, crops, grasses and roots. system consiting of all the living
Carbon credit The concept of Carbon Credit organisms or biotic components in a
came into existence as a result ofincreasing particular area and the non-living or
awareness of the need for pollution control. abiotic components with which the
organisms interact such as air.
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Carbon credits are certificates awarded to
countries that successfully xeduce the mineral soil, water and sunlight.
emissions that cause global warming. Biosphere The biosphere is the portion
Carbon Credits are measured in units of of Earth, in which all known life
Certified Emission Reductions (CERs). forms exst. Ifincludes a thin layer of
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Each CER is equivalent to one tonne ofCO, air (atmosphere). water

reduction. (hydrosphere) and Earth
(lithosphere).
Carbon Footprint The Carbon Footprint is a
measurenment of all greenhouse gases in Geosphere The atmosphere,
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terms of tonnes or kg of C0, equivalent. hydrosphere, lithosphere and

Carbon Market The Kyoto Protocol allows biosphere are together referred to as
countries that have emissions units to spare the Geosphere.
Mitigation The structural and non
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the emissions permitted but not used' to

sell this excess capacity to countries that structural measures undertaken to
are over their targets. This is called the limit the adverse impact of natural
carbon market, because carbon dioxide is hazards, environmental degradation
the most widely produced greenhouse gas and technological hazards.
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and because of this other greenhouse gases Sustainable Development

will be recorded and counted in terms of Developnment that meet the needs of
their 'carbon dioxide equivalents'. the present generation without
Green Tax It is a tax with a potentially positive compromising the ability of future
environmental impact. It includes energy generations to meet their own
tax, transport taxes and taxes on pollution needs.
and resources. They are also called Eeological Pyramid An Ecological
environmental taxes. Pyramid js graphical
Biomes Biomes are regions of the world with representation designed to show the
similar climate (weather, temperature), biomass or biomass productivity at
animals and plants. each Trophic level in a given
Examples of Aquatic biomes are : Fresh ecosystem.
water, marine, Coral reef and Estuaries. Trophic Level Successive stages of
Examples of Terrestrial biomes are nourishment as represented by the
Tundra, Rainforest, Savanna, Taiga, Alpine links of the foodchain.
and Desert etc.
228 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography

FAQs (Geography)
1. A landmass surrounded by sea on three 29. El-Nino is..
sides is referred to as.... 30. Where does the Arabian sea branch of
2. The highest peak in the Eastern Ghat is... monsoon and the Bay of Bengal branch
3. How many stales are there in India through monsoon join to each other?
which the Tropic of Cancer passes? 31. The rainíall of winter season in the
4. Which group of island is located in the Bay Northen regions is locally known as.
of Bengal? 32. Which type of vegetation is found in the
5. Name the place in Uttar Pradesh through Andaman and Nicobar slands and
which the Standard Meridian of India Lakshadweep lsland?

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passes. 33. In which state is the Gir National Park
6. Which latitude divides India into two parts? situated?
7. How many plates are found in crust 34. When did first census take place in India?

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(upper part of the Earth)? 35. When did first complete census take
8. Which State is known for Back waters? place in India?
9. In which state of India does the Sun rise 36. Thered colour of the red soil is due to.
first? 37. Most of the iron in India is found in....
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10. Which place does India has in the 38. Which ocean currents is associated with
geographical area of the world? the El Nino phenomenon?
11. When was the route of Suez canal 39. In which periods, the Appalachian
Constructed? mountains were formed?
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12. The mountain ranges between the Indus 40. The lapse rate of the almosphere is....
and the Sutlej rivers are known as....
41. What is the most common salt in the sea
13. Where is the Chilika lake situated? water?
14. Which is the biggest salt lake of India? 42. The cattle kept by the Masai are called
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15. Which is the longest river flowing in the 43. The timber of which tree is used for
Thar desert? making cricket bats?
16. In which ocean do the Tapiand Narmada 44. Ozone layer is found in....
rivers iall?
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45. 'Ring of Fire' refers to....

17. Which is the largest delta in the world?
46. Willy-Willy is the tropical cyclone
18. Which landmass is known as the roof of OcCurring in....
the world?
47. The atmospheric layer, which reilects
19. Anarea drained by a single river is called.. radio-waves is known as....
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20. Which is the biggest drainage basin of the 48. Which planet is nearest to the Earth?
World?
49. In which layer of the atmosphere do most
21. Which river has the largest drainage basin 1weather phenomenon occur?
of India?
50. Clear night are colder than cloudy nights
22. Where the rivers Sutlej, Ravi, Chenab, because of...
Beas, Jhelum join the Indus rivers? 51. Where is the Hindustan Anti-biotics plant
23. According to Indus Water Treaty (1960), located?
how much per cent of the total water can 52. Where is the Indian railways iactory Diesel
be used by India, carried by Indus River Component Works (DCW) located?
System?
53. Duncan Pass is located between..
24. Where does the Bhagirathi and 54. Where is Thattekad Bird Sanctuary
Alakananda join? located?
25. The main tributary of the Ganga, 55. In which state is the Hydel-Power Project
Bhagirathioriginates from...
Nathpa Jhakri located?
26. Where does the Yamuna meetthe Ganga? 56. Indian's most modern and well
27. What type of climate is there in India? planned city Chandigarh was designed
28. Which place has the maximum difference by
in the temperature of day and night in 57. Sahyadri is the traditional name of the...
India?
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Geography 229

58. India's permanent research station 81. Which plateau lies between the Aravali and
Dakshin Gangotri is situated in... Vindyachal hills?
59. On which river, the Baglinar 82. The Easternmost longitude of India is...
Hydro-power Project is located? 83. In which country does the Mt Everest lie?
60. Which state of India touches the 84. In which country the peak of Kanchenjunga
boundaries of the largest number of located?
other states? 85. The part lying between Tista and Dihang rivers
61. The term Requr refers to... is known as..
62. Which is the junction point of the
Eastern and Western Ghats? Answers
63. The biosphere reserve Dehang 1. Peninsula, 2. Mahendragiri,

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Debang is located in....
3. Eight, 4. Andaman and Nicobar lslands,
64. The two volcanic islands in the s.
Alahabad, 6.23 ° N,

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Indian territory are...
7. Major Seven and Small Nine, 8. Andaman and
65. The Eastern slopes of the Western Nicobar 9. Arunachal
Pradesh, 10. Seventh,
Ghats have low rainfall because of
11. AD 1869, 12. Punjab Himalaya, 13. Odisha,
66. In which of the following state is the
14. Sambhar Lake, 15. Luni. 16. The Arabian Sea,
Simplipal bio-resenve located?
ra 17. The delta of Ganga- Brahmaputra
67. The wind blowing in the Nornen (Sundraban). 18. Pamir Granthi, 19. Drainage
plains in summers is known as....
The Nile iver of Egypt, 21. The Ganga
68. In which of the following states is the basIn, 20.
river,22. Mithankot, 23. 20%, 24. Deva Prayag.
Wular lake located?
25. Gangotri, 26. Allahabad,
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69. Which is the longest river of the

Peninsular India? 27. Monsoon 28. Thar desert,
ocean ourrent, 30. Over the Ganga
70. Name the state of India. where the 29. A Warm
Brahmaputra river enters first? plains, 31. Mahawat, 32. Rain forest, 33. Gujarat,
Iron,
71. Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, 34. 1872, 35. 1881, 36.
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38. Humboldt or Peruvian.

West Bengal and Sikkim have 37. Dharwar Rocks,
Common frontierS with.... 39. Pale0zoic, 40. 6.5° for C every 1000 m,
Willow,
72. Which two Peninsular rivers tlow 41. Sodium Chloride, 42. Zebu, 43.
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through troughs? 44. Stratosphere, 45. Circum- Pacific volcanic

73. When was Wild Life Protection Act belt, 46. Coast of North-West Australia.
implemented? 47. lonosphere, 48. Venus, 49. Troposphere,
74. In which state is the CorbettNational 50. Radiation, 51. Rishikesh, 52. Patiala, 53. South
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Park located? and Little Andaman, 54. Kerala, 55. Himachal

75. The latitudinal extent of India is... Pradesh, 56. Le Corbusier, 57. Western Ghats,
76. HoW much area does India cover of 58. Antarctica, 59. Chenab, 60. Uttar Pradesh,
the total geographical area of the 61. Black cotton soil, 62. Nilgiri Hills,
world? 63. Arunachal Pradesh, 64. Narcondam and
77. The length of the Indian coastline Barren, 65. their leeward location, 66. Odisha,
s... 67. Loo, 68. Jammu and Kashmir, 69. Godavari,
78. Which state of India has the longest 70. Arunachal Pradesh, 71. Nepal, 72. Narmada
Coastal line? and Tapi, 73. 1972, 74. Uttarakhand, 75. 8°4'Nto
79. In which state is the Ooty or 37°6N, 76. 2.42%, 77. 7516.6 km, 78. Gujarat,
Udagamandalam located? 79. Tamil Nadu, 80. Anaimudi, 81. The Plateau of
80. Which is the highest peak of the Malwa, 82.97°25E, 83. Nepal,
Western Ghat? 84. India, 85. Assam Himalayas
 INDIAN
POLITY

e
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CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
• The Constitution is a set of fundamental • A Supreme Court was established in
Calcutta. Sir Elijah Impey was the
principles according to which state
ra
organisation is governed. The idea to have a first Chief Justice.
Constitution was given by MN Roy. It prohibited the servants of the
. to company to engage in any private
The objective of the Constitution is
a
evolve certain type of political culture that trade and accept presents or bribes
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is based on the values enshrined in the from natives.

Constitution and guided by the institutions pitt's
India Act, 1784
established under the Constitution.
. It provided for Board of Control having
Certain features of Indian Polity or
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Constitution can be understood better with 6 members (2 from British Cabinet

a brief review of the Constitutional set-up and remaining from Privy Council).
in the preceding periods. As modern Board was set-up to guide and
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political institutions originated and Supervise the affairs of the company

developed in India mainly during the in India.
British rule, the origin and growth of the Court of directors were confined to
Indian Constitution has its roots in the manage the trade and commerce
British period of Indian history. related issues only.
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The Company Rule (1773-1857) Charter Act, 1793

There are certain events in the British rule • Salaries for the staff and members of
that laid down the legal framework for the the Board of Control to be paid from
organisation and administration in British Indian revenue.
India. These events have greatly influenced
our Constitution and polity. Charter Act, 1813
Ended East India Company's
They are erplained below in the chronological monopoly of trade with India and
order provided 1 lakh grant for education
The Regulating Act, 1773 in India. The Company's monopoly in
. To trade with China and trade in tea were
regulate and control the affairs of East r'emained intact.
India Company by British Government.
• It designated the Governor of Bengal as the Charter Act, 1833
'Governor-General of Bengal', who has the The centralisation of the power
authority over the Presidencies of Madras, began: the Governor-General of
Bombay and Calcutta. The first such Bengal was to be the Governor
Governor-General was Warren Hastings. General of India. First such Governor
was Lord William Bentick.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity 231

• All legislative, administrative and The Governor-General was made the

financial powers were handed over to Viceroy of India. Lord Canning became
Governor-General in council. It deprived the first Viceroy of India.
the governor of Bombay and Madras • Unitary,
rigid and centralised
presidencies of their legislative powers. administrative sructure was created.
•A fourth memberwas in the Governor
General's Council added as a law Indian Councils Act, 1861
member. • A
ffth member from legal background,
• A Law Commission under Lord was added to the Viceroy's Executive
Macaulay was constituted for Council. A Sixth member was
codification of laws. subsequently added in 1784. The

e
• The company was now no more a trading Viceroy could now also nominate some
body but had become political and Indians as non-official members in his
administrative body. council. In 1862, three Indians were

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nominated to the council.
Charter Act, 1853 • It made a beginning of representative
•A separate Governor for Bengal was to institutions by associating Indians with
be appointed. the law making process.
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• The Legislative and Executive functions
The Executive Council was now
of the Governor-General's Council were expanded by the addition of 6 to 12
separated for the first time. members for legislative purpose.
• Open competition system of selection Portfolio System, which was introduced
and recruitment of Civil Servants was by Lord Canning in 1859, was given
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introduced and the covenanted Civil recognition, so that work could be

Service was open to Indian also. distributed among the members. The
• The
number of members of the Court of Viceroy was given the powers to issue
Directors were reduced from 24 to 18 of
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ordinances.
which 6 were to be nominated by the . Decentralisation process was
started by
CrOWn.
restoring the legislative powers to
• It extended the Company's rule and
Bombay and Madras presidencies.
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allowed it to retain the possession of

Indian territories for the British Crown
specifying any particular period.
Indian Councils Act, 1892
. without Though it was insignificant, but it brought an
It introduced for the first time, local
representation in the Indian (Central) element of representation for the first time by
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Legislative Council. allowing discussion of budget. This act also

introduced the element of election in India.
THE CROWN RULE Although, the majority of the official
members were retained in Central legislative
(1857-1947) Councils, the non-official members were to
be nominated by the Bengal Chamber of
Government of India Commerce and Provincial Legislative
Act, 1858 Councils.
• The power was transferred from the
•
company to the British Crown.
Court of Directors and Board of Control
Indian Councils Act, 1909
was abolished ending the system of
(Morley Minto Reforms)
double government. The post of Secretary Lord Morley, the thern Secretary of State
of State was established. A 15 member of India and Lord Minto, the then
council was established to assist him. Viceroy of India, announced some
Secretary of State was Member of British reforms in the British Parliament.
Cabinet and was answerable to British • The members of the Legislative Council
Parliament. could ask supplementary questions,
232 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity

discuss bills, move resolutions O

financial statements and so on. Simon Commission
• It was constituted in 1927 to inquire the
The Legislative Councils, both at the
centre (16 to 60) and in the provinces working of the Act of 1919, under the
(not uniform) was expanded. chairmanship of John Simon. It placed its
• report in 1930, which was examined by the
It retained official majority in the
British Parliament.
Central Legislative Council, but allowed
the Provincial Legislative Council to
have non-official majority. Government of India Act, 1935
• Communal representation was • Dyarchy was abolished in the provinces,
introduced as Muslims were given but it was introduced at the federal level.

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separate electorates based on religious The division of subjects was made into
grounds. three lists : Federal (59 items), Provincial
•

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Satyendra Prasad Sinha became the (54 items) and Concurrent (36 items)
first Indian to join the Viceroy's and Residuary powers were given to the
Executive Council. Viceroy.
• It provided for the establishment of an
The Government of India All India Federation consisting of
ra
Act, 1919 British provinces and Princely States as
(Montagu-Chelmsford unit, but the federation did not come
into effect because the Indian Princely
Reforms) States had not joined the federation.
• Samuel Montagu, the Secretary
of State It introduced bicameralism in 6 out of
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11 provinces.
for India and Lord Chelmsford, Viceroy
of India prepared report to introduce• The Federal Legislature had two chambers:
self-governing institutions in India. The Council of State and Federal
• It relaxed the central control over the Assembly. The Council of State was to be
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a permanent body with one- third of its

provinces by separating the central and
provincial subjects. members, retiring every 2 years.
• The powers of
the Secretary of State • The Governor was given powers to use
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were drastically reduced. their discretion in certain matters. The

• It required
that the three of the Six •
act provided for a federal court.
members of Viceroy's executive council It further extended the principle of
were to be Indian. comnunal representation by providing
• Direct elections were separate electorates for depressed
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introduced for the women

first time in the country. classes, and labour.
• The Central Legislature was to have a • It provided for the establishment of a
Bicameral Legislature for the first time. Reserve Bank of India to control the
• Dyarchy system was currency and credit of the country.
introduced in the a
provinces. Where provincial subjects of It provided for the establishment of
administration were to be divided into Federal Public Service Commission and
two categories: reserved and transferred. Joint Public Service Commission for two
Or more provinces.
Transferred subjects were administered
by the Governor with the help of
ministers responsible to the Legislative .
Cripps Mission, 1942
was proposed.
Council. Reserved subjects were • Dominion status
administered by the Governor with his Constitution of India to be made by an
Executive Council without any assembly, whose members were to be
responsiblity towards the Legislative elected by provincial assemblies and
Council. nominated by princely states.
• It provided separated electorates Any province of Indian states not
for• prepared to accept the Constitution
Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians
and Europeans. could negotiate separately with Britain.
GENERAL KNONLEDGE ~ Indian Polity 233

• From l5th August, 1947, India ceased to

Cabinet Mission Plan, 1946 be a dependency of the British Crown
• According to this plan, there was to be a over the Indian states. The Governor
Union of India, consisting of both British General and Provincial Governors acted
India and the Indian states, with control as constitutional heads.
Over foreign affairs, defence and • The Central Legislature of India
communication. comprising of the Legislative Assembly
• Provinces were given the powers and the Council of States, ceased to exist
to legislate all subjects except foreign O
14th August, 1947 and the
affairs, defence and communication. Constituent Assembly was to function
• India was to be divided
into three groups also as the Central Legislature with
of provinces: Group A, Group B and complete sovereignty.

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Group C.
•
The plan provided that the Union .
Interim Government 1946

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Constitution was to be framed by a The Interim Government of India,
Constituent Assembly, the members of formed on 2nd September, 1946, from
which wvere to be elected on a communal the newly elected Constituent Assembly
basis by the Provincial Legislative of India, had the task of assisting the
Assemblies and the representatives of the transfer of power from British rule to
ra Independent India.
states joining the union.
Interim Cabinet
Mountbatten Plan Name of Mermbers Portfolios Held
Lord Mountbatten, the Viceroy of India, put Jawaharlal Nehru External Aifairs and
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forth the partition plan, known as the Commonwealth

Mountbatten Plan. The plan was accepted by Relations
the Congress and the Muslim League. Sardar Vallabhbhai Home, Information
Patel and Broadcasting
Immediate effect was given to the plan by
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Dr Rajendra Prasad Food and Agriculture

enacting the Indian Independence Act, 1947. Dr John Mathai Industries and
Supplies
The Indian Independence Jagjivan Ram Labour
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Sardar Baldev Singh Defence

Act, 1947 CH Bhatbha Works, Mines and
.
It ended the British Rule in India and Power
declared India as an independent and Liaquat Ali Khan Finance
sovereign state from 15th August, 1947. Abdur Aab Nishtar Posls and Air
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• The office of the Secretary of State was Asaf Ali Railways and
abolished. The crown no longer remained Transport
C Rajagopalachari Education and Arts
the source of authority.
• The act provided for the creation of two II Chundrigar Commerce
Constituent Assemblies for India and Ghaznafar AliKhan Health
Joginder Nath Mandal Law
Pakistan.

MAKING OF THE
CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
• The Constituent Assembly was formed in were alloted to the princely states. Out of
November 1946, under the scheme 296 members, 292 members were to be
formulated by Cabinet Mission Plan. elected by the provincial legislatures
• The total strength of the assembly was while 4 members were to represent the
389, out of these, 296 were elected to four Chief Commissioner's provinces of
represent the British India and 93 seats Delhi, Ajmer-Merwara, Coorg and
234 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity

British Baluchistan. 93 seats were Committees of the Constituent

reserved for princely states remained Assembly
which unfilled as they stayed away
from the Constituent Assembly. Constituent Assembly appointed number of
• The Constituent Assembly, held its committees to deal with different tasks of
first meeting on 9th December, 1946 Constitution making.
and reassembled on 14th August, Some of them are
1947, as the sovereign Constituent
Assembly for the dominion of India. Committee Narme Headed by
• It took 2 years, 11 months and Union Powers Committee Pandit Jawaharlal
18 days to finalise the Constitution. Nehru
• Objective resolution was moved in Union Constitution Pandit Jawaharlal

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the first session of the Constituent Committee, State Nehru
Committees (oommittee for
Assembly (on 13th December, 1946)

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negoliating with states)
by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru which Sardar Patel
was adopted after considerable Provincial Constitution
Committee, Advisory
deliberation and debate in the Cormmittee on
assembly on 22nd January, 1947. Fundamental Rights
Dr Sachidanand Sinha was the first minorities and Tribal and
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Excluded Areas
President (temporary) of the
Drafting Committee Dr BR Ambedkar
Constituent Assembly, when it met
on 9th December, 1946, while later Aules of Procedure Dr Rajendra Prasad
Prasad and HC Committee
Dr Rajendra
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Mukherjee were elected as the Committee on the GV Mavalankar

Functions of the
President and Vice-Presidents of the Constituent Assembly
assembly respectively.
Steering Committee Dr Rajendra Prasad
•
Sir BN Rau was appointed as the
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constitutional advisor of the

Assembly. Drafting Committee
• Seats were allotted to each province The Constituent Assembly appointed
and each Princely states proportional a Drafting Committee on 29th August, 1947.
jm

to their respective population roughly Dr BR Ambedkar, who was the Chairman of

in the ratio of one to a million. the Drafting Committee, submitted first Draft
• The seats in each province was of Constitution of India to the President of the
distributed between Muslims, Sikhs Assembly on 21st February, 1948 and second
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and General in proportion to their draft in October 1948.

respective population.
•
Members of each community in the Enactment ofthe Constitution
Constituent Assembly were elected by On 26th November, 1949, Constitution was
members of that community in the adopted, containing a Preamble and
Provincial Assemblies by the method 395 Aricles, 22 Parts and8 Schedules. The
of proportional representation with constitution has undergone 103 Amendments
single transferable vote. in the 70 years since its enactment. The
• On 26th November 1949 (third and Constitutions, in its current form, consists of a
final reading of draft completed) the Preamble, 25 Parts, 448 Articles and
Constitution was declared as passed. 12 Schedules.
The provisions relating to citizenship,
elections and provisional Parliament Enforcement ofthe Constitution
etc were implemented with The Constitution came into force on 26th
immediate effect, i.e., from the 26th January, 1950, was specifically chosen as the
November, 1949. The rest of the "date of commencement" of the Constitution
provisions came into force on 26th because on this day in 1930, the Poorna
January, 1950. Swaraj day was celebrated Resolution was
passed in Lahore Session (1929) of INC].
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity

Sources of the Constitution of India

The Government of India Act, 1935 formed the basis or'blue print' of the Constitution of India
with the features of Federal systems, Office of Governor etc. Besides, the Constitution of India has
borrowed certain features from foreign Constitutions as well.
British Constitution First past the Post System, Parliamentary form of Government, the idea of
the rule of law, law making procedure, office of the CAG, single citizenship, Bicameralism.
United States Constitution Charter of Fundamental Aights, Power of Judicial Review and
Independence of Judiciary, Written Constitution, Preamble, post of Vice-President.
Irish Constitution Directive Principles of State Policy (Ireland borrowed it from Spain),
Methods of Election of the President, Nomination of Members in the Rajya Sabha by the President.

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Canadian Constitution A Quasi-Federal form of Government (a federal system with a strong
Central Government). The idea of residual powers, appointment of State Governors by centre and

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Advisory Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.
Former USSR Fundamental Duties and Five Year Planning.
Australian Constitution Concurrent List, Provision regarding Trade, Commerce and
Intercourse, Languages of the Preamble, Joint sitting in the Parliament.
Weimar Constitutions of Germany Suspension of Fundamental Aights during the emergency.
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South African Constitution Procedure of Constitutional Amendment.
Constitution of France idea of liberty, equality and fraternity.
Japanese Constitution Procedure estasblished by law.
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SALIENT FEATURES OF THE CONSTITUTION

The salient features of the Constitution, as it stands today, are following
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Lengthiest Written Constitution

.
The Indian Constitution is the lengthiest in the world. Originally the Constitution had
395 Articles, 8 Schedules and 22 Parts.
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Blend of Rigidity and Flexibility

.
The procedure of amendment of the Indian Constitution is partly flexible and partly
rigid. Some provisions can be amended easily and some provisions can only be
amended by passage in both Union Parliament and half of the State Legislatures.
@

Parliamentary Government
• India has a parliamentary system of government, both at the centre and in the states.
The President is the head of the Union of India and the Governors are head of the
states. But they act on the advice of the Council of Ministers. They have nominal
powers.

Independent Judiciary
• There is a single, integrated and independent judiciary in India.
• The Supreme Court is the highest court of the land. Both Supreme Court and High
Courts have been given extensive powers to interpret the Constitution and law under
various provisions of the Constitution of India.
Federal System with Unitary Features
• Our Constitution contains federal features of government like division of powers,
written Constitution, independent judiciary and bicameralism but a large number of
unitary features like a strong centre, single citizenship, flexibility of Constitution,
integrated judiciary emergency provisions etc are also present.
236 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity

Secular State 21 years in 1989 by the 6lst Consti

tutional Amendmnent Act of 1988.
• The Indian Constitution stands for a secular
state i.e. all religions in our country have the Emergency Provisions
same right and support from the state. It •
Indian Constitution has special
does not uphold any particular religion as provisions to meet any extraordinary
the official religion of the Indian state. situation emergency. During
Universal Adult Franchise emergency the Central Government
becomes powerful and state comes
• Every Indian citizen (above 18 years) has a
under the total control of it.
right to vote in the elections without any During emergency our federal system
discrimination of caste, sex, religion etc.

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becomes Unitary without any
The voting age was reduced to 18 years from amendment of the Constitution.

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PARTS OF THE CONSTITUTION
There are 25 paris in our Constitution, which can be described as below
Part-l (Articles 1-4)
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Deals with territory of India, formation of new states,
alterations of names and areas of existing states.
Part-ll (Articles 5-11) Deals with various provisions related to citizenship.
Part-ll (Articles 12-35) Deals with Fundamental Aights of Indian citizens.
Part-1V (Articles 36-51) Deals with Directive Principles of State Policy.
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Part-IVA (Article 51A) Added by 42nd Amendment in 1976. Contains the

Fundamental Duties of the oitizens.
Part-V (Articles 52-151) Deals with Government at the Union Level (Duties and
Functions of Prime Minister, Minister, President,
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Vice-President, Attorney General, Parliament-Lok Sabha

and Rajya Sabha, Comptroller and Auditor-General).
Part-VI (Articles 152-237) Deals with Government at State Level (Duties and
Functions of Chief Minister and his Ministers, Governor,
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State Legislature, High Court, Advocate General of the

State).
Part-VIl (Article 238) Deals with states in part B, was repealed in 1956 by the
7th Armendment.
- Part-VIIl
(Articles 239-241) Deals with Union Territories.
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Part-IX (Articles 243-2430) and Part IX was added by 73rd Amendment in 1992. Contains a
new schedule 'Schedule Eleven'. It contains 29 subjects
related to Panchayati Raj.
Part-IXA (Articles 243P-243 ZG) Part IX A was added by 74th Armendment in 1992.
Contains a new schedule 'Schedule Twelve'. It contains
18 subjecis relaled to muncipalities.
Part- IX B (243-ZH to 243-ZT) Deals with the Cooperalive Societies.
Part-X (Articles 244, 244A) Deals with Scheduled and Tritbal Areas.
Part-XI (Articles 245-263) Deals with relation between Union and States.
Part-XIl (Articles 264-300A) Deals with distribution of Revenue between Union and
States, Appointment of Finance Commission (Article 280),
Contracts liabilities etc.
Part-XIll (Articles 301-307) Relates to Trade, Commerce and Intercourse within the
Territory of India.
Part-XIV (Articles 308-323) Deals with Civil Services and Public Service Commission.
Part-XIV A (Articles 323A, 323B) Deals with tribunals.
Part-XV (Articles 324-329A) Deals with Elections (including Eleclion Commission).
Part-XVI (Articles 330-342) Deals with special provisions for Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes and Anglo-Indian Representatiorn.
Part-XVII (Articles 343-351) Relates to Official Language.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity 237

Part-XVIl(Articles 352-360) Deals with Emergency Proisions.

Part-XIX (Articles 361-367) Miscellaneous Provisions.
- Part-XX (Article Deals with Amendment of Constitution.
368)
Part-XXI (Articles 369-392) Contains Ternporary, Transitional and Special Provisions.
Part-XXIl (Articles 393-395) Concerns the short title, commencement, authorative text
in Hindi and repeals of the Constitution.

Schedules
The Constitution of India at the time of adoption had only 8 schedules to which 4 more
were added during the succeeding 66 years.

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First Schedule State and UTs.
Second Schedule Salaries and Ermoluments of President, Governor, Chief Judges,

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Auditor General, Speaker and Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha.
Third Schedule Forms of Oath and Affirmations of Merntbers of Legislatures, Ministers
Judges and the Comptroller and Auditor General.
Fourth Schedule Allocation of Seats in the Rajya Sabha.
Fifth Schedule Administration and control of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes.
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Sixth Sohedule Administration of Tribal Areas in the state of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura
and Mizoram.
Seventh Schedule Distribution of Power between the Union and the State Government
(Union List, State List and Concurrent List).
Eighth Schedule
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Languages.
Ninth Schedule Validation of certain Acls and Regulations.
Tenth Schedule Anti-Defection Law.
Eleventh Schedule Power, authority and responsibility of Panchayats. It has 29 matters.
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Twelfth Schedule Powers, authority and responsibility of municipalities. It has 18 matters.

EVOLUTION OF STATES AND

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UNION TERRITORIES
Dhar Commission
The Constituent Assembly appointed the SK Dhar Commission in June 1948, to study the
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feasibility the reorganisation of the states on linguistic basis. It was felt that such
reorganisation would fuel regional sentiments and might threaten national integration
which was precarious in the backgound of Partition. Thus, the Dhar Commission
categorically rejected the basis of linguistic formation of states.

JVP Committee
• The Congress in its Jaipur Session in 1948, appointed a three member committee to
consider the recommendation of the Dhar Commission. Its members were Jawaharlal
Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel and Pattabhi Sitaramayya.
• The Committee rejected language as the basis for the reorganisation despite popular
it.
Support for

First Linguistic State

InOctober 1953, the Government of India was forced to create the First Linguistic State, known as
Andhra Pradesh, by separating the Telugu speaking area from Madras Presidency lafter the death of
Sriramulu, a Congress person).
Kurnool was the first capital of the Andhra State with High Court at Guntur.
238 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity

• In 1986.
Mizoram and Arunachal
Fazl Ali Commission Pradesh came into being.
After the creation of Andhra State, demand •
In 1987, Goa came into existence. In
for creation of states on linguistic basis
intensified and Fazl Ali Commission was 2000, three Imore new states
Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand and
constituted in December, 1953, (also Jharkhand were created.
known as States Reorganisation
Commission) accepted language as the On 2nd June, 2014, Telengana state
basis of reorganisations of state but rejected caine into existence, after
By reorganisation of Andhra Pradesh.
the theory of 'one-language-one state'.
the States Reorganisation Act (1956) and On 31st Oct, 2019, J&K States was
the 7th Constitutional Amendment Act, the bifurcated in two Union Territory, J&K

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distinction between states was abolished. and Ladakh.
Some of them were merged with adjacent • On 26 January, 2020 two UTs Daman
and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli

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state and some other were designated as
Union Territories. As a result 14 States got merged into single UT.
and 6 Union Territories were created on
lst November, 1956. Union Territories
• Jammu & Kashmir, Ladakh National
Reorganisation
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Capital Territory of Delhi, Puducherry,
of States Andaman and Nicobar are headed by the
•
In 1956, there were 14 states and 6 union Lieutenant Governor.
territories. Andhra Pradesh was created • Daman and Diu, Dadra and Nagar
in 1953 and Kerala in 1956. Haveli have a common administrator.
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• In 1956, Karnataka was created. From 26th of January, both the UTs have
• In 1960, Bombay was bifurcated into been merged into single UT named
Gujarat and Maharashtra. "Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman
• In 1963, Nagaland was created as and Diu'. Lakshadweep, Chandigarh are
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. separate state. also governed by an administrator.

In 1966, Haryana was carved out of J and K, Delhi and Puducherry have
Punjab and Chandigarh became a Union Legislative Assemblies. There are total
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Territory. Nine Union Territories-Delhi, Puducherry

• In 1970,
the Union Territory of Himachal Daman and Diu & Dadra and Nagra
Haveli, Chandigarh, Lakshadweep,
Pradesh was elevated to the status of a
state. Andaman and Nicobar Islands, J&K and
• In Ladakh.
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1971, Manipur, Tripura and

Meghalaya were granted statehood. In By the 69th Constitutional Amendment
1974, Sikkim became an associate state Act 1991, Delhi was given the status of
of the Indian Union. By the National Capital Territory of India. It
36th Constitutional Amendment Act could legislate in certain matters except
(1975), Sikkim became a full fledged land, Police and law and order.
State of the Indian Union.

THE PREAMBLE
• The Preamble means Introduction or Resolution drafted and moved by
Preface of the Constitution or essence of Pandit Nehru and adopted by the
the Constitution. NA Palkivala, an Constituent Assembly.
eminent jurist and Constitutional expert, The idea of Justice,Social, Economic and
called the Preamble as the identity card Political have been taken from the
of the Constitution. India followed the Russian Revolution (1917).
USA to include Preamble in the The idea of Liberty, Equality and
Constitution. The Preamble of the Indian Fraternity have been taken from the
Constitution is based on the Objectives French Revolution (1789-1799).
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity 239

• It contains the grand and noble vision of

Preamble of India
the Constituent Assembly.
We, the People of India, having solemnly
It reflects the dreams and aspirations of
to
resolved constitute India into a Sovereign,
Socialist Secular, Democratic, Republic the founding fathers of the
and secure to all its citizens. Constitution. It provides a key to the
Justice, Social, Economic and Political; understanding and interpretation of the
Liberty of
thought, expression, belief, faith Constitution.
and worship:
-Equality of status and of opportunity; and to Amendability of the Preamble
promote among them all; Whether, the Preamble can be amended
*
Fraternity assuring the dignity of the under Article 368 or not, this question

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individual and the unity and integrity of the arose for the first time in
Nation; Keshavananda Bharati Case (1973).
In this case Supreme Court held that

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In our Constituent Assembly on this
Preamble is the part of the Constitution
twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do hereby
and can be amended, subject to the
Adopt, Enact and Give to Ourselves this condition that no amendment is done to
Constitution. the basic features of the Constitution.
• The Preamble has been amended only
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Significance of the Preamble Once SO far, in 1976, by
. 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act,
The Preamble embodies the basic
philosophy and fundamental values like which added three new words Socialist,
political, moral and religious on which the Secular and Integrity. This
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Constitution is based. amendment was held to be valid.

UNION AND ITS TERRITORY

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• Articles 14 under Part-I of the (a) form a new state by separation from
Constitution deals with the Union and its any state or by uniting twO Or more
Territories. states or parts of states or by uniting
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•
Article 1, describes India, that is Bharat, any territory to a part of any state;
as a Union of States'. the Territory of (b) increase the area of any state;
India can be classified into three categories (c) diminish the area of any state;
1. Territories of the States. (d) alter the boundaries of any state;
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2. Union Territories. (e) alter the name of any state.

3. Territories that may be acquired by theA Bill seeking to create a new state or
Government of India at any time. alter boundaries of existing states can be
• The names of the States and UTs and introduced in either House of the
their territorial extent are mentioned in Parliament, only on the recommendation
the First Schedule of the Constitution. of the President.
• At present, there are 28
States and President has to refer the State
9 Union Territories. Reorganisation Bill to the State
• The Territory of India' is a wider Legislature concerned for expressing its
expression than the Union of India' opinion, within a specified period.
because the latter includes only states The State Reorganisation Bill requires
while the former includes not only states, simple majority in both Houses of the
but also UTs and territories that may be Parliament.
acquired by the Government of India at Parliament is not bound to accept or act
any future time. upon the views of the State Legislature
•
Article 2 empowers the Parliament to on a State Reorganisation Bill.
admit into the Union of India, or Article 4 provides that Bills under
establish, neV states on such terms and Articles 2 and 3 are not to be considered
conditions as it thinks fit. as Constitutional Amendment Bills
• Article 3 authorises the Parliament to under Article 368.
240 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity

CITIZENSHIP
.
The Indian Constitution deals with the By Naturalisation
citizenship from Articles 5-11 under Part It can be acquired by a foreigner, who has
resided in India for 12 years.
•Articles 5 to 8 deal that how a person
became citizen of India, after By Incorporation ofTerritory
Comencement of Constitution. (Foreign Territory)
•A citizen is a person, who enjoys full If any new territory becomes a part of
membership of the country in which he

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lives. Indian Constitution provides a single India, the Government of India specifies
the people of that territory to be citizens of
and uniform citizenship for the entire India. Such persons become the citizens

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country.
of India from the notified date.
Acquisition of Citizenship Loss of Citizenship
The Citizenship Act of 1955 provides for5 The Citizenship Act, 1955, also provides three
ways of acquiring citizenship as described modes
losing citizenship
of
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below
1. By Renunciation
By Birth Ifa person gives up his Indian citizenship.
Every person born in India on or after
26th January, 1950 but before lst Iuly. 2. By Termination
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1987 shall be a citizen of India by birth When an Indian citizen voluntarily

irrespective of the nationality of his acquires the citizenship of another
parents. cOuntry, his Indian citizenship
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• The children of foreign diplomats posted automatically terminates.

in India and enemy aliens cannot 3. Bu Deprivation
acquire Indian Citizenship.
Deprivation of citizenship by the
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By Descent Government of India on the basis of

Persons born outside India on or after acquisition of citizenship by fraud,
26th January, 1950, but before helping an enemy during a war or being
10th December, 1992 are citizens of India disloyal to the Constitution.
by descent if their father was citizen of Overseas Citizens of India (OCI)
a
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India at the time of their birth. .

Citizenship Act has been amended in
By Registration 2003, by which people of Indian origin of
16 specified countries except Pakistan
The Central Government may, on an
application, register as a citizen of India and Bangladesh, will become eligible to
any person, if he belongs to any of the be registered as the Overseas Citizens
following categories of India (0CI).
• 0Cls are entitled to some benefits like
• A person of
Indian origin, residing in multiple entry, multipurpose life long
India for 7 years.
visas, they can live and vvork in India or
•A person of Indian origin, who is their country ofnaturalisation.
ordinarily resident in any country or •
They are not entitled to hold
place outside undiided India.
constitutional posts and employment in
•A person, who is married to citizens of the government offices and they can't
India and resident of India for 7 years.
• Minor children of persons, who are vote.
• All Persons of Indian Origin (PIO)
citizen of India.
• A person of full age and capacity, whose cardholders are deemed to be Overseas
parents are registered as citizen of India. Citizens of India(OCI) cardholders with
effect from 9th January, 2015.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity 241)

The Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019

-
It amends the Citizenship Act, 1955.
The Amended Act provides that the Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parsis & Christians from
Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Pakistan, who entered India on or before 31st December, 2014 will
not be treated as illegal migrants and will be eligible for grant of citizenship.
It also reduces the period of naturalisation for such group of persons from 11 years to 5 years.

FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

e
.
Rights are claims of social life and equality before law is an elemnent of the
they help individuals to develop their concept of 'Rule of law'- propounded by AV

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personality. Some of the Fundamental Dicey, the British Jurist.
Rights provide protection only against The rule of equality before law is not absolute.
the state action and do not safeguard Sone of the exceptions are
against the action of private The President or the Governor is not
individuals. answerable to any court for the exercise and
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• The Fundamental Rights are gua performance of the powers and duties of his
ranteed and protected by the office.
Constitution to all persons without No criminal proceedings shall be instituted
any discrimination. or continued against the President or the
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• The Fundamental Rights have been Governor in any court during his term of
described in Articles 12-385, Part III office.
of Indian Constitution. No process for the arrest or imprisonment
• Originally, Fundamental Rights were of the President or the Governor shall be
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seven in number viz

issued from any court during his term of
Right to Equality. office.
-Right to Freedom. -
No civil proceedings against the President
or the Governor shall be instituted during
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Right against Exploitation.

to
Right Freedom of Religion. his term of office in any court in respect of
Cultural and Educational Rights. any act done by him in his personal capacity,
Right to Property. until the expiration of 2 mnonths next after
Right to Constitutional Remedies. notice delivered to him.
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Article 15 Prohibition of discrimination on

Right to Property certain grounds. It says that the state shall not
The Right to Property (Article 31) was discriminate against any citizen on grounds of
religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. This
deleted from the list of Fundamental
provision prohibits discrimination both by state
Rights by the 44th Amendment Act, 1978.
It is made a legal right under Article-300A
and private individuals.
in Part XIl of the Constitution. There are three exceptions to this general rule
of non-discriminations
• Any special provision for WOmen and
Right to Equality children.
(Article 14-18)
• Advancement of any socially, educationally
and economically backward classes of
Article 14 Equality befoe law and citizens.
egual protection laws. It says that the
of
Special socially,
state shall not deny to any person provisions for any
educationally and economically backward
equality before the law or equal classes, Scheduled Castes and the
protection of the laws within the
Scheduled Tribes regarding their admission
territory of India. This provision to educational institutions, including private
confers rights to all persons whether educational institutions.
citizens or foreigmers. The concept of
242 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity

Article 16 Equality of opportunity in office from or under any foreign state

public employment. It provides equality of without the consent of the President.
opportunity for all citizens in matters of 5. Bharat Ratna or Padma Vibhushan
employment or appointment to any office can't be used by the recipient as a title
under the state. and therefore doesn't comne within the
• It does not bound state for prescribing the
Constitutional Prohibition.
necessary qualification and recruitment
tests for government services, certain Right to Freedom
posts may be reserved for the resident of a (Articles
particular state.
19-22)
• It also provide for reservation of Article 19 It guarantees to all citizens the
These are
appointment or posts in favour of sX rights.

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backward classes along with reservation 1. Right to freedom of speech and
in promotion for Scs and Sts. expression.

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2. Right to assemble peacefully and
Mandal Commission without arms.
3. Right to form associations or unions
In 1979, the Morarji Desai Government or co-operatives.
appointed the Backward Classes Commission
4. Right to move freely throughout the
under the Chairmanship of BP Mandal,
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Member of Parliament, to investigate the territory of India.
conditions of the socially and educationally 5. Right to reside and settle in any part
backward classes and suggest measures for of the territory of India.
their advancement The commission 6. Right to practice any profession or to
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submitted its report in 1980 and recommended carry on any occupation, trade or
27% jobs reservation for Other Backward business.
Classes (08Cs). Originally; Article 19 contained seven
The advanced sections among the 0BCs (the rights. But, the right to acquire, hold
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Creamy Layer) should be excluded from the list and dispose of property was deleted by
of beneficiaries of reservation. the 44th Amendment Act of 1978.
• These 6 rights are protected against
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Article 17 Abolition of untouchability. It only state action and not private

abolishes untouchability and forbids its individuals.
practice in any form. Article 20 Protection in respect of
• The term 'untouchability' has not been conviction
for offences. It grants
defined either in the Constitution or in protection against arbitrary and excessive
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the Act (Protection of Civil Rights Act, punishment to an accused person,

1955) whether citizen or foreigner or legal
Article 18 Abolition oftitles. It abolishes person like a company or a corporation. It
titles and makes four provisions in that contains three provisions in that direction.
regard. 1. No Ex-Post-Facto Law No person
1. It prohibits the state from conferring shall be (i) convicted of any offence
any title (except a military or academic except for violation of a law in force at
distinction) on any body, whether a the time of the commission of the act,
citizen or a foreigner. (i) nor be subjected to a penalty
2. It prohibits a citizen of India from greater than that prescribed by the
accepting any title from any foreign law in force at the time of the
state. commission of the Act.
3. A foreigner holding any office of profit 2. No Double Jeopardy No person shall
or trust under the state, cannot accept be prosecuted and punished for the
any title from any foreign state without same offence more than once.
the consent of the President. 3. No Self-Incrimination No person
4. No citizen or foreigner holding any accused of any offence shall be
office of profit or trust under the state is compelled to be a witness against
to accept any present, emolument or himself.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity 243

Article 21 Protection of life and personal Article 22 Protection against arrest and
liberty. It declares that no person shall be detention
deprived of his life or personal liberty except • No person, who is arrested shall be
according to procedure established by law: detained in custody without being
This right is available to both citizens and informed of the grounds for such arrest
non-citizens. nor shall he be denied the right to
The Supreme Court has expanded the scope consult, and to be defended by a legal
of Right to Life in its various judgments and • practioner of his choice.
declared the following rights as part of Every person, who is arrested and
Article 21. detained in custody is to be produced
(a) Right to live with human dignity. before the nearest Magistrate within a
period of 24 hours of arrest excluding

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(b) Right to decent environment including
pollution free water and air and the time necessary for the journey from
protection against hazardous industies. the place of arrest to the court of the

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(c) Right to livelih0od. Magistrate and such person cannot be
detained in custody beyond that period
(d) Right to privacy.
to
without the authority of a Magistrate.
(e) Right shelter. • There are some exception against these
(f) Right to health. safeguards.
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(g) Right to free education upto 14 years of • It is not available to an enemy alien and
age. a person arrested or detained under a
(h) Right to free legal aid. law providing for preventive detention
(i) Right against solitary confinement. (detention of a person without trial),
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() Right to speedy trial.

• The preventive detention of a person
cannot exceed three months unless
(k) Right against handcuffing.
there is suficient cause for extension.
) Right against inhuman treatment.
Right Against Exploitation
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(m) Right against delayed execution.

(n) Right to travel abroad. (Articles 23-24)
(o) Right against bonded labour Article 23 Prohibition of
trafficin hunan
(p) Right against custodial harassment. beings and forced labour: It prohibits traffic
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(9) Right to emergency medical aid in human beings, 'Begar' (forced labour)
and other similar forms of forced labour.
(r) Right to timely medical treatment in
government hospital. Article 24 It prohibits the employment of
children below the age of 14 years in any
(s) Right not to be driven out of a state. factory, mine or other hazardous activities
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(t) Right fair trial. like construction work or railway. But, it

(u) Right of prisoner to have necessities of does not prohibit their employment in
life. any harmless or innocent work.
(v) Right of women to be treated with The Child Labours (Prohibition and
decency and dignity. Regulation) Act, 1986, is the most
(w) Right against public hanging. important law in this direction.
(x) Right to hearing. to
() Right information.
Right Freedom
(z) Right to reputation. of Religion (Articles 25-28)
Article 25 Freedomn of conscience and
to
Right Education Tight to freely profess, practice and
Article 21A declares that the state shall propagate religion. It says that all persons
provide free and compulsory education to all are equally entitled to freedom of
children of the age of 6 to 14 years in such a conscience and the right to freely profess,
manner as the state may determine. Thus. practice and propagate religion.
this provision makes only elementary The state is empowered by law to regulate
educaion a Fundamental Right and not or restrict any economic, financial,
higher or professional education (86th political or other secular activity which
Amendment Act, 2002). may be associated with religious practice.
244 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity

Article 26 Freedom to Manage Religious compensation amount fixed by the

Affairs Every religious denomination or state for the compulsory acqusition of
any of its section shall have the following a minority educational institution
rights shall not restrict or abrogate the right
(a) Right to establish and maintain guaranteed to them. This provision
was added by 44th Amendment Act of
institutions for religious and
charitable purposes; 1978 to protect the right of minorities
in this regard. The act deleted the
(b) Right to manage its Own affairs in Right to Property as a Fundamental
matters of religion; Right (Article 31).
(c) Right to acquire and own movable and •
The right under Article 30 also includes
immovable property; and the right of a minority to impart

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(d) Right to administer such property in education to its children in its own
accordance with law. language.

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Article 27 Freedom from taxation for Right to Constitutional
promotion ofa religion. It lays down that Remedies (Article 32)
no person shall be compelled to pay any
taxes for the promotion or maintenance of Dr BR Ambedkar said, Article 32 is the
ra heart and soul of the Constitution.
any particular religion religious
denomination. Supreme Court ruled that Article 32 is a
basic feature of the Constitution.
Article 28, Freedom from attending Hence, it cannot be abridged or taken
religious instruction. No religious away even by way of an amendment to
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instruction shall be provided in any the Constitution. Under Article 32,

educational institution wholly maintained Supreme Court and Article 226, High
out of state funds. However, this provision Court can issue writs of various forms in
shall not apply to an educational institution case of violation of Fundamental Rights:
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administered by the state but established Habeas Corpus It is a Latin term which
under any endowment or trust. literally means, to have the body of'. It is
an order issued by the court to a person
Cultural and Educational Rights who has detained another person, to
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(Articles 29-30) produce the body of the latter before it.

The court then examines the cause and
Article 29 Protection of interests of legality of detention. It would set the
minorities. It provides that any section of detained person free, if the detention is
the citizens residing in any part of India found to be illegal. This writ may be
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having a distinct language, script or culture addressed to an official or a private

of its own, shall have the right to conserve person, who has another person in his
the same. custody.
Further, no citizen shall be deried Mandamus It literally means ve
admission into any educational institution command'. It is a command issued by
maintained by the state or receiving aid out the court to a public official asking him
of state funds on grounds only of religion, to perform his offcial duties that he has
race, caste or language. failed or refused to perform. It can also
Article 30 Right of Minorities to Establish be issued against any public body, a
and Adninister Educational nstitutions : corporation, an inferior court, a tribunal
or government for the same purpose.
Grants the following rights to minorities,
Quo-warranto In the literal sense, it
whether eligious or linguistic means by what authority or warrant". It
(a) All minorities shall have the right to is issued to enquire into the legality of
establish and administer educational claim of a person to a public office.
institutions of their choice. Hence, it prevents illegal usurpation of
(b) In granting aid, the state shall not public office by a person. The writ can be
discriminate against any educational issued only in case of a substantive
institution managed by a minority. The public office of a permanent character
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity 245)

created by a statute or by the Constitution. It cannot be issued in cases of ministerial

office or private office.
•
Prohibition Literally means 'to forbid'. It is issued by a higher court to a lower court or
tribunal to prevent the latter from exceeding its jurisdiction or usurping a jurisdiction
that, it does not possess.
Thus, unlike mandamus that directs activity, the prohibition directs inactivity. The writ
of prohibition can be issued only against judicial and Quasi- Judicial authorities. It is
not available against Administrative Authorities, Legislative Bodies and private
individuals or bodies.
•
Certiorari In the literal sense, it means, 'to be certified' or 'to be informed'. It is issued
by a higher court to a lower court or tribunal either to transfer a case pending with the
latter to itself or to squash the order of the latter in a case. It is issued on the grounds of

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excess of jurisdiction or lack of jurisdiction or error of law. Thus, unlike prohibition,
which is only preventive, certiorari is both preventive as well as curative.

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Limitations on the Enforcement of Fundamental Rights
• Parliament has the power to modify the application of the Fundamental Rights to the
members of the Armed Forces, Police l'orces or Intelligence Organisations so as to
ensure proper discharge of their duties and maintenance of discipline among them
ra
(Article 33).
• Certain Fundanental Rights guaranteed by the Constitution may remain suspended,
while a Proclamation of Emergency is made by the President under Article 352.
•
Article 34 Restriction on Rights conferred by this Part while martial law is in force in
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any area.
•
Article 35 Legislation, to give effect to the provisions of this part.
Fundamental Rights to Citizens and Foreigners
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Fundarmental Rights available only to oitizens Fundamental Rights available to

and not to foreigners both citizens and foreigners
(except enerny aliens)
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1. Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, Equality before law and equal

race, sex or place of birth (Article 15). protection of laws (Article 14).
2
Equality of opportunity in matters of public Protection in respect of conviction for
employment (Article f6). offences (Article 20).
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3. Protection of six rights regarding freedom of Prolection of life and personal liberty
() speech and expression, () assembly, (Article 21).
(ii) association,
(iv) movement, (v) residence, and (vi) profession
(Article 19).

4. Protection of language, script and culture of Right to elementary education (Article

minorities (Article 29). 21 A).

5 Right of minorities to establish and administer Protection against arrest and

educational inslitutions (Article 30). detention in ceriain cases (Article 22).
Prohibition of traffic of human beings
and forced labour (Article 23)
Prohibition of employment of children
in factories etc. (Article 24)

Freedom of oonscience and free

profession, practice and propagation
of religion (Article 25)

Freedom to manage religious affairs

(Article 26)
246) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity

Fundamental Rights available only to citizens Fundarmental Rights available to

and not to foreigners both citizens and foreigners
(except enermy aliens)
Freedom from payment of taxes for
promolion of any religion (Article 27)
Freedom from attending religious
instruction or worship in certain
educational institutions (Article 28)

DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES

e
OF STATE POLICY

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• The Directive Principles of State Policy are Socialistic Principles
enumerated in Part IV of the Constitution These principles reflect the ideology of
from Articles 36 to 51. socialism. They lay down the frame
ra
• Dr BR Ambedkar, described these principles work of a democratic socialist state,
as novel feature of the Constitution. aim at providing social and economic
.
The DPSP alongwith Fundamental Rights justice and set the path towards welfare
contain the philosophy of the Constitution state.
nt

•
and is the soul of the Constitution. Article 38 To promote the welfare of
the people by securing a social order
Features permeated by justice-social,
•
These are constitutional instructions to the economic and political and to
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state in legislative, executive and minimise inequalities in income,

administrative natters. status, facilities and opportunities.
• It resembles the 'Instrument of Instructions' Article 39 To secure (a) the right to
adequate means of livelihood for all
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enumerated in the Government of India Act

of 1935. citizens; (b) the equitable
• They constitutes the comprehensive distribution of material resources of
economic, social and political programme for the community for the common
a modern state. good; (c) prevention of concentration
. of wealth and means of production;
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They promote social and economic (d) equal pay for equal work for men
democracy. They embody the concept of a
and women; (e)preservation of the
wellare state' health and strength of workers and
•
These are fundamental in the governance of children against forcible abuse; and
the coUntry. () opportunities for healthy
• They are non-justiciable. development of children.
• They apply to both Union and State •
Article 39 (A) To promote equal
Governments and all other authorities justice and to provide free legal aid to
coming under the deinition of 'State'. the poor.
Classification
•
Article 41 To secure the right to
wOrk, education and to public
• The Constitution does not contain any assistance in cases of
classification of directive principles. unemployment, old age, sickness
However, on the basis of their content and and disablement.
direction, they can be classified into three Article 42 To malke provision for
broad categories, viz socialistic, Gandhian just and humane conditions for work
and liberal-intellectual. and maternity relief.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity 247)

•
Article 43 secure a living wage, a decent Liberal-Intellectual
To
standard of life and social and cultural Principles
opportunities for all workers.
•
Article 43 (A) To take steps to secure the 1he principles included in this
participation of workers in the management category represent the ideology of
of industries. liberalism.
• To
Article 47 raise the level of nutrition and Article 44 To secure for all
the standard of living of people and to citizens a uniform civil code
improve public health. throughout the country.
•
Article 45 To provide early
Gandhian Principles childhood care and education for all

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These principles are based on Gandhian children untilthey complete the age
ideology. They represent the programme of of 6 years.
Article 48 To organise agriculture

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reconstruction enunciated by Gandhi during
the National Movement. In order to fulfil the and animal husbandry on modern
dreams of Gandhi, some of his ideas were and scientific lines.
included as Directive Principles. Article 48 (A) To protect and
• Article 40 To organise Village Panchayat to
improve the environment and to
function as units of self government.
ra safeguard forests and wildlife.
•
Article 43 To promote cottage industries on Article 49 To protect objects,
an individual or co-operation basis in rural places and monuments of historic
areas. interest and national importance.
• Article 46 To promote the educational and
Article 50 To separate the
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economic interests of SCs, STs and other judiciary from the executive in the
weaker sections theof society and to protect public services of the state.
them from social injustice and exploitation. Article 51 To promote
•
Article 47 To prohibit the consumption of international peace and security
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intoxicating drinks and drugs which are and to maintain just and honourable
to
injurious health. relations between nations; to foster
respect for international law and
•
Article 48 To prohibit the slaughter of cows,
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treaty obligations and to encourage

calves and other milch and draught cattle and
to improve their breeds. settlement of international disputes
by arbitration.

Distinction between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles

@

Fundarmental Rights Directive Principles

These are negative as they prohibit These are positive as they require the state to do certain
the state from doing certain things. things.
These are justiciable, i.e. they are These are non-justiciable, i.e. they are not legally
legally enforceable by the cOurts in enforceable by the courts for their violation.
case of their violation.
They aim at establishing political They aim at eslablishing social and economic dernooracy
democracy in the cOuntry. in the cOuntry.

These have legal sanctions. These have moral and political sanctions.
They promote the welfare of the They promote the welfare of the community. Hence, they
individual. Hence, they are are societarian and socialistic.
personal and individualistic.
The courts are bound to declare a The courts cannot declare a law violative of any of the
law violative of any of the Directive Principles as unconstitutional and invalid.
Fundamental Rights as However, they can uphold the validity of a law on the
unconstitutional and invalid. ground that it was enacted to give effect to a direcive.
248) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity

New Directive Principles Directives Outside Part IV

• Article 39A To provide free legal aid to the • Apart from the directives included in
poor (42nd Amendment Act, 1976). part IV, there are some other
•
Article 39(1) To secure opportunities for Directives contained in other parts of
healthy development of children (42nd the Constitution.
Amendment Act, 1976). Claims of members of Scheduled
•
Article 43A To take steps to secure the Castes and Scheuled Tribes will be
participation of workers in the management taken into consideration, consistent
of industries. (42nd Amendment Act, 1976). with the maintenance of efficiency in
. administration, in the appointment
Article 43 B To promote professionally run
co-operative societies added by the 97h to Public Services. (Article 335).

e
Constitutional Amendment Act, 2011. It is the duty of every state and local
•
Article 48 A To protect and improve the authority to provide adequate

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facilities for instruction in the
environment and to safeguard forests and
wild life. (42nd Amendment Act, 1976) mother tongue at the primary
stage of education to children
•
Article 38(2) It added one more Directive belonging to minority classes (Article
Principle, which requires the state to
350 A).
minimise inequalities in income status,
ra
It shall be the duty of the Union to
facilities and opportunities under
Article 38. (44th Amendment Act, 1978) promote Hindi language amongst the
people of India, so that it may serve
•
Article 45 To provide early childhood care as a medium of expression for all the
and education for all children they complete
elements of the composite culture of
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the age of 6 years (The 86th Amendment

Act, 2002) India (Article 351 in part XVII).
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FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES
.
The Fundamental Duties in the (b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals
jm

Constitution serve as a reminder to the that inspired the national struggle for
citizens that while enjoying their rights, freedom;
they should also be conscious of their (c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty,
duties towards the country. We have unity and integrity of India;
borrowed Fundamental Duties from the
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(d) to promote harmony and the spirit of

Constitution of former Soviet Union. common brotherhood amongst all
• Originally, Constitution did not contain the people of India transcending
Fundamnental Duties. In 1976, the FDs of religious, linguistic and regional or
citizens were added by 42nd sectional diversities and to renounce
Constitutional Amendment Act (1976) practices derogatory to the dignity of
on the recommendations of Swaran women;
Singh Committee. Originally, ten FDs (e) to defend the country and render
were added. In 2002, one more duty was national service, when called upon to
added. Thus, today there are 11 do so;
Fundamental Duties. () to value and preserve the rich heritage of
the country's composite culture;
List of Fundamental Duties (g) to protect and improve the natural
According to Article 51 A, it shall be the environment including forests, lakes,
duty of every citizen of India rivers and wildlife and to have
(a) to abide by the Constitution and compassion for living creatures;
respect its ideals and institutions, the (h) to develop scientific temper,
National Flag and the National humanism and the spirit of inquiry
Anthem; and reform;
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity 249)

() to safeguard public property and Justice Verma Committee and

to objure violence.
(i) to strive towards excellence in all
Fundamental Duties
spheres of individual and Justice Verma Committee report on teaching
collective activity so that the Fundamental Duties to citizens was set-up in
nation constantly rises to higher 1999 and the report was presented in 2000. It
levels of endeavour and recommended reorienting approaches to
achievernment. school curriculum and teacher's education
(k) to provide opportunities for
programmes and incorporating Fundamental
education to his child or ward Duties in higher and professional education.
between the age of six and 14 National Commission to Review the
years./ This duty was added by the Working of the Constitution (NCRWC)

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86th Constitutional Amendment report in 2002 recommended to implement
Act, 2002. the Justice Verma Committee

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recommendations.

UNION EXECTIVE
ra
Article 52 to 78 in Part V of the Election of the President
Cornstitution deal with the Union (Article 54)
Executive. The Union Executive
consists of the President, the Vice The President is elected not directly by the
nt

President, the Prime Minister. the people but by members of electoral college
Council of Ministers and the Attornev coinsisting of
General of India. 1. the elected members of both the Houses
of Parliament;
ie

PRESIDENT 2. the elected Members of the Legislative

Assemblies of the states;
Article 52 provides the office of the 3. the elected Members of the Legislative
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President of India. The President is the Assemblies of the Union Territories of

head of the Indian State. He is the first Delhi, Puducherry & Jammu and
citizen of India and acts as the symbol Kashmir.
of unity integrity and solidarity of the • Thus, the nominated members do not
nation. participate in the election of the President.
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• When Assembly is dissolved, the menmbers

Qualification of the cease to be qualified to vote in the
President presidential election.
Under Article 58, a person to be eligible • Value of the vote of an MLA
for election as President should fulfil the Total Population of State
following qualifications Total Number of Elected MLAs 1000
• He should be a citizen of India. He
• Value of the vote of an MP
should have completed 35 years of
age. Total Value of Votes of
• He should be qualified for election as all MLAs of All States
a member of the Lok Sabha. Total Number of Elected MPs
• He should not hold any office of prolit
or any The President's election is held in accordance
under the Union Government any local with the system of proportional representation
State Government or
by means of the single transferable vote and
authority or any other public authority.
the voting is through secret ballot.
250 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity
• The candidate who gets 50% of votes is Conditions of President's
considered elected. Office
= Number of Votes Polled
Quota +1 Article 59 of the Constitution lays down
2 the following condition of the President's
In this method, each voter casts as many office
votes as there are candidates in the field by • He
should not be a member of either
giving his preference. In the first phase, House of Parliament or a House of the
first preference votes are counted. In case State Legislature. If any such person is
a candidate secures the required quota, he
elected as President, he is deemed to
declared elected, otherwise the process
have vacated his seat in that House on
of transfer of votes is set in motion. the date on which he enters upon his
.

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This process continues till a candidate office as the President.
secures the required quota. This procedure He should not hold any other office of
shows the majority of the elected

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profit. He is entitled, without payment
President. All disputes regarding election of rent, to the use of his official
of the President are adjudicated by the residence (the Rastrapati Bhavan).
Supreme Court. • He is entitled to such emoluments,
• Nomination for election of President must
allowances and privileges as may be
ra
be supported by at least 50 electors as determined by Parliament.
proposers and 50 electors as seconders. • His
• Security deposit for the nomination as emoluments and allowances
cannot be diminished during his term
President is 15000 in RBI. of office.
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Article 60 Oath and affirmation of the President

.
The oath of the President is administered by Chief Justice of Inia and in his absence,
the senior most Judge of the Supreme Court.
• Any person acting as
the President also undertake similar oath.
ie

Presidents of India
Tenure Important Facts
Narme
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From To
Dr Rajendra Prasad 26.01.1950 13.05.1962 First President and also had the
longest tenure (12 years)
Dr S Radhakrishnan 13.05.1962 13.05.1967 Was also first Vice-President of India
Dr Zakir Hussain Shortest tenure; First Muslim President;
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13.05.1967 03.05.1969
First President to die in office
VVGiri 03.05.1969 20.07.1969 First acting President of India
Justice M Hidayat-ul-lah 20.07.1969 24-08.1969 Was also the Chief Justice of India
and second Acting President
VV Giri 24.08.1969 24.08.1974
F Ali
Ahmed 24.08.1974 11.02.1977 Died in office
BD Jatti 11.02.1977 25.07.1977 Acting Presidernt
N Sanjeeva Reddy 25.07.1977 25.07.1982 Youngest President (64 years)
Giani Zail Singh 25.07.1982 25.07.1987 First Sikh President
R Venkataraman 25.07.1987 25.07.1992 Oldest President (76 years)
Dr SD Sharma 25.07.1992 25.07.1997
KR Narayanan 25.07.1997 25.07.2002 First Dalit President
Dr APJ Abdul Kalam 25.07.2002 25.07.2007 First scientist to become President
Mrs Pratibha Patil 25.07.2007 25.07.2012 First woman to become President
Pranab Mukherjee 25.07.2012 25.07.2017
Rarmnath Kovind 25.07.2017 25.07.2022
Droupadi Murmu 25.07.2022 Till date First Tribal President
* As on 1st January, 2023
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity 251

Term of the President date of the occurrence of such a vacancy.

The newly-elected President remains in
Under Article 56, the President shall hold office for a full term of 5 years from the
office for a term of 5 years from the date
on which he enters upon his office. date he assumes charge of his office.
• He may resign from his office by wvriting
Quick Digest
under his hand addressed to the In Presidential Election, VV Giri is the only
Vice-President. person, who won the election of the President
as an independent candidate in 1969.
Impeachment of the In July 1977, Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy was
President elected unopposed as no one else filled

e
Under Article 61, President can be nomination for the post of the President
impeached from office for "violation of Justice M Hidayat-ul-lah is the only person
the Constitution'".

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to perform the function of the President two
• The impeachment can be initiated by times in two different capacities, the first time
either House of the Parliament. in 1969, being the Chief Justice of the Supreme
• Court and the second time being the
These charges should be signed by
one-fourth members of the House (that Vice-President of India in 1982.
ra
framed the charges), and a 14 days
advance notice should be given to the Powers and Functions of the
President. After the impeachment
motion is passed by a majority of President
two-thirds of the total membership of Powers and functions of the President can be
nt

that House, it is sent to the other House. Categorised into

. Legislative powers
which should investigate the charges. Executive powers
• The President has the right to appear Financial powers Judicial powers
and to be represented at such powers • Military powers
. Diplomatic powers
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investigation. If the other House also Emergency

sustains the charges and passes the
motion by a majority of two-thirds of the Executive Powers
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total membership, the President to be The Executive Powers and functions of the
removed from his office at that time President are
and date. All executive actions of the Government
of India are formally taken in the name of
Vacancy in the President's President.
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• He can make rules specifying the manner

Office which the orders and other
•
Under Article 62 a vacancy in the instruments made and executed in
President's office can occur in any of his/her name shall be authenticated.
the following ways • He appoints Prime Minister, other
• On
the expiry of his tenure of 5 years, Ministers, Chief Justice and Judges of
by his resignation. Supreme Court, High Courts, the
Attorney-General of India, the Comptroller
• On his removal by
the process of
impeachment, by his death. and Auditor General, Chairman and
• When
Members of UPSC, Chief Election
he becomes disqualified to hold Commissioner and other Members of
office or when his election is declared Election Commission, Governors, Members
Void. of Finance Commission etc.
• An election to fill the vacancy (due to . He can
seek any information relating to
expiration of term) must be held before the administration of affairs of the union,
the expiry of the term. and proposals for legislation from the
•
If the office fall vacant by resignation, . Prime Minister.
removal, death or otherwise, then He can appoint commission to
election to fill the vacancy should be investigate into the conditions of SCs, STs
completed within 6 months from the and other backward classes.
252 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity

• He can appoint an inter-state council to • He can promulgate ordinances, when

promote centre-state and inter-state the Parliament is not in session. The
cooperation. ordinances must be approved by the
• He directly administers the Union Parliament within 6 weeks from its
Territories through administers appointed reassembly. He can also withdraw an
by him. ordinance at any time (Article 123).
•
• He can declare any area as scheduled area He lays the reports of CAG, UPSC,
and has powers with respect to the Finance Commission etc before the
administration of scheduled areas and Parliament.
tribal areas.
Various Pardoning Powers

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Legislative Powers of the President (Article 72)
•
Summon or prorogue the Parliament and Pardon It removes both the sentences

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to dissolve the Lok Sabha. and the convictions and completely
• Summon a joint sitting of both the Houses absolves the offender from all
of Parliament, which is headed by the punishments and disqualifications.
Speaker of the Lok Sabha. Reprieve It means a stay of execution
• Address the Parliament at the of sentence pending a proceeding for
ra
commencement of the frst session after pardon or commutation.
each general election and the first session Remission The power of remission
of each year. reduces the amount of sentence without
• He can appoint any member of the Lok changing its character e.g. a sentence of
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rigorous imprisonment for 2 years may be

Sabha to preside over its proceedings when
the offices of both the Speaker and the remitted to rigorous imprisonment for 1
Deputy Speaker fall vacant. Similarly, he year.
can also appoint any member of the Rajya Respite The power to grant respite
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Sabha to preside over its proceedings when means awarding a lesser sentence instead
the offices of both the Chairman and the of the prescribed penalty in view of some
Deputy Chairman fall vacant. special facts e.g. pregnancy of woman
• offender.
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Nominates 12 Members in Rajya Sabha

(from amongst person, who have special Commutation It merely substitutes
knowledge in respect of Literature, one form of the punishment for another of
a lighter character. e.g. a death sentence
Science, Art and Social service) and 2
may be Commuted to rigorous
Members of Anglo-Indian Community in
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imprisonment.
the Lok Sabha.
• He decides the questions On
disqualifications of Members of the
Financial Powers
Parliament, with consultation to the
Election Commission. The financial powers and functions of
the President are
• His prior recommendation or permission is . Money Bills can
be introduced in the
needed to introduce certain types of bills in Parliament only with his prior
the Parliament, e.g. Money Bill,
new recommendation.
creation/recreation of States Bill.
a
When bill is sent to the President after it
• No demand for a grant can be made
has been passed by the Parliament, he can except on his recommendation.
. He cause to
give his assent to the bill or be laid before the
withhold his assent to the bill or Parliament the annual financial
return the bill (if it is not a Money Bill) for statement (i.e. Union Budget).
reconsideration of the Parliament. • He can make advance out of the
However, if the bill is passed again by the Contingency Fund of India to meet any
Parliament, with or without amendments, unforeseen expenditure.
the President has to give his assent to the
bill.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity 253

• He constitutes a Finance Commission Veto Powe

after every five years to recommend the
distribution of revenues between the Centre President of India vested with three
veto Absolute, Suspensive and Pocket
and the States.
veto. There is no qualified veto in the
Judicial Powers case of President of India.
• He appoints the Chief Justice and the Types of Veto
Judges of Supreme Court and High
Courts. Absolute Veto Withholding of assent
• He can seek advice Îrom the Supreme to the bill passed by the Legislature
Court on any question of law or fact. Qualified Veto Sending back of a bill,

e
However, the advice tendered by the which can be over-rided by the Legislature
Supreme Court is not binding on the with a higher majorty.

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President (Article 143). Suspensive Veto Sending back of a bill,
which can be over-sided by the Legislature
Diplomatic Powers with an ordinary majority.
• The international treaties and agreements Pocket Veto Taking no action on the bill
are negotiated and concluded on behalf of passed by the Legislature.It was used in
ra
the President. 1986 in the postal bill by the President of that
• Sends and receives diplomats like time Giani Zail Singh.
Ambassadors, High Commissioners, and
SO On.
POSITION OF INDIAN
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Military Powers PRESIDENT

• Supreme Commander of the defence
forces of India. Appoints the Chiefs of the The Constitution of India has provided for
a Parliamentary form of Government, and
ie

Army, the Navy and the Air Force.

been made only a
Declares war or concludes peace. subiect he President has
to the approval of the Parliament. nominal executive, the real executive
being the Councilof Ministers headed by
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the Prine Minister.

Emergency Powers
The President of India can proclaim
emergency in three conditions after getting VICE-PRESIDENT
the written recommendation of the Cabinet.
Article 63 There shall be a Vice
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National Emergency (Article 352) arising

out of war, external aggression or armed President of India. He occupies the
rebellion within the country. second highest office in the country.
The manner of election for Vice
Constitutional Emergency (Article 356) President and President is same.
arising Out of the failure of the constitutional
machinery in the states. It is also known as Electoral college of Vice-President
President's Rule. consists of elected and nominated
members of both the Houses of
Financial Emergency (Article 360)
arising out of a threat to financial stability or
Parliament.
Credit of India. All disputes regarding election of
Vice-President is adjudicated by the
Declaration of National Emergency Supreme Court.
First emergency was declared in 1962, due to
Chinese Aggression. Qualifications
Second emergency was declared in 1971, due Vise-President should be a citizen of
to Indo-Pakistan War. India.
Third emergency was declared in 1975, on • He should have completed 35 years of
grounds of internal disturbance. age.
254 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity

• He should be qualified for election as • Emoluments He draws his salary in his

a Member of Rajya Sabha. capacity as the Ex-officio Chairman of
• He should not hold any office of profit. Rajya Sabha. His present salary is 125000
per month.
Oath • He as Vice-President draws the salary of
Under Article 69, the oath of office of 7 4,00,000 per month.
the Vice-President is administered by
the President or some person appointed POWERS AND
in that behalf by him.
FUNCTIONS
Conditions of Office • He acts as the ex-officio Chairman of Rajva

e
• He should not be a member of either Sabha. In this capacity his powers and
House of the Parliament or State functions are similar to those of the

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Legislature. Speaker of Lok Sabha.
• He should not hold any office of profit. He acts as President when a vacancy occurs
in the office of the President due to his
Term ofOffice resignation, removal, death or otherwise.
• He can resign from his office at any • He can act as President only for a
ra
time by addressing the resignation maximum period of 6 months.
to
letter the President. • While acting as President or discharging
• He holds office for a term of 5 years the functions of President, the
from the date on which he enters Vice-President does not perform the duties
nt

upon his office. of the office of Chairman of Rajya Sabha,

. those duties are performed by the Deputy
He can be removed by resolution of
a
the Rajya Sabha passed by an absolute Chairman of Rajya Sabha.
majority and agreed by the Lok Sabha. • If the offices of both the President and the
ie

JArticle 67(b)] Vice-President fall vacant by reason of

• He can be elected for any
number of death, resignation, removal etc., the Chief
terms. Justice of India or in his absence the senior
most judge of the Supreme Court acts as
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Vacancy in Office President.

• A
vacancy in the Vice-President's For the first time in 1969, when
office can 0ccur in any of the the President Dr Zakir Hussain died and
following ways the Vice-President VV Giri resigned, the
@

• On the expiry of his tenure, by his Chief Justice M Hidayat-ul-lah acted as

resignation, on his removal, by his President.
death.
• When
the vacancy is going to be Quick Digest
caused by the expiration of the term Krishna Kant was the first Vice-President to
of the sitting Vice-President, an die in office.
election to fill the vacancy must be When twNO Presidents, Dr Zakir Hussain and
held before the expiration of the term. Fakruddin Ali Ahmed, died in office, the then
If the office falls vacant by respective Vice-Presidents, VV Giri and BD Jatti
resignation, removal, death
acted as President.
otherwise, then election to ill the
vacancy should be held as soon as The Vice-President Dr S Radhakrishnan
possible after the occurrence of the discharged the functions of the President in June
vacancy. 1960, when the then President Dr Rajendra
• The newly elected Vice-President Prasad was on a 15 days tour to the USSR and
remains in offce for a full term of again in July 1961, when Dr Rajendra Prasad
5 years from the date he assumes was very ill.
charge of his office.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity 255

List of Vice-Presidents
Narme Tenure Notes
Dr S
Radhakrishnan 1952 to 1962 1st Vice-President; had the longest
tenure (10 years, elected iwioe)
Dr
Zair Hussain 1962 to 1967
VVGiri 1967 to 1969 Shortest tenure so far (2 years)
GS Pathak 1969 to 1974
BD Jatti 1974 to 1979
Justioe M Hidayat-ul-lah 1979 to 1984
Venakataraman
R
1984 to 1987
Dr
SD Sharma 1987 to 1992

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KR Narayanan 1992 to 1997
Krishan Kant 1997 to 2002 Died in office

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-Bhairon Singh Shekhawat 2002 to 2007
Mohammad Hamid Ansari 2007 to 2017
Venkaiah Naidu 2017 to 2022
Jagdeep Dhankhar 2022 to ill dale
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* As on 1st January, 2023

PRIMEMINISTER Power and Functions

powers and
• In the schemne of Parliamentary FTne Minister has following
nt

system of government, the President functions

is the nominal executive authority In Relation to Council
(dejure executive) and Prime of Ministers (CoMs)
Minister is the real executive
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authority (de facto executive). The Prime Minister enjoys the following power
• as Head of Councl of Ministers. He allocates
Prime Minister is the Head of the among the
Government while President is he and reshufles various portfolios
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ministers.
Head of the State. Article 75 says
that the Prime Minister shall be He can ask a minister to resign or advise the
appointed by the President. President to dismiss him in case of difference in
opinion.
Oath, Term and Salary He presides over the meeting of Council of
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• Ministers and influences their decisions.

President administers to him the • He
oaths of office and secrecy. guides, directs, controls, and
• coordinates the activities of all the ministers.
The term of the Prime Minister is • He can bring about
not fixed and he holds office during the collapse of the
the pleasure of the President. Council of Ministers by resigning from office.
However, this does not mean that When Prime Minister resigns or dies, the
the President can dismiss the Prime CoMs and other ministers cannot function
Minister at any ime. because Prime Minister is the head of the
So, long as the Prime Minister CoMs.
enjoys the majority support in the His resignation or death automatically
Lok Sabha, he cannot be dismissed dissolves the CoMs.
by the President. However,
if he Tn BRelation to
loses the confidence of the Lok the President
Sabha, he must resign or the Under Article 78, it is the duty of the Prime
President can dismiss him. Minister :

• The salary and allowances of To communicate to the President, for all

the Prime Minister are determined decisions of the Council of Ministers relating
by the Parliament from time to time. to the administration of the affairs of the
Union and proposals for legislation;
256 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity

Prime Ministers of India

Narme Tenure Note
Frorm To
Pandit Jawaharlal 15.08.1947 27.05.1964 First Prime Minister of India, died in office;
Nehru also had the longest tenure (17 years)
Gulzari Lal Nanda 27.05.1964 09.06.1964 First acting Prime Minister
Lal Bahadur Shastri 09.06.1964 11.01.1966 Only Prime Minister to die abroad during an
official tour
Gulzari Lal Nanda 11.01.1966 24.01.1966 First to becorme acting Prime Minister ivwice
Indira Gandhi 24.01.1966 24.03.1977 First worman Prime Minister of India; First

e
Prime Minister to lose an election, first Rajya
Sabha Mernber became PM

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Morarji Desai 24.03.1977 28.07.1979 Oldest Prime Minister (81 years) and the first
to resign from office, first M to become PM
Charan Singh 28.07.1979 14.01.1980 Only Prime Minister, who did not face the
Parlíiament
Indira Gandhi 14.01.1980 31.10.1984 First Prime Minister to be assassinated
-Rajiv Gandhi
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31.10.1984 01.12.1989 Youngest Prirme Mirister (40 years)
VP Singh 21.12.1989 10.11.1990 First Prime Minister to step down after vote
of no-confidence
Chandra Shekhar 10.01.1990 21.06.1991
PVNarsimha Rao 21.06.1991
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16.05.1996 First Prime Minister frorn Southern India

Atal Bihari Vajpayee 16.05.1996 01.06.1996 Shortest tenure of a Prime Minister
HD Deve Gowda 01.06.1996 21.04.1997
IK Gujral 21.04.1997 19.03.1998
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Atal Bihari Vajpayee 19.03.1998 13.10.1999

Atal Bihari Vajpayee 13.10.1999 22.05.2004
Dr
Manmohan 22.05.2004 25.05.2014 First Sikh Prime Minister, Longest tenure after
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Singh Jawahar Lal Nehru

Narendra Modi 26.5.2014 Tilldate First PM born after independence and also
served as CM.

• To furnish such information

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relating to the administration of UNION COUNCIL OF

the affairs of the Union and
proposals for legislation as the
MNISTERS
President may call for and Appointment of Ministers
• If the President requires, to on
submit for the consideration of Miisters are appointed by the President the
advice of the Prime Minister. It means only
the Council of Ministers any those persons can be appointed who are
matter on which a decision has recommnended by Prime Minister.
been taken by a minister but to
which has not been considered by• The Prime Minister and other Ministers have
the council. be members of either House of Parliament or
• should become members within 6 months of their
He advices the President ith
respect to the appointment of appointment, failing, which they are removed.
officials like CAG, Attorney- Oaths and Salary
General of India, Chairman
of
Ministers
and members of IPSC President administers the oath to the minister.
Election Commission, Finance Salaries and allowances of ministers are
Commission etc. determined by the Parliament from time to time.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Polity 257

Responsibility of Ministers UNION LEGISLATURE

• Collective Responsibility Under Article The Constitution of India provides a
75, the CoMs is collectively responsible to Parliamentary form of government, both
Lok Sabha. It means the Lok Sabha at the centre and in the states.
remove the Council of Ministers from The Parliament of India consists of the
office by passing a No-confidence Motion. President, the Lok Sabha and the Rajya
• It is a team and its member sink and Sabha (Article 79).
swim together (Article 75). • Although President is not a member of
• No Legal Responsibility There is no either House. He is an integral part of
provisions in the Constitution for a Parliament.
system of legal responsibility of a .

e
Out of 9 UTs, only three (J&K, Delhi and
minister in India. While in Britain, there Puducherry) have representation in the
is legal responsibility of a minister. Rajya Sabha.

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•
The population of other five are to0 small
Types of Minister to have any representative in the Rajya
There are three types of Ministers Sabha.
.
Cabinet Ministers They are the real
Rajya Sabha (Article 80)
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policy makers. The Cabinet's consent is
necessary for all important matters. Rajya Sabha is a permanent body and not
•
Ministers of State They can hold either subject to dissolution. Its maximum
independent charge or attached to a strength is 250 (out of which 238 are
nt

Cabinet Minister. representatives of States and UTs and 12

are nominated by the President).
•
Deputy Ministers They do not hold
separate charge. There is another The total membership of the Rajya Sabha
category of Ministers called at present is 245. Out of which 233
Parliamentary Secretaries. However. no members represent the States and Union
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12 members are nominated

Parliamentary Secretary has been lerritories and
appointed since 1967. by the President. However, one-third
members retire every second year. Their
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seats are filled up by fresh elections and

DEPUTY PRIME presidential nomination at the beginning of
MINISTER every third year.
• There are no seats reserved for SCs and
• The post of Deputy Prime Minister is not
STs in Rajya Sabha.
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mentioned in the Constitution, It is an

extra constitutional body. Although Constitution has not fixed the term of
seven persons have occupied this post office of members of the Rajya Sabha
the inauguration and left it to the Parliament and hence
since of the
Constitution. Representation of People Act (1951)
• The Deputy Prime Minister occupies provided the term of office of a member
of the Rajya Sabha shall be 6 years.
position next to the Prime Minister.
Narne Tenure Lok Sabha
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel 1947-1950 Lok Sabha is the lower house of the
Morarji Desai Parliament. Its maximum strength is 552,
1967-1969
which includes 2 nominated members of
Charan Singh and 1977-1979 Anglo-Indian Community, 530 members
Jagjivan Ram (jointly) from states and 20 from Union Territories.
YB Chavan 1979-1980 Present strength of Lok Sabha is 545. Of
Devi Lal 1989-1990 these, 530 members represent the States,
13 members represent the Union
Devi Lal 1990-1991 Territories and 2 Anglo-Indian members
LK Advani 2002-2004 are nominated by the President.
258) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity

• Its normal term is 5 years from the Union Territories

date of its first meeting after the 1. J
and K 4 5
general elections. after wvhich it
2 Ladakh 1

automatically dissolves.
. 3. Andaman and
The President is authorised to dissolve Nicobar lsland
Lok Sabha at any time even before the 4
Chandigarh 1

completion of five years and this 5. Dadra and 2

cannot be challenged in the Court of Nagar Haveli &
Law. Danan and
Diu
• Lok Sabha can be extended during the
Delhi (The 7
National Emergency by a law of 6.
National Capital

e
Parliament for one year at a time for Terrilory of Delhi)
any length of time. But this extension 7
Lakshadweep
cannot go beyond a period of 6 months

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8. Puducherry 1
after the emergency has ceased to Total 245 543
operate.
Allocation of Seats in Parliament Members of Parliament
In Rajya In Lok
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S.N. States/U Ts Oualification (Article 84)
Sabha Sabha
1 Andhra 11 25
The Constitution lays down the following
Pradesh qualifications for a person to be chosen as a
Member of the Parliament.
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2. Arunachal 2
Pradesh • He must be a citizen of India.
.
3 Assam 7 14 He must make and subscribe before the
4 Bihar 16 40 person authorised by the Election
Chhatisgarh 1 Commission an oath or affirmation
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5. 5
6 Goa -=o----ee--a
1 2 according, to the form prescribed in the
7 Gujarat 1
26 third Schedule. And must not be less than
8 Haryana 5 10 30 years of age in the case of Rajya Sabha
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9 Himachal 3 4
and not less than 25 years of age in the case
Pradesh of the Lok Sabha.
• He must possess
10 Jharkhand 6 14 other qualifications as
11 Karnataka 12 28 prescribed by Parliament.
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12 Kerala 20
13 Madhya 11 29
Disqualification (Article 102)
Pradesh Under the Constitution, a person shall be
14 Maharashtra 19 48 disqualified for being elected as a Member of
15 Manipur 1 2
Parliament
16 Meghalaya • If
he/she holds any office of profit under
17 Mizoram 1 the Union or State Government (except
18 Nagaland 1 that of a minister or any other office
19 Odisha 10 21 exempted by the Parliament).
20 Punjab 7 13
• If
he/she is of unsound mind and stands so
21.
declared by court.
Rajasthan 10 25 • If
22 Sikkim 1 1 he/she is undischarged insolvent and
Tamil Nadu
stands so declared by court.
23 18 39
24. Tripura 1
2 If he/she is not a citizen of India or has
25 Uttarakhand 3 5
voluntarily acquired the citizenship of a
Uttar Pradesh 31
foreign state Or is under any
26 80
West Bengal
acknowledgment of allegiance to a foreign
27 16 42 state; and if he is So, disqualified
Telangana 7 17
under any law made by the Parliament.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity 259

Under the following conditions, a member If he/she is removed by a resolution

of Parliament vacates his seat (Article passed by a majority of all the members of
101) the Lok Sabha. Such a resolution can be
Double Membership (both Rajya moved only after giving 14 days advance
Sabha and Lok Sahba). notice.
Disqualification, resignationm. When Resolution of removal is under
Absence (more than 60 days without consideration, the Speaker cannot
permission). preside at the sitting of the House (he
If his election is declared void by the may be present). (Article 96)
COurt. Whenever the Lok Sabha is dissolved, the
If he/she is expelled by the House. Speaker does not vacate his office and
If he/she is elected to the office of the continues till the newly elected Lok

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President or Vice-President. Sabha meets.
Ifhe/she is appointed as a Governor ofa
Role, Powers and

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State.
Oath and Salary (Article 99) Functions of Speaker
• He is the principal spokesman of the
• Every to
member has make and House, and his decision in all
subscribe to an oath or affirmation
Parliamentary matters is final.
or some other
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before the President
person appointed by him for this He maintains order and decorum in the
purpose. House for conducting its business.
•
Salaries and allowances are determined He adjourns the House to suspend the
by Parliament. meeting in the absence of quorum
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(presence of only 1/10th of the total

strength of the House). He does not vote
Speaker of Lok Sabha in the first instance, but he can exercise
(Article 93) a casting vote in the case of a tie (dead
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• He/she is elected by Lok Sabha from lock).

amongst its members, as soon as, after He presides over a joint sitting of two
the first meeting. Houses of the Parliament.
He can allow a 'secret' sitting of the House.
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• The date of election is fixed by the

President. Usually, the speaker remains He certifies a Bill as Money Bill and his
in his office during the life of the Lok decision cannot be challenged.
Sabha. He/she vacates office earlier in He appoints the Chairman of all the
any of the following cases Parliamentary Committees of Lok Sabha.
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The speaker acts as the ex-offico

•
If he/she ceases to be member of Lok Chairman of the Indian Parliamentary
Sabha; if he/she resigns by writing to the group of the Inter Parliamentary Union.
Deputy Speaker; and

Speakers of Lok Sabha

Name Tenure
From To
GV Mavalankar 15.05.1952 27.02.1956
MA Ayyangar 08.03.1956 10.05.1957
MA Ayyangar 11.05.1957 16.04.1962
Hukam Singh 17.04.1962 16.03.1967
N Sanjeeva Reddy 17.03.1967 19.07.1969
Dr GS Dhillon 08.08.1969 19.03.1971
Dr GS Dhillon 22.03.1971 01.12.1975
Bali Ram Bhagat 05.01.1976 25.03.1977
N Sanjeeva Aeddy 26.03.1977 13.07.1977
KS Hegde 21.07.1977 21.01.1980
Dr Balram Jakhar 22.01.1980 15.01.1985
260) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity

Narne Tenure
Dr Balram Jakhar 16.01.1985 18.12.1989
Rabi Ray 19.12.1989 09.07.1991
Shiv Raj Patil 10.07.1991 22.05.1996
PA
Sangma 23.05.1996 23.03.1998
GMC Balyogi 24.03.1998 19.10.1999
GMC Balyogi 22.10.1999 03.03.2002
Manohar Joshi 10.05.2002 20.06.2004
Somnath Chatterjee 04.06.2004 31.05.2009
Meira Kumar 04.06.2009 04.06.2014
Sumitra Mahajan 06.06.2014 17.06.2019

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Om Birla 19.06.2019 Till date

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Deputy Speaker Provision ofjoint sitting is applicable to
• ordinary bills or financial bills only and
Deputy Speaker perform the duties of not to money bills or constitutional
speaker if the post of speaker is vacant or amendment bills.
he is absent from the sitting of the house.
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• M. Ananthasayanam Ayyangar was the Sessions of Parliament
First Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha. The Parliament generally meets in
three sessions in year i.e..
Chairman of Rajya Sabha Budget session (February-May) (longest
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The Vice-President is the Ex-officio session), Monsoon session July

Chairman of Rajya Sabha. (Article 89) September), Winter session
As a presiding officer, the powers and (November December) (shortest
functions of the Chairman of Rajya Sabha are session).
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similar to those of Speaker of Lok Sabha. There should not be a gap of more than
6 months between two sessions of
Deputy Chairman Parliament.
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• Elected by Rajya Sabha itself from

amongst its members. Deputy Chairman Djerence between PoWers ofLok
is not subordinate to the Chairman. He is Sabha and the Rajya Sabha
directly responsible to the Rajya Sabha. A Money Bill can be introduced only in
the Lok Sabha and not in the Rajya
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Joint Session (Article 108) Sabha. The final power to decide

• Joint sessions take place on the order of whethera particular bill is a Money Bill
the President if or not, is vested in the Speaker of the
(a) a Bill passed by one House, is rejected Lok Sabha. The Speaker of Lok Sabha
by another. presides over the joint sitting of both the
(b) the amendments made by the other Houses of Parliament.
House are not acceptable to the House A resolution for the discontinuance of
where the Bill originated. the National Emergency can be passed
(c) Other house do not take any action for only by the Lok Sabha and not by the
six months on the bill. Rajya Sabha.
•
Joint session is presided over by the The Rajya Sabha cannot remove the
Council of Ministers by passing a
Speaker of the Lok Sabha. The deadlock
over a Bill is resolved by a majority of the no-confidence motion.
total numbers of the members of both the This is because the Council of Ministers
Houses present and voting, is collectively responsible only to the
. So Lok Sabha. But, the Rajya Sabha can
far, joint-sittings have been held thrice
in the history of Indian Parliament (1961, discuss and criticise the policies and
1978 and 2002). activities of the government.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity 261

LEGISLATIVE Second Reading of the Bill

•
PROCEDURE In the second reading principles of the
Bill are discussed in details and the
IN PARLIAMENT treasury and the opposition members
• The legislative procedure is identical in give their views either in support or
both the Houses of Parliament. Every bill opposition of the Bill.
has to pass through the same stages in • The second reading is divided into two
each House. A Bill is a proposal for stages, (i) consists of a general
legislation and it becomes an Act or law discussion of the principles of the Bill
when duly enacted. and (ii) relates to discussion of clauses,
• Bills may be classified

e
under four heads schedules and amendments.
viz, Ordinary, Money, Financial and • If the Bill is referred to the Selected
Constitutional Amendment Bills. The Committee or Joint Committee, it is

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Legislative procedure of government bills expected to give its report within a
and private members bill is same. specified date.
• Money Bills cannot be introduced
in the The Bill then undergoes long
Rajya Sabha. The other bills can be
discussions clause by clause and may
introduced in either House.
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undergo substantial change.
• Every ordinary bill has to pass through
five stages in the Parliament i.e. ârst Third Reading of the Bill
Reading, second Reading, third Reading, . The third reading is the final reading. It
Bill in the second House and Assent of is more or less a formal affair. The
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the President. Finally, the Bill has to be debate is confined to the acceptance or
notified by the Government to enable its rejection of the Bill. The Bill is
implementation. submitted to the vote of the House and
has to be accepted rejected
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Stages of Bills altogether.

The different stages in the passage of Bills
other than the Money Bills are as follows Bill in the Second House
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• After the Bill has been passed by one

Introduction of the Bill House, it is transmitted to the other
• It involves introduction of BilI like House, where it has to pass through the
provisions of the proposed law, same process. The other House has four
accompanied by the Statement of
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alternatives before it.

Objects and Reasons'. Private member 1. It may pass the Bill as sent by the first
must give one month notice to introduce House.
the Bill.
•
2. It may pass the Bill with amendments
After that it is published in the Gazette of and return it to the first House.
India. The introduction of the Bill and its 3. It may reject the Bill altogether.
publication in the Gazette constitutes the
It may not take any action and thus
First Reading of the Bill. keep the Bill pending.
• In case the Bill is also passed by the
Special Powers of Rajya Sabha second House or the first House agrees
Due to its federal character, the Rajya Sabha with the amendmendments made by the
has been given two exclusive or special powers second house, the Bill is sent to the
that are not enjoyed by the Lok Sabha. President for his assent.
It can authorise the Parliament to makea law
on a subject enumerated in the State List
• In case the Bill is rejected by the second
House or it is kept by the second House
(Article 249).
with it for six months without any action
It can authorise the Parliament to create new or the first House disagrees with the
All-Hndia Services Common for both the centre
amendments suggested by the second
and states (Article 312). House, a deadlock is deemed to have
taken place.
262) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity
. To
resolve a deadlock, the President may
summon a joint-sitting of the two Houses
Consolidated Fund
under Article 108. If the majority of members of India (Article 266)
present and voting at the joint-sitting pass the • It is a fund to which all receipts are
Bill, it is considered as passed by both Houses credited and all payments are
of Parliament and is sent for President's assent. debited. In other words,
all revenues received by the
Assent ofthe President Government of India.
• After being passed by both Houses (either all loans raised by the government
Singles or at Joint Sitting), when the Bill is by the issue of treasury bills, loans
presented to the President, he has three or ways and means of advances.
all money received by the gover|

e
options
1. He may assent to the Bill ment in repayment of loans from
the Consolidated Fund of India.
2. He may withhold his assent

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• All the legally authorised payments
3. He may return the Bill for the on behalf of the government are
reconsideration of the Houses. made out of this fund. No money
• If the President gives assents to the Bill, it out of this fund carn be appropriated
becomes an Act. (issued Or drawn) except in
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•
If the President withholds his assent, the Bill accordance with a Pariamentary law.
ends.
• If the President returns the Bill for
Contingency Fund of India
reconsideration and it is passed again by both (Article 267)
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the Houses, he has to give his assent after the• Article 267 of the Constitution
second passage. authorised the Parliament to
• Since, the Constitution provides no time limit establish a 'Contingency Fund of
for the President to give his assent, he may India', into which amounts
are
ie

keep the Bill in his office without taking any determined by law paid from time
action and prevent it from becoming an act. to time. Accordingly, the Parliament
enacted the Contingency Fund of
Budget Parliament
in India Act in 1950.
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• This
The Constitution refers to the budget as the fund is placed at the disposal
of the President and he can make
'annual financial statement'. In other Words, advances out of it to meet
the term 'budget has nowhere been used in the
Constitution. 'Annual Financial Statement has unforeseen expenditure pending its
authorisation by the Parliament.
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been dealt within Article 112 of the Constitution. • The fund is held by the finance
The budget is a statement of the estimated secretary on behalf of President.
receipts and expenditure of the Government of
India in a financial year, which begins on 1st April Public Account of India
and ends on 31st March of the following year. •
Article 266 (2) provides that all
After introduction of the Budget, the Lok Sabha
other public moneys (other than
discusses the demands for grants of various those in the Consolidated Fund of
ministries and departments. AIl grants voted by India) received by or on behalf of
the Lok Sabha and expenditure, charged on the the Government of India or the
consolidated fund of India, are then presented in Government of a State shall be
the form of single Bil called the 'Appropriation credited to the Public Account of
Bill'. Proposals for taxation (to raise revenue) are India or the Public Account of the
presented in the fom of Finance Bill. State, as the case may be. This
The Govenment of India has two budgets, account is operated by executive
namely, the Railway Budget and the General action and payments from it do not
Budget. need Parliamentary approval.
From 2017, Railway Budget has been merged with • Moneys in this account include
the General Budget on the recommendation of provident fund deposits, savings
Bibek Debroy Committee. bank deposits, remittances etc.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity 263

• The Chairman of all the committees

Committee System (except the Joint Committee
• Committees have been created so that salaries and allowances of MPs) are
members of Pariament can discuSs and appointed by the Speaker from
debate on the working of a certain amongst the members of the
department of the government. Committee.
.
Most of the committees function under In case, Speaker is a member of a
the direction of the Speaker and are committee, he becomes Ex-officio
essentially committees of the Lok Sabha. Chairman of the committee.
• Committees are classified under two
heads : Standing Committee and Adhoc SUPREME COURT

e
Committees. Ad Hoc Committees are
created for a temporary period.
• Supreme Court stands at the apex of
the Judicial System of India. It is the

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• The Standing
Committees are broadly ultimate interpreter of the Consitution
classified into the following categories :
and the laws of the land.
Committees of Enquires, Committees to •
Scrutinise, Financial Committees, Article 124 states the establishment
Committees of Administrative Character, and constitution of Supreme Court.
ra
Committees dealing with provision of Supreme Court was inaugurated on
facilities to members. 28th January, 1950.
• The • At present, the Supreme Court consists
Financial Committees of Parliament
are : Estimates Committee, Public of 34 judges (one Chief Justice of India
nt

Accounts Committee, Committee on (CJI) and 33 judges).

Public Undertaking and 24 Departmental
Related Committees. Appointment of Judges
.
The Public Accounts Committee was Only senior most Judge of the Supreme
Court is appointed by the President as
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set-up first in 1921 under the provisions of

the Government of India Act of 1919. At CJI. Other Judges of the Supreme Court
present, it consists of 22 members (15 from are appointed by the President in
the Lok Sabha and 7 from the Rajya Sabha). consultation with the Chief Justice. He
jm

Since, 1967, a convention has developed may also consult other Judges of the
whereby the Chairman of the Committee is Supreme Court and High Court while
selected invariably from the opposition. appointinga Judge of
the Supreme Court.
• The origin of the Estimates Committee can
Acting Chief Justice
@

be traced to the Standing Financial

Committee set-up in 1921. The first Under Article 126, The President can
Estimates Committee was set-up in 1950. appoint a Judge of the Supreme Court as
It has thirty members, all from the Lok an acting CJI, when
Sabha only. The Rajya Sabha has no office of CJI is vacant; or
presentation in this committee. • the CJI is temporarily absent; or
• The Committee on Public Undertakings
the CJlI is unable to perform the duties
was created in 1964 on the recommen of his office.
dations of the Krishna Menon Committee. It
has 22 members (15 from the Lok Sabha Qualifications
and 7 from the Rajya Sabha). Under Article 124 (3), a person to be
•
In 1993, 17 Department Related Standing appointed as a Judge of the Supreme
Committees were set-up. In 2004, 7 more Court should have the following
committees were set-up. Thus, total qualifications
24 committees exist as of today. • He should be a citizen of India.
• Members of the Rajya Sabha are .
He should have been a Judge of a High
associated with all the committees except Court (or High Courts in succession)
the Estimates Committee. for five years. Or
264 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity

• He should have been an advocate of a The second case of impeachment is that of

High Court (or High Courts in Justice Saumitra Sen of the Calcuta
Succession) for ten years. Or High Court (became the first judge in
• He should be a distinguished jurist in Indian History, against whom an
the opinion of the President. impeachment mnotion was passed in the
Rajya Sabha). The BSP was the only party
• The Constitution does not prescribe a to oppose the motion to remove the judge.
minimum age for appoinment as a After this, he resigned and there was no
Judge of the Supreme Court. need for impeachment.
Oath or Affirmation Under Article 124 (2) (a), a Judge of the
Administered by the President or some Supreme Court "may by writing under his
hand addressed to the President, resign his

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person appointed by him for this purpose. offce".

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Tenure of Judges Salaries and Allowances
The Constitution has not fixed the tenure Under Article 125, the salaries,allowances,
of a Judge of the Supreme Court. privileges, leave and pension ofthe Judges of
However it had made the following the Supreme Court are determined from
provisions time to time by the Parliament.
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• Holds office
until he attains the age of
. Chief Justice of India draws the monthly
65 years. salary of 2.8 lakh. Whereas the other
• Can resign his office by writing to the Judges draws the 2.50 lakh monthly.
President. The retired Chief Justice and Judges are
nt

.
Can be removed from his office by the entitled to 50% of their last drawn salary as
President on the recommendation of monthly pension.
the Parliament.
Ad hoc Judges
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Removal of Judges or Under Article 127, if at any time there is not

a quorum of the Judges ofthe Supreme
Impeachment Court to hold or continue any session,
Under Article 124 (4), a Judge of the CJI can appoint a Judge of the High Court as
jm

Supreme Court shall not be removed an Ad hoc Judge of the Supreme Court for a
from his office except by an order of the temporary period.
President passed after an address by each . He can do so only after consultation
with the
House of the Parliament by special Chief Justice of the High Court concerned
@

majority. Judges can be removed only on and with previous consent of the President.
the grounds of proved misbehaviour or •
The judge so appointed should be
incapacity.
qualified for appointment as the Judge of
Under Article 124 (5) Parliament may the Supreme Court.
by law regulate the procedure relating to
the removal of a Judge of the Supreme Retired.Judges
Court. Under this Article Parliament
provides the procedure for removal by Under Article 128, at any time, the Chief
the Iustice of India can request a retired
Judges Enquiry Act (1968). Judge of
. No the Supreme Court or a retired Judge of the
Judge of the Supreme Court has High Court (who is duly qualified for
been impeached so far. The irst such appointment as a Judge
case of impeachment is that of of the Supreme
Justice Court) to act as a Judge of the Supreme Court
V Ramaswami of the Supreme Court in a temporary period. He can do so only with
Lok Sabha (1991-93). But, finally he forthe previous consent of the President and
could not be impeached.
also of the person to be so appointed.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity 265)

Seat of Supreme Court Original Jurisdiction (Article 131)

Under Article 130, the Constitution The Supreme Court decides the dispute
declares Delhi as the seat of the between the centre and one or more states; the
Supreme Court. But, it authorises the centre and any state or states on one side and
CJl to appoint any other place or places
one or more states on the other; or between twvo
as seat of the Supreme Court. He can Or moe states.
• In the above disputes, the Supreme Court has
take this decision only with the approval
of the President. exclusive original jurisdiction. They lie
directly and exclusively with the Supreme
Court.
Procedure of the Court

e
The Supreme Court can, with the Writ Jurisdiction (Article 32)
approval of the President, make rules • Every individual has the right to move the

nc
for regulating generally the practice Supreme Court directly by appropriate
and procedure of the court. proceedings for the enforcement of his
Fundamental Rights. Court issue writs in this
Independence regard.
of the Judges
ra
Independence of judges is ensured by
Appellate Jurisdiction (Article 132)
• The Supreme Court is primarily a court of
following provisions
• Appointed
by President appeal and hears appeals against the
in
judgements of the lower courts. It enjoys a
consultation ofjudiciary itself.
nt

• Security of tenure (removed only

wide appellate jurisdiction, which can be
classified under four heads
by the President) on grounds
(a) Appeals in constitutional matters.
mentioned in the constitution.
• Fixed service conditions (salary (b) Appeals in civil matters (Article 133).
ie

charged on Consolidated Fund of (c) Appeals in criminal matters (Article 134).

India). () Appeal by special leave (Article 136.)
• Conduct
of judges cannot be Adyisory Jurisdiction
jm

discussed in Parliament or State •

Legislature. The Constitution (Article 143) authorises the
• Ban on practice after retirement. President to seek the opinion of the Supreme
• Power to punish its contempt.
Court. Its opinion, is not binding on President.
@

• Freedom to appoint its staff. Court of Record

• Its
jurisdiction cannot be curtailed. As a Court of Record, Supreme Court has two
.
Difficult removal procedure. powers
• Separation from executive. 1. Judgments, proceedings and acts of
Supreme Court are recorded for perpetual
Jurisdiction and Powers memory and testimony.
of Supreme Court 2. It can punish for contempt of court.
The jurisdictions powers of the Power of Judical
Review (Article 137)
Supreme Court can be classified into
• Judicial review is the power of the Supreme
the following
• Original jurisdiction Court to examine the constitutionality of
• Writ jurisdiction legislative enactments and executive order
• of both Central and State Government.
Appellate jurisdiction
• Advisory jurisdiction
• On examination,
if they are found to be
violative of the Constitution, they can be
• A court of record
declared as illegal, unconstitutional and
• Power ofjudical review invalid and they cannot be enforced by any
. Other powers authority.
266) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity

• Judical review is needed for the Article 141 Law declared by Supreme
r'easons: Court to be binding on all courts, within the
To uphold the supremacy of the territory of India.
Constitution •
Article 144 All authorities, civil and
Maintain federal equilibrium
- judicial in the Territory of India to act in
Protect the Fundamental Rights of the aid of the Supreme Court.
citizens
Some fanous cases, in which the Supreme Public Interest Litigation (PIL) Any
person can now initiate a proceeding on
Court used the power ofjudical review are
behalf of the aggrieved person (if the
Golakanath Case (1967)
-
Bank Nationalisation Case (1970) aggrieved persons cannot do so on their
Privy Purse Abolition Case (1971) own) in either the High Court or the

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Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973) Supreme Court for the protection of
Minerva Mills Case (1980) greater public interest.

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STATES EXECUTIVE ra
GOVERNOR Oath (Article 159)
His oath is administered by the Chief Justice
•
The Governor is the Constitutional
Head of the state and the same of the concerned State High Court andcourt. in his
nt

Governor can as
act Governor of more absence, the senmior, mostjudge of that
than one state (Articles 153 and 154).
Under Article 155, the Governor is Tenure of Governor
.
appointed by the President. Article 156 (Article 156)
ie

states that the Governor holds office (a) the Governor shall hold office during
during the pleasure of the President. the pleasure of the President;
Qualification (b) may resign by writing under his hand
jm

addressed to the President;

Under Article 157, the Constitution lays (c) hold office
down the following conditions for the for a period of 5 years.
Governor's office
• Must be citizen of India. Powers and Functions
of Governor
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• Completed 35 years of age.

Condition of Office Executive Powers

(Article 158) The executive power of the state shall be
• vested with the Governor and shall be
Shouldn't be a member of either House exercised by him either directly or through
of Parliament or State Legislatures. officers subordinate to him in accordance
Shallnot hold any other office of proft. with the Constitution. These powers are
• All executive actions of the Government of
Salary & Allowances a State are formally taken in his name. He
Use his official residence (Raj Bhawan) can make rules for more convenient
without payment of rent. transaction of the business of a State
When same person is appointed as the Government.
Governor of two or more states, the. Appoints the Advocate General of a State
emoluments and allowances payable to (Article 165), State Election
him are shared by states as determined by
the President. Commissioners, Chairman and members
of the State Public Service Commission,
• Salary of
the Governor is 3.5 lakh per VCs of Universities.
month.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity 267
.
He can seek any information relating to the
administration of the affairs of the state
CHIEF MINISTER
and proposals for legislation from the Chief Chief Minister is the Real Executive
Minister. Head of the State Government. His
• He acts as the Chancellor of Universities in position at the state level is analogous to
the State. He also appoints the Vice- the position of the Prime Minister at the
chancellors of Universities in the State. centre.

Legislative Powers Appointment

says that Chief Minister shall
• Governor is an integral part of the State Article 164,
Legislature. He has the right of addressing be appointed by the Governor.

e
and sending messages and of summoning, Oath, Term and Salary
proroguing and dissolving the State
Assembly. Oath of the office of Chief Minister is

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administered by the Governor or
• He
has the power to nominate one member person appointed by him for this
of Anglo-Indian Community to the purpose.
Legislative Assembly of the state.
• He nominates 1/6th members ofLegislativeA
person, who is not a member of
State Legislature can be appointed,
ra
Council.
but he has to get himself elected
Financial Powers within 6 months otherwise he is
removed.
• He enables the State budget to be laid
The term of the CM is not fixed and
nt

before the State Legislature. He constitutes

a Finance Commission after every five he holds office during the pleasure of
years to review the financial position of the the Governor.
Panchayats and the Municipalities. He cannot be dismissed by the
Governor as long as he enjoys the
ie

• Money bill could be

introduced in State majority support in the Legislative
Legislature only with his prior Assembly.
recommendation.
The salary and allowances of the
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Judicial Powers Chief Minister are determined by the

• Under Article 161, He can grant pardons, State Legislature.
reprives, respites and remissions of
punishment or suspend, remit and Povers and Functions
commute the sentence of any person In Relation to Council of
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convicted of any offence against any law Ministers (CoMs)

relating to a matter, to which the executive The CM as a head of the CoMs, enjoys the
power of the state extends.
following powers
• He cannot a
pardon death sentence even .
if The Governor appoints only those
a State law provides for death sentence. persons as Iministers, who are
recommended by the Chief Minister:
Emergency Powers • He allocates and reshuffles the
.
The Governor has no emergency powers to portfolios among ministers.
cOunter external aggression or armed • He can
rebellion. ask a minister to resign or
• He reports to
advise the Governor to dismiss him in
the President, if the State case of difference of opinion.
Government is not running constitutionally He presides over the meetings of the
and recommends the imposition of
Council of Ministers and influences
President's Rule (Article 356). When
its decisions.
President's rule comes into force in any
state, the Governor runs the state with the He guides, directs, controls and
help of advisers on behalf of the President. coordinates the activities of all the
ministers.
268) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity

In Relation of the Governor State Council ofMinisters (CoMs)

He isthe principle channel of The CoMs headed by CM is the real
communication between the Governor executive authority the
and the Council of Ministers. Political-administrative system of the
state.
In Relation to State Legislatue • Articles 163 and 164 deal with Council of
• Advises the Governor with regard to Minister, in the states.
Summoniing and proroguing the
sessions of the State Legislature. Oath and Salary
• Recommend the dissolution of the Oaths of office and secrecy is
Legislative Assembly to the Governor at administered by the Governor or person

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any time. appointed by him for this purpose.
• He announces the government policies Salary andallowances are determined by

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on the floor of the House. the State Legislature from time to time.

STATESLEGISLATURE
ra
There is no uniformity in the creation Composition ofLegislative
of State Legislatures. Most of the states Council
have unicameral system (single of members of a Legislative
house), only 6 States Andhra Pradesh. Ofthe total number
nt

Council
Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Uttar
Pradesh and Telengana are having 1/3rd Elected from local bodies
Bicameral (Double House). (municipalities and district boards).
ie

• 1/12th Elected by graduates of 3 years

Legislative Assembly standing and residing in the state.
(Article 170) . 1/12th Elected by teachers of 3 years
standing in the state, not lower in standard
jm

• The Legislative Assembly (Vidhan

Sabha) consists of not more than than secondary school.
500 members and not less than• Legislative
1/3rd Elected by the members of the
60 members. However, the Assembly of the state from
amongst person, wh0 are not members of the
Legislative Assembly of Sikkim,
@

assembly.
Goa, Mizoram Arunanchal Pradesh,
Nagaland and Puducherry have less Rest (1/6th) are nominated by the Governor
than 60 members. from persons of special knowledge or
practical experience of literature, science, art,
Legislative Council cooperative movement and social service.
(Article 171) 5/6th of total number of members of
• As per Article 169,
Legistative Council are indirectly elected,
if the Legislative and 1/6th are nominated by Governor.
Assembly passes a resolution for
abolishing or creating of the Membership of the State
Legislative Council by a majority of Legislature
the total membership of the
assembly and by a majority of not less Qualification
than two-third of the members Under Article 173, they must fulfil the
present and voting, the Parliament following conditions
may approve the resolution by a
(a) He must be a citizen of India.
simple majority to create or abolish
(b) He must make and subscribe before the
the Legislative Council. person authorised by the Election
GENERAL KNONLEDGE ~ Indian Polity 269)

Commission an oath or affirmation Powers and Duties of Speaker

according to the form prescribed in the
• He maintains order and decorum in
Third Schedule.
(c) He must be not less than 30 years of the Assembly for conducting its
age in the case of the Legislative business and regulating its proceedings.
Council and not less than 25 years of He adjourns the Assembly or suspends
age in the case of the Legislative the meeting in the absence of a quorum.
Assembly. • He does not vote in the first instance.
(d) He must possess other qualifications But, he can exercise a casting vote in
prescribed by Parliament, under the case of a tie.
• He can allow a secret sitting of the
Representation of People Act (1951).
House at the request of the leader of the
Oath or Afirmation It is administered by

e
House.
Governor or per'son appointed by him for
this purpose.
• He decides whether a bill is a Money
Bill or not and his decision on this

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Vacation of Seats (in cases of) question is final.
• Double membership • He decides the questions of
Disqualification
• Resigmation disqualification of a member of the
• Absence (more than 60 days without Assembly, arising on the ground of
ra
permission) defection under the provisions of the
Other cases Tenth Schedule.
• He appoints the Chairman of all the
if his election is declared void by the committees of the Assembly and
COurt,
supervises their functions.
nt

if he is expelled by
the House,
if he is elected for the office of the
President or office of Vice-President, Chairman of Legislative
to
he is appointed
ifGovernor of a state.
the office of Council
ie

The Chairman is elected by the council

Duration of theTwo Houses itself from amongst its members. The
Chairman vacates his office in any of the
Legislative Assembly Same as Lok Sabha. following three cases
jm

Leglislative Council Same as Rajya Sabha. 1. If he ceases to be a member of the

council,
Presiding Officers 2. If he resigns by writing to the Deputy
of State Legislature Chairman; and
@

• Speaker/Deputy Speaker in Legislative 3. Ifhe is removed by a resolution passed

Assembly (Article I78). by a majority of all the members of the
• Chairman/Deputy
Chairman council. Such a resolution can be
Legislative Council (Article 182). moved only after giving 14 days
advance notice.
Speaker of Legislative Assembly
Speaker of Assembly is elected by the Legislative Procedure
Assembly itself from amongst its menmbers. A Money Bill can be introduced only in
He can vacate his office earlier in any of the the Legislative Assenmbly. The Assembly
following three cases iS not bound to accept any
1. If he ceases to be a member of the recommendation by the council, the
Assembly: council may at most withhold the bill for
2. If he resigns by writing to the Deputy 14 days from the date of its receipt.
Speaker; and (Article 198).
3. If he is removed by a resolution passed
•
In case of an Ordinary Bill. the
by a majority of allthe members of the Legislative Council can hold the bill for
assembly. Such a resolution can be a maximum of three months. There is
moved only after giving 14 days no provision for joint sitting in case of
advance notice. (Article 179). difference between the two Houses.
 270) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity

Powers of the State Legislature

• It participates in the election of the President.
• It can remove the Council of Ministers by passing a No-Confidence Motion.
. It
controls the executive by various financial committees. It ratifies certain
Constitutional Amendments, in which participation of half of the State Legislatures is
required.
Strength of Legislative Assembly
S.N. State/Union Nurnberof S.N. State/Union Nurmber of
Territory Seats Territory Seats

e
I. States 23 Sikkim 32
Andhra Pradesh 175 Tamil Nadu

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1
24 235
2. Arunachal Pradesh 60 25 Telangana 119
3. Assam 126 26. Tripura 60
4 Bihar 243 27 Uttarakhand 70

5 Chhattisgarh
ra 28 Uttar Pradesh 403
6 Goa 40

7. Gujarat 182 II. Union Territories

8. Haryana 90 1
Delhi 70
nt

Himachal Pradesh 68 2 Puducherry 33

10 Jharkhand 81 J&K 114

11 Karnalaka 224
(Note 24 seats are designated for the
ie

12 Kerala 140
Territorial Constituencies of the Pok).
13 Madhya Pradesh 230
14 Maharashtra
Strength of Legislative Council
288
jm

15 Manipur 60 S.N. Narme of State Nurmberof

Seats
16 Meghalaya 60
17 Mizorarn 40
1 Uttar Pradesh 100
18 Nagaland 60 2. Andhra Pradesh 58
@

19 Odisha 147 3 Karnataka 75

20 West Bengal 294 4 Bihar 75

21 Punjab 117 5 Maharashtra 78

22. Rajasthan 200 6 Telangana 40

HIGH COURT
• Every High Court (whether exclusive or common) consists of a Chief Justice and such
other judges as the President may from time to time deem necessary to appoint. Thus,
the Constitution does not specily the strength of a High Court and leaves it to the
discretion of the President.
• Accordingly, the President determines the strength of a High Court from time to time
depending upon its workload.
• The Constitution of India provides a High Court for each state, but the 7th
Amendment Act of 1956, authorised the Parliament to establish a common High Court
for two or more states or a state and a nion territory.
• The territorialjurisdiction of a High Court is co-terminus with the territory of a state.
• As of 2023, there are 25 High Courts in India. Telangana is the 25th High Court.
GENERAL KNONLEDGE ~ Indian Polity 271

Jurisdiction and Seats of High Courts

S.No. Name Established Territorial Jurisdiction Seat
in the Year
1. Madhya Pradesh 1956 Madhya Pradesh Jabalpur (Benches at
Gwalior and Indore )
2. Bombay 1862 Maharashtra, Dadra and Mumbai (Bench at
Nagar Haveli, Goa, Daman Nagpur, Panaji and
and Diu Aurangabad)
3. Calcutta 1862 West Andaman Kolkata (Circuit
and Nio and
islands Bench at Port Blair)

e
4
Madras 1862 Tamil Nadu and Puducherry Chennai
Allahabad 1866 Uttar Pradesh Allahabad (Bench at

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Lucknov)
6. Karnataka 1884 Karnataka Bengaluru
Patna 1916 Bihar Patna
8. Orissa 1948 Odisha Cuttack
ra
9. Guwahati 1948 Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram Guwahati (Benches
and Arunachal Pradesh at Kohima and
Aizawl and itanagar)
10. Rajasthan 1949 Rajasthan Jodhpur (Bench at
nt

Jaipur)
11 Kerala 1958 Kerala and Lakshadweep Ernakulam
12 Jarnmu and 1928 Jammu and Kashmir Srinagar and Jarmmu
Kashmir
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13 Gujarat 1960 Gujarat Ahmedabad

14 Delhi 1966 Delhi Delhi
jm

15 Punjab and 1875 Punjab, Haryana and Chandigarh

Haryana Chandigarh
16 Himachal 1971 Himachal Pradesh Shimla
Pradesh
17 Sikkim Sikkim Gangtok
@

1975
18 Utarakhand 2000 Uttarakhand Nainital
19 Jharkhand 2000 Jharkhand Ranchi
20 Chhatisgarh 2000 Chhattisgarh Bilaspur
21. Manipur Manipur Imphal
2013
Meghalaya 2013 Meghalaya Shillong
23. Tripura 2013 Tripura Agartala
24 Andhra Pradesh 2019 Andhra Pradesh Amaravati
25. Telangana 2019 Telangana Hyderabad
272 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity

Appointment of Judges Independence of High Court

•
Under Article 217, The judges of the High The provision for judicial independence for
Court are appointed by the President. High Court is very nuch similar to
•
Supreme Court.
The Chief Justice of the High Court is
appointed by the President after Jurisdiction and Powers
consultation with the Chief Justice of
Supreme Court and Governor of the Of High Court
concerned state. At present, a High Court enjoys the
• For the appointment of other Judges. the following jurisdiction and powers
Chief Justice of concerned High Court is Original jurisdiction
• Writ
also consulted. jurisdiction (Article 226)

e
Appellate jurisdiction
Qualification of Judges • Supervisory jurisdiction

nc
• He should be a citizen of India. • Control over subordinate courts.
• He should have held a judicial office in the • court of record.
A

territory of India for 10 years. • Power ofjudicial review.

Or
. The Supreme Court can issue writ
He should have been an advocate of a
ra iurisdiction, only where a Fundamental
High Court (or High Courts in succession) Right has been infringed. High Court can
for 10 years.
issue these writs Under Article 226 not only
in such cases, but also where an ordinary
Oath legal right has been infringed.
nt

Oath is administered by Governor or person High Court does not have advisory power as
appointed by him for this purpose. in case of Supreme Court.
Tenure
Subordinate Courts
ie

•The Constitution has not fixed the tenure to 237 in Part VI of the
of Judge of High Court. He holds offce Articles 233
until he attains the age of 62 years. Contitution make the provisions to regulate
the organisation of subordinate courts and
jm

Removal to ensure their independence from the

executive.
• He can resign his office by writing to the
President. Appointment of District Judges
.
He can be removed from his office by the
@

The appointment, posting and promotion

President on the recommendation of the
of district judges in a state are made by
Parliament (same as Judge of SC). Governor of the State in consultation with
• He vacates his office
when he is appointed the High Court.
as a Judge of the Supreme Court or when person to be appointed as district
A
judge
to
he is transferred another High Court. should have the following qualifications
• He should not already be in the service of
Salaries and Allowances
• Determined by Parliament from time to the Central or the State Government.
• He should have been an advocate or a
time.
• Present salary of Chief Justice of High Court
pleader for seven years.
is 2,50,000 and that of Judge of High He should be recommended by the High
Court for appointment.
Courts is 2,25,000
GENERAL KNONLEDGE ~ Indian Polity 273

Appointment of Other Judges Lok Adalat

Appointment of persons (other than district Lok Adalat (People's Courts), established by
judges) to the judicial services of a state are the govemment, setles disputes through
made by the Governor of the State after conciliation and compromise. The first Lok
consultation with the State Public Service Adalat was held in Gujrat on 14th March, 1982.
Commission and the High Court. The Lok Adalat is presided over by a sitting or
retired judicial officer as Chairman, with two
NYAYA PANCHAYAT other member, usually a lawyer and a social
worker. There is no court fee. If the case is
The Nyaya Panchayats are the judicial
already filed in a regular court, the fee paid is
bodies in village, which provide speedy and

e
refunded if the dispute is settled at the Lok
inexpensive justice for all petty civil suits.
Adalat.
Usually, their domain of jurisdiction is
Lok Adalat is very effective in settlement of
limited to four to five villages only. They can

nc
money claims. Disputes, like partition suits,
impose only monetary fines at the most, as
punishments are barred from the power to damages and matrimonial cases, can also be
award imprisonment sentences (except easily settled in Lok Adalat, as chances of
Bihar). compromise through give and take approach
ra stand high in such cases.
Lok Adalat is a boon to the litigant public,
UNION-STATE where they can get their disputes settled fast
RELATIONS and free of cost.
Lok Adalats have been given the status of a
nt

The federal system adopted in India

Civil Court and every award made by the Lok
involves division of authority between the
union and the states. Relations between the Adalat is final and binding on all parties and
no appeals lies to any court against its
union and states can be studied under the
following parts. award.
ie

A. Legislative Relations (Art. B. Administrative Relations

245-255) (Art. 256-263)
jm

•The Constitution divides the subjects into The states are expected to comply with the
the Union List (100 subjects), the State Laws of the Pariamnent and not impede the
List (61 subjects) and the Concurrent exercise of the Executive Powers of the
List (52 subjects). Enumerated in the Union (Articles 256, 257). In this regard,
the Union Government carn issue necessary
@

Seventh Schedule under Article 246.

Parliament has exclusive power to directives to the states. All disputes between
legislate on subjects mentioned in the states regarding the use, distribution or
Union List. This list contains subjects like control of water are decided by the centre
defence, foreign affairs, atomic energy etc. (Article 262).
• State Legislatures have
exclusive power to C Financial Relations (Art. 268-293)
legislate on subjects mentioned in the
State List. The State List contains subjects• The states are greatly dependent on the
like health, sanitation, public order, Central Government for finance. The
agriculture etc. Both Parliament and State State Governments have been provided
Legislatures can legislate on subjects independent sources of revenue, but
mentioned in the Concurrent List. This these are inadequate.
list contains subjects like criminal law, • The Union Government has the power to
forests, education, marriage and divorce borrow from within India or outside,
etc. subject to the limits laid down by the
•
Residual Powers (.e. subjects not Parliament, the borrowing power of the
included in any of the list) rest with states is subject to several imitations and
Union Government. the cannot borrow from outside India.
274 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity

Inter-State Council (Article 263) India. The function of the Inter-State

Council is to investigate and discuss
It is a non-permanent Constitutional body set subjects in which states and union have a
up by presidential order on the basis of
common interest. It also makes recom
provisions in Article 263 of the Constitution. It
established mendations for better co-ordination of
was in 1990 on the policy and action with zespect to a subject.
recommnendations of Sarkaria Commission to
discuss or investigate policies, subjects of Under Article 262, Parliament has
common interest and dispute among states. It constituted the Inter-State Water
comprises of Chief-Ministers of all states and Disputes Tribunal for adjudication of
administrators of Union Territories with disputes between states for the waters of
Prime Minister as ChairIman. any inter-state river or river valley.
. proposed
The commission has
Zonal Council "localising emergency provision'" under

e
• Established
under States Reorganisation Articles 355 and 356, contending that
Act, 1956, it is a statutory body with the localised areas either a district or part of

nc
a district be brought under govern
mandate to foster cooperative federalism
amongst state. The Union Home Minister ment rule instead of the whole state.
has been nominated to be the common The commission supports the
Chairman of all Zonal Councils. These Governor's right to give sanction for the
Councils are: prosecution of ministers against the
ra
Northern Zonal Council Consist of advice of the State Government.
Punjab, Rajasthan, Haryana, Jammu and There should be changes in the role of
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Chandigarh the Governor including fixed five year
and Delhi. Headquarters-New Delhi. tenure as well as their removal only
through impeachment by the State
nt

Central Zonal Council Uttar Pradesh, Assembly.

Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh and Madhya
Pradesh. Headquarters-Allahabad
- Sarkaria Commission
Eastern Zonal Council Bihar, Jharkharnd, It was set-up in June, 1983, by the Central
West Bengal and Odisha.
ie

Headquarters-Kolkata Government of India to examine the

relationship and balance of power between
Western Zonal Council Maharashtra, Goa,
Gujarat and UTs of Dadra and Nagar Haveli states and centre. It was headed by Justice
jm

and Daman Diu. Headquarters- Mumbai Rajinder Singh Sarkaria, a retired Judge of
the Supreme Court of India.
Southern Zonal Council Andhra Pradesh
Tarnil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and UT Of
Puducherry. Headquarters-Chennai Revocation of the Special
North Eastern Council was of Jammnuand
1971 by a separate Act of Parliament for Status
created in
@

Assam, Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya,

Kashmir
Nagaland, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh. On 5th August, 2019 the Government of
In 1994, Sikki was included in it. India revoked the Special States granted
under Article 370 of the Indian
PunchhiCommission Constitution to Janmuand Kashir.
• Through the J&K Reorganisation Act,
In April, 2007, a new commission was set-up to 2019 the Jammu and Kashmir has been
re-examine centre-state relations. The bifurcated into two Union Territories;
commission was headed by former Chief Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh on
Justice of India MM Punchhi. 31st October, 2019.
The major recommendations of the Punchhi The Jamnu and Kashmir Legislative
Commission can be summed up as follows Council was formally abolished on
.
There should be an amendment in Articles 16th October;, 2019.
355 and 356 to enable the centre to bring• The total strength of newly constituted
specific trouble-torn areas under its rule for Jammu and Kashmir Legislative
a limited period. Assembly has been increased from 107
• Inter-State to 114. Out of which 24 seats are
Relation An Inter- State designated for the Territorial
Council can be established by the President
under Article 263 of the Constitution of Constituencies of the Pakistan occupied
Kashmir.
GENERAL KNONLEDGE ~ Indian Polity 275

PANCHAYATI RAJ
PANCHAYATS 73rd AMENDMENT
• Panchayats constitute functional ACT
institutions of grassroot governance in
villages. The Balwant Rai Mehta The Constitution 73rd Amendment
Committee, January 1957, recommended a Act,1992 inserted a new part IX into
3-tier Panchayati Raj structure at the village, the Constitution.
intermediate and district levels. The salient features of Part IX of the
• In 1977, the government appointed the Constitution are as follows

e
Ashok Mehta Committee to examine the The tern of the Panchayats is five
measures to strengthen PRIs. years unless dissolved earlier. Seats

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•
The LM Singhvi Committee (1986) shall be compulsorily reserved for
recommended Constitutional Status for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
local bodies. Tribes. Seats to be reserved for
backward classes is left at the
Three Tier System discretion of the State Government.
ra
• The three-tier system of Panchayat Raj was There is a provision of State Finance
first adopted by Rajasthan (Nagaur district Commission to review the financial
on 2nd October, 1959) followed by Andhra position of Panchayats and
recommend grant-in-aids.
Pradesh.
nt

One-third of the seats are reserved for

(a) Village Panchayat women. A State Election Commission
• It consists of elected representatives of the headed by the State Election
people, its membership varies from 5-31. Commissioner shall conduct elections
for the Panchayats.
ie

There is reservation for SC, ST and Women.

•Chairman, i.e. Sarpanch is elected in a MUNICIPALITIES
manner as the State Legislature may provide
directly or indirectly.
jm

(Articles 943P-943ZG)
• Villages Panchayat has to answer Gram
Sabha for all its actions. The Constitution of India provides the
• Gram Sabha comprises the residing adults of provision of local self government
units in urban area by inserting Part
the Panchayat and it supervises the working
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IX-A through the 74th Amendment

of Panchayat.
Act, 1992.
(b) Block and Panchayat Samiti The Constitution provides for three
• types of Municipali ties. Nagar
The Block consists 20-60 villages. It is

governed by the elected members of Village Panchayat. for areas in transition from
Panchayat, which is called Panchayat rural to urban.
Samiti. Municipal Council is for smaller
• Pradhan is the head or Chairman of urban area.
Panchayat Samiti. Municipal Corporation is for larger
. urban area. It is the bigger urban local
States with population less than 20 lakh
need not constitute a Block Panchayat. government.
Chairperson is elected forn amongst the The Constitution of Municipalities
members. shall be determined by a Law of the
(c) Zila Parishad State Legislature. Wards Committees
shall be constituted in those
• Members of the Zila Parishad are elected Municipalities having a population of
from the district by direct election on the three lakh or more.
basis of adult franchise for a term of5 years. Seats shall be reserved for Scheduled
• Chairman of Zila Parishad is elected from Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
amongst the members.
 276) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity

• One-third of the seats shall be reserved for • All proceeding in the Supreme Court
wOmenm. and in every High Court are to be in
• Municipalities will have the power to English Language only.
impose taxes, duties, tolls and fees in • The authoritative texts of all bills, acts,
accordance with law. The Constitution ordinances, order, rules, regulation and
provides for a State Finance Commission to by-laws at the central and state levels.
review the financial position of the Normally there vere fourteen
Municipalities and recommend measures languages in Eighth Schedule. but
to augnent their funds.
eight were added during amendments,
• Under
Article 243 ZD, a District Planning now 22 languages are there 1. Assamese
Committee shall be constituted to 2. Bengali 3. Gujarati 4. Hindi 5.
consolidate the plans prepared by the

e
Kannada 6. Kashmiri 7. Konkani
Panchayats and Municipalities in the 8. Malayalam 9. Manipuri 10. Marathi
district. 11. Nepali 12. Oriva 13. Punjabi 14.

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• Under Article 243 ZE, a Metropolitan
Sanskrit 15. Sindhi 16. Tamil 17.
Planning Committee shall be constituted to Telugu 18. Urdu 19. Santhali 20. Bodo
prepare a draft development plan for the 21. Maithili 22. Dogri.
metropolitan area as a whole. • Sindhi was added by the 21st
ra Amendment Act, 1967; Konkani,
OFFICLAL LANGUAGE Manipuri and Nepali were added by the
• 71st Amendment Act, 1992;: and Bodo,
Part XVIl of the Constitution deals with the Dogri, Maithili and Santhali were added
official language in Articles 343 to 351. by the 92nd Amendment Act, 2003.
nt

• Hindi written in Devanagari Script is to be •

The Constitution imposes a duty upon
the official language of the Union. the centre to spread the development of
• In 1955, the President appointed an official the Himdi language so that it may
Language Commission under the become the lingua franca' of the
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Chairmanship of BG Kher. composite culture of India.

MISCELLANEOUS
jm

Comptroller and Auditor • Shri V Narahari Rao, was the first

General of India Comptroller and Auditor General of
@

. India (1948-1954).
The Constitution of India (Article 148)
provides for an independent ofice of the
Comptroller and Auditor General of India
Attornev General of India
(CAG). The Constitution (Article 76) has
provided for the office of the Attorney
• He is the guardian of the public purse and General of India. He is the highest law
audits the accounts of the government at officer in the country.
both the levels- the centre and the state. •
• His duty is to uphold the Constitution of
The Attorney General of India must be
a person, who is qualified to be
India amd laws of Parliament in the field of appointed as a Judge of the Supreme
financial administration. Court. He is appointed by the
• Article 148 to 151 of the Constitution deals President.
with CAGs appointment, powers and audit The term of office of the Attorney
reports. General is not fixed by the
. Constitution. Further, the Constitution
The CAG of India is appointed by the
President for six years or till sixty five does not contain the procedure and
years, of age whichever is earlier. grounds for his removal. He holds
• His removal process is similar to that of a office during the pleasure of the
Judge of the Supreme Court. President.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity 277

• The Attorney General's duty is to give • It also organises the polling booths, counting
advice to the Government of India of votes, and declaration of results, to ensure
upon such legal matters, which are the orderly and fair manner of elections.
referred to him by the President. • At present Election Conmission consists of
Chief Election Commissioner and two
Advocate General of the State Election Commissioners.
• Article 165, has provided for the office of The Constitution provides for
the Advocate General for the states. He Independent Election Commission to
acts as highest Law officer in the state, ensure free and fair elections to the
corresponding to the Attorney General of Parliament, the State Legislature and the
India. offices of the President and Vice-President.
He is appointed by the Governor to give The Chief Election Commissioner and

e
advice to state government on legal other Election Commissioners are appointed
by the President for 6 years or till 65 years,
matters. And he also performs such other

nc
duties of a legal nature that are assigned whichever is earlier. (Article 324).
to him by the Governor. The Chief Election Commissioner can be
removed on ground similar to that ofa Judge
• The Attorney General appears before of the Supreme Court. The other Election
the Supreme Court and various High Commissioners may be removed by the
ra
Courts in cases involving the President on the recommendation of the
Government of India. Chief Election Commissioner.
• The Attorney General of India is not a • The general election is held on the basis of
. member of the Cabinet. Universal Adult Suffrage.
nt

He
has the Right to Speak in the either Chief Election
Commissioners of India
House of Parliament, but he has no
Right to Vote. Narme Tenure
Frorm To
Election Commission
ie

• An Sukumar Sen 21.03.1950 19.12.1958

independent Election Commission KVK Sundaram 20.12.1958 30.09.1967
has been established under the SP Sen Verma 01.10.1967 30.09.1972
Constitution in order to carry out and
jm

regulate the holding of elections in Dr Nagendra Singh01.10.1972 06.02.1973

India. The Election Commission was Swaminathan
T
07.02.1973 17.06.1977
established in accordance with the SL Shakdhar 18.06.1977 17.06.1982
Constitution on 25th January, 1950. RK Trivedi 18.06.1982 31.12.1985
• The Election Commission prepares, RVS Peri Sastri 01.01.1986 25.11.1990
@

maintains and periodically updates the Smt VS Rama Devi 26.11.1990 11.12.1990
electoral roll, which shows who is TN Seshan 12.12.1990 11.12.1996
entitled to vote, Supervises the MS Gill 12.12.1996 13.06.2001
nominations of candidates, register JM Lyngdoh 14.06.2001 07.02.2004
political parties, mnonitors the election TS Krishnamurthy 08.02.2004 15.05.2005
campaign. BB Tandon 16.05.2005 29.06.2006
N Gopalaswamy 20.04.2009
Administrative Tribunals 30.06.2006
Navin Chawla 21.04.2009 29.07.2010
The 42nd Amendment Act of 1976 added a
SY Qureshi 30.07.2010 10.06.2012
new Part XIV-A to the Constitution. This
part is entitled as "Tribunals' and consist
VS Sarmpath 11.06.2012 15.01.2015
HS Brahma 16.01.2015 18.04.2015
of only two Articles, Article 323A dealing
with administrative tribunals and Dr Nasim Zaidi 19.04.2015 05.07.2017
Article 323B dealing with tribunals for Achal Kumar Joti 06.07.2017 22.01.2018
other matters. Om Prakash Rawat 23.01.2018 01.12.2018
The Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT)
Sunil Arora 02.12.2018 12.04.2021
was set-up in 1985, with the principal Sushil Chandra 13.04.2021 14.05.2022
Rajiv Kumar 15.05.2022 Till Date
bench at Delhi and additional benches in
different states. * As on 1st January, 2023
278 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity

Commission accorded a
Delimitation Commission consitutional
Was
status as an autonomous
• Delimitation Commission Boundary
entity and given the title Union Public
Commission of India is a commission, Service Commission.
established by Government of India under the • Article 315 to 323 in the Part XIV of the
provisions of the Delimitation Commission COntains elaborate
Constitution
Act. The main task of the commission is to
provisions regarding UPSC.
zedraw the boundaries of the various
assemblies and Lok Sabha Constituencies
based on a recent census. The representation
The Structure of UPSC
• The Chairman and other members of
from each state is not changed during this the UPSC are
exercise. However, the number of SC and ST appoteofficeby forthea

e
seats in a state are changed in accordance President and they
with the census. term of 6 years from the date of
appointment or until they attain the age

nc
• The commission is a powerful body whose of 65 years. They are independent of
orders cannot be challenged in a court of the Executive and Legislature in the
law. The orders are laid before the Lok
saine manner as the Judges of the
Sabha and the respective State Legislative Supreme Court.
Assemblies. However, modifications are not
ra • Age of retirement for a member of
permitted.
• Public Service Commission of a State or
Delimitation Commissions have been Joint Public Service Commission is 62
set-up four times in the past, in 1952, 1963,
years.
1973 and 2002, under Delimitation
nt

Commission Acts of 1952, 1962, 1972 and Removal of Members

2002.
. • UPSC members can resign by
The delimitation conmission was set-up on addressing their letter of resignation to
12th July, 2002 after the 2001 Census with
the President.
ie

Justice Kuldip Singh, a retired Judge of the • President can remove them by issuing
Supreme Court of India as its Chairperson. orders under the circumstances
The assembly elections in Karnataka, which provided in the Constitution.
were conducted in three phases in May, 2008
jm

was the first one to use the new boundaries as Functions

drawn by the 2002 Delimitation Commission. To conduct exams for appointment to
services under the union. Advise the
NOTA
. President (not obligatory on him) in
@

The None Of The Above (NOTA) is an matters relating to appointment,

option on the Electronic Voting Machines promotions and transfers from one
(EVMs), through this peoples get the right service to another of civil servants.
of votes to reject all candidates contesting • All disciplinary matters affecting
the elections. A "NOTA does not require the person in the service of union.
involvement of the presiding offcer. The
NOTA option was first used in the assembly
Matters regarding award of pension and
election of five states in November 2013. awards in respect to injuries sustained
The NOTA option would not impact the during service under the government.
result of elections.
• Election Commission removes NOTA
Finance Commission of
option from Rajya Sabha, Legislative India (Article 280)
Council Election in August, 2019. •
The Finance Commission consists of
. Chairman and four other members.
Union Public Service The Chairman is selected from among
Commission (UPSC) the persons, who had experience in
• With the pronulgation of the new public affairs. While the memebers are
Consitution for Independent India on 26th
selected from among persons who
January, 1950, the Federal Public Service (a) are or have been qualified to be
appointed judges of the High Court.
GENERAL KNONLEDGE ~ Indian Polity 279

(b) have special knowledge of finance, and salaries of State and Central Information
accounts of government. Commissioners, which are statutorily
(c) wide experience in financial matters protected under the RTI Act.
and in administration. • The Act replaces the fixed 5 years tenure
(d) having special knowledge to as much prescribed by government.
economics.
•
The President constitutes a Finance Planning Commission
Commission every five years, to The Planning Commission was ai
(a) recommend to the President institution in the Government of India,
distribution of net proceeds of the which formulated India's Five-Year Plans.
taxes which are divisible between The Government has replaced Planning
Commission with a new institution named

e
union and states.
NITT Aayog (National Institution for
(b) recommend the principles. which
Transforming India).
should govern the grants of the

nc
revenues of the states out of the
NITIAayog
Consolidate Fund of India.
• The Commission's recommendations are The institution will serve as "Think Tank'
of the Government, a directional and
of advisory nature and hence, not binding policy dynamo.
on the government.
ra
NITIAayog will provide governments and
the central and state levels with relevant
Central Information strategic and technical advice across the
Commission (CIC) spectrum of key elements of policy. This
nt

• Right to Information became an act in includes matters of national and

2005. The aim is to make the international importance. PM is the
governments more transparent in its ex-officio chairman of NITI Aayog.
working. It came into operation on 12th
Functions ofNITIAayog
ie

October, 2005.
•
Under the act, a Central Information lo foster cooperative federalism through
structured Support, initiatives and
Commission and State Information
mechaisms with the states on a
Commissions needs to be constituted.
jm

• continuous basis, recognising that strong

The Central Information Commission states make a strong nation.
and State Information Commission hear To develop mechanisms to formulate
complaints from any person, who has credible plans at the village level and
been denied information by any aggregate these progressively at higher
@

government authority. levels of government.

• The Chief Infomation Commissioner To ensure, on areas that are specifically
and other Information Commissioners referred to it, that the interest of national
shall be appointed by the President on security are incorporated in ecomomic
the recommendation of a committee strategy and policy. To pay special
consisting of the Prime Minister, the attention to the sections of our society
leader of opposition in Lok Sabha and a that may be at risk of not beneftting
Union Cabinet Minister to be nominated adequately from economic progress.
by the PM.
To provide advice and encourage
• The RTI Amendment Bill, 2013 removes partnerships between key stakeholders
political parties from the ambit of the and national and international like
definition ofpublic authorities and hence minded Think Tanks, as well as
from purview of the RTI. educational and policy zesearch
• The Draft Provision 2017 which provides institutions.
for closer of case in case death of To create a knowledge, innovation and
applicant can lead to more attack on the entrepreneurial support system through a
lives of whistle blowers. collaborative community of national and
• The RTI Amendment Act 2018 gave the international experts, practitioners and
Centre the power to fix the tenures and other partners.
280 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity
. To
offer a platform for resolution of Recognised National
inter-sectoral and inter-departmental Political Parties
issues in order to accelerate the
implementation of the development Party Symbol Year of
agenda. Forrmation
• To actively monitor and evaluate the Bahujan Samaj Elephant 1984
implementation of progranmes and Party (BSP)
initiatives, including the identification of Bhartiya Janata Lotus 1980
resOurces sO as to strengthen Party (BJP)
the needed
the probability of success and scope of Communist Party Ears of 1925
delivery. of India (CPI) Corn and
Sickle

e
Members of NITI Aayog Communist Party Hammer, 1964
• of India-Marxist Sickle
Prime Minister of India as the

nc
(CPM) and Star
Chairperson. Indian National Hand 1885
• Governing Council comprising the Chief Congress (ING)
Ministers of all the States and Lt Governors Nationalist Clook 1999
of Union Territories. Congress Party
•
ra
The Regional Councils will be convened by (NCP)
the Prime Minister and will comprise of the All India Trinamool Flower 1998
Chief Ministers of States and Lt Governors Congress (AITC) and

of Union Territories in the region. These Grass

will be chaired by the Chairperson of the National People's Book 2019
nt

NITI Aayog or his nominee. Experts, Party

specialists and practitioners with relevant To be recognised as a National Party, a
domain knowledge as special invitees party needs to secure atleast 6% of the
nominated by the Prime Minister. valid votes polled in any four or more
ie

• The full-time organisational framework (in states in a general election to the

addition to the Prime Minister). Lok Sabha State Assembly.
• Vice-Chairperson: To be appointed by the In addition to it, it has to win atleast four
seats in the Lok Sabha from any state or
jm

Prime Minister.
• Members: Full-time. states as well.
• Part-time Members: Maximum of 2 from For getting recognition as a State
leading universities research organisations Party, a political party has to secure
and other relevant institutions in an atleast 6% of the valid votes in the state
@

ex-officio capacity. Part time members will concerned during a general election,
be on a rotational basis. either to that of the Lok Sabha or the
. State Assembly. Apart from this, the
Ex 0fficio Members : Maximum of 4 party should also win ninimum two
Inembers of the Union Council of seats in the assembly of the state
Ministers to be nominated by the Prime concerned.
Minister.
• Chief
Executive Oficer: To be appointed
by the Prime Mimister for a fixed tenure, in
Anti-Defection Law
the rank of Secretary to the Government of The 52nd Amendment Act of 1985
provided for the disqualification of the
India.
Members of Parliament and the State
• Secretariat as deemed necessary. concerned Legislatures on the ground of
defection from one Political Party to
Political Parties another.
• Political parties are voluntary associations .
The 91st Amendment Act of 2003 made
or organised groups of individuals, who one change in the provisions of the
share the same political views and who try Tenth Schedule. It omitted an
to gain political power through exceptional provision i.e.,
constitutional means and who desire to disqualification on ground of defection
work for promoting the mational interest. not to apply in case of split.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity 281
. A member of a House belonging to any
political Salient Features of Lokpal
party becomes disqualified for being a Member
and Lokayuktas Act
of the House a
(a) If he voluntarily gives up his membership of Lokpal bill consists of chairperson
such political party; or and a maximum of eight members
of which 50% shall be judicial
(b) If he votes or abstains from voting in such
members. 50% of members of
House contrary to any direction issued by his
Lokpal shall be from SC/ST/OBCs,
political party without obtaining prior
minorities and women.
permission of such party and such act has not •
been condoned by the party within 15 days. The selection of chairperson and
members of Lokpal shall be through
• An independent
member of a House (elected a
selection committee consist of

e
without being set-up as a candidate by any 1. Prime Minister
political party) becomes disqualified to remain
a member of the House, if he joins any political 2. Speaker of Lok Sabha

nc
party after such election. 3. Leader of opposition in Lok
• A nominated member of a House becomes Sabha
4. Chief Justice of India or a sitting
disqualified for being a member of the House, if
Judge of Supreme Court
he joins any Political Party after the expiry of six nominated by CII.
months from the date, on which he takes his
ra
seat in the House. 5. Eminent jurist on the basis of
recommendations of the first
four members of the selection
E-governance committee. Prime Minister has
E-governance simply means electronic governance. been brought under the purview
nt

Governments are providing various information on their of the Lokpal.

website about their working, citizen's interaction with
government becomes easier. National Human Rights
The National E-governance Plan was approved by the
Commission
ie

cabinet in May 2005.

Various E-governance projects of central government The National Human Rights
are MCA21 (Corporate Ministry), Pensions, Income Tax, Commission is a statutory body,
constituted in 1993 under the
jm

Central Excise, Passport Seva Project, Aadhar, E-courts,

Eprocurement and e-office (Central secretariat). Protection of Human Rights Act,
Besides, the Central Government, various State 1993.
Governments are undertaking various projects for The commission acts a watchdog of
Egovernance under the National E-governance plan. human rights in the country.
@

Egovernance has the potential to change the way The Chairperson of the NHRC shall
governments govern and its impact would be definetly be former Chief Justice of the
felt by the citizens of India. Supreme Court or a former Judge of
Edistrict is a mission mode project under e-governance. Its the Supreme Court.
objective under National Egovermance Policy is
Three persons having knowledge of
computerisation of services. Under it, different
programmes are conducted in following states human rights to be appointed as
members of the NHRC of which at
Gyandoot Project- Madhya Pradesh
• Compact 2020- Andhra Pradesh
least one willbe a VoInan.
• Chairpersons of varios
Bhoomi Project - Karnataka
- Friends commissions such as the National
-Kerala Commission for Scheduled Castes,
Bhulekh-Uttar Pradesh National Commission for
Scheduled Tribes and National
Lokpal and Lokayuktas Commission for Women, National
The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013 was Commission for Backward Classes,
legislated by the Parliament to provide for the the National Commission for the
establishment ofbody of Lokpal for the Union and Protection of Child Rights and the
Lokayukta for state to inquire into allegations of Chief Commissioner for persons
corruptions against certain public functionaries with Disabilities are ex-officio
and for matters connecting them. members of NHRC.
282 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity

National Commission for SCs Important Constitutional

and STs Amendments
• The National Commission for SCs and STs • The First Amendment 1951, to
have been established under the Article 338 Overcome certain practical
and 338-A respectively as a constitutional body. difficulties related to Fundamental
• They investigate all matter related to Rights. It made provision for special
constitutional and other legal safeguards for treatment of educationally and
SCs and STs and report to the President on socially backward classes and added
their working. And also advice on the planning Ninth Schedule to the Constitution.
process for socio-economic development of . The Third Amendment 1954, it
SCs and STs. substituted entry 33 of List III

e
(Concurrent List) of the Seventh
CONSTITUTIONAL Schedule to make it correspond to

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AMENDMENTS Article 369.
•
Under Article 368, of the Constitution, The Seventh Amendment 1956,
was necessitated on account of
Parliament has the power of amending the reorganisation of on states
Constitution.
ra linguistic basis and changed First
There are three methods and Fourth Schedules.
• Method of Simple Majority The Constitution
•
can be amended by simple majority in matters The Eighth Amendment 1960,
extended special provision for
relating to citizenship, abolishing or creating reservation of seats for SCs, STs and
nt

second chambers in the states creation of Anglo-Indians in Lok Sabha and

states or alteration of boundaries of existing Legislative Assemblies for a period
states etc. However these amendments does of 10 years from 1960 to 1970.
not come under purview of Article 368. By •
The Ninth Amendment 1960,
Special Majority Constitutional Amendments
ie

must be passed by each House by a majority of transferred certain territories to

Pakistan following September, 1958,
the total membership of that House and by a Indo-Pak Agreenent.
majority of not less than two-thirds of the
jm

•
members of that House present and voting. The Tenth Amendment 1961,
• By Special Majority of Parliament and
incorporated the territories of Dadra
Consent of States In this method, apart fronm and Nagar Haveli in Indian Union.
passing through a special majority in The Twelfth Amendment 1962,
Parliament,it should also be passed by half the incorporated the territories of Goa,
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the state legislatures. Daman and Diu in Indian Union.

.
The Thirteenth Amendment 1962,
Basic Features created Nagaland as a State of the
The present position is that the Parliament under Union of India.
• The Fourteenth Amendment 1962,
Article 368 can amend any part of the Constitution
including the Fundamental Rights, but without incorporated former French
affecting the 'basic features' of the Constitution. Territory of Puducherry in Indian
However, the Supreme Court is yet to define or
Union.
•
clarify as to what constitutes the 'basic feature' of The Eighteenth Amendment 1966,
1was Imade to facilitate reorgarnisation
the Constitution.
From the various judgements, the following have of Punjab into Punjab and Haryana
and also created the UT of
emerged as 'basic features' of the Constitution:
Chandigarh.
Supremacy of the Constitution, secular character of •
the Constitution, separation of powers between the The Twenty-First Amendment 1967,
Legislature, the Executive and the Judiciary.
included Sindhi as the 15th regional
language in the Eighth Schedule.
federal character of the Constitution, judicial
review, rule of law, parliamentary system, free and The Twenty-Second Amendment
fair elections, limited power of Parliament to 1969, Created sub-state of
amend the Constitution. Meghalaya within Assam.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity 283)

•
The Twenty-Third Amendment 1970,• The Seventy-Forth Amendment 1992,
extended the reservation of seats for SC/ST (Nagar Palika Bill) provided for
and nomination of Anglo-Indians for a Constitution of three types of
further period of 10 years (upto 1980) municipalities, reservation of seats for
•
The T'wenty-Seventh Amendment 1971, SC and ST, Women and the backward
provided for the establishment of the States of class.
Manipur and Tripura, the formation of the The Seventy-Ninth Amendment 1999,
Union Territories of Mizoram and Arunachal extended reservation for the SC/ST for
Pradesh. further period of ten years, i.e. up to
• The Thirty-First Amendment 1973, 25th January, 2010.
increased elective strength of Lok Sabha The Eightieth Amendment 2001,

e
from 525 to 545. Upper limit of certain changes were made to tax
representatives of state became 525 from distribution provided under Articles

nc
500. 269, 270 and 272 of the Constitution.
• •
The Thirty-Sixth Amendment 1975, made The Eighty-Fourth Amendment 2001,
Sikkim a state of the Indian Union. the number of representatives in the
• The Forty-Second Amendment 1976, Lok Sabha and State Assemblies to
freeze to current levels for the next
ra
provided supremacy of Parlianent and gave
primacy to Directive Principles over 25th years (till 2026).
Fundamental Rights and also added 10 •
The Eighty-Fifth Amendment 2001,
Fundamental Duties. New words-socialist, provided for consequential seniority in
secular and integrity, were added in the case of promotion (with relrospective
nt

Preamble. effect from 17th June, 1995) by virtue of

•
The Forty-Fourth Amendment 1978, the rule of reservation for government
restored the normal duration of Lok Sabha servants belonging to SCs/STs.
and Legislative Assemblies to 5 Years, Right The Eighty-Sixth Amendment 2002,
ie

to Property was deleted from Part III. It the act deals with the insertion ofa new
limited the power of the government to Article 21A after Article 21. The new
proclaim internal emergency. Article 21A deals with Right to Education
.
jm

The Fifty-Second Amendment 1985, "the state shall provide free and
inserted the Tenth Schedule in the compulsory education to all children from
Constitution regarding provisions as to the age of 6 to 14 years in such a manner
as the state may by law deternine."
disqualification on the grounds of defection.
@

•
The Fifty-Fourth Amendment 1986, The Eighty-Eighth Amendment 2003,
enhanced salaries of Judges of Supreme provides for the insertion of a new
Court and High Court. Article 268A. Service tax levied by
• union and collected and appropriated
The Fifty-Fifth Amendment 1986, by the Union and the states.
conferred statehood on Arunachal Pradesh. Amendment of Article 270,
.
The Fifty-Sixth Amendment 1987, Hindi Amendment of Seventh Schedule.
version of the Constitution of India was •
The Eighty-Ninth Amendment 2003,
accepted for all purposes and statehood was provides for the Amendment of Article
also conferred on the UT of Goa. 338. There shall be a National
• The Sixty-First Amendment 1989, Commission for the SCs/STs.
reduced voting age from 21 to 18 years for The Ninety-First Amendment 2003,
Lok Sabha and Assemblies.
amended the anti-defection laws and
• provided for Amendment of Article 75.
The Seventy-Third Amendment 1992,
(Panchayati Raj Bill) provided Gram Sabha The total number of Ministers,
in villages, direct elections to all seats in including the Prime Minister, and the
Panchayats and reservation of seats for the Council of Ministers shall not exceed
SC and ST, women and fixing of tenure of 5 15% of the total number of members of
years for Panchayats. the House of the People.
284 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity

• The Ninety-Second Amendment Act 2003, (NJAC) for appointment and transfer of
provided for the Amendment of Eigth chief Justice and Judges of Supreme
Schedule by adding four new regional Court and High Courts. But Supreme
languages (Bodo, Maithili, Santhali and Dogri) Court declared this unconstitutional and
thus, extending the list to 22 languages. void.
•
The Ninety-Third Amendment Act 2005, • The Hundredth Amendment Act, 2015,
(came into effect on 20th January, 2006) deals with the acquiring of territories by
provided for special provision, by law; for the India and transfer of certain territories to
advancement of any socially and Bangladesh in pursuance of the
educationally backward classes of citizens or agreements and its protocol between
India and Bangladesh.
for the SCs/STs in so far as such special
provisions relate to their admission to • The Hundred and One Amendment Act

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educational institutions including private 2017 deals with the Goods and Services
educational institutions. Tax act. The GST is a comprehensive

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.
The Ninety-Forth Amendment Act 2006, to indirect tax levy on manufacture, sale
provide for a Minister of Tribal Welfare in and consumption of goods as well as
newly created Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh. services at the national level.
• The Hundred and Two Amendment Act
•
The Ninety-Fifth Amendment Act 2009, 2018 provides the constitutional status
extended reservation for the SC/ST for
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to National Commission for Backward
further period of ten years, that is upto 25th Classes.
January, 2020.
• The Hundred and Three Amendment
• The Ninety-Sixth Amendmant Act 2011 Act 2018 provideds the 10% Reservation
substituted Odia' for Oriya'.
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for economically weaker section of society.

• The Ninety-Seventh Amendment Act 2011,
The Hundred and Fourth Amendment
provided for the Co-operative societies in Act 2020 extended the reservation for
Part IX B of the Constitution of India. It also ten years to SCs and STs in Lok Sabha
amended Article 19 (1) (c) and inserted and State Assemblies besides doing
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Article 43B. away with reservation for Anglo-Indian

• The Ninety-Eighth Amendment Act, 2012,
coMMunities.
Provided for special provisions for the. 105th Constitutional Amendment Act
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Hyderabad-Karnataka region of the state of 2021, amends the Article 342A to state
Karnataka. that the power of the President to
• Ninety-Ninth Act, 2014,
The Amendment specify the socially and educationally
regulates the procedure to be followed by the backward classes in the Central List for
National Judicial Appointments Commission the purposes of the Central govt.
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SOME PARLIAMENTARY TERMS

Quorum A Quorum is the minimum number Parliamentary Privileges Parliamentary
of members of a deliberative assembly privileges are specialrights, immunities
necessary to conduct the business of that and exemptions enjoyed by the two
group. Houses of Parliament, their committees
Quorum for either House is 1/10th of the and their members. Privileges are
total number of members of each House provided in Article 105 (Union
Legislature) and Article 194 (State
including the presiding officer.
Legislature) of the Constitution. Parliam
Penalty Ifa person sits or votes as a member entary privileges can be classified into
of either House of the Parliament before he two broad categories: collective
has complied with the requirements of privileges and individual privileges.
Article 99 (oath) or when he knows that he Collective Privileges The privileges
is not qualitied or that he is disqualified for belonging to each House of Parliament
membership thereof, he shall be liable in collectively are
respect of each day on which he so sits • It can exclude strangers from its
or votes to a penalty of 500 to be proceedings and hold secret sittings
recovered as a debt to the union. to some important matters.
discuss
GENERAL KNONLEDGE ~ Indian Polity 285)

• It can make rules to requlate its own Call-Atention Motion Amember (after
procedure and the conduct of its permission from the speaker) calls the
business and to adjudicate upon such attention of the minister to any matter of
matters. 'urgent public importance'. There is no
• The COurts are prohibited to enquire call-attention motion in the Rajya Sabha.
into the proceedings of a House or its Instead, there exists a motion called
Committees. 'motion for papers'.
Individual Privileges The Censure Motion It can be moved only in
privileges
belonging to the members individually are the Lok Sabha and only by the opposition.
They cannot be arrested during the It can be brought against the ruling
session of Parliament and 40 days government or against any minister for the
before the beginning and 40 days after failure of an act or seeking disapproval of
their policy. A censure motion must specify

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the end of a session. This privilege is
available only in civil cases and not in the charges against the government for
criminal cases. which it is moved.

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They have freedom of speech in No Confidence Motion It can be moved
Parliament. No member is liable to any only in the Lok Sabha and only by the
proceedings in any court for anything opposition. It needs the support of 50
said or any vote given by him in members to be admitted. It can be brought
Parliament. only against the Council of Ministers and
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Question Hour The first hour of every not against any individual minister. A
sitting in both Houses (11 am to 12 pm). No Confidence Motion, need not to
In this, questions are asked by members specify the reasons, for which it has been
and answered by ministers. Question moved. Ifit is passed, the Government has
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to resign.
hour is an important mechanism through
which Executive's accountability is Privilege Motion A resolulion introduced by
brought about. There are three types of the opposition that a minister has mislead the
questions House by giving wrong information.
() A Starred Question requires oral Cut Motions They are moved in the Lok
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It
answers. Supplementaries can be Sabha only. They are related to the
asked. budgetary process which seeks to reduce
(ii) An Unstarred Question requires a the amount for grants. The Cut Motion can
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written answer and hence, no be divided into three categories : policy

Supplementary questions can be cut, economy cut and token cut.
asked. This refers to the last
(iii) AShort Notice Questions These are Lame Duck Session
the ones which relates to matters of session of the existing Lok Sabha which is
held after a new Lok Sabha has been
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urgent public importance and can be

asked by members with notice shorter elected after the general election.
than ten days prescribed for an Whip A directive issued by any political
ordinary question. It is answered party to ensure the support of its members
orally. voting in favour or against a particular
Zero Hour the time gap between the issue on the iloor of the House. A person
question hour and the agenda is known as may lose the membership of the party and
zero hour. This time is allotted everyday for the legislature if he votes against the whip
miscellaneous business, call-attention or abstains from voting.
notices, questions on official stalementS Gerry Mandering It is the reorganisation of
and adjournment motions. It has been in electoral districts atempted by the ruling
existence since 1962. party to gain some electoral advantage in
It a
Motion is proposal brought before the the forthcoming elections.
House for ils opinion or decision. The Guillotine When due to lack of time,
different types of motions are demand for grants are put to vote whether
Adjournment Motion It leads to setting they are discussed or not in the House on
aside the normal business of the Houses the last day of the allotted time, it is called
for discussing a definite matter of urgent Guillotine and it concludes the discussion
public importance. on demands for grants.
286 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity

GLOSSARY
-
Address of President The President of Floor Crossing It refers to the defection
India addresses to both HoUses of of a Member of Parliament from the
Parliament assembled together at the party he was elected, to another political
commencement of the first session after party.
each general election to Lok Sabha and at Hung Parliament When in a general
the conmencement of the first session of election, no political party or coalition of
each year. the political parties is in a position to form
Adjournment of House The Speaker of a majority government, such a Parliament
the Lok Sabha determines, when the is called a Hung Parliament.

e
sitting of the House is to be adjourned Locus Standi It means on what grounds
since die or to a particular day or to an can a person ile a case. Earlier a person,

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hour or part of the same day. In the Rajya who did not have locus standi, could not
Sabha, hairman decides when Rajya file a case on behalf of aggrieved person on
Sabha needs to be adjourned. his own. Later when the concept of Public
Breach of Privileges If a person Interest Litigation (PIL) started, locus
disregards the privileges, rights and standi was waived and any citizen could
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immunities of the Members of Parlianent, file a PIL and bring to court's notice,
then he commits breach of privileges. violation of rights of people.
-
Closure It is the Parlimentary procedure, Point of Order It is an extra-ordinary
by which debate is closed and the measure process, which when raised, has the effect
under discussion brought up for an of suspending the business before the
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immediate vote. house and the member, who is on his legs

Contempt of Court It is disobedience to gives way. This is meant to assist the
or disregard of the rules, orders, process or Presiding Officer in enforcing the Rules,
, Directions and Provisions of the
dignity of a court which has power to
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punish such offence committed. Constitution for regulating the business of

Caretaker Government It is the the House.
government in the interregnun, Rule of Law The rule of law theory was
which comes into existence as soon as the given by English jurist Dicey. It has three
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Council of Ministers resigns or loses meanings. (a) absolute supremacy of law

confidence, or the Prime Minister dies. It (b) equality before law (c) Consitution is
lasts till the next Council of Ministers is the result of the ordinary law of the land.
formed. It is a constitutional necessity Subordinate Legislation The rules and
regulations made by the government
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under Article 74.

Delegated Legislation The Parliament within the purview of the authority
gives the Executive the Power to make delegated by the Legislature are called
rules and regulations regarding an act of Subordinate Legislation. It is the same as
the Parliament. Such rules are called Delegated Legislation.
delegated legislation. Untouchability It means social
Dissolution Under Article 85, the disabilities historically imposed on certain
President of India dissolves the House of classes of people by reason of their birth in
the people as per the procedure fixed by certain castes.
the Constitution. The dissolution ends the Vote on Account It is an estimate of an
very life of the existing House and fresh advance payment to enable government
election is essential to form a new House. departments to carry on their work from
Electoral Roll It is commonly knowTn as the beginning of fnancial year tillthe
voter's list. It gives the Iames of all those passing of the Appropriation Act.
people, who are eligible to vote. Vote of
Credit The Lok Sabha can grant
Extradition It is the surrender by a vote of credit to meet an expenditure
foreig state of a person accused of a whose amount or details cannot be
Crime to the state, where it was precisely stated on account of magnitude
committed. or the indefinite character of service.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity 287

FAQs(INDIAN POLITY)
1. When was the last meeting of the Conslituent 25. On which committee's recommen
Assembly held? dations was Fundamental Duties
2. Emergency provisions are enumerated in inserted in the Constitution?
which part of the Constitution? 26. Which Article of the Constitution has
3. Land Reforms have been exempted from been described as "Heart and Soul of
Judicial Sorutiny. Under which schedule have
the Constilution" by DrBRAmbedkar?
they been placed? 27. The Federation Systerm in India has
been borrowed from which country's
4. Which Vice President of India died while in Constitution?

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office?
28. In India, military and deience powers
5. Department of official languages, comes have been given to which authority?

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under which Ministry? 29. Under which Article of the
6. How many members of Rajya Sabha are there Constitution, has MGNAEGA been
in the Public AccOunts Committee? brought?
7. When was the First National Emergency 30. Under which Article of the
declared? Constitution untouchability has been
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8. Whowas the first Speaker of the Lok Sabha? regarded as an ofence?
9. When was the 42nd Constitutional 31. Who determines the salary and
Amendment Act enacted? emoluments of the Prime Minister?
10. What is the minimum age required to be a 32. Directive Principles of State Policy
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member of the Rajya Sabha? has been borrowed from which

11. When did the Constituent Assembly adopt the COuntry's Constitution?
National Flag? 33. At present, how many members are
12. What is the duration of the National Anthem there in the Rajya Sabha?
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"Jana Gana Mana"? 34. How much is the term of the Chief
Election Commissioner of lndia?
13. Under whom are the powers of the Union
Executive as per the Constitution? 35. Which committee of the Parliament
examines the audit reports of the
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14. When was the Rajya Sabha first constituted? Comptroller and Auditor General of
15. Taxes on services, was enshrined in the India?
Constitution by which amendment? 36. Which amendment gave Constitutional
16. By which Constitutional Amendment was Slatus to Panchayali Raj in India?
Delhi given the status of National Capilal
37. Disputes between centre and the
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Territory?
states or between states themselves
17. Under which part of the Constitution are is decided by which court?
provisions of municipalities mentioned? 38. The election of the President of India
18. In which year, was the Constituent Assembly is done by which process?
of India constituted? 39. Who was the Viceroy of India, when
19. Out of 389 members in the Constituent the Shimla Conference took place?
Assembly, how many were irom the 40. The High Court can stop the
Provinces? proceedings of an inferior court on
20. When President of India resigns from office, to grounds of exceeding its jurisdiction.
whom does he address his resignation letter? By which writ is this possible?

21. Who was Independent India's First Education 41. When was the First Amendment to the
Minister? Constitution done?
22. Provisions regarding anti-defection are 42. Who is the head of the State
Government?
mentioned in which Schedule of the
Constitution? 43. How many members of the Muslim
Community were there in the
23. After Independence, which state was the first Constiluent Assembly?
to be established?
24. Freedom of Press is mentioned under which
44. How are members of the Rajya Sabha
elected?
Article of the Constitution?
288 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Polity

45. Under which Article of the Constitution, the

President's Pardoning Powers been enshrined? Answers
46. Who was the Chairman of the Flag Committee? 1.24th January, 1950 2. Part
XVIIl 3. Ninth Schedule
47. Who was the Railway Minister in the Interim Cabinet
(1946)? 4. Krishna Kant 5. Home
Ministry 6. Seven 7.26th
48. Which party formed the government in Punjab
Province in 1937? October, 1962 8. GV
49. Who was the Chairman of the Advisory Committee on Mavalankar 9. 1976 10. 30
Fundamental Rights, of the Constituent Assembly? years 11. 22nd Juily, 1947
50. The provisions regarding Scheduled Areas and 12.52 seconds 13. President
Scheduled Tribes has been mentioned in which of India 14. 3rd April, 1952

e
Schedule of the Constitution? 15. 88th Amendment 16. 69th
51. Under which Article has "Right to Freedom of Religion" Amendment 17. Part IX (A)
been mentioned? 18. 1946 19. 296

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52. Financial Emergency has been mentioned in which 20.Vice-President 21. Abul
Article of the Constitution? Kalam Azad 22. Tenth
53. HoW many judges are there in the Supreme Court? Schedule 23. 1953, Andhra
54. When and where was the First High Court Pradesh 24. Article 19. 25.
established?
ra Swaran Singh Committee 26.
Article 32
55. Howmany states of Indiahave bicameral Legislature?
27. Canada 28. President of
56. When was the Sarkaria Commission appointed? India 29. Article 43 30. Article
57. Who is the Chairman of the 14th Finanoe 1731. Parliament 32. Ireland
Commission?
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33. 245 34. Six years or till 65

58. Under Jawaharlal Nehru, when was the Interim years whichever is earlier
Government established? 35. Public Accounts Committee
59. Who was the Chairman of the Union Constitution 36.73rd Amendment
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Committee of the Constiluent Assembly? 37. Supreme Court 38. Single

60. The republican form of Government, has been Transferable Vote 39. Lord
borrowed from which country's Constitution? Wavell 40. Prohibition
61. Who is the only President of India elected, as an 41. 1951 42. Governor 43. 31
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independent candidate? 44. By the members of

62. Who was the First Chief Justice of the Supreme Court Legislative Assemblies
of India? 45. Article 72 46. JB Kriplani
63. Under which Constitutional Amendment, was the 47. Asaf Ali48. Unionist Party
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rights and privileges of rulers of Princely States taken 49. Jawaharlal Nehru 50. 5th
away? Schedule 51. Article 25
52. Article 360 53. 34 54. 14th
64. By which Constitutional Amendment, was the voting
age reduced from 21 years 18 years? May, 1862, Kolkata 55. Six
56. 1983 57. Dr. YV Reddy
65. Who is the First Law Officer of India? 58. 1946 59. Jawaharlal Nehru
66. By which Article of the Constitution, UPSC has been 60. France 61. V.V. Giri 62. HL
created? Kania 63.26th Amendment
67. When did the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir 64. 61st Amendment
Come into force?
65. Attorney General
68. Who has the powers to declare an area as scheduled 66. Article 315
area for the protection of Scheduled Tribes?
67. 26th January, 1957
69. Which words were added to the Preamble by the 42nd 68. President of India
Constitutional Amendment Act? 69. Socialist, Secular and
70. On what ground can the President be impeached? Integrity 70. Violating the
71. Which President of India, won in the second counting Constitution 71. VVGiri
of votes?
 INDIAN
ECONOMY

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INTRODUCTION OF ECONOMICS

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The term economics comes from the ancient It deals with formulation of models
Greek word oikonomia mean management of explaining relationship between factors
a household. Economic is the social science such as consumnption, inflation, savings,
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that studies economic activities to gain investment, national income and
an understanding of the processes that finance.
govern the production, distribution and
consumption of goods and services in an ECONMY
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econonmy.
It represents production, distribution or
Economics includes the study of labour, land rade and consumption of goods and
and investments of capital, income and services in a given geographical area by
production and taxes and government different agents, which can be
ie

expenditures. Adam Smith, regarded as the individuals, businesses, organisation or

Father of Economics, defines Economics as, governments.
The science relating to the laws of The study of econoy of any country
production, distribution and exchange." helps us to find out the financial
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condition of the population as well as the

Branches of Economics different working sectors of the economy.
The two chief branches are as follow: The modern economy is a complex
machine. Its job is to allocate limited
@

Micro Economics resources and distribute output among a

• It is concerned with how supply and large number of agents mainly
demand interact in individual market and individuals, firms and governments
how these interactions determine the allowing for the possibility that each
price level of goods and services. agent's action can directly (or indirectly)
are
•
lt examine the economic behaviour of affect other agent's actions. There
individual actor/agent at the level of the two major type of economies.
economic entity-the individual firm, the
individual consumer and the individual Open Economy
worker. An economy said to be open, ifit has trade
economy.
Itexamine the behaviour ofbasic elements in With other economies. In this
the economy, including individual agents Market is mostly free from trade barriers
(such as households and firms or as buyers and where exports and imports from a
large percentage of the GDP
and sellers) and market and their interaction.
Degree of openness of an economy
determines a government's freedom to
Macro Economics pursue economic policies of its choice
It studies the economy as a whole and its
features like national income, unemploynent, and the susceptibility of the country to
the international economic cycles.
poverty, balance of payments and inflation.
290 GENERAL KNOVWLEDGE~ Indian Economy

Closed Economy Tertiary Sector

An economy in which no activity is These sector provides services to the
conducted with outside economies. In general population and business. Business,
simple language, no imports are brought transport, telecommunication, banking,
in and no exports are sent out in closed insurance, real estate, community and
economy. personmel services (also called service
The goal of such economy is to provide sector).
consumers with everything that they need
from within the economy's borders and Nature of Indian Economy
government act as the arbitrator,• Mixed Economy It is an economy,
articulator and facilitator. where both public and private sector

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In India, since independence, the co-exist. The nature of Indian economy is
a
government has played major role in a mixed economy. The term Mixed

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planning economic activities. economy was coined by JM Keynes. Mixed
economy are often under government
Present Status of Indian regulation.
Economy Developing Eeonomy Following features
Indian economy is world's 7th largest shows that Indian economy is a developing
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economy on nominal GDP basis and the economy
3rd largest by Purchasing Power Party (PPP) (a) Low per capita income.
in 2020.
(b) Occupational pattern is primary
According to CSO-the growth in GDP is sector dominated.
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estimated at 8.0%. (c) Heavy population pressure.

-
From 1951 until 2013, India GDP Annual
(d) Prevalence of chronic unemployment
Growth rate averaged 5.8% reaching an all
and underemployment.
time high of 10.2% in December of 1988 and
(e) Steadily improving rate of capital
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a record low of -5.2% in December of 1979.

formation.
On a per capita income basis, India ranked
(E) Low capital per head.
141th by nominal GDP and 126th by GDP
(PPP) in 2017, according to the IM. (g) Unequal distribution of wealth/
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assets.
Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) is a theory.
which states that exchanges rates between Agrarian Economy An agrarian economy
currencies are balanced, when their
is a type of economy that relies primarily
purchasing power is the same in each of the on agricultural industry including
livestock farming or corp production. It is
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two countries.
form of economy whose major factor of
production in the agricultural land.
Broad Sectors of Indian
Economy NATIONAL INCOME
Primary Sector OF INDIA
The primary sector include production of • National Income (NI) is the net value of
raw material and includes agriculture, all the final goods and services produced
forestry, ishing, mining and quarrying. by its nationals during a financial year. It
is a flow concept. In India, the financial
Secondary Sector year is from lst April to 31st March. The
The secondary sector of economy is national income is calculated annually.
involved in the production of finished According to National Income Committee
goods. Mining manufacturing, electricity, (1949). "A national income estimate
gas and water supply, construction (also measures the volume of commodities and
called manufacturing sector). service turned out during a given period
counted without duplication.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy 291
• NI =C+G+I+ (X-M) + (R-P) Income Method
-Depreciation – Indirect tax+
Subsidies. In this mnethod, a total of net income earned
by working people different sectors and
C= Total Consumption Expenditure commercial enterprises js obtained.
I=Total Investment Expenditure Incomes of both categories of people
G= Total Government Expenditure paying taxes and not paying taxes are added
X= Export to obtain national income. By income
M= Import method, national income is obtained by
(R-P)= Net Faction Income from abroad. adding receipts as total rent, total wages,
• When the National Income is measured total interest and total profit.
at the base year price, it is called
Consumption Method

e
at constant price.
. national income
When the national income is measured Itis also called expenditure method. Income
at the current year price, it is called is either spent on consumption or saved.

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year price.
. national income at currentat Hence, national income is the addition of
When NNP is caleulated Factor Cost total consumption and total savings.
(FC) it is called National Income. This In ndia, a combination of production
measure is calculated by deducting method and income method is used for
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indirect taxes and adding subsidies in estimating national income.
NNP at Market Price (MP).
NNPg = NNPp - Indirect Estimates of National
.
Taxes + Subsidies + Government Income in India
surplus = National Income.
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• In 1868, the first attempt was made by

-
• NI =NNP + Subsidies Indirect taxes
Dadabhai Naoroji in his book Poverty
GNP - Depreciation – Indirect taxes +
.
and Un-British Rule in India'. He
Subsidies. estimated the per capita annual income
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• The CSO released the

New series' of to be 20.
national accounts with base year 2011-12. The first scientific attempt to measure
instead of the base year 2004-05. The national income in India was made by
revisions happen every 5 years.
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professor VKRV Rao in 1931-32. He

• In India, Central Statistical Organisation
divided the Indian economy into
(1949) renamed as Central Statistical . 13 sectors.
Office (CSO) has been formulating In 1949. National Income Committee
National Income. under the Chairmanship of professor PC
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Mahalanobis was constituted. The other

National Income is the measurement of
the production power of an economic system members were professor VKRV Rao and
in a given time period. professor DR Gadgil.

National Wealth is the measurement of

•
The Government of India appointed a
the present assets available at a given time. National Income Committee under the
Chairmanship of Dr PC Mahalanobis.
Methods of Measuring This committee gave its first report in
1951 and final report New Series in l954.
National Income
Product Method NATIONAL INCOME
In this method, net value of fnal goods and AGGREGATES
services produced in a country during a
year is obtained, which is called total final Gross Domestic Product
product. This represents Gross Domestic (GDP)
Product (GDP). Net income earned in lt is the total money value of all final goods
foreign boundaries by nationals is added
and depreciation is subtracted from GDP and services produced within the
geographical boundaries of the country
during a given period of time.
292 GENERAL KNOVWLEDGE~ Indian Economy

GDP =C+G+I
Where, C= Consumption expenditure
G= Government expenditure
I= Investment expenditure
But in closed economy, (R - P) = 0, then GDP= GNP where, (R - P) = Net factor income
from abroad.

GDP At Market Price

(GDP MP)
• It refers to the total value of all the goods and services at market price produced during
a year within the geographical boundaries of the country.

e
• Market price refers to the
actual transacted price and it includes indirect taxes such as
Excise Duty, VAT, Service Tax, Customs Duty etc but it excludes government subsidies.

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GDP at Factor Cost (GDP C)
• GDP can be calculated at factor cost. This measure more accurately reveals the
income paid to factors of production.
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• The factor cost means the total cost of all factors of production consumed or used in
producing a good or service. It includes government grants and subsidies, but it
excludes Indirect Taxes.
• The difference between Market Price (MP) and Cost Price (CP) is because of the
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Indirect Taxes and Subsidies.

• -
GDP ge =GDPNp Indirect Taxes + Subsidies
• In terms of value addition, the Gross Domestic Product of the economy is the sum total
of the net value added and depreciation of all the firms of the economy.
ie

Calculation of GDP
• GDP in a country is usually calculated by the National Statistical Agency, which
compiles the information from a large nunmber of sources.
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• In case of India, it is Central Statistics Office (CSO), which estimates GDP However,
most countries follow established international standards for calculating GDP of their
country.
• The international standards for measuring GDP are contained in the System of
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National Accounts (SNA), 1993, compiled by the International Monetary Fund (IMF),
the European Commission (EC), the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD), the United Nations (UN) and the World Bank.
Source Central Statistics Office
PE = Provisional Estimales (CSO)

Nominal GDP and Real GDP

Nominal GDP is evaluated at current market prices. Therefore, nominal GDP will
include all of the changes in market prices that have occurred during the current year
due to inflation or deflation.
Real GDP is a better measurement of GDP since it reflects the increase in quantity of
goods and services by adjusting for any increase in prices. Real GDP is generally
measured by using base year prices of goods and services.
Gross Value Added (GVA)
• It is a measure of the value of goods and services produced in an area, industry or
sector of an economy. It national accounts, GVA is output minus intermediate
consumption, it isa balancing item the national accounts' production account.
of

• RBI dumps GVA model in August, 2018 and switches back to GDP to measure
econom.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy 293

Gross National Product (GNP) CSO and NSSO

GNP refers to the money value of total CSO (Central Statistical Organisation) was
output of production of final goods and set-up in 1950, constituted to publish national
services produced by the national income data.
residents of a country during a given
period of time, generally a year. NSSO (National Sample Survey Organisation)
was set-up in 1950, for conducting large sScale
Symbolically
sample survey to meet the data needs of the
GNP =GDP + (X-M) + (R -P) cOuntry for the estimation of national income
+
GNP =C +G+I+(X- M)
(R-P) and other aggregates.
X= Exports In May 2019, Ministry of Statistics and

e
M= Imports Programme Implementation has merged the
(R-P) =Net factor income from abroad both CS0 and NSSO in a single body named as

nc
National Statistical 0ffice.
Net National Product (NNP)
It is obtained by subtracting depreciation
value (i.e. capital stock consumption)
Measurement of Growth
from GNP and Development
ra
Symbolically. Human Development Report
NNP = GNP-Depreciation The Human Development Report (HDR),
National Income = NNP-Indirect taxes published by the UNDP since 1990, captures
+ Subsidies. the essence of human development. Human
nt

development report rank countries based on

their ranking on Human Development Index
Personal Income (PI) (HDI). HDI was devised by Pakistani
It is that income, which is actually economist Mahbub ul Haq along with Indian
ie

obtained by the individual or nationals. economist Amarya Sen.

Symbolically. In 2022HDR Index, India has been placed at
Personal Income = National Income + 132nd position with a score of 0.633.
- Switzerland, Norway and Iceland occupies
jm

Transfer Payments Social Security

Contributions -Corportate Tax - first three positions.
Undistributed Profits. Meaning of HDI Value
Personal Disposable Very high Hurman 0.800and above
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development
Income (PDI) High Human 0.700 and above
When personal direct taxes are development
subtracted from personal income, the Medium Human 0.550 and above
obtained value is called personal development
disposable income.
Low Human 0.350 and above
Symbolically.
development
PDI= PI – Direct taxes
National Statistical Organisation (NSO) Happy Planet Index (HPI)
was set-up on 1st June, 2005, for
HPÍmeasures the ecological efficiency
promoting statistical network in the with
country. It was then headed by professor Which human well-being is delivered. It is
SD Tendulkar. Gross Value Added (GVA) calculated by multiplying indices of ife
1s a measure in economics of the value of satisfaction (estimated by compiling
goods and services produced in an area. responses to international surveys) and life
industry or sector of an economy.
expectancy and dividing that product by
GVA = GDP + Subsidies - (direct, sales)
ecological footprint.
taxes.
294 GENERAL KNOVWLEDGE~ Indian Economy

Gross National Happiness (GNH)

The term Gross National Happiness was coined in 1972, by Bhutan's then King Jigme
Singye Wangchuck.
GNH was designed in on attempt to define an indicator that measures quality of life or
social progress in more holistic and psychological terms than the economic indicator
of GDP

Various lndex of Human Development Report 2020

Index Variables Country's Rank
Human Life expectancy at birth index. Education index Norway
Development comprises mean year of schooling and expecied

e
Ireland
Index (HDI) year of schooling. GNI Per Capita (PPPUS $) Index Switzerland
2020 for decent standard of living.

nc
Inequality Introduced in HDR-2010.Measures the average level Norway
adjusted HDI of human development after adjusting for inequality. If lceland
(IHDI) 2020 perfect equality, HDI = IHDI If, inequality, HDI< IHDI Switzerland
Greater the inequality in society, grealer the
divergence between HDI and IHDI.
Gender Inequity Introduced in HDR-2010Gil exposes diferences in Switzerland
ra
Index (GI) the distribution. It measures gender inequality based Denmark
2020 on three dimensions and five indicators. Sweden
Indicators
Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR);
Adolescent Fertility Rate (AFR);
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Educational attainment (secondary level and

above);
Parlianentary representation; and
Labour force participation,
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Multidiensi MPI launched by Oxford Poverty and Human

onal Poverty Developrment Initiative (OPHI) and UNDP in July
Index (MPI) 2010.
It is a measure of serious deprivation in the
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dimesnsion of health, education and living

standards that combines the number of deprived
and intensity of their deprivation.
Indicators Nutrition + Child Mortality (Health);
Years of Schooling + Children enrolled
(Education); Cooking fuel + Water Toilet + Floor
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+ Electricity + Assets (Standard of living).

NITIAAYOG
NITIAayog or National Institution for Transforming India Aayog came into existence on
lst January, 2015. It is policy-making think-tank of government that replaces Planning
Commission and aims to involve states in economic policy-making. It will provide
strategic and technical advice to the Central and the State Governments.
Basic Structure of NITIAayog

Chairperson Prime Minister

Governing Council Its members are Chief Minister and Administrators of the Union Territories
Special Invitees Experts, Specialists and Practitioners with dormain knowledge (nominated
by Prime Minister)
Vice-President Appointed by the Prime Minister
Mernbers Full time mermbers and maximum iwo ex-offcio mermbers and university
teacher
Ex-officio Mernbers Four Central Ministers
CEO Secretary level officer from centre, who will be appointed for a fixed term.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Economy 295

15 Years Vision Document National Development

The Ist 15 year vision document come into Council (NDC)
effect from 2017-18 after the end of the NDC is neither a constitutional body nor
12th five year plan. It will be formulated statutorv body. The NDC was constituted on
with centre objective of eradication of 6th Auo1st. 1952, with Prime Minister as
poverty. These will be framed keepig in
mind the country's social goals and the the Ex-officio Chairman and the Secretary of
sustainable agenda.
he Planning Commission as the Ex-officio
development Secretary of the NDC. Chief Minister of all
According to NITI Aayog, the issue was the states and the members of the Planning
discussed at length and a decision was Commission. Lieutenant Governors and
taken at the highest level 15 year Vision Administrator of Union Territories are the

e
Documents divided into tvO parts members of the NDC.
.
7-years National Developnment

nc
Agenda The first 15-year vision STRATEGIES
document will start from 2017-18,
along with 7-year National OF PLANNING
Development Agenda which
wl lay Harrod-Domar Strategy
down the schemes, programmes and
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strategies to achieve the long-term •
irst Five Year Plan was based on this
vision. strategy.
. •
3-years National Development Agenda This strategy emphasised the role of
The long vision documents will capital accumulation's dual character,
which on the one hand increases the
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comprise of three year mass economic

framework. National Development national income (demand side role) and
Agenda will be reviewed after a gap of the other hand increases the
every three years to ensure that it was production capacity (supply side role).
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aligned with financial needs and

requirements. For the
Srst Nehru-Mahalanobis Strategy
Development Agenda the review would • Second Five Year Plan was based on this
be done in 2019-20, in line with the strategy.
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termination year of the 14th Finance Based on Russian experience, this strategy
Commission. is a two sector model, i.e. consumer good
• 2017-18 to 2032-33 Vision Document sector and capital good sector.
• 2017-18 to 2024-25 National Develop The strategy emphasised investment in
@

ment Agenda heavy industry to achieve industrialisation

• 2017-18 to 2019-20 Review of Develop for rapid economic development.
ment Agenda (to be repeated after every
three years).
Gandhian Strategy
It was enunciated by Acharya SN Agarwal
Planning Commission in his Gandhian Plan' in 1944. The basic
objective of the Gandhian Model is to
Planning commission was formed on 15th
March, 1950, under the Chairmanship of P. raise the material as well as cultural level
of the masses so as to provide basic
Jawaharlal Nehru. It was to formulate plans standard of life.
for the economic development of the country
on the basis of the available physical,
capital and human resources.
LPG Strategy
.
Liberalisation, Privatisation and
Planning commission was dissolved on
17th August, 2014.
Globalisation (LPG) strategy of planning
was introduced by the Finance Minister
On 1st January, 2015, Government of India
of that time, Dr Mlanmohan Singh under
established NITI Aayog (National Institution Narsimha Rao Government. The strategy
for Transforming India) to replace planning ended the 'license permit raj' and opened
commission. the hitherto areas reserved for the public
sector to private sector.
296 GENERAL KNOVWLEDGE~ Indian Economy

PURA Strategy
• PURA stands for providing Urban amenities in rural areas and was the brainchild of
APJ Abdul Kalam.
• This strategy emphasises on three connectivities--physical, electronic, knowledge and
thereby leading to economic connectivity to enhance the prosperity of cluster of
villages in rural areas.

Five Year Plans (At a Glance)

Plan Objectives Assessment
Highest priority accorded to

e
First Plan Agriculture production increased
(1951-56) agriculture in view of large import of dramatically.
(Harrod foodgrains and inflation. National income went up by 18% and

nc
Domar 31 % of total plan outlay on per capita income by 11%.
. Target growth 2.1% and achieved
Model) agriculture followed by transport and
communication, social services, 3.6%.
power and industry.
Eoonomist KN Raj was the architect.
ra
Second Rapid industrialisation with particular Moderately successful, targeted
Plan emphasis on the development of growth rate was 4.5% but achieved
(1956-61) basic and heavy industry, also called 4.2%.
Nehru Mahalanobis Plan. Durgapur (UK), Bhillai (USSR) and
To increase national income by 25%, Rourkela (W Germany) sleel plants
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expansion of employment and set-up with foreign help. Atomic

reduction of inequality. Energy Commission came into being
To increase the rate of investment in operation and TIFR was set-up.
from 7% to 11 % of GDP. Inflation and low agricultural
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production and Suez crisis.

Third Plan Indian entered take off Indo-China (1962) and Indo-Pakistan
(1961-66)
eoO)
slage (WW Self-reliant ano (1965) conflict diverted the resources
economy was the
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(Gadgil selí-generaling from development to defence.

Yojana) goal. Targeted growth 5.6% aohieved
To increase the nalional income by growth 2.72%.
30% and per capita income by 17%. The situation created by Indo-Pakistan
Conflict (1965), two SuCcessive years
of severe drought, devaluation of
@

Currency by 57%, general rise in

prices and erosion of resOurces for
plan delayed.
Annual Due to the unfortunate failure of the third plan, the production in various sectors
Plans of the economy became stagnant. In 1966, the Government of India declared
the devaluation of rupee, with a view to inorease the exports of the country. So,
the fourth plan was postponed and three annual plan were implemented. Some
of the economisis called this period i.e. from 1966 to 1969 as Plan Holiday.

Fourth Laid special emphasis on improving First iwo years of the plan wwere
Plan the condition of under privileged and sUccessful with record foodgrain
(1969-74) weaker section. production on account of Green
Revolution.
Targeted growth 5.7% hOwever,
achieved growth 3.3%.
The plan was failure on account of run
way inflation (due to 1972 oil crisis or
Supply shock) huge influx of refugees
from Bangladesh post 1972 Indo-Pak
War.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy 297

Plan Objectives Assessment

Fifth Plan Original approach to plan prepared Targeted growth 4.4% and achieved
(1974-79) by C Subramaniam.However, final growth 4.8%.
draft prepared by DP Dhar with Fifth Plan terminated one year before
objectives of rernoval of poverty the plan period in March 1978.
(Garibi Hatao) and altainment of Brought to the core problem
self-reliance. associated with coalition government
Introduction of minimum needs making a mockery of formIulation of
programme. Five Year Plan.

Plan Objectives
Annual Plan (Gunar Myrdal) was brought out by Janata Party Government

e
Annual Plan
under Morarji Desai in 1978. The focus of the plan was enlargement of the
ermployment potential in agriculture and allied activities to raise the income of

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the lowest income classes through minimum needs programme. Annual Plan
period was 1979-80.
Sixth Plan Rermoval of poverty through Indian economy made an all round
(1980-85) strengthening of infrastructure for progress and most of the targets
both agricullure and industry.The fixed by the plan was achieved.
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emphasis was laid on greater Targeted growth 5.2% and achieved
management, efficiency and growth 5.4%.
monitoring of various schemes.
Involvement of people in formulating
schernes of development at local
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level.
Seventh To accelerate foodgrains produclion Foodgrain production grew by
. 3.23% as compared to a long-term
Plan To increase ernployment
(1985-90) opportunities. growth rate of 2.68% between
To raise productivity. 1967-68 and 1988-89.The Indian
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economy finally crossed the barrier

of the Hindu rate of growth
(professor Raj Krishna).
Average annual growth rate was
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6.0% as against the targeted 5.0%

and average of 3.5% in the previous
plans.
Annual Plan The Eighth Plan could not take off due to fast changing political situations at
the centre. Therefore, from 1990-1992, Annual Plans were forMulated.
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Eighth Plan Process of fiscal reforms and Higher economic growth rate of
(1992-97) economic reforms initiated by 6.6% achieved as against the
Narsimhan Rao Government to targeted 5.6%.
prevent another major economic Improvement in current account
orisis. deficit.
To increase the average industrial Significant reduction in fiscal
growth rate to 7.5%. delicit.Agriculture growth and
To provide a new dynamism to the industrial growth increased.
economy and improve the quality of Unshackled private sector and
life of the common man. foreign investrnent control was the
Also called as Rao-Manmohan Singh prime reason for high growth.
Model. First indicative plan. Overall socio-econonic
development indicators low.
298 GENERAL KNOVWLEDGE~ Indian Economy

Ninth Plan Grovwth with social justice and Global economic slow down and
(1997-2002) equality. other factors led to revision of
Emphasis on seven Basic Minimum targeted growth rate frorm 7% to
Services (BMSS), which included safe 6.5%, which too was not achieved.
drinking water, uiversalisation of The economy grew at 5.4% only.
primary education, streamlining PDS Agriculture grew by 2.1% as against
among others. the target of 4.2% per annum.
Pursued the policy of fiscal
consolidation. Ensuring food and
nutritional security to all.
Empowerment of women,
SC/STs/OBCs.

e
Tenth Plan The Tenth Plan ained at achieving Increase in GDP growth to 7.5%
(2002-2007) 8% GDP growth. Oompared to 5.4% in the Ninth Plan.
Assuming that lICOR (Incremental The lower than targeted growth rate

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Capital Output Ratio will decline frorn of 8% was due to low growth of 3%
4.53% to 3.58%. in the first year of Tenth Plan
It aimed at increasing domestic Increase in gross domestic saving
saving rate from 23.52% to 29.4% of and investment.
GDP and gross capital formation to Reduction in ICOR to 4.2% though
ra
32.2% from 24.4% of GDP. higher than targeled but less than
To improve the overall framework of Ninth Plan's ICOR of 4.53%.
governance. Agrioulture was the core Increase in foreign exchange
element reserves to US S 287 billion.
Average GDP growth of 8.1% per •
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11th Plan *
The growth rate during the 11th plan
(2007-2012) year. period was about 7.9%, which is
Agricultural GDP growth of 4% per higher than the 7.5% growth rate
year. Generation of 58 million achieved in the 10th plan.
enployment opportunities. As against the target of 4% growth
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Sex ratio for age group 0-6 years to in the agricultural sector, the plan
be raised to 935 by 2011-12 and to could register a growth of only 3%
950 by 2016-17. during 2007-12 period.
The services sector continued to
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register a growth rate of more than

10%. However, the industrial growth
rate showed at 7.9%.
12th Plan Real GDP growth rate of 8.2%. The plan period was extended by six
(2012-2017) Agriculture growth rate of 4.0%. months. (i.e. Septermber, 2017)
@

Manufacturing growth rale of 10%. First four years of the plan is

estimated 6.8%

DEMOGRAPHY
Demography is the study of human 1981-2011Period of declining rate
population. It studies a variety of variables The year 1921 is known as the Year of
related to population like size, growth, Great Divide.
distribution, density, composition and
temporal variation. CENSUS 2011
Population Trend in India The Census 2011, was the 15th National
. Census of the country. The census has
1891-1921 Period of stagnant
population covered 35 States and Union Territories,
• 640 Districts, 5767 Tehsils. 7742 Towns
1921-1951 Period of steady growth
and more than 6 lakh villages.
• 1951-1981 Period of high growth
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Economy 299

Sectorial Growth Rate in Different Five Year Plans

Plan Target Agriculture Industry Services Actual Priority
Growth Growth Areas/Achieverments
Rate Rate
First 2.1 2.71 5.54 4.17 3.6 Development of
Plan agriculture and Allied
sectors and Community
Development
Programme
Second 4.5 3.15 5.59 4.94 4.21 Basic industries, Health

e
Plan sector
Third Plan 5.6 -0.73 6.28 5.26 2.72 Food and Agriculture

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Fourth 5.7 2.57 4.91 3.22 3.3% Agriculture and
Plan Irrigation, Self-reliance
Fifth Plan 4.4 3.28 6.55 5.66 4.83 Public health and Social
welfare, Poverty
elimination
ra
Sixth Plan 5.2 2.25 5.32 5.41 5.4 Agriculture, Industry,
Energy, Poverty
Alleviation Programmes
Seventh 5 3.47 6.77 7.19 6 Energy and Food
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Plan
Eighth 5.6 4.68 7.58 7.54 6.68 Human Resources
Plan Development
Ninth 6.5 2.06 4.51 7.78 5.4 Social Justice, Human
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Plan Development
Tenth 8 2.34 8.9 9.4 7.5 Employment, Energy
Plan and Social
reconstruction
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Eleventh 8.1 4 10.5 9.9 Rapid econormic

Plan growth, Employment
generation,
Šelf-reliance and
Education
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Twelfth 8 04 10.9 10 7.1 Faster, sustainable and

Plan (approx) more inclusive growth

• Top 5 States in Sex Ratio (0-6 age group) India

- Mizoram > Meghalaya >
Andaman and Tolal population 121,08,54,977
Nicobar Islands > Puduchery > Males 623.7 million
Chhattisgarh. (51.54%)
Fermales 586.46 million
• Top 5 States of Population UP > (48.46%)
Maharashtra > Bihar > West Bengal > Population of 0-6 age 16,44,78, 150
Andhra Pradesh. group (13.58%)
• Bottom 3 States of minimum population Population density (per 382
sq km)
Sikkim < Mizoram < Arunachal
Pradesh. Literacy 73.0% (Male-80.9%
• Top 5 States of literacy-Kerala > and Female-64.6%)
Decadal Growth Rate 18,14,55,986 (17.7%)
Mizoram > Goa > Tripura > Himachal Population Increase 181 million
Pradesh. (2001-2011)
Sex Ratio 943: 1000
300 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE Indian Economy

National Population Policy Targets of World Population

• Population policy refers to all those legal, Prospects, 2000
administrative programmes and other • To achieve zero growth rate of
government efforts, which aim at population by 2045.
reducing birth rate and improving the • To reduce Infant Mortality Rate below 30
quality of life. per thousand live births by 2010.
• After independence, the Government of • To reduce Maternal Mortality Rate to
India adopted a national policy on
population with the objective to check below I per thousand live births.
the increase in birth rate and improve To reduce birth rate to 2.1 per thousand
the standard of living of people. by 2010.

e
•
This policy has been revised from time to To reduce total fertility rate to 2.1 by
time and its scope has been widened. It 2010. It is estimated that the population

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has been very effective in initiating of India will be 126.4 crores by 2016.
measures for population control.
Main Features ofWPP, 2000
New National Population •
Appointment of a National Commission
on population, presided over by the
Policy (2000)
ra
• The New National Population Policy Prime Minister:. The Chief Ministers of
the States, Administrators of Union
(NPP) provides a policy framework to Territories and other related ministers to
meet the reproductive and child health be its mnembers.
needs of the people of India for the next .
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State Commissions population

10 years.
headed by Chief Ministers. The new
policy to be implemented by the
Panchayats, municipalities and
UIDAI
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The Unique ldentification Authority of India is

Non-Government Organisations.
a statutory authority under provisions of the
Aadhar (Targeted Delivery of Financial and
jm

other subsidies, Benefits and Services) Act,

2016 under the Ministry of Electronics and
Information Technology. Earlier UIDAI was
functioning as an attached office of erstwhile
Planning Commission.
@

It was created with the objective to issue

Unigue ldentification numbers (UID), named
as 'Aadhaar' to all residents of India.
The numbers will be linked to the basic
biometric information of the person,
including photograph, iris and fingerprints.

POVERTY
• Poverty is a social phenomenon Organisation (NSSO) on monthly per
where few section of society is unable capita consumption expenditure. n
to fulfil even basic necessities of life. India, traditionally the poverty line was
• Planning Commission (Now, NITI defined on the basis of calorie intake.
Aayog) is the authority, which publishes According to this, 2100 calories a day has
the poverty estimates based on various been fixed for urban areas and 2400
rounds of National Sample Survey calories in rural areas.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy 301
• However, this methodology was changed It stipulated a benchmark daily per
considering other requirements of the capita expenditure of 27 and 33 in
poors such as housing, clothing and rural and urban areas respectively to
education etc. The current estimation of arrive at a poverty line.
poverty are based upon the
recommendation of Suresh Tendulkar
Committee (2005) that recommended
to shift away from the calorie based
model.

Statewise Population Statistics (2011)

e
State/UT Total Sex Ratio Population Decadal Literacy Proportion of

nc
Territory Population (per 1000 Density Rate Rate State/UT Popu
fermales) (per km²) (growth rate) (in %) lation (in %)
Total India 1210569573 943 382 17.7 73.00 100
Jarmmu and 12541302 889 56 23.6 67.2 1.04
ra
Kashmi
Himachal 6864602 972 123 12.9 82.8 0.57
Pradesh
Punjab 27743338 859 551 13.9 75.8 2.29
nt

Chandigarh 1055450 818 9258 17.2 86 0.09

Uttarakhand 10086292 963 189 18.8 78.8 0.83
Haryana 25351462 879 19.9 2.09
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573 75.6
Delhi 16787941 868 11320 21.2 86.2 1.39
Rajasthan 68548437 928 200 21.3 66.1 5.66
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Utar Pradesh 199812341 912 829 20.2 67.7 16.51

Bihar 104099452 918 1106 25.4 61.8 8.60
Sikkim 610577 890 86 12.9 81.4 0.05
@

Arunachal 1383727 938 17 26 65.4 0.11

Pradesh
Nagaland 1978502 931 119 -0.6 79.6 0.16
Manipur 2570390 992 115 18.6 79.2 0.21
Mizorarm 1097206 976 52 23.5 91.3 0.09
Tripura 3673917 960 350 14.8 87.2 0.30
Meghalaya 2966889 989 132 27.9 74.4 0.25
Assam 31205576 958 398 17.1 72.2 2.58
West Bengal 91276115 950 1028 13.8 76.3 7.54
Jharkhand 32988134 948 414 22.4 66.4 2.73
Odisha 41974218 979 270 14 72.9 3.47
Chhattisgarh 25545198 991 189 22.6 70.3 2.11

Madhya 72626809 931 236 20.3 69.3 6.00

Pradesh
302 GENERAL KNOVWLEDGE~ Indian Economy

State/UT Total Sex Ratio Population Decadal Literacy Proportion of

Territory Population (per 1000 Density Rate Rate State/UT Popu
fermales) (per km²) (growth rate) (in %) lation (in %)
Gujarat 60439692 919 308 19.3 78 4.99
Daman and 243247 618 2172 53.8 87.1 0.02
Diu
Dadra and 343709 774 700 55.9 76.2 0.03
Nagar Haveli
Maharashtra 112374333 929 365 16 82.3 9.28

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Andhra 84580777 993 308 11 67 6.99
Pradesth

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Karnataka 61095297 973 319 15.6 75.4 5.05
Goa 1458545 973 394 8.2 88.7 0.12
Lakshadweep 64473 946 2049 6.3 91.8 0.01

Kerala 33406061 1084

ra
860 4.9 94 2.76
Tamil Nadu 72147030 996 555 15.6 80.1 5.96
Puduchery 1247953 1037 2605 28.1 85.8 0.10
nt

Causes of Rural Poverty New Definition of Slums

• Rapid Population growth
As per the Pranab Sen
• Lack of capital new methodology.
Committee's
ie

• Lack of there has been increase in the urban

alternate employment opportunities
other than agriculture slum population in 2011 to
• Excessive population pressure on agriculture 93.06 million from 75.26 million
•
Illiteracy estimated in 2001. This is an increase
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of 26.31%.
• Regional disparities
• Joint family system As perthe new definition, any compact
. housingcluster or settlement of atleast
Child marriage
20 households with a collection of
• Lack of proper implementation of PDS poorly built tenements, which are
@

(Public Distribution System) mostly. temporary in nature with

inadequate sanitary, drinking water
Causes ofUrban Poverty facilities and unhygienic conditions
• Migration from rural areas will be termed as slums.
.
Lack of skilled labour
• Lack of housing facilities
• Limited job opportunities in cities
Poverty and its Study
• Lack of vocational education/ training in India
Various economists and organisations
have studied the extent of poverty in
India. Some of them are as follows:
Dandekar and Rath's Study
of Poverty in India
Dr VM Dandekar and Mr Nilkantha
Rath estimated the value of the diet
with 2250 calories as the desired
minimum level of nutrition.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy 303

They estimated that in 1968-69 about 40% report, 41.8% population in rural areas and
of the rural population and a little more 25.7% population in urban areas was living
than 50% of the urban population lived below poverty line.
below the poverty line.
Rangarajan Report on
Montek Singh Ahluwalia's Study Poverty
of Rural Poverty (1977) The expert group under the Chairmanship
MS Ahluwalia studied the trends in of Dr C Rangarajan to review the
incidence of rural poverty in India for the Methodology for measurement of poverty
period 1956-57 to 1973-74. He used the in the country constituted by the Planning
concept of poverty line, i.e. an expenditure Commission in June, 2012 has submitted

e
Jevel ofR 15 in l960-61 for rural areas amd its report on 30th
June, 2014. The report
* 20 per person for urban areas. retained consumption expenditure

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estimates of NSSO as the basis for
Estimate of Poverty by the determining poverty. On the basis of this, it
Seventh Finance Commission pegged the total number of poor in ndia at
(1978) 363 million or 29.6% of the population.
The Seventh Finance Commission made This is higher than 269.8 million poor
ra
an attemnpt to have a more inclusive people or 21.9% pegged by the Suresh
concept of poverty line. Tendulkar Committee.
Since, the NSS data cover only household
consumer expenditure, thus, to get a more Highlights of the Report
nt

inclusive measUre of welfare O The highlights of the report are as follows:

deprivation, an estimate of the benefit of
public expenditure was added to private () The aily per capita expenditure is
consumer expenditure norm for pegged at 32 for the rural poor and at
F47 for the urban poor.
ie

calculating the augmented poverty line.

(i) Poverty line based on the average
Tendulkar Committee monthly per capita expenditure is
pegged at 972 for rural areas and
Report
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71407 for urban areas.

This committee moved away from just
calorie criterion definition to a broader (ii) The percentage of people below the
definition of poverty that also includes poverty line in 2011-12 was 30.95 in
expenditure on health, education, clothing rural areas and 26.4 in urban areas.
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in addition to food. According to this

304 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

Unemployment
Unemployment in India Involuntary Unemployment
Unemployment refers to a situation, when It refers to a situation in which the persons
a person is able and willing to work at the are interested to work but the jobs are not
prevailing wage rate, but doesn't get the available. Such persons are included in the
opportunity to work. Unemployment is categories of unemployed persons. It is also
often used as a measure of the health of called open employment.
the economy. The most frequently cited
measure of unemployment is Cyclical Unemployment
unemployment rate. That is the number of This type of unemployment is due to the

e
unemployed persons divided by the recession in the economy. During recession,
number of people in the labour force. there is less requirement of man-power on

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account of the decrease in the level of
Estimation of economic activities and thus causes cyclical
Unemployment unemployment. This type of unemployment
is prevalent in the developed countries.
• B
Bhagwati Committee on unemploy This is also known as Keynesian
ra
ment estimates (1973) set-up by the Unemployment.
Planning Commission gave three
estimates of unemployment. Frictional Unemployment
These ae follows:
as This type of unenployment is caused by
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Usual Principal Status (UPS) people taking time out of work, being
Persons who remained unemnployed between jobs or looking for a job.
for a major part of the year. This is The one cause of its evolution is decline of
also called 'open unemployment'. one industry and rise of the other and
labour take some time before moving to the
ie

Current Weekly Status (CWS)to

A person is considered be other industry. This type of unemployment
employed if he or she pursues any is short-term in nature.
one or more of the gainful activities
for at least one hour on any day of the Seasonal Unemployment
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reference week. It is an account of the seasonal nature of the

Current Daily Status (CDS) productive activities, i.e., some productive
Persons who did not find work on a activities are carried out only for certain
day or some days during the duration of a year. Therefore, the persons
@

SUIvey week. This is the employed in such activities are unemployed

comprehensive measure of during off-season. This, generally, occurs in
unemployment, including chronic as agro-based industries.
well as underemployment.
Disguised Unemployment
TYPES OF It is a situation, in which more persons are
UNEMPLOYMENT employed to do a job which can be done
with equal efficiency by less number of
Generally. unemployment Can be workers.
classified into two types
Structural Unemployment
Voluntary Unemployment
on
It refers to a mismatch ofjob vacancies with
This type of unemployment is account the supply of labour available, caused by
of people not interested to take the shifts in the structure of the economy.
employment i.e. jobs are available but the Structural joblessness results from things
persons are not interested in being like skills mismatches and policy to address
employed. It is psychological in nature. such mismatches is inherently longer term
Therefore, such types of persons are not in Scope, involving education and
included in the category of unemployed. encouraging innovation.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy 305)

Technological Unemployment
Technology has always displaced some work and jobs. Thus, technological
unemployment is a term used to describe the lack or loss of jobs due to technological
changes or innovations. This type of unemployment typically comes from workers either
being replaced by machines or having their jobs made easier and require fewer workers to
accomplish the same task. It is one of the reasons ofjobless growth.
Employment, Poverty, Rural and Urban Development Programmes
Narme of the Programmes Year of Objectives/Desoriptions
Beginning
Swarana Jayanti Shahari Rozgar 1997 To provide gainful employment to urban

e
Yojana (SJSRY), it has been unemployed and under empoloyed poor
revamped with effect from April through self-employment of wage employment.
2009.

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Swaranajayanti Gram Swarozgar 1st April, For elimination rural property and
Yojana (ŠSGSY), it replaced 1999 unemployment and promoling self-employment
IRPD, DWCRA, Ganga Kalyan through establishing micro enterprises in rural
Yojana (1997). Million Wells areas. Targets to cover 50% SCs/STs. 40%
Scherne (1989) and Supply women, 15% minorities and 39% disabled.
Improved Tolls kits to Rural
ra
Artisans (1992)
Pradhan Mantri Gramodya 2000 Focus on village level development in 5 critical
Yojana (PMGY) areas. i.e. primary health, primary education,
housing, rural roads and drinking water and
nutrition with the overall objective of improving
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the quality of life of people in rural areas.

Annapurna Scheme 2000 To ensure food security for all, create a hunger
free India in the next five serve the poorest of
the poor in rural and urban areas.
Food For Work Programme To give food through wage employment in the
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2001
drought affected areas in 8 states. Wages are
paid by the State Governments, partly in cash
and partly in foodgrains.
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Jai Prakash Narayan Rozgar Proposed Employment guarantee is must poor districls.
Guarantee Yojana (JPNRGY) in2002-03
Budget
MGNREGS (Mahalma Gandhi 2nd It
aims at enhancing livelihood security of
National Rural Employment February, households in rural areas of the country by
Guarantee Scherme). The 2006 providing at least 100 days on guaranteed
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scheme was notified throughout wage enployment in a financial year to every

the
he con Renamed as
April,
with effect from 1st household, whose adult mernbers volunteer to
do unskilled manual work. It also mandates
MGNAEGS from 2nd October. 33% participation for womnen. The primary
2009. SGRY and Food for Work objective of the scheme is to augment wage
Prograrmme merged into ii. employmnent.
Prime Minister's Employment 2008 To generale enployment opportunities in rural as
Generation Programme (PMEGP) well as urban areas through selting up of self
employment ventures/projects/micro enterprises.
Nirmal Bharat Programme 2012 To eradicale praclice of open delacalion by 2020.
Direct Benefit Transfer 2013 Anti-Poverty Programme, aimed to transfer
subsidies directly to the people living below
poverty line.
Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen 2014 Aimed to transior Rural poor youth into an
Kaushalya Yojana economically independent and globally relevant
work force.
Atal Mission for Rojuvenation and 2015 To improve the basic infrastructure in 500 cilies/
Urban Transíormalion (AMAUT) towns which would be known as mission
cities/towns.
306 GENERAL KNOVWLEDGE~ Indian Economy

Rural Development Programmes

Name of the Programmes Year of Objectives/Descriptions
Beginning
Bharat Nirman Programme 2005 Development of rural infrastruclure including six
components : iigalion, waler supply, housing,
road, telephone and electriciy.
Twenty Point Programme 1975 Poverty eradicalion and raising the slandard of
living.
Annapurna Scheme 2000 To ensure food security for all, create a hunger
free India in the next 5 years and to reform and
a

improve the Public Distribution System, so as to

serve the poorest of the poor in rural and urban
areas.

e
Nalional Aural Drinking Waler 1st April, Aims to move forward from achieving habilalion
Programme (NADWP) previously 2009 level coverage towards hOusehold level drinking
called Acceleraled Rural Water waler coverage through resorting to mulliple

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Supply Programme SOUrces like ground waler, Surface waler etc.
Nirmal Gram Puruskar (NGP) October, It is an incentive scheme to encourage PAls to
2003 take up sanilalion promolion.
Valmiki Ambedkar Aawas Yojana December, Facilitates consiruclion and upgradalion of
(VABAY) 2001 dwelling units for slum dvellers.
Jawaharlal Nehru Urban Renewal 3rd December To assist cities and towns in taking up housing
ra
Mission (JNNURM), it has wo 2005 and iníraslruclural facilities for the urban poor in
Componenls. (a) Basic services to 63 cities (now 65 cilies) in the country.
urban p0or; and (b) Integraled
Dg and Slum Development
P ramme
Solar Charkha Mission 27th June, The government will be providing a subsidy of
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2018 550 crore to the thousands of artisans and

generaling employment in the rural areas.
Affordable Housing in Partnership 2009 Aims at constructing one million houses for the
(AHIP) EWS/LIG/MIG with at least 25% for EWS category
seeks to operationalise National Habilat Policy,
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2007.
Kisan Samman Nidhi 2019 To Provide 6000 per year financial assislance to
those farmer having Cultivable area upto 2
Heclare
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Gram Ujala Scheme 2021 Under the scheme, LED bulbs are distribuled at a
highly subsidised rate at
I 10 across 2579 villages in five Slates of Bihar,
Ultar Pradesh, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and
Karnalaka.
Pradhanmantri Swasth Bharat 2021 It aims to develop capacities of primary,
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Yojana secondary and tertiary heallh care systems even in

the last miles of the nalion.
Yuktdhara 2022 This portal will iacilitale planning of new
Mahalma Gandhi Rural Employment Gurantee
Act (MGNAEGA) assels using Remole Sensing
and GIS based informalion.
Women Empowerment Programmes
Narme of the Year of Objectives/Descriptions
Programmes Beginning
Support to Training and 2003-04 To increase the self-rellance and autonomy of women by
Employment Programme for enhancing their productivity and enabling them to lake up
Women (STEP) income generalion activities.
Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for 19th It aims al empowering adolescenl girls of 11 lo 18 years by
Empoverment of Adolescent November, improving their nulrillonal and heallh slalus, upgradalion of
Girls (PGSEAG)- 'SABLA' 2010 home skills and vOcalional skills.
It extends micro-linance services
Rashtriya Mahila Kosh 1993 througha cllent friendly
(Nalional Credit Fund for and hassle-free loaning mechanism for livelihood aclivitlies,
Women) housing micro enterprises, lamily needs elc for uplillment of
poor women.
Indira Gandhi Matritva Sahyog 2010 To improve the health and nulrilion slalus of pregnant,
Yolana (IGMSY) laclaling women and inlants.
Swayam Siddha 2001 At organising women into Sell-Help Groups lo from a strong
inslilulional base.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy 307
Dhan Laxmi March 200B Condition cash Iransler scheme for the girl child to
encourage familles to educale girl children and to prevent
child marriage.
Ujvala 4th A comprehensive scheme lor prevention of Irallicking vih
December, five specilic components prevenlion, rescue, rehabililalion,
2007 reinlegralion and repalrialion of viclims.
Nalional Mission lor 2010 To achieve empovermenl of women soclally, economically
Empowerment of Women and educalionally by securing convergence of schemes.
(NMEW)
Nai Roshni Scheme 2012 Aimed al developing leadership skills among the minoritly
Women.
Pradhan Mantri Uijwala 1st May, 2016 To provide cooking gas connecllons lo 5 milion
Yojana (Labour day) beneliclaries belov the poverty line.
Nalional Nulrition Misslon 8th March, 2018 To allain proper nulritional slalus among children from 0-6
(Women's Day) years, adolescent girls, pregnantt Vvomen and laclaling

e
molhers in a limely manner; redu slunling, under
nulrilion and anaemia among young children, women and
adolescent girls; and lowering lw birth weight by at least
2% per annum.

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She BoX 2021 It
is an ellort lo provide a single vindow access to woman
irrespective of her work Slalus, whelher working in
organised or unorganised, public or privale seclor to
facililtale the registlralion of complaint relaled to sexual
harrassment.
is an inlegraled women empowermenl programme is
Mlssion Shakti 2022
ra It

launched as an umbrella scheme for the salety, security

and empoverment of women for implemenlalion.

Child Welfare Programmes

nt

Narne of the Programme Year of Objectives/Descriptions

Beginning
Rajiv Gandhi National 2006 Overall devolopment of children, childhood proteclion,
Creche Scheme for the complete immunisation, awareness generation among
ie

Children of Working Mothers parents of malnutrition, health and education.

Integrated Child Proteclion 2009-10 Providing a safe and secure environment for Comprehensive
Scheme (ICPS) development of children vho are in ned of care and
prolection as well as children in conllict with lav.
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Education Oriented Programmes

Name of the Prograrmme Year of Objectives/Descriptions
Beginning
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Mid-Day Meal Scheme 1995 Improving of the nulrilional status of Children in classess
(largest feeding School |-VIl in government, local body and government aided
schools and EGS and AIE centeres
programme in the world).
objective of enabling disadvantaged wnrendchildren to
the

attend school regularly

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan 2001 All Children (6-14) complete 5 years of primary schooling
(SSA) by 2007; all children complete 8 years of elementlary
schooling by 2010 bridge all gender and social category
gaps at primary slage by 2007 and at elementary
education level by 2010; universal retention by 2010.
Kasturba Gandhi Balika 2004 To set-up residential school at upper primary level for
Vidyalayas, (KGBVs) (with girls belonging to SC/ST/OBC/Minority communilies. The
effect from) 1st April, 2007, scheme is being implemented in rural areas and urban
merged with SSA) areas with female literacy below 30% and nalional
average respeclively
National Programme for 2003 Focused intervention to reach the 'Hardest to Reach'
Educalion of Girls at girls and provides for 'Model School' in every cluster with
Elementary Level (NPEGEL) more intense community mobilisation and supervision of
imporlant component of SSA girls enrollment in schools.
Inclusive Education for the 2009-10 Provides 100% central assislance for inclusive edUcation
Disabled at Secondary of disabled children sludying in class IX-XIl in
Slage (IEDSS) replaced government, local body and goverment aided schools.
Integrated Education ior
Disabled Children (IEDS)
308 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy
Rashtriya Madyamik Aims at raising the enrollmernt rale at secondary slage
Shiksha Abhiyan (AMSA) or March, irom 52.26% in 2005-06 to 75% in next 5 years by
Scheme for Universalisation 2009 providing a secondary school within a reasonable
of Access for Secondary dislance of 5 km of any habilation: ensure universal
Education (SUCCESS) access by 2017 and universal retention by 2020.
Saakshar Bharat 8th National Literacy Mission has been recast as 'Saakshar
September, Bharat'. The aim is to cover all adults, is the age grOup
2009 of 15 and above, viith its primary focus on women.
Samarga Siksha Scherne 24th May, To improve the quality of education at school level in
2018 (HÂD) India.

Health Oriented Programmes

Narme of the Year of Objectives/Descriptions

e
ProgramIme Beginning
National Rural 12th April, To provide effective healthcare to rural population with special
focus on 18 Slates with weak health indices/infrastructure to

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Health Mission 2005
(NAHM) raise public spending on health form 0.9% of GDP of 2.3% of
GDP reduction of IMA and MMR and universal assess to
heallh care with emphasis on women.
Janani Suraksha April, 2005 Focus on dermand promotion for institutional deliveries in
Yojana (JSn states and regions and targets lowering of MMR, it is
ra
conditional cash transfer programme to increase births in
health facilities.
Pradhan Mantri 2010 To correct regional imbalance in tertiary healthcare and
Swasthya augmenting facilities for quality medical education in the
Suraksha Yojana cOuntry: and setting up six AlIMS-like institution in phase-1
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(PMSSY) and in phase-2 wO More AIIMS like institutions.

Mission 25th To achieve full immunisation coverage for all children by 2020.
Indradhanush December,
2014
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Ayshman Bharat 2018 To provide 5 lakh health Insurance to 10 orore poor farmiles.
Yojana (ABY)
The scheme aims to achieve the obejctive of universal health
COverage.
jm

FLAGSHIP PROGRAMMES OF
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
@

The flagship programmes were launched launched the 'SHRESHTA' Scheme on

by the Government of India, to bridge 3rd June, 2022. SHRESHTA stands for
education, health, employment and Scheme for Residential Education for
infrastructure divides. The ultimate Students in High Schools in Targeted
objective of the lagship programme is to Areas. SHRESHTA envisions high
achieve broad-based improvement in the quality free residential education from
living standards of our people. class 9th to class 12th to meritorious
students from SC communities.
New Social Welfare Schemes • SMILE Scheme Union Minister
• Tele-MANAS Initiative The Dr Virendra Kumar launched the
Tele-MANAS (Mental Health Support Central Sector Scheme 'SMILE :
and Networking) initiative was Support for Marginalised Individuals for
launched in all states on 10th October, Livelihood and Enterprise' in New Delhi
2022, Under this, a network of on 12th February, 2022. The scheme has
23 excellent tele-Mental health centres been designed by Department of Social
has been created. Justice and Empowerment for
• SHRESHTA Scheme Launched Union providing welfare measures to the
Minister of Social Justice and Transgender community and people
Empowerment Virendra Kumar has engaged in begging.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy 309
• PM Umeed Scheme It was launched in 10,000 at a subsidized rate of interest,
April 2021. The main aim of the scheme incentivizing regular repayment of the
is to provide skill training to around three loan and to reward digital transactions.
lakh youths to become entrepreneurs till Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Rojgar
2025-26. Under the ambit of the Abhiyaan This scheme was launched
scheme, loans and employment will be on 20th June, 2020 to boost employment
provided to the youth of the country. and livelihood opportunities for migrant
• Rail
Kaushal Vikas Yojana The scheme workers returning to villages, in the wake
aims to impart skill development training of COVID-19 outbreak. VWith the total
to the youth of the country. The scheme capital outlay of 50,000 crore. This
project was implemented in a mission
launched in August 2021. The main
objective of the scheme is to empower mode campaign in 125 days in l16

e
districts of 6 states.
the youth by offering entry level training
in industry relevant skill through Indian One Nation, One Ration Card This

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Railway Institutions. scheme is scheduled to implemented by
• PM Ist June, 2020. The scheme allows the
Daksh Yojana The scheme aims to beneficiaries can avail of the benefits
improve competency level of eligible across ndia, that is, poor migrant workers
target groups including SC and ÖBC can buy subsidised rice and wheat from
communities. The scheme started in
ra any ration shop in the country.
2021-22. The scheme is a National • Atal Bhujal Yojana Atal Bhujal Yojana
action plan for skilling marginalised (or Atal Jal) is groundwater management
sections of population including OBC, scheme launched by PM Modi on
SC, DNT, EBC, sanitation workers, 25th December, 2019. improve
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plastic pickers.
• Public Wi-Fi Access Network Interface groundwater management scheme in
seven states i.e. Gujarat, Haryana,
(PM-WANI) It was launched on 9th Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh,
December, 2020. It aims to revolutionise Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Uttar
ie

the tech sphere and will substantially Pradesh under the Jal Jeevan Mission.
improve the wireless connectivity of the. Laghu Vyapari Mann Dhan Scheme
country. It will boost the 'Ease of Doing This scheme was launched on l9th
Business' and 'Ease of Living.' August, 2019. This pension scheme for
. Kisan
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Suryodaya Yojana It was small traders functions under the

launched on 24th October, 2020 to Ministry of Labour and Employment.
provide day-time power supply for Under the scheme, traders aged between
irrigation to the farmers of Gujarat. 18 to 40 who have an annual turnover of
• Ghar Tak Fibre Scheme It was less then l.5 crore are eligible. Traders
@

launched on 21st September 2020. The should contribute a monthly amount

scheme aims at connecting all 45,945 than they turning 60, the subscribers will
villages of Bihar with high-speed optical get 3000 monthly pension.
fibre internet by March 31, 2021. Pradhan Mantri Kisan Maan Dhan
•
Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana Launched in 2019, it is a pension
Yojana (PMMSY) It was launched on scheme for small and marginal farmers.
10th September, 2020 to focus on the Under this, a monthly pension of 3000
sustainable development of the fisheries will be provided to the farmers who
sector in India. It aims to enhance fish attains the age of 60 years. The fariners
production in India by an additional 70 will have to make a monthly contribution
lakh tons and increase fisheries export of T 55 to 200, depending on their age
earnings to 1,00,000 crore by FY of entry.
•
2024-25. Pradhan Mantri Shram Yogi Maan
• PM SVANidhi Scheme It was launched Dhan Yojana Similar to PM Kisan Maan
on Ist June, 2020 by the Central Dhan Yojana, it is also a pension scheme
Government to help the street vendors launched in 2019 for unorganised sector
resume their livelihood activities who were workers with monthly income upto
715000 per month
impacted by COVID-19. The tenure of the
scheme is up to March 2022. It aims at • They will get assured pension of 3000 per
facilitating working capital loan up to month after attaining the age of 60 years.
310 GENERAL KNOVWLEDGE~ Indian Economy

.
Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Livelihood Mission. It is an overeaching
Yojana (PMKSY) (set-up in July, 2015) scheme for uplift of urban and rural p0or
The scheme is aimed to give assured through enhancement of livelihood
irrigation to farners. opportunities through skill development
•
Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (SBA) (Set-up and other means.
in 2nd October, 2015) Total sanitation by Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana
2019, was the slogan of this programme. It is a demand-driven, reward-based skill
It is successfully ended in 2019. The training scheme. PMKVY is formed to
year 2019 also marks the 150th Birth provide skill training to class 10 and 12
anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi. dropout youths across the country.
• Soil
Health Card Scheme for Every Under the scheme, besides assessing
and certifying 10 lakh youth for the skills

e
Farmer (SHCS) (Set-up in February,
2015) The government will initiate to they already possess, around 24 lakh
provide every farmer a soil health card in youth wvill be skilled over the next year.

nc
a mission mode. A sum of 100 crore is •
Atal Pension Yojana The Atal Pension
alotted. Yojana (APY) will focus on all citizen in
• Deendayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti the unorganised sector who join the
Yojana (DDUGJY) (set up in July, 2015) National Pension System (NPS)
Its long-term aim was to provide 24 x7 administered by the Pension Fund
ra
uninterrupted power supply to all Regulatory and Development Authority
homes. It is successfully ended in 2018 (PERDA) and who are not members of
with the electrification of Leisang Village any statutory social security scheme. It is
in Manipur. available to people between 18 and 40
year of age with bank accounts. The
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•
Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana
(PMJDY) (Set-up in August, 2014) subscribers are required to opt for a
Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana is a monthly pension from 1000 to 5000.
scheme for comprehensive nancial Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima
inclusion launched by the Prime Minister The PMIJBY is available to
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Yojana
of India, Narendra Modi in August, 2014. people in the age group of 18 to 50 and
• Account holders will be provided having a bank account people who join
zero-balance bank account with Rupay the scheme before completing 50 years
jm

debit card, in addition to accidental can, however, continue to have the risk
insurance cover of 2lakh. of life over upto the age of 55 years
.
Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao Yojana It was subject to payment of premium Aadhar
introduced for generating awareness and would be the primary Know Your
improving the efficiency of delivery of Customers (KYC) for his bank account.
@

welfare services meant for women with Life insurance of 2 lakh with a
an initial corpus of 100 crore. The premium of 330 per year.
government would focus on campaigns Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima
to sensitise people of this country Yojana The scheme will be a one-year
to wards the concerns of the girl child cover, renevable from year to year. It is
and women. The process of sensitisation available to people between 18 and 70
must begin early and therefore the year of age with bank accounts. It has an
school curriculum must have a separate annual premium of 12 for 2 lakh
chapter on gender main streaming. accidental and 1 lakh full disability.
• USTAD Startup Standup India Startup India is
Scheme Union Minister Najma
Heptullah launched a welfare schemne a revolutionary scheme that has been
Upgradation of Skills and Training in started on August, 2015 to help the
Ancestral Arts/Crafts for Development people wvho wish to start their own
(USTAD) in May, 2015 which aims at business. Standup India Scheme
upgrading and promoting the skills of facilitates bank loan between 10 lakh
artisans from the minority community. and 1 crore to at least one Scheduled
• Deendayal Upadhyay Antyodaya, Caste (SC) or Scheduled Tribe (ST)
Yojana This Yojana replaced the borrower and at least one woman
National Rural Livelihood Mission borrower per bank branch for setting up
(Ajeevika) and National Urban a greenfield enterprise.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy 311
•
Pradhan Mantri KrishiSinchai Yojana was organised by the TRIFED under the
The primary objectives of PMKSY are to Ministry of Tribal Affairs. The
attract investments in irrigation system at programme will help the tribal
field level, develop and expand cultivable population to become self-reliant and
land in the country. The primary objective entrepreneurs.
is to enhance rain water use in order to Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana
minimise wastage of water, enhance crop
per drop by implementing water saving .(SJSRY) (Set-up in 1997)
To provide gainful employment to urban
technologies and precision irigation. unemployed and under employed poor
•
Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana Prime through self employment or wage
Minister Narendra Modi has launched employment.
Pradhan Mantri Ujijwal Yojana on lst
t has been revamped with effect from

e
May, 2016 (Labour Dav) at Ballia (UP)
April, 2009.
by providing cooking gas connections to
10 women. Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana

nc
(SJGSY) (Set-up in 1999)
The objective of the scheme is provide
• to
to 5 million It replaced Integrated Rural Development
cooking gas connections
Programme (IRDP) Development of
beneficiaries below the poverty line in Women and Children in Rural Areas
the next 3 years (till the year 2019).
ra (DWCRA), Ganga Kalyan Yojana (GKY)
• Ujala Yojana It was launched by Union (1997), Million Well Scheme (MWS)
Minister for State (1C) for Power, Coal and (1989) and Supply of Improved Tool-kits
Renewable Energy Piyush Goyal in Bhopal, to Rural Artisans (SITRA), (1992).
Madhya Pradesh on 30th April, 2016. • For eliminating
rural poverty and
The main motive of this policy is energy
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unemployment and promoting self

efficiency inthe country. Consumers can employment through establishing micro
buy the bulbs from distributor by showing
any identification card. enterprises in rural areas.
•
Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana It Mahatma Gandhi Rural Employment
ie

is the new crop damage insurance Guarantee Act (MGNREGA, launched on

scheme started on 18 Feb. 2016, It will 2nd February, 2006) The National Rural
replace the existing two crop insurance Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA)
jm

schemes National Agricultural Insurance 2005, envisages securing the livelihood of

Scheme (NAIS) and Modified NAIS. people in rural areas. The mmain provisions
•
Pradhan Mantri Sahaj Biili Har Ghar J the act are to be given within 15 days
Yojana The scheme aims for electrifving Employment
of application for work.
all the households in rural and urban
@

areas which are still living without power. The scheme provides a legal guara- ntee
• Rashtriya Vayoshri Yojana To offer for 100 days of employment in every
free-living assertive devices to senior financial year to adult members of any
citizens belong to BPL families. rural household willing to do public
•
work-related unskilled manual work at the
UDAN Scheme Udey Desh ka Aam statutory minimum wage of 120 per day.
Nagrik aims at regional air connectivity. • If employment is not provided within 15
• Kisan Samman Nidhi Scheme It was days, daily unemployment allowance in
launched in 2019 to provide 6000 per cash has to be paid.
year financial assistance to those farmers
have cultivable area upto2 hectare.6000 Employment within 5 km radius, else
per year will be paid in three instalments. extra wages to be paid.
• At least one-third beneficiaries have to

Employment Generation be women.

Prime Minister's Employment Generation
Programmes Programme (Set-up in 2008)
Van Dhan Internship Programme To generate employment opportunities in
• Union Minister of Tribal Affairs rural as well as urban areas through setting
launched the Van Dhan Internship up of new self-employment ventures/
programme on 16th October, 2019. It projects/ micro enterprises.
312 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Economy

Rural Development cultural development. It was launched in

October 2014.
Programmes Urban Development
• National Broadband Mission The
government has launched the National Programme
Broadband Mission on 17th December, • Housing for All by 2022 Government
2019. The mission aim to provide has proposed to set up a Mission on Low
broadband access to all villages by 2022. Cost Affordable Housing to be anchored
•
Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) in the National Housing Bank with a
(Set-up in April, 1999) It follows a view to increase the flow of cheaper
community led and people-centred Credit for affordable housing to the urban

e
approach and places emphasis on poor/EWS/LIG segnent.
Information, Communication and The Narendra Modi Government has
Education (1CE) for demand generation renewed the 10 years old Jawaharlal

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of sanitation facilities. Nehru National Uban Renewal Mission
•
Indira Awas Yojana (1AY, launched in (JNURM) and named it after the first BJP
1999) Indira Awas Yojana (LAY) is a Prime Minister. The renewed scheme is
social welfare programme to provide known as Atal Mission for Rejuvenation
housing for rural poor in India.
ra and Urban Transformation (AMRUT).
• AMRUT for 500 Tier 2 and Tier 3 cities
This scheme, operating since 1985, will also be launched alongwith smart city
provides subsidies and cash assistance to project. The Ministry of Housing and
people in villages to construct their
Urban Affairs has now extended the
houses themselves.
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mission by two years till March, 2022.

Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana • National Heritage City Development
(PMGSY) (Set-up in 2000) To line all
villages with pakka road having
and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY)
(Set-up in January 2015) The
population of 500 and above in general
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areas and 250 and above in tribal and programme called Heritage City
Development and Augmentation Yojana
general areas. (HRIDAY) is to be launched for
• Annapurna Scheme (Set-up in 2000) To conserving and preserving the heritage
jm

ensure food security for all, create a characters of these cities.

hunger free India in the next five years
and to serve the poorest of the p00r. Women Empowerment
•
Bharat Nirman Yojana It was launched Programmes
on 16th December, 2005, with the aim of •
@

Indira Gandhi Matritva Sanyog

developing rural infrastructure. The Yojana (IGMSY) 2010 To improve the
duration of implementing this scheme health and nutritional status of
has been fixed for 4 years. pregnant, lactating women and infants.
• Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Uijwala (Set-up in December;, 2007) A
Yojana (RGGVY launched in 2005) Aims comprehensive scheme for prevention of
at providing electricity in all villages and trafficking with five specific components
habitations and access to electricity to all prevention, rescue, rehabilitation,
rural households. Connections to BPL reintegration and repatriation of victims.
families are given free of cost. 90% cost • Dhan Laxmi (Set-up in March, 2008)
of the scheme is released as grant where Conditional cash transfer scheme for the
as 10% as loan.
girl child to encourage farmilies to
• Rajiv Awas Yojana (RAY) (Set-up in educate girl children and to prevent child
2010) It aims at slum-free India in next marriage.
five years. •
National Mission for Empowerment of
•
Sansad Adarsh Gram Yojana It is a Women (NMEW) (Set-up in 2010) To
rural development and cleanliness achieve empowerment of women
programme broadly focusing upon the socially, economically and educationally
development in the villages which by securing convergence of schemes.
includes social developmentand
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy 313
• Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for• Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalayas
(KGBVS)
Empowerment of Adolescent Girls D in 2004) To set-up
at unper
(RGSEAG)Sabla' (Set-up in residential primary level
November, 2010) It aims at empowering for girls belonging to SC/ST/OBC/
adolescent girls of 11 to 18 years by Minority communities.
improving their nutritional and health • The scheme is being implemented in
status, upgradation of home skills, life rural areas and urban areas with female
skills and vocational skills.
literacy below 30% and national average
•
Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP) respectively.
Scheme (Set-up in January, 2015) It is a • Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha
key scheme that aims to address the
Abhiyan (RMSA) Scheme for
dipping child sex ratio and empower the
Universalisation Access

e
of for
girl child in India.
• Secondary Education (SUCCESS) (Set
Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana (Set-up in up in March, 2009) Aims at raising the

nc
January, 2015) This scheme
encompasses all the girls besides their enrollment rate at secondary stage from
economic strata can open Sukanya 52.26% in 2005-06, to 75% in next
5 years by providing a secondary school
Samridhi Account in Post office and in
the banks. It is launched along BBBP within, reasonable distance of 5 km of
any habitation; ensure universal access
Yojana Campaign.
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• by 2017 and universal retention by 2020.
Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojna
It is a maternity benefit programme Health Oriented Programmes
being implemented in all districts of the SUMAN Scheme The government
country with effect from Ist January,
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2017. Cash incentive of 5000 will be launched the Surakshit Matritva

Aashwasan (SUMAN) scheme on
provided in three installments to all
pregnant women and lactating mothers. 10th October, 2019. Pregnant women,
mother upto 6th months after delivery
Education Oriented Programmes and all sick newborns will be able to free
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• Atal Innovation Mission The healthcare benefits under this scheme.

Government has set up the Atal Bharatiya Poshan Krishi Kosh The
Innovation Mission at NITI Aayog in Union Government has launched
jm

March, 2020. It encourages the school to Bharatiya Poshan Krishi Kosh with aim
provide exposure to science and of reducing malnutrition in India on
technology to student. The main 18th November, 2019. It aims to reduce
objective is to ceate scientific character malnutrition among WOmen and
and innovative thoughts among the children across the country, through a
@

young minds of the country (students multi-sectoral resutls-based framework,

between grade 6th to 10th). including agriculture.
• Mid Day Meal (MDM, launched
1995) Under the scheme, hot cooked
in• Integrated Child Development Scheme
(1CDS, launched in 1975) The
meal of a minimum 300 calories and Integrated Child Development Services
8-12 gms of protein is being provided to (1CDSs) Scheme aims at enhancing the
children studying in primary health, nutrition and learning
schools/Education Guarantee Scheme opportunities of infants, young children
(EGS)/Alternative and Innovative
Education (AIE) centres. (0-6 years) and their mothers.
• National Rural Health Mission
•
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA, launched (NRHM) (Set-up in April, 2005) To
in 2001) The main objective of this
programme was to provide educational provide effective healthcare to rural
facility to all children of 6-14 age group population with special focus on l8
in the state, to complete the primary states with weak health indices/
education by 2007 and upper primary infrastructure; to raise public spending
on health from 0.9% of GDP to 2.3% of
education by 2010, of all enrolled
children and to ensure universal stay of GDP; reduction of IMR and MMR and
all children up to the year 2010. Luniversal access to healthcare with
emphasis on women.
314 GENERAL KNOVWLEDGE~ Indian Economy
•
National Urban Health Mission • Mission Indradhanush Launched in
(NUHM 2013) The Union Cabinet gave 2014. this mission is launched to achieve
its approval to launch a National Urban full immunisation coverage for all
Health Mission (NUHM) as a new sub children by 2020.
mission on May. 2013 under the • Ayushman Bharat Yojana It Vas
overarching National Health Mission launched in 2018 to provide 5 lakh
. (NHM). health insurance to 10 crore poor families.
National Ayush Mission (NAM) (Set-Up
Food Security Programme
in September, 201l4) Ayurveda, Yoga,
Unani Siddha and Homeopathy (AYUSH). National Food Security Act (NFSA) 2013
•
This mission is aimed at addressing the It aims to provide food and nutritional
gaps in health services particularly in Security to the whole India. It provide
access to adequate quality food at affordable

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vulnerable and far-off areas of India. prices to people and a life with dignity.

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AGRICULTURE
.
IMPORTANCEOF The Intensive Agricultural District
ra
Programme (LADP) followed by High
AGRICULTURE Yielding Variety Programme (HYVP) was
• Agriculture is the primary industry in introduced during the Third Plan. First
India. The agriculture sector of India has and Fifth Plan were the only plans,
occupied almost 43% of India's which achieved the set targets.
nt

geographical area and 58% of the rural Tenth Plan did not set any targets for
households depend on agriculture as Crop production.
their principal means of livelihood. •
The grOWth rate of agriculture during the
• Its importance to
the Indian economy Ninth and Tenth Plan were 2.44% and
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can be gauged from the following facts. 2.02% respectively.

Contribution to GDP Agriculture in Eleventh Five
jm

• According to the new series of national Year Plan

income released by CSO at 2011-12• Eleventh Plan (2007-12), recognising the
prices, the share of agriculture in total importance of agriculture in promoting
GDP is 14% (Approx) in 2021-22. inclusive growth, fixed the agriculture
growth rate of 4%. Actual outlay in the
@

Contribution to Employment Eleventh Plan is estimated to be 18.5%

• Agriculture provides livelihood to more of the total plan outlay. Contract farming
than half of the population. was encouraged in fruits, vegetables and
• In 2019, it contributed around 52% to other crops.
the total employment in the country.
•
The average annual growth rate of GDP
in agriculture and allied sectors during
Contribution to Trade 1lth plan was 3.7 per cent.
• Although, agricul
the share of Agriculture in Twelfth
tural products in total trade of India
is declining due to export diversification. Five Year Plan
• The approach paper aims at growth rate
Agriculture sector plays a crucial role in •
inclusive growth by directly attackingof 4% per annum in agriculture sector,
with foodgrains gowing at about 2% per
poverty and containing inflation. It is
also an important source of raw material
year and non-foodgrains growing at 5.6%.
for a vast segment of industry. .
The approach paper has emphasised on
technology as the main vehicle for
Agriculture and Five Year Plans improving productivity in agriculture as
• The highest outlay on agriculture was natura resources are fixed.
during the First Plan, it was 31%.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy 315)

Severely the public sector It emphasises on greater road

research ininaiche the Twelfth Plan
encourages Public Private Partnership
connectivity, development of
horticulture, dairying and other animal
(PPP) in agriculture so as to bridge the gap husbandry to further improve the
in dryland areas and rapidly diversify market acces to the farmers.
agriculture.
Average Achievement in Agriculture
in Five Year Plans (in percentage)
Five Year Plan Growth Rate
First Five Year Plan (1951-52 to 1955-56) 2.71
Second Five Year Plan (1956-57 to 1960-61) 3.17

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Third Five Year Plan (1961 -62 to 1965-66) 0.73
Annual Plan (1966-67 to 1968-69) 4.16

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Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-70 to 1973-74) 2.57
Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-75 to 1978-79) 3.28
Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-81 to 1984-85) 2.52
Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-86 to 1989-90) 3.47
Annual Plan (1990-91 to 1991-92) 1.01
ra
Eighth Five Year Plan(1992-93tol996-97) 4.68
Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-98 to 2001-02) 2.02
Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-03 to 2006-07) 2.3
Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-08 to 2011-12) 3.6
nt

Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012-13 to 2016-17) 8%

Green Revolution
• The Green Revolution in India refers to a Farmer's Commission
period when Indian agriculture was
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A National Commission on farmers was

converted into an industrial system due to appointed in 2004, under the Chairmanship
the adoption of modern methods and Dr MS Swaminathan, which interalia
technology such as the use of High Yielding
jm

Suggested an Agricultural Renewal

Variety (HYV) seeds, tsactors, irigation
Action Plan (ARAP).
facilities, pesticides and fertilizers.
The ARAP comprised of soil health
• It was
launched in the year 1966 and was enhancement, irigation water supply
the brainchild of Norman Borlaug, augmentation and demand management,
@

though in India, it was made successful by

Credit and insurance, technological reforms
Dr MS Swaminathan. The term 'Green and assured and remmunerative marketing.
was coined by Dr William Gaud.
. Revolution'
The achievement of Green Revolution
were rise in cereal production especially
Second Green Revolution
wheat and rice, change in cropping pattern The call for Second Green Revolution
was given by then Prime Minister
in favour of wheat and increase in
employment opportunities. Manmohan Singh at the 93rd Science
. Conference in 2006.
The weaknesses of Green Revolution were
growth of capitalistic farming, side The Second Green Revolution seeks to
tracked land reforms, widened income build up on the achievements of first
regional Green Revolution and bridge the
and disparities and
regional and crop imbalance, which
environmental degradation. were not addressed by First Green
• The Green Revolution
demanded high Revolution.
yielding seed, increasing irrigation,
The Second Green Revolution seeks to
pesticides in fertilizer. cover dryland farming and concentrate
• It was introduced by MS Swaminathan on the small and marginal farmers. It
who is also known as Father of Green seeks to raise the foodgrain production
Revolution. to 400 million tonnes by 2020.
316 GENERAL KNOVWLEDGE~ Indian Economy

Evergreen Revolution Tricolour Revolution

• Concept given by renowned agricultural The reference to a Tricolour Revolution was
scientist Dr MS Swaminathan. made by Prime Minister Narendra Modi.
•
The concept emphasises on 'organic This phrase has three components.
agriculture' and 'green agriculture' with These are as follows
the help of integrated pest management, Saffron Energy Revolution for
integrated nutrient supply and integated promotion and better utilisation of solar
natural resource management. energy.
• The core of the evergreen revolution is White Revolution to ensure cattle
'sustainability' welfare and further the goals of White
Revolution.

e
White
.
Revolution Blue Revolution for fishermen's welfare,
White revolution is relates to cleansing rivers and sea and conserving

nc
phenomenal growth in milk production. water.
To increase the pace of White
Revolution, the operation lood was Food Security in India
started. The father of operation flood The need for food self-sufficiency was
was Dr Verghese Kurien. Operation
ra
borne Out on account of the experience
flood was started by National Dairy gained from the PL-480 programme of
Developmnent Board in 1970. the USA in the year 1966.
• India ranks first in the world in milk Food security implies access by all people
production, accounting for 20% of world at all times to suficient quantities of food
nt

production. Milk production in India to lead an active and healthy life.

has been increasing steadily over the Essentially. it involves
years at an average annual growth rate
of 4.5%.
quantitative dimension in term of food
self-sufficiency;
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• It was introduced by Verghese Kurien. qualitative dimension in form of

nutritional requirement; and
Fisheries Sector purchasing power dimension so as to
jm

India is the third largest producer of ish ensure access to all

and second largest producer of inland fish through employment generation
in the world. programmes.

Major Agricultural Revolutions

@

Revolution Production
Black Revolution Petroleum Production
Blue Aevolution Fish Production
Brown Revolution Leather/Non-conventional (India)) Cocoa Production
Golden Fibre Revolution Jute Production
Golden Revolution Overall Horticulture Development/Honey Produclion
Green Revolution Foodgrain (Cereals, Wheat and Leguminous plant) Production
Grey Revolution Fertilizer Revolution
Pink Aevolution Onion production/ Pharmaceutical (India)/ Prawn Production
Rainbow Revolution Holistic Development of Agricullure Sector
Red Revolution Meat and Tomato Production
Round Aevolution Potato Revolution
Silver Fibre Revolution Cotton Revolution
Silver Revolution Egg/Poultry Production
White Revolution Milk/Dairy Production (In India-Operation Flood)
Yellow Revolution Oil Seeds Production
Evergreen Revolution Increase in Productivity and Prosperity without Eoological Harm
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Economy 317

Public Distribution it safeguards the consumers interest by

making food available at reasonable prices.
System (PDS) • To achieve this government announces
• PDS the food procured by the FCI is Minimum Support Prices (MSPs) for 25
distributed through government agricultural crops taking into accounts
regulated ration shops among the poorer the recommendation of the Commission
section of the society is called PDS. for Agricultural Cost and Prices (CACP).
• PDS was envisaged in 1967 to act as a MSP is that price, at which government
price support programme for the is ready to purchase the crop from the
consumer during the periods of food farmers directly, if crop price falls below
shortage of the 1960's. the MSP

e
• Commission for Agricultural Costs and
• The basic aim was to provide essential
commodities such as rice, wheat, sugar, Prices (CACPs) was set-up in 1965 with
the name Agricultural Price Commission

nc
edible oil, soft coke and kerosene at
and was renamed as CACP in 1985.
subsidised prices. PDS is the largest
distribution network of its kind in the Market Intervention Scheme (MIS) is
world. implemented for horticultural and
• agricultural commodities, generally
Following the criticism of PDS, the
ra perishable in nature and not covered
government in June, 1997 replaced the
PDS with Targeted Public Distribution under the Price Support Scheme (PSS).
System (TPDS). The system envisaged Economic cost is composed of three
components; viz MSP procurement
issuing special cards to BPL families and
incidentals and cost of distributing
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selling foodgrains to them at subsidised

prices. foodgrains.
• As of date, there are about 5.5 lakh Fair Agriculture Credit
Price Shops (FPS) across India. • Agriculture credit is considered as one of
ie

National Food Security the most basic inputs fo conducting all

agricultural development programmes.
Act, 2013 • There are two sources of credit available
jm

This act was notified with the objective to . to farmers, viz institutiomal and private.
provide food and nutritional security in Institutional Credit covers cooperative
human life cycle approach, by ensuring societies and banks, commercial banks,
access to adequate quantity of quality food RRB and NABARD.
at affordable prices to people. The act ,
Non-JnstitutionalVPrivate sources of
@

provide for coverage of upto 75% of the

a

Credit are moneylenders, traders and

rural population n and upto 50% of the urban
population for receiving subsidised commission agents, relatives and
foodgrains under TPDS. landlords.
• Lead Bank Scheme (LBS) based on area
The eligible persons will be entitled to
receive 5 kgs of foodgrains per person per approach was launched in 1969 on the
month at subsidised prices of 3/2/1 per kg recommnendation of Dr Gadgil Committee
for rice/wheat/coarse grains. The existing and Narasimham Committee.
Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) households, Under the LBS, all the 14 nationalised
which constitute the poorest of the poor, banks and a few private sector banks
will continue to receive 35 kgs of foodgrains were alloted specific districts and were
per household per month. asked to play the lead role' in
coordinating credit deployment.
Agricultural Price
Agriculture Insurance Company
Policy (APP) of India Limited (AIC)
• APP of the government seeks to ensure • was incorporated
AIC under the
remunerative prices to the producers so Companies
as to encourage higher interest and Act, 1956 20th
December, 2002 as a specialised insurer
production on the one hand, on the other,
318 GENERAL KNOVWLEDGE~ Indian Economy

with the capital participation from GIC, RRB's mobilise financial resource from
four public sector General Insurance rural/semiurban areas.
Companies and NABARD. It is jointly owned by Gol, the
• The other specialised insurer is Export concerned State Government and
Credit Guarantee Corporation (ECGC). sponsor banks.
It was established in 1957.
Quick Digest
NABARD Kisan Credit Cards (KCCs) was introduced in
1998-99 by NABARD. The purpose of the
National Bank for Agriculture and Rural KCC scheme is to facilitate short-term credit
Development (NABARD) was set up in July, to farmers, Union-Budget 2012-13 has
1982 as the Apex Bank with a paid-up capital

e
proposed to make KCC as smart cards and
of 100 crore contributed egually by RBI and can be used at ATMs.
Government of India. Its headquarter is in

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Mumbai. Rehabilitation Package for Distressed
Farmers was introduced in 2006 for 31
The role of NABARD was to act as a refinance
suicide prone-districts in the states of
institution for all kind of production and
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and
investment credit to agricultural and village Maharashtra.
sector.
ra
The paid-up capital of NABARD Wwas raised to
10,580 crore as on 31st March, 2018 Commodity Future Market
consequent to the revision in the composition The commodity future market facilitates
of share capital between GOI and ABI, the price discovery process and
provides a platform for price risk
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NABARD is fully owned by government. of

India. managenment in commodities. The market
Rural Infrastructure Development Fund comprises 21 commodity futures
(AIDE) was set-up in 1995-96, under NABARD exchanges, which include 5national and
for holistic rural development. 16 (commodity- specific) regional
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commodity exchanges.
NAFED
National Agricultural Co-operative Marketing Commodity Markets in India
jm

Federation of India Limited is the Apex Commodity Exchange, Mumbai

Co-operative Organisation at the national level. • National Commodity and Derivatives
deals in procurement, distribution, expot and Exchange, Mumbai
import of selected agricultural commodities. • Mulzi Commodity Exchange, Mumbai
• ACE
@

NCDC Derivatives and Commodity Exchange

Limited, Ahmedabad
National Co-operative Development
Corporation was set-up in 1963, under an Act of
Parliament. The object of NCDC is planning and Food Processing Industry
promoting programmes for the production, • India the third largest producer of
jis
processing, storage and marketing of agricultural food in the world after China and the US.
produce and notified commodities through Food processing industry is the ifth
co-operative societies.
largest industry in India in terms of
production, consumption, exports and
Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) expected growth.
• RRBs formally launched in 2nd October,
1975 at Moradabad and Gorakhpur (Utar Mega Food Park Scheme
Pradesh), Bhiwani (Haryana), Jaipur Mega Food Park Scheme was launched in
. (Rajasthan) and Malda (West Bengal). 2008 that aims at providing a mechanism
The objective of the RRB was to provide to link agricultural production to the
credit and other facilities particularly to market by bringing together farmers,
small and marginal farmers, agricultural processors and retailers so as to ensure
labourers etc so as to develop agriculture. maximising value addition, minimising
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy 319

wastage, increasing farmers' income and farmers to help them get a good harvest by
creating employment opportunities studying the quality of soil. The Soil Health
particularly in rural sector. Government Card studies and reviews the health of soil
provide financial assistance to set up or rather we can say a complete evaluation
modern infrastructure facilities for food of the quality of soil right rom its
processing. The 12th paln has targeted to functional characteristics, to water and
set up 50 mega food parks during the plan nutrients content and other biological
period. properties. Under this scheme Centre
plans to target over 14 crore farmers in the
Important Portal and App next three years.
The Participatory Guarantee System'
portal will help small and marginal farmers INDUSTRY

e
engaged in organic farming to secure • Industry refers to an economic activity
certificaton after checks for compliance to concerned with the processing of raw

nc
standards are carried out. materials and manufacture of goods in
The Soil Health Card' portal has been factories.
developed to register soil sample and At present, industry sector is the
record tests results along with fertiliser backbone of the Indian economy and
recommendations to create a national
ra contributing around 54.3% of the Indian
database on soil health for future use in GDP in 2018-19.
research. .
The long-term average annual growth of
The Fertiliser Quality Control System industries during the post-reform period
portal will collate results of draw samples of between 1991-92 to 2011-12, averaged
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imported fertilisers helping both consumers 6.7%.

and importers with analysis reports.
Mobile app"AgriMarket Mobile" Industrial Policies
• Industrial Policies were launched in
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This app has been developed with an aim to 1948, 1956, 1977, 1980 and 1991.
keep them abreast with crop prices around
them. Agri Market Mobile App can be used The Industrial Policy Resolution of 1948
to get the market price of crops in the marked the beginning of the evolution of
jm

the Indian Industrial Policy.

markets within 50 km of the device's .
location. The IPR 1956 called the Economic
Constitution of India, gave the
Mobile app "Crop Insurance" public sector a strategic role in the
It will help the farmers not only to find out econommy.
@

complete details about insurance cover • The objective of the IPR 1956 was
available in thier area, but also to calculate establishment of socialistic pattern of
the insurance premium for notified crops, the society in the country.
coverage amount and loan amount in case
of a loaned farmer. New Industrial Policy, 1991
National Agriculture Market or Formed the basis for the economic
reforms in India, which proved to be a
eNAM watershed in the history of Indian
It is an online trading platform for
. economy.
agricultural commodities in India. eNAM The main aim of the new industrial
provides inter-connectivity to e-mandis, in policy 1991 was to unshackle the Indian
order to enable farmers get better prices of industries from the cobweb of unnecessary
their produce. bureaucratic control; to introduce
liberalisation with a view to integrate
Soil Health Card Scheme Indian economy with the world
In February 2015, the Narendra Modi economy; to emove restrictions on FDI
government had launched the Soil Health
Card Scheme. Under this programme, the . To and to abolish MRTP Act, 1969; and
shed the load of the public
government plans to issue soil card to
enterprises.
320 GENERAL KNOVWLEDGE~ Indian Economy

independent directors and at least

Compulsory Licensing appointment of one female director.
Distillation and brewing of alcoholicdrinks.
Cigars and cigarettes of tobacco and
manufactured tobacco Substitutes.
MAHARATNA
•
Electronic, aerospace and defence In 2009, the government established the
equipment; all types. Industrial explosives Maharatna statIs, which raised the PSEs
including match boxes.
investment ceiling from 1000 crore to
F 5000 Crore.
Specific hazardous chemical vz,
la) Hydrocyanic acid; (b) Phosgene, and
The Maharatnas firm can now decide on
(c) Isocyanates and diisocyanates of
investrnents of upto l5% of their net worth.

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hydrocarbon. Criteria for Maharatna
The six criteria for eligibility of Maharatna
Disinvestment Policy

nc
. are as follows:
The Industrial Policy Statement
of. Having Navratna status;
24th July, 1991 outlined the Listed on Indian stock exchange;
disinvestment of selected PSEs. An average annual turnover of more than
Disinvestment is a process, through T 25,000 crore during the last three years;
which privatisation could take place.
ra
• The objective of pursuing disinvestment
• An average
annual net worth of more than
15,000 crore during the last three years;
in India were unlocking resources an average annual net profit after tax of
trapped in non-strategic PSEs; reducing more than 5000 crore during the last 3
public debt and transferring commercial
nt

years and should have significant global

risk to the private sector. presence.
• First Disinvestment Commission was
set-up in 1996, under the List of Maharatna
Chairmanship of Mr EV in July, 2001, • Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC)
ie

under Dr RH Patil. Ramkrishna, which • Gas Authority of India Limited (GAIL)

was later reconstituted
• Steel Authority India Limited (SAIL)
Public Sector Enterprises • Indian Oil Corporation Limited (10CL).
jm

• As on 31st March, 2015, there were 300 •

Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited
Central Public Sector Enterprises (BPCL)
(CPSEs). Out of 300 CPSEs. 238 were • National Thermal Power Corporation
in operation and 60 were Inder (NTPC)
@

construction. • Rural Electrification Corporation Limited

• To measure the performance of • Coal
management of PSEs at the end of the . India Limited (CIL)
year in an objective and transparent Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL)
manner, the concept of Memorandum of • Hindustan Petrolium Corporations
Understanding (MoU), on the Limited (HPCL)
recommendation of Arjun Sengupta Power Grid Corporation of India (POWER
Committee (1988), was started in 1991. GRID)
• Power
Finance Corporation Lid
New Company Bill, 2013 1956
•
Six Decades Old Company Act, NAVRATNA
will be replaced by this act. In this act, it • The company must obtain a score of 60
has been made mandatory for the (of the total 100).
companies to include provisions for •
The score is based on six parameters,
social welfare. Till date, in the 54 years which included net profit to net worth,
Old Company Áct, 1956 has been total manpower cost to total cost of
amended 25 times. production, Profit Before Depreciation,
• For companies having an annual turn Interest and Taxes (PBDIT) to capital
over above 10 lakh, it has been made employed, PBDIT to turnover, earning per
mandatory to appoint One third share and inter-sectoral performance.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Economy 321
.
The company must first be a Miniratna-I Small-Scale Industries
and must have four independent new thrust in favour of small scale
A
directors on its board. The Nayratna
status empower'S a company to invest utpo industries was given in the Industrial
7 1000 crore or 15% of their net worth Policy Resolution of 1977.
overseas without government approval. .
With effect from 2nd October, 2006
• At present, there are 12 Navratnas. government enacted the Micro, Small
and Medium Enterprises Development
List of Navratna Act.
• Bharat Electronics Limited The MSMED Act, 2006, clearly defines,
• Hindustan Aeronautics Limited for the first time, not only the medium

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• Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited enterprises but also extends it to the
• National Aluminium Company Limited services sector too.

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• • According to the Fourth Census (2009) of
National Mineral Development
Corporation the MSME sector, 67% are manufacturing
• Nevyeli Lignite Corporation Limited and 33% services enterprises.
. MSME sector contributes around 30% to
Oil India Limited
the GDP 34% to the manufactured
• Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Limited.
ra
• Shipping Corporation of India Limited
output, 45% to the exports and provides
employment to l10 million people.
• Engineers India Limited • SIDBI (Small Industries Development
• National Building Construction
Bank of India) is a independent financial
Corporation Limited
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institution to finance the growth of

• MSME's.
Container Corporation of India Limited
Abid Hussain Committee was set up to
MINIRATNA look into the problems of small-scale
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• industries.
Miniratna Category I Public Sector
Enterprises (PSEs) that have made
proft continuously for the last three Micro, Small and
years or earned a net profit
of? 30 crores Medium Enterprises
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or more in one of three years. At present,

there are 62 Miniratna I. Policy, 2012
•
Miniratna Category II PSEs that have The policy was notified in March, 2012.
made profit for the Ist three years and The policy envisages that every Central
@

should have a positive net worth. Ministry/ PSU shall set an annual goal for
At present, there are 12 Miniratna II. procurement from the MSE sector with the
objective of achieving minimum 20% of the
Sick Industries total annual purchase from MSEs in a
period of 3 years.
A
sick unit is one, which is in existence for
atleast 5 years and 15% of its net worth has The Micro, Small and Mediumn Enterprises
eroded. To combat industrial sickness Development (Amendment) Bill, 2018
proposes to reclassify all MSMEs weather
particularly with regard to the crucial sectors
and timely detection of sick and potentialy they are manufacturing or service providing
sick industrial companies, Sick Industrial
enterprises on the basis of their annual turn
Companies Act, (1985) was enacted. Over.

SICA provisions were extended to public New Classification of MSME's

enterprises in 1993 so as to enable public sector
enterprises to be referred to a quasi-judicial For Manufacturing and Services
body Board of Industrial and Finance
Micro Small Medium
Reconstruction (BIFR) to take appropriate or
measures for revival and rehabilitation. Investmnent <R1 <{ 10 cr <50 cr
Turnover <R5or <50 cr
<? 250 cr
(As per lst January, 2023)
522 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Economy

LARGE SCALE Jute Industry

INDUSTRIES • It was started in 1855 at Rishra and India is
the largest producer and second largest
Iron and Steel Industry exporter ofjute in the world. Jute Technology
• Mission was launched 2nd June, 2006.
First steel industry at Kulti, West
Bengal Iron Works Company was World's leading jute producing countries are
India, Bangladesh, China and Thailand.
established in 1870.
. Government has enacted Jute Packing
First large 'scale steel plant-TISCO
at Jamshedpur (1907) was followed Materials (compulsory use in packing
by IISCO at Burnpur (1919).
commodities) Act, 1987 to broaden the
usage ofjute.

e
• The first public owned steel plant
was Rourkela Integrated Steel Plart
Gems and Jewellery
set-up in 1954 with the help of . It is an important emerging sector in the

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German Kmpp-Demag. Indian economy. According to the data
•
India is the 2nd largest producer of released by the World Gold Council (WGC),
crude steel in the world after China. India is the 2nd largest consumer of gold.
• Surat and Mumbai) ranks
India is the largest producer of India (especially,
raamong
sponge iron since, 2002. the 'big four diamond cutting centres
• Steel Authority of India Limited of the world, the other three being, Belgium
(SAIL) was established in 1974 for
(Antwerp), the USA (New York) and Israel
(Ramat Gan).
the development of the steel
Sillk Industry
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industry.
Iron and Steel Plants in India India is the second largest (after China) silk
manufacturer contributing to 18% of the
Location Assistance raw
total silk production.
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Rourkela (Odisha) Germany

Bhilai (Chhattisgarh)
The majority of silk is produced mainly in
Russia Bhoodan Pochampally (also known as silk
Durgapur (West Bengal) Britain city), Kanchipuram, Dharamvaram and
Mysore.
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Bokaro (Jharkhand) Russia

Vishakhapatnam (Andhra
Pradesh)
Russia
Sugar Industry
India is the largest producer of sugar in the
Textile Industry world with a 22% share.
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• It is the largest industrv in India It is the second largest agro-based industry in

accounting for about 7% of
the country.
industrial output, provides
• BB Mahajan Committee was setup to study
employment to more than 35 million the sugar industry.
persons and contributes around 15% The Sugar Development Fund was set-up in
to total export earnings. The first 1982, under the Sugar Cess Act.
Indian modernised cotton cloth mill Dual price mechanism with partial control is
was established in 1818 at fort applied to sugar industry. Under this, the
Gloster near Kolkata, but this vas government fixes the ratio of and free sale
unsuccessful. sugar qIota in the ratio 28:72.
• The second mill was established in Cement Industry
1854 at Bombay by KGN Daber.
. The foundation of stable Indian cement
The organised textile industry industry was laid in 1914, when the Indian
comprises of (i) spinning mills; Cement Company Limited manufactured
(ii) coarse and medium composite cement at Porbandar in Gujarat.
mills and (iii) fine and superfine India is the second largest producer of
composite mills. cement in the world.
• In Global Textiles Exports, India now • The per capita consumption of cement in
stands at 2nd position. India is just 68 kg.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy K23

Automotive Industry •
The policy is based on the principle of
• industrial growth in partnership with
India is the largest manufacturer of states.
motorcycle and 4th largest manufacturer
of commercial vehicles in the world. In
Increase manufacturing growth to
12-14% over the medium term;
2009, India was the fourth largest
exporter of passenger cars after Japan. Enable manufacturing to contribute
South Korea and Thailand. atleast 25% of GDP by 2022;
• Create 100 million additional jobs in the
• India is the largest manufacturer of
tractors in the world. India is the ninth manufacturing sector by 2022;
•
largest car manufacturer in the world. Provides for National Investment and
Manufacturing Zone (NIMZ) on lands,

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Unorganised Sector and which are degraded and uncultivable.
Informal Economy National Policy on

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.
Unorganise informal workers refer to
workers, who are not covered under any .Electronics
was
(NPE), 2011
NPE released on 3rd October, 2011
social security benefits irrespective of providing for a roadmap for the
whether they work in organised or development of the electronics sector in
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unorganised sector. 94% of the total
workforce were in the unorganised The the country.
main objectives are as follow:
sector in 2018.
• To look into the problems of unoreanised lo achieve a turnover of about US $ 400
billion by 2020;
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sector, National Commission for

Enterprises in the Unorganised Sector lo create employment opportunities of
was set-up under the Chairmanship of around 28 million;
• To increase export from US S 5.5 billion
Dr Arjun Sengupta.
to US $ 80 billion 2020.
• In accordance with
the recommen
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dation of the NCEUS, the Government Make in India

of India enacted the Unorganised Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi on
Workers Social Security Act, 2008. 25th September, 2014 launched the Make
jm

• The act came into effect from 16th May,

in India' (MIN) campaign with a high-pitch
2009. The act among other things event held at New Delhi's Vigyan Bhawan.
provides for constitution of a National The campaign aims at reviving the
Social Security Board and State Social job-creating manufacturing sector, which
Security Board to recommend Social is being seen as the key to taking the Indian
@

Security Schemes: economy on a sustainable high growth

to take
•
Constitution of record keeping functions path. Make in India' aims
manufacturing sector, which is being seen
. the district administration.
by
as the key to taking the Indian economy on
Constitution of a workers facilitation a sustainable high path. Make in India
centre. aims to take manufacturing growth to 10%
• National Social Security Fund (NSSF) on a
A
sustainable basis.
with initial allocation of 1000 crore for
the unorganised sector workers has been Digital India
set-up. Digital India is a major flagship programme
•A National Social Security Board of the Government of India, launched in
(NSSB) has been constituted in 2009. August, 2014 aimed at transforming the
country into a digitally empowered social
National Manufacturing and knowledge economy, as well as to
revive the state of governance in the
Policy (NMP) country. It is an Umbrella Programme'
• The NMP was released by the weaving together many existing schemes
government on 4th November, 2011 to under multiple ministries and departments
bring about qualitative and quantitative to ensure that its services are available to
a
change with following objectives citizens electronically.
324 GENERAL KNOVWLEDGE~ Indian Economy

FOREIGN TRADE
Trade betveen two or more nations is Balance of Trade (BoT)
called foreign trade or international trade. 1. Balanced BOT i.e. Exports = Imports
With the liberalisation of the economy in 2. Adverse BOT i.e. Exports < Imports
1991 and adoption of 'export promotion'
3. Favourable BOT, i.e. Exports> Imports
policy measures has led to substantial
growth in exports and diversification of
our exports. Foreign Exchange Reserves
• As per
the World Trade Organisation in lndia

e
(WTO), India's share in global export These are the main Foreign Exchange
and imports increase from 1.7% and Reserves in India

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2.5% respectively in 2013. 2.1% and • Foreign Currency Assets (FCAS);
2.6% respectively in 2017. Its ranking in . Gold Stock of RBI;
terms of leading exporters and • Special Drawing Rights (SDRs); and
importers is 17 and 11 respectively in • Reserve Tranche Position (RTP) in the
2019. IME
ra .
FERA (Foreign Exchange Regulation
Balance of Payments (BOP) Act), vas enacted in 1973, to
• The balance of payments
in a statical consolidate and regulate dealings in
statement that systematically foreign exchange, so as to conserve the
Summarises, fora specific time period. foreign exchange and utilise it to
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The economic transactions of an promote economic development.

economy with the rest of the world. BoP FEMA (Foreign Exchange
comprises of current account, capital Management Act) was enacted in 1999
account and omissions and changes in to replace existing FERA. This act
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foreign exchange reserves. seeks to make offences related to

foreign exchange a civil offence.
Current Account
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•
Current account transactions ale SEZ Act, 2005
classified into merchandise (exports Duty free import/ domestic procurement of
and imports) and invisibles. goods for development, operation and
Invisibles Invisible transactions are maintenance of SEZ units.
classified into three categories namely 100% Income Tax exermption an export income
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1. Services travel 2. Income 3. of SEZ units exemption from Central Sales Tax
Transfers and Service Tax. Single window clearance
mechanism for establishment of units.
Capital Account
• Under capital account, capital inflows
can be classified by instrument (debt/
Special Economic Zone
(SEZ)
equity) and maturity (short/ long-term).
•
• A Special Economic Zone (SEZ is a
The nmain component of capital account
geographical region that has economic
include foreign investment, loans and
and other laws that are more free-market
banking capital.
oriented than a country's typical national
Non-Debt Liabilities laws. Asia's first Export Processing Zone
Includes FDI and portfolio investment (EPZ) was set-up in Kandla, India in
comprising of FlIs, ADRs/GDRs. 1965. The first SEZ policy was
Debt Liabilities Includes External announced in April, 2000, to make SEZ
an engine of growth supported by quality
assistance, External Commercial
Borrowings (ECBs), trade credit and infrastructure backed by attractive fiscal
package.
banking capital (NRIs deposits).
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy 325

• To Overcome the short comings FTP would reduce export obligations by

experienced account of the 25% and give boost to domestic
multiplicity of controls and clearances manufacturing. FTP benehts rom both
and an unstable fiscal regime and with a MEIS and SEIS will be extended to units
view to attract foreign investments in located in SEZs.
India, SEZ Act, 2005 was enacted with Industrial products to be supported in
effect from 10th February, 2006. major markets at rates ranging from 2% to
• As per the provisions of the SEZ Act, 3%.
2005, 100% FDI is allowed in SEZ
through the automatic route. FOREIGN DIRECT
Foreign Trade Policy (FTP), INVESTMENT (FDI)

e
(2015-20) • FDI is a type of investment that involves
the injection of foreign funds into an

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The Foreign Trade Policy, 2015-20 was enterprises that operates in a different
finally announced by the Hon'ble Minister country of origin from the invester. FDI
of Commerce and Industry, Smt Nirmala play an extraordinary and growing role in
Sitharanman on lst April, 2015. global business. It can provide a firm with
The FTP has been announced in the new markets and marketing channels,
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backdrop of several measures initiated by cheaper production facilities, access to new
the Government of India such as 'Make in technology products, skill and financing.
India', Digital India' and 'Skills India', FDIoccurs when a company invests in a
among others. business that is located in another
The focus of the new policy is to support country and it is investing not less than
nt

10% of shares belonging to the foreign

both the manufacturing and services company. It is a non-debt capital flow. FII
sectors, with a special emphasis (Foreign Investment).
Institutional
improving the 'ease of doing business'. Foreign portfolio investment occurs, when
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foreign investment in the form of shares,

Features of FTP (2015-20) equities and bonds, is made by a foreign
Features of the foreign trade Policy are as company.
follows: .
The three main institutions that handle
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• India be made a significant

to FDI related issues in India are the Foreign
participant in world trade by 2020. Investment Promotion Board (FIPB), the
• Merchandise Exports from India Foreign Investment Implementation
Authority (FILA) and the Secretariat for
Scheme (MEIS) to promote specific
Industrial Assistance (SIA) activities/
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services for specific markets Foreign sectors not opened to private sector, viz
Trade Policy. railways and atomic energy.
.
Service Exports from India Scheme has • Since, 20th May, 2011 FDI in Limited
been replaced with Service Exports Liability Partnership (LLP) has been
from India Scheme (SEIS). allowed.
FDILimits in Various Sectors
SectorlActivity Per cent of Entry Route
FDI/Equity
Defense Sector 100% Automatic route
Telecom Services 100% Automatic up to 49% government roule
beyond 49% and up to 100%
Tea Plantation, Animal Husbandry 100% Automatic up to 49% government route
beyond 49% and up to 100%
Asset Reconstruction Company 100% Automatic up to 49% government
beyond 49% and up to 100%
Petroleum and Natural Gas 49% Automatic Route
Commodity Exchanges 49% Automatic Route
Power Exchanges 49% Automatic Route
326 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Economy

Sector/Activity Per cent of Entry Route

FDI/Equity
Stock Exchanges/Clearing 49% Automatic Route
Corporations
Credit Information Companies, Pharma 74% Automatic Route
Courier Services, e-commerce 100% Automatic Route
Single Brand Product Retail trading, 100% Automatic up to 49% government route
Multi Brand (food) beyond 49% and up to 100%
Insurance Sector 74% FIPB route (The CCEA* on 24th
Decernber, 2014; 49% FDI in Insurance).

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Airlines 100% 100% FDI in scheduled airlines and upto
49% FDI airlines through automatic route.
Industrial Parks 100% Automatic

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Private Security Agencies 74% Automatic
* Cabinet Cormmttee on Economic Affairs - CCEA.

THE INDIAN
ra Quick Digest
The symbol of Indian rupee came into vague on
CURRENCY SYSTEM 15th July, 2010.
• The present monetary system of The new symbol is an amalgamation of
India is based on inconvertible paper Devanagri 'Ra' and the Roman R'
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currency and is managed by the RBI. without the stem.

The present currency system is based The new symbol designed by D Udaya Kumar, a
on minimum reserve system of note post-graduate of IT Bombay was finally selected
issue. It was adopted in 1957, under by the Union Cabinet on 15th July, 2010.
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the minimum leserve system, Though the symbolR will not be printed or
minimum of gold and foreign embossed on curency notes or coins, it wOuld be
securities to the extent ofF 200 crore included in the "Unicode Standard' and major
of which gold should be of value
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Scripts of the world to ensure that it is easily

115 croe and the balance in rupee displaced and printed in the electronic and print
securities is maintained. media.
• RBI Working Group on Money
Supply headed by YV Reddy
Devaluation of Currency
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recommended for dropping of post

office saving deposits. Accordingly,• It means reducing the value ofa currency by
there are now only three monetary the fiscal authorities, so as to make exports
aggregates, viz M,, M, and M. cheaper and imports costlier and overcome
The revised monetary measure are as balance of payments deficit. In India,
follow: devaluation has been resorted to four times.
M, = Coins and Notes + Demand 1. First Devaluation In June, 1949 (by
Deposits +Other deposits with RBI. 30.5%) (Finance Minister Dr John Mathai).
=
M, M +Time liabilities Porton o 2. Second Devaluation In June, 1966 (by
saving deposits with + 57%) (Finance Minister Sachindra
Certificates of deposits issued by Chaudhry).
banks +Term deposit maturing within
a year. 3. Third Devaluation On lst July, 1991 (by
M, = M, + terms deposit with banks 9%) (Finance Minister Dr Manmohan
with maturity over lyear + call/term Singh).
borrowing of the banking system.
4. Fourth Devaluation On 3rd July, 1991
• Coins are minted at fouT places, viz (by 11%) (Finance Minister Dr
Mumbai, Kolkata, Hyderabad and Manmohan Singh).
Noida.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Economy 327

Printing of Securities and Minting in India

Security Press Station Related to
India Security Press (1922) Nashik Poslal material, Poslal stamps etc
Security Prinling Press (Estd 1982) Hyderabad Union excise duty slamps
Currency Notes Press (1928) Nashik Bank notes from 1 to 100
Bank Noles Press (1974) Dewas Bank nole of ? 20, ? 50, 100, 200,
R 500, 2000
Modernised Currency Notes Mysore (Kar) Salbani
Press (1995) (West Bengal)
Security Paper (Estd 1967-68) Hoshangabad Banks and currency notes paper

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Demonetisation
Currency demonetisation is a radical financial step in which a particular currency's

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status as a legal tender is declared invalid. On 9th December, 2016, Reserve Bank of India
withdrew the old 500 and 1000 notes as official mode of payment. The reason for this
move given was that it will help to tackle black money, help to eliminate fake currency and
to lower cash circulation in the country.
ra
INFLATION Wholesale Price Index (WPI)
It means a persistent rise in the general lt measures the change in wholesale prices
price level of goods and services leading to on weekly basis. On the basis of weekly
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a fall in the currency's purchasing power. indices, average annual WPI is worked out.
It could be monetary or price inflation. Average annual wholesale prices of the
Current year are related to average annual
Causes of Inflation wholesale prices of the base year (assumed
as 100).
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• Printing too
much money. Increase in
money supply in the economy.
• Increase in production cost.
Consumer Price Index (CPI)
It measures the change in retail prices on
jm

• Tax rises. Decline in exchange rates.

• War or other events causing instability.
monthly basis. On the basis of monthly
indices, average annual CPI is worked out.
Average annual retail prices for the current
Effects of Inflation year are related to the average annual retail
It is economically disastrous for lenders. prices of the base year (assumed as 100).
@

Balance of trade can become unfavourable. Like Wholesale Price Index, different
Severely impacts the common man by goods are accorded weights depending on
reducing their real income. Persistent high their relative significance.
level of inflation leads to economic
stagnation. Deflation A general decline in prices, often
caused by a reduction in the supply of money
Measures to Control Inflation or credit. Deflation can be also caused by a
• Increasing the bank interest rates. decrease in government, pesonal or
• investment spending. The unemployment
Regulating fixed exchange rates of the
domestic currency. since there is a lower level of demand in the
economy, which can lead to an economic
• Controlling prices and wages. depression.
• Providing cost of living allowances to
citizens. Regulating black and Stagflation When you have a slow econormy
with high inflation rates and unemployment,
speculative market. Supply side inflation stagflation is usually resultant. When the
can be controlled by increasing economy does not grow and prices continue to
production of economy, specially
foodgrains rise have a stagflation cycle in the economy.
and by improving
infrastructure.
328 GENERAL KNOVWLEDGE~ Indian Economy

Banking in India
• The first bank of limited liability Regulator and supervisor ofthe payment
managed by an Indian was Oudh and settlement system.
Commercial Bank established in l881. • Since 1952, Monetary Policy of the RBI
Subsequently, PNB was established in emphasise on twin goals.
1894. These are as followUs:
• The largest bank Imperial Bank of India 1. Economic growth
was nationalised in 1955 and renamed as
2. Inflation control
State Bank of India followed by

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. formation of its 7 associates in 1959. Credit Control Instruments
The step toward 'Social Banking was Instrument of Credit control can be divided

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taken with the nationalisation of into two namely Qualitative/ Selective credit
14 Commercial Banks on 19th July, l969. control and Quantitative credit
control.
Six more Commercial Banks were
nationalised on 15th August, 1980. Quantitative/Ceneral
• The Banking Companies Act was passed
Credit Control
ra
in Feburary, 1949, which was
Quantitative credit control are used to
subsequently amended to read as
control the volume of credit and indirectly
Banking Regulations Act, 1949. to control the inflationary and deflatiomary
Reserve Bank of India (RBI) pressures caused by expansion and
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•
contraction of credit
RBI is the Central Bank of the country.
The quantitative credit control consists of
• RBI was set-up on the basis of Hilt0n Bank Rate It is also called the
Young Commission recommendation in
rediscount rate. It is the rate, at which
ie

April, 1935 with the enactment of RBI

the RBI gives finance to Commercial
Act, 1934. Its first Governor was Sir Banks. It is currently at 9%.
Osborne Smith. •
Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) It specifies
• The main purpose of creating RBI was to
jm

the fraction of the total deposits of banks

separate currency and credit from Gol. that they are obliged to keep with the
• RBIwvas nationalised in 1949 and its first RBI. Since 1962, the RBI has been
Indian Governor was CD Deshmukh. empowered to vary the CRR
requirement between 3% and 15% of the
@

Administration total demand and time deposits.

• The headquarter of the RBI is in Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) It is
Mumbai. the ratio of liquid asset, which all
• There are 14 Directors in Central Board Commercial Banks have to keep in the
of Directors besides the Governor, four form of cash, gold or government
Deputy Governors and one Governmernt approved securities before providing
Official. credit to its customers. SLR rate is
• Governor of RBI - Shaktikanta Das. determined and maintained by RBI in
order to control the expansion of the
bank credit.
Functions •
Repo Rate It was introduced in
The main functions of the RBl includes December 1992. It is the rate, at which
• Monetary authority. RBI lends short-term money to the banks
• Issue of currency. Banker and debt against securities.
•
manager to government. Reverse Repo Rate It is the rate, at
• Banker of Banks. which banks park short-term excess
• Regulator liquidity with the RBI. Reverse Repo Rate
of banking system. withdrawvs liquidity from the market. This
• Manager of foreign exchange.
is always 100 base point 1% less than
• Maintaining financial stability. Repo rate.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Economy

• Open Market Operations Under

OMOs, vhen the RBI sells G-secs in SCHEDULED AND
the market, it withdraws money NON-SCHEDULED
liguidity from the market and thus, BANKS
reduces volume of credit leading to • The scheduled banks are those, which are
control of inflation. entered in the Second Schedule of the RBI
Act, 1934. These banks have a paid-up
Qualitative/Selective/ Direct capital and reserves of an aggregate value of
Credit Control not less than 5 lakh and satisfy the RBI that
Qualitative measures are Used to make their afairs are carried out in the interest of
sure that purpose, for which loan is their depositors.

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given is not misused. It is done • All Commercial Banks (Indian and foreign),
through
Regional Rural Banks and State Cooperative
• Credit

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rationing Banks are Scheduled Banks. Non-Scheduled
• regulating loan to consumption etc. Banks are those, which are not included in
moral suasion the Second Scheduled of the RBI Act, 1934.

Structure of Banking in India

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Schedule Banks

Schedule Commercial Schedule Cooperative

nt

Banks Banks

Public Sector Private Sector Foreign ARBs

Banks Banks Banks
ie

-Nationalised Old Private

Banks Banks Schedule Urban Schedule Slale
SBI -New Privale Cooperative Cooperative
and its
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Associates (6) Banks Banks Banks

-IDBI
-Bhartiya Mahila
Bank
@

State Bank of India appointed as the first Chairperson and

Managing Director of public sector Bharatiya
• State Bank of India (SBI) was Mahila Bank (BMB). It has been the merged
previously called Imperial Bank of with State Bank of India in 2017.
India in 1921, which was created by
amalgamation of 3 presidency banks
viz Bank of Bengal, Bank of PRIVATE SECTOR
Bombay and Bank of Madras. BANKS IN INDIA
• It was nationalised in l955. All those banks, where greater parts of stake
• In 2017, the five associates of SBI or equity are held by the private shareholders
and Bhartiya Mahila Bank were and not by the government are called private
merged in State Bank of India. With sector banks.
this merger, SBI becomes one of the There are two categories of private sector
top 50 global banks. bank old and new.
Banking Regulation Act, 1949 was amended
Bharatiya Mahila Bank in 1993 and once again in 2001 to permit the
India's first all women bank, Bharatiya entry of new private sector banks in the
Mahila Bank was inaugurated in Indian banking sector; the objective was to
Mumbai on 19th November, 2013. instill greater competition in the banking
Usha Anantha Subramanian was system to increase productivity and efficiency.
330 GENERAL KNOVWLEDGE~ Indian Economy

Top Five Private Sector Banks RBIGuidelines for

1. ICICI Bank, 1994 Vadodara New Bank Licensing
2. HDFC Bank, 1994 Mumbai While preparing guidelines, RBI recognises the
3. Axis Bank, 1994 Ahmedabad need for an explicit policy on banking structure
4. Kotak Mahindra Bank, 1985 in India keeping in view the recommendations of
Mumbai the Narsimham Committee, Raghuram Rajan
5. Yes Bank, 2004 Mumbai Committee and others view points.

Bank Board Bureau

New Bank
The Bank Board Bureau (BBB) is These new banks will be provided license under
the Banking Regulation Act, 1949 (Section

e
constituted on 28th February, 2016. 92(1)), only after the fulfilment of these twvo
BBB starts its work from lst April, conditions.

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2016. The Bureau is mandated to play Randhan Finance It is a microfinance comnpany,
a critical role in reforming the hased in West Bengal. It is headed by Shri
troubled public sector banks by Chandra Shekhar Ghosh and has a net worth of
recommending appointments to 71100 Crore.
leadership positions and boards in
About 45 %o of its branches in the rural areas.
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those banks, and advise them on wavs
to raise funds and how to go ahed Bandhan Bank received the inprinciple approval
with mergers and acquisitions. Vinod of the RBI in April 2014, the banking regulator
Rai, former comptroller and Auditor gave its final nod in June, 2015.
General of India, was named the first IDFC The Infrastructure Development and
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Chairman of the Banks Board Bureau. Finance Corporation is based in Mumbai. It is

originally an investment finance company.
Indradhanush Scheme, 2015 headed by Shri Rajiv Lal. IDFC has the net worth
The Public Sector Banks (PSBs) plavs of 21000 crore, but with lowerrural
a presence.
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a vital role in Indian operating banling services on 1st

financial system. IDFC started
The assets quality of PSBs have October, 2015 under RBI Banking licence.
deteriorated because of rising
NPA Merger of Nationalised Bank
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Non-Performing. Assets
Indradhanush Scheme is for the Vijaya Bank and Dena Bank merged with Bank of
banking reforms in India. The seven Baroda (BoB) on 1st April, 2019.
Key reforms of Indradhanush mission In April, 2020, government has mergered of
include appointments, destressing, Indian Bank with Allahabad Bank, Oriental Bank
@

BBB, capitalisation, empowerment, of Commerce (OBC) and United Bank of India

frame work of accountablity and was merged with Punjab National Bank;
governance reforms. Syndicate Bank with Canara Bank and Andhra
Bank along with Corporation Bank will be
RBIGrants New merged in Union Bank of India. Post merger
Bank Licence there will be 12 Public Sector Banks in India.
The decade-long wait for new bank
licences finally ended on 3rd April. Basel Norms
2014, with the Reserve Bank of India These are set by Bank of International
(RBI) deciding to issue permits to two Settlement (BIS) headquartered in Basel,
of the 25 applicants. The ones to make Switzerland. It prescribes for a set of
the cut were IDFC, a diversified minimum capital requirement for banks. 55
financial services firm with a special countries Central Banks are members of the
focus on infrastructure financing and BIS.
Bandhan, the country's largest micro In India Basel norms were introduced in 1988
lender based in Kolkata. by the RBL.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy 331
• So
far two Basel norms viz, Basel-I and MIDR.A Bank
Basel-II have been implemented in India
Development
and third i.e., Basel-III norms Micro Units
Agency
and
became operational from Ist January Bank) vas Refinance Bank (or MUDRA
to
launched on 8th April, 2015
2013.RBI issued guidelines in 1992 9% as a corpus of 20000 crore and a
maintain a capital adeguacy ratio of With
mandatory for every Scheduled Commercial Credit
guarantee corpus of 3000 crore.
Banks (SCBs). Capital adequacy ratio is that It is public sector financial institution
a
rates to
ratio of the total capital of a bank to its risk in India. lt provides loans at lowBank will
weighted assets, which ensure's strength Small entrepreneurs.
MUDRA
be
and stability of a bank to withstand enactment It is a setup through statutory
100% subsidiary of

e
reasonable degree of losses.
SIDBI.

Financial Institutions At a Glance

nc
AllIndia

Financial Institution and their Purpose

Headquarters
Industrial Finance Corporation of To grant loans advances to industrial concerns and
India (|FCI) 1948, New Delhi
ra
subsoritbe to debentures iloated by them.
Slale Finance Corporations To finance the needs of the smal-scale and medium sized
(SFCs) 1951 industries in respective states. 28 SFCs are in operations
alongwith 28 State lIndustrial Development Corp (SIDC).
Industrial Credit and Investment To stimulate the promolion of new industries and assist in
nt

Corporation of India (|CICI) 1955, modernisation of existing industries.

Mumbai In 2002, ICICI merged with ICICIBak no more a DFI.

Industrial Development Bank of To meet the financial needs of industrialisation and

India (IDBI) 1964 Mumbai co-ordinale with all other agencies concerned with
industrial development finance.
ie

Wholly owned subsidiary of RBI till 1976. Merged with

IDBI Bank in 2004.
Industrial Investment Bank of India To assist the industrial units in Eastern region.
jm

(|B)1985
Small Industries Development To promote, finance and development industry in Small
Bank of India (SIDBI), Lucknow Scale sector.
Unit Trust of India (1964) (UTI) Setup as an investment institution to stimulate and pool
the savings of the middle and low income groups.
@

UTI bifurcated into two parts

() UTIMutual Fund
() Specified Undertaking of UTI (SUUTI)
National Housing Bank (NHB) It is the apex inslitution of housing finance in India and is a
1988, New Delhi wholly owned subsidiary of the RBI.
Launched AESIDEX for tracking prices of residential
properties in India in 2007. At present, RESIDEX covers
15 cities in India. It is a relinance institution.
EXIM Bank (1982), Mumbai To finance, facilitate and promote foreign trade in India.
It is a specialised financial institution.

Tourism Finance Corporation of Set up on the recommendation of Yunhs Committee on

India Limited (TFCI)-1989, Tourism. It is a specialised finance institution providing
New Delhi assistance to tourism related activities/projects.
Mutual Funds Mutual Funds are the most among the newer
capital market institutione Aant functions is to mobilise the
savings of the general public and invest them in stock
market securities.
.
Venture Capital Funds Venture Capital Funds (VCFs) essentially give commercial
rt to new ideas and for the introduction and
adantation of new technologies.
332 GENERAL KNOVWLEDGE~ Indian Economy

Insurance Sector
• Insurance industry includes two 4. United India General Insurance
sectors- Life Insurance and General Company Limited, Chennai.
.
Insurance. • On 3rd November, 2000 GIC was renamed
Life insurance in India was as GIC Re and approved as Indian
introduced by Britishers. A British Reinsurer and the four subsidiaries of GIC
firn in 1818 established the Oriental were separated from GIC and are
Life Insurance Company at Calcutta functioning independently under Public
now Kolkata. Sector General Insurance Companies

e
• Since the opening up, the number of . (GIPSA).
participants in the Insurance GIC Reinsurer (Re) has branch offices in

nc
Industry has gone up from 7 insurers Dubai and London and a representative
(including LIC, four public sector office in Mosco.
general insurers, one specialised
insurer and the GIC as the national Insurance Regulatory and
re-insurer) in 2000 to 49 insurers as Development Authority of India
on 30th September, 2011.
ra
(IRDAI)
• The Insurance Regulatory and
Life Insurance
Development Authority (IRDA) has
Corporation (LIC) changed its name to Insurance Regulatory
nt

• LIC was established Ist and Development Athority of India

September, 1956, which set the pace (IRDAI). The change of name was effected
for nationalisation of life insurance in the Insurance Laws (Amendment)
under the Stewardship of CD Ordinance, 2014 was promulgated by the
President of India on 26th December, 2014.
ie

Deshmukh. It has head office at

Mumbai and eight zonal offices the The ordinance contais certain
most recent being at Patna. amendments to the Insurance Regulation
• LIC is also operating internationally and Development Act, 1999 and inserted
jm

the words 'of India' after development

through branch offices in Fiji, authority. Insurance Regulatory and
Mauritius and UK and through joint Development Authority of India(|RDA) is
venture companies in Bahrain, Nepal, an autonomous apex statutory body which
Sri Lanka, Kenya and Saudi Arabia. regulates and develops the insurance
@

In 2008, its wholly and subsidiary was industry in India.

opened in Singapore. .
It was constituted by a Parliament of India
• As of 2019 Life Insurance act called Insurance Regulatory and
Corporation of India had total life Development Authority Act,1999 and duly
fund of 28.3 trillion. passed by the Government of India. The
agency operates from its headquarters at
General Insurance Hyderabad, Telangana where it shifted from
Corporation (GIC) Delhi in 2001.
• GIC was established Ist
January, 1973, with its four Pension Sector
subsidiaries, viz, • New Pension System
launched on lst
1. National Insurance Company January, 2004.
.
Limited, Kolkata; The NPS covers all employees of the
Central Government and Central
2. The New India Insurance
autonomous bodies, except armed forces
Company Limited, Mumbai;
27 States have notified and joined the NPS.
3. The Oriental Fire and General • With effect from Ist November, 2009 the
Insurance Company Limited NPS was opened to all citizens.
New Delbi; and • NPS-Lite is the lower cost version of NPS.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy 333
•
Swavalamban Scheme was announced in the budget 2010. It is an incentive schemne
for the NPS.
•
Under this, any citizen in the unorganised sector, who fairs NPS in 2010-11 with a
minimal annual contribution of annual 1000 and maximum of 12000 will receive a
government contribution of E 1000 in his NPS account.
• The National Securities Depositories Limited (NSDL) has been appointed as the
Central Record Keeping Agency, for the NPS.
.
The revised guidelines for NPS has raised the age from 55 years to 60 years. The Pension
Fund Regulatory Development Authority was established on 23rd August, 2003.

Insurance Sector Schemes

e
Prograrnme/ Main Provisions
Schemes

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Ayushman Universal Health Scherme launched by Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
Bharat Yojana
Launched to provide free healthcare services to more than 40% population of
the country.
Scheme offers a health cOver of 5 Lakh.
It covers medicine, diagnostic expenses, medical trealment, pre
ra
hospitalisationcost.
Pradhan Aims to provide accident insurance cover to the people of lndia.
Mantri People in the age group of 18 to 70 years who have a bank account can
Suraksh Bima avail the benetii from the school.
Yojana
nt

Employment Provides social security as well as socio-economic protection to all workers

State in India.
Insurance This insurance scheme commenses upon the first day of insurable
Scheme employment to each and every worker. They are provided with full medical
care insurance for themselves and their family.
ie

It also guarantees the protection to any wNOman who whould lose the
capacity to earn or dependants of person injured during occupational
accidents, they are entitled to monthly pension commonly known as
dependents benefit.
jm

Janashree Launched on 10th August, 2000 by LIC.

Bima Yojana JBY replaced Social Security Group Insurance Scheme (SSGIS) and Rural
(JBY) Group Life Insurance Scheme (RGLIC).
Provides for an insurance cover of
30000 on natural death, 75000 on
permanent disability to acoident and37500 on partial disability.
@

The premium is 200 per member per annum.

45 ocCupational groups having 25 members.
For both rural and urban people
For BPL and marginally above BPL people.
50% of finance is met out of social security fund.
Universal Launched from the year 2003-04 for improving the healthcare access to the
Health poor families.
Insurance Launched by four public sector general insurance company.
Scheme Export Credit Guarantee Corporation (ECGC) and the Agriculture Insurance
(UHIS) Company (AIC) are the specialised insurers.
-
Rashtriya Launched on 1st October, 2007.
Swasthya Provides srmart-card based health insurance cover R 30000 per family per
Bima Yojana annum to BPL íamilies (a unii of five) in the unorganised sector.
(ASBY) The premium is shared in 75: 25 between the centre and the states.
For BPL fanilies (a unit of five).
For unorganised sector.
Its a smart card based cashless health insurance, cover 30000 per annum,
of insurance or a family floats basis.
It also cover migrant workers.

It was for 5 years from 2008 to 2013.

334 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

Programme/ Main Provisions

Schemes
Itcover all pre-existing diseases, maternity benefit, transport cost.
Ituse IT application both privale and public service providers for delivering
the insurance package.
No age limit has been prescribed.

Aam Aadmi Launched on 2nd October, 2007 by LIC for rural landless hoUseholds at
Bima Yojana Shimla.
(AABY) Premium fixed at 200 per person per annum to be shared equally by centre
and the states.
The age covered is 18 years to 59 years.
Death/permanent disability 75000, partial disability ? 37500

e
For rural landless household.
*
Head of the family or one carring mermber in the íamily of rural landless.
Free add-on benefit for the children of the members of Aarm Aadmi Birna Yojana.

nc
For BPL families
Between 9th to 12th standard.
Universal For BPL farmilies.
Health It gives reimbursement of medical expenses uptoR 30000 towards
Insurance hospitalisation.
ra
Scheme -
Include pre-existing diseases, malernal benefit.
Uplo the age 70 years.
nt

Indian Financial System

• Financial system refers to the borrowing groups, are variable interest bills sold
and lending of funds for the demand and through fortnightly auctions.
Supply of funds of all individuals . 364 Davs T-bills introduced on the
ie

institutions, companies and of the recommendation of Vaghul working

government. group are long-dated bills, whose yields
• The Indian Financial System consists of
jm

reflects the market conditions.

two parts, viz, Indian money market
and. 14 Days T-bills introduced in April, 1997
the Indian capital market. by the RBI at a discount rate equivalent to
the rate of interest on Ways and Means
MONEY MARKET Advance (WMA) to the Government of
@

• This is a market for

'near money' or it is India.
the market for borrowing and lending of Dated Govern ment Securities are also
short-term funds. type of treasury bills recommended by
• The money a
market is key component of Chakravarty Committee on Monetary
as
the financial system, it is the function System (1988). These are 5 years and 10
of monetary operations conducted by the years maturity government securities
Central Bank in its pursuit of monetary • sold on an auction basis.
policy objectives. Certificate of Deposits It is the
certificate issued by bank/inancial
Instruments of Money Market institute to other banks or financial
T-Bills or treasury bills are the institute, who give funds on short-term
government bonds, which are used to basis. Commercial Banks are a saving
raise funds from the money market. certificate entitling the bearer to receive
• 91 Days Treasury
Bills (T-bills) used by interest. The maturity of a CoD varies
the government to raise funds from the from 3 months to I year.
market for short periods nothing but •
Commercial Papers It is an instrument
short-term government bond. to raise short-term funds by the
• 182 Days T-bills
introduced on the corporate sector.
recommendation of Vaghul working
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy 335)

• It can be issued by a listed company with

a working capital of almost 5 crore. The
New Law of SEBI
CP is issued in multiples of 25 lakh In August 2014, the Securities Laws
subject to a minimum issue of lcrore. (Amendment) Act, 2014, gave SEBI
The maturity of CP is between additional powers, including to order the
3 to 6 months. arrest of violators and seek call data
records of individuals under
• Money
Market Index is an index, which investigation.
helps investors to decide how much
to invest in money market
andThe new law gave SEBI the pOvers to
where
through providing information about
search and obtain information, including
prevailing market ratio. call records, about any suspected entity
from within or outside the firm.

e
•
Bankers Acceptance Rate is the rate, at
which the banker's acceptance is traded Stock Exchange in India

nc
in secondary market. • Stock exchange or
• shae market deals in
LIBOR/ MIBOR London Inter-Bank shares, debentures and financial
Offered Rate/Mumbai Inter-Bank Offered securities.
Rate is the interest rate, at which bank . There are 22 stock exchanges in India.
borrows fund from other banks. Among them two are national level stock
ra
exchange namely Bombay Stock
CAPITAL MARKET Exchange (BSE) and National Stock
• Capital market is
concerned with Exchange (NSE). The rest 20 are
provision of raising long-term funds. Regional Stock Exchanges (RSE).
nt

. can
Capital market be classified into debt Bombay Stock
Exchange (BSE)
market and equity market.
It is stock exchange located on Dalal
a
•
In debt market, a company can acauire
funds only by incurring debt and lender Street, Mumbai, Maharashtra. It is the
ie

is guaranted of a fixed repayment e.g. 10th largest stock exchange in the world
by market capitalisation of more than
bond.
$ 2.2 billion on as of April, 2018.
• Equity
Market Here, funds can be • Established in 1875, BSE Ltd (formerly
jm

raised wvithout incurring debt those. who

finance the enterprise by purchasing known as Bombay Stock Exchange
equity instrument like shares. Ltd.), is the India's oldest Stock
Exchange one of Asia's oldest stock
SEBI exchange and one of India's leading
@

exchange groups.
SEBI (Securities and Exchange Board of •
Over the past 137 years, BSE has
India) was set up in 1988 and made a
facilitated the growth of the Indian
statutory body in 1992. corporate sector by providing it
Main Functions of SEBI are as follows an efficient capital-raising platform.
• To regulate the business of
the stock Popularly known as BSE, the bourse was
market and other securities market. established as The Native Share and
. To promote regulate Stock Brokers' Association" in 1875.
and the
self-regulatory organisations.
• To prohibit
National Stock Exchange (NSE)
fraudulent and unfair trade •
practices in securities market. It is the country's leading stock exchange
• To promote awareness among investors located in the financial capital of
Mumbai, India. National Stock
and training of intermediaries about was
safety of market. Exchange (NSE) established in the
• To prohibit mid 1992s as a demutualised electronic
insider trading in securities exchange.
market. as the
• To regulate huge acquisition of shares 1he NSE was established in 1994
and takeover of companies. first materialised electronic exchange in
the country.
336 GENERAL KNOVWLEDGE~ Indian Economy

• NSE provides a modern, fully automated• NSE-50 From 28th July, 1998, its name
sCreen-based trading system, which is S and P CNX Nifty. National Stock
offered easy trading terminals, through Exchange launched a new share Price
which investors in every nook and corner Index, NSE-50 in place of NSE-100 in
of India can trade. April, 1996. NSE-50 includes
• NSE has played a critical role in 50 Companies shares. This stock
reforming the Indian securities market exchanges was founded on Ferwani
and in bringing unparalleled Committees's recommendation in
transparency, efficiency and market 1994.
integrity. NSE has market • The CNX Nifty covers 22 sectors of the
capitalisation of more than US$2.27
Indian economy and offers investment

e
trillion making it the world's 1 l th largest managers exposure to the Indian market
stock exchange as of April 2018. in one portfolio. The CNX Nifty index is

nc
MCX SX Stock Exchange a free loat market capitalisation
weighted index.
• It is a private stock exchange head
quartered in Mumbai, which was
•
The CNX Nifty Index was developed by
Ajay Shah and Susan Thomas.
founded in 2008. Now it is a MCX-SX
Full Fledged Stock Exchange.
ra Global Indices
• Securities and Exchange Board of India Index Country
(SEBI) on 10th July, 2012 granted
to MCX Stock Exchange Hang Seng Hong Kong
permission
(MCX-SX) to operate as full-fledged JCI Indonesia
nt

stock exchange. Nikkei 225 Japan

• MCX-SX would be able to offer additional Kospi South Korea
asset classes, such as equity and equity Kualalumpur Composite Malaysia
F and O (Futures and Options) interest TSEC Weighted Index Taiwan
ie

Iate futures and wholesale debt SSE Composite Index China

segments. SET Thailand
FTSE 100 UK
Important Share Price Indexes
jm

NASDAQ Composite Index US

of India STOXX Europe
• BSE SENSEX This is the most Dow Jones US
sensitive share index of the Mumbai
Exchange. the Credit Rating Agencies
@

Stock This is
representative index of 30 main shares.. It is a company that assigns credit ratings
Its base year is 1978-79. BSE is the for issuers of certain type of debt
oldest stock exchange of India, founded obligation as well as the debt instrument,
in 1875. example of issuers are companies, State
• The barometer of Indian capital market. and Central Government etc.
BSE sensitive index also referred to
BSE-30 is free-float
as.
market
The credit rating represents the credit
rating agency's evaluation of qualitative
capitali-sations-weighted stock market and quantitative information for a
index of 30 well established and company or government; including
financially sound companies listed on non-public information obtained by the
Bombay Stock Exchange. credit rating agencies analysts. The
• The free-float market capitalisation of a credit rating is used by individuals and
company is determined by multiplying entities that purchase the bonds issued
the price of its stocks by the number of by companies and governments to
shares issued by a company which is determine the likelihood that the
readily available for trading on the stock government or company will pay its bond
exchange. The base year/ period of obligations.
SENSEX is 1978-79.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy 337
• CRISIL set-up in 1988, is a credit rating •
In some cases, the services of the
agency. It undertakes the rating fixed underlying debt are also given ratings.
deposit programmes, convertible and Credit Rating Established Head
non-convertible debentures and also
Agency quarterS
credit assessment of companies. FITCH Group 1913 Paris
CRISIL 500 is the net share Price Index P New York
S and 1860
introduced by Credit Rating Agency. Group
The 'Credit Rating Information
Moody's 1909 New York
Services of India Limited' (CRISIL) on
Investor
18th January 1996. Services

e
nc
INDIAN FISCAL SYSTEM
It refers to the management of revenue Public Debt
and capital expenditure finances of the. Internal Debt It comprises loans raised
ra
state. Hence, Fiscal system includes from the open market treasury bills issued
budgetary activities of the government to the RBI, Commercial Banks etc.
that is revenue raising, borrowing and • External Debt It consists of loans taken
spending activities. from World Bank, IM ADB and
nt

individual countries.
FISCAL POLICY
It is the means by which a govrnment Deficits
adjusts its spending levels and tax rates to In a
budget statement, four types of deficits
ie

monitor and influence a nations economy. are mentioned

It is the sister strategy to Monetary Policy (a) Revenue (b) Capital
through which a Central Bank influences
a nations money supply. (c) Fiscal (d) Primary
jm

These uses can affect the following macro

economic variables in an economy Revenue Deficit
• Aggregate
demand and the level of There are various ways to represent and
interpret a government's deficit. The
economic activity;
simplest is the revenue deficit which is just
@

• The distribution of income;

dunerence between revenue receipts and
e
•
The pattern of resource allocaion revenue expenditures.
within the government sector and
relative to the private sector. Revenue deficit = Revenue expenditue
-
Revenue receipts
Sources of Revenue Capital Deficit
Main sources of revenue are customs
duties, excise duties, service tax, taxes on An imbalance in a nation's balance of
property, corporate tax, income taxes. payments capital account in which payments
made by the country for purchasing foreign
Sources of Expenditure assets exceed paynents eceived by the
country for selling domestic assets.
Plan Expenditure includes agriculture, In
other words, investment by the domestic
rural development, irrigation and food economy
control, energy, industry, minerals, in foreign assets is less than
transport and communications etc. foreign investment in domestic assets. This
a
Non-Plan Expenditure It consists of
1s generally not a desirable situation for
economy.
nterest payments, defence, subsidies and domestic
general services. Capital deficit = Capital receipts
-
Disbursement on capital account
338 GENERAL KNOVWLEDGE~ Indian Economy

Fiscal Deficit Fiscal deficit = Revenue receipts (Net tax

revenue + Non-tax revenue) + Capital
This is the sumn of revenue and capital receipts (only recoveries of loans and other
expenditure less all revenue and capital receipts) - Total expenditure (Plan and
receipts other than loans taken. non-plan).
This gives a more holistic view of the
government's funding situation since it Primary Deficit
gives the difference between all receipts
by which a government's total
and expenditures other than loans taken Amount
to meet such expenditures. expenditure exceeds its total revenue,
payments on its debt.
Fiscal Deficit = Difference between exCluding interest
country's expenditure and earnings Primary deficit = Fiscal deficit -
Interest

e
payments.

nc
UNION BUDGET
• The budget is an extensive account of Stages in Budget Enactment
ra
the government's finances, in which The budget qoes through the following six
revenues from all sources and expenses staqes in the
Parliament
of all activities undertaken are •
Presentation of the budget on the floor of
aggregated.
• The
the house before the Lok Sabha.
Finance Minister presents the General discussion on the budget.
nt

Union Budget every year in the

Parliament that contains the Scrutiny by departmentally related
Government of India's revenue and standing committees.
one fiscal year, which Voting on demands for grants.
expenditure for
ie

• Passing of Appropriation Bill (Article 114 of

runs from lst April to 31st March.
the Constitution of India).
Historical Preview • Passing of Finance Bill (under Rule 219
jm

• The term Budget is acutally derived of the Lok Sabha).

from a French word 'Bougette', which
means a sack or pouch. It was first used Vote onAccount
in France in 1803. Usually, the Appropriation Bill
• In the Constitution of
India the term (expenditure part of budget) is passed by
@

Budget is nowhere used. It is rather end of April, but government needs

mentioned as Annual Financial money from beginning of financial year,
Statement under Article 112 so government use vote-on-account to
comprising the revenue budget, capital remove money from consolidated fund of
budget and also the estimates for the India.
next fiscal year called budgeted
estimates. Types of Budgeting
Preparation of Budget Line Item Budgeting
The budget is prepared by the budget If emphasises on the items (objects) of
division in the Ministery of Finance expenditure without highlighting its
(MoF), after consulting with other purpose. It gives object-wise (Line-item)
ministries and the Planning Commission. classification in budget. Under this system,
The process majorly includes following the amount granted by the legislature on a
steps which may be sequential or specific item should be spent on that item
overlapping too. only.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy 339)

Quick Digest specific line items are increasing or

decreasing. Zero based budgeting also refers
John Mathai proposed the first budget
of to the identification of a task or tasks and
Republic of India in 1950 and also the then funding resources to complete the task
creation of Planning Commission. independent of current renouncing.
Finance Minister Morarji Desai has given
budget for the maximMum number of times (10)
Gender Budgeting
followed by P Chidambaram, who has given & It came into being in 2004-05. To
budgets. contribute towards the WOmen
CD Deshmukh was the first Indian Governor empowerment and removal of inequality
of R8I to have presented the Interim Budget based on gender, role of budgeting has been
for the year 1951-52. accepted through this step.

e
Mrs Indira Gandhi is the only woman to Programme Budgeting
hold the post of the Finance Minister and to
It emphasis the planning aspect of

nc
have presented the budget in her capacity as
the Prime Minister of India in 1978.
budgeting for selecting the best out of a
The first such mini-budget was presented by number of available prograrmmes and for
TT Krishnamachari on 30th November, 1956,
optimising the choice. The Government
in form of fresh laxation proposals through has decided on 18 November, 2016 to
merge Rail Budget with the Union Budegt
ra
Finance Bills, demanded by the prevailing
from Budget year 2017-18.
domestic and international economic situation.
Since 2017, the Union Budget is presented on
1
February annually. TAX STRUCTURE
IN INDIA
nt

From 2017, the Railway Budget has been

merged with the Central Budget on the
Tax is a compulsory payment by the
recommendation of Bibek Debroy Committee.
citizens to the government to meet the
public expenditure. It is legally imposed by
Output Budgeting
ie

the government on the taxpayer and in no

It concentrate only on the quantitative Case taxpayer can deny to pay taxes to the
aspect of expenditure. government.
jm

Performance Based Budgeting Direct Tax

Its attempt solve decision making A direct tax is that tax, which is born by the
to
problems based on a programmes ability to persSon on whom it is levied. A direct tax
convert inputs to outputs and use inputs to cannot be shifted to other person.
@

affect certain outcomes. Performance may The important taxes levied on incomes are
be judged by a certain programmes ability Corportion Tax and Income tax. Taxies
to meet certain objective that contribute to levied an wealth are wealth tax and gift tax
more abstract goal as calculated by that etc.
programmes ability to use Iesources
efficiently by linking input to outputs. Structure of Taxes
Outcome Budgeting Direct Tax Indirect Tax
Personal Income Tax Excise Duty
This type of budgeting tries to ensure that
budget outlays translate into concrete Corporation Tax Custom Duty
Outcomes. Wealth Tax Sales Tax
Zero-Based Budgeting Gift Tax Service Tax
It is a method of budgeting, in which all Land Revenue Value Added Tax
budgetary allocations are set to nil at the Profession Tax Passenger Tax
beginning of a financial year. Stamp Duty and Entertainment
Zero-based budgeting requires the budget Registration Charges Tax
request be re-evaluated thoroughly, starting Securities Transaction Tax Electricity Duty
from the zero-base. This process is Banking Cash Transaclion Motor Vehicles
independent of whether the total budget or Tax Tax
340 GENERAL KNOVWLEDGE~ Indian Economy

Indirect Tax Although, the states have been assigned

These are those taxes, which have their certain taxes which are levied and
collected by them. they also have a share
primary burden or impact on one person. But in the revenue of certain union taxes and
that person succeeds in shifting his burden there are certain other taxes which are
on to others. Indirect taxation is policy often levied are certain other taxes which are
used to generate tax revenue. Indirect tax
So called as it is paid indirectly by
s levied and collected by the Central
consumer of goods and services while the final Government but whole proceedings are
paying transferred to the states.
for purchase of goods or for enjoying services.
GST (Goods and Services Tax) FINANCE
COMMISSION

e
The Goods and Service Tax (GST) has been
implemented from July 1, 2017. It Finance Commission is constituted to
incorporates many of the indirect taxes levied

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define financial relations between the
by states and the Central Government. Some centre and the state. Under the provision
of the taxes GST replaced include Sales Tax, of Article 280 of the Constitution, the
Central Excise, Duty, Octroi, Service Tax etc. President appoint a Finance
GST has three components Commission for the specific purpose of
• CGST (Central Goods and Services act)
ra devolution revenue
of non-plan
• SGST (State Goods and Services act) resources.
• IGST (Integrated Goods and Services act) The functions of the commission are to
make recommendations to the President
Financial Relations Between in respect of the distribution of net
nt

proceeds of taxes to be shared between

Centre and States the union and the states and the
India possesses a federal structure in which a allocation of share of such proceeds
clear distinction is made between the Union among the states.
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and the State functions and sources of The principles, which should govern the
revenue. Article 264 and 293 explain the payment of grants-in-aid by the centre to
financial relations between the Union and the states. any other matter concerning
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State Government. financial relations between the centre

and the states.

Finance Commission in India

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Finance Established in Chainan Operational Year of Subnitting

Commission Duration Report
1951 KC Niyogi 1952-57 1952
1956 KSanthanam 1957-62 1956
1960 AK Chanda 1962-66 1961
1964 PV Rajamanar 1966-69 1965
1968 Mahaveer Tyagi 1969-74 1968
VI 1972 Brahma Nand Reddy 1974-79 1973
VII 1977 JM Shellet 1979-84 1978
VII 1983 YB Chawan 1984-89 1983
X 1987 NKP Salve 1989-95 1989
X 1992 KC Pant 1995-2000 1994
XI 1998 AM Khusro 2000-2O05 2000
XIl 2003 C Rangarajan 2005-2010 2004
XIl 2007 Vijay L Kelkar 2010-2015 2009
XIV 2012 YVenugopal Reddy 2015-2020 2015
XV 2017 NK Singh 2021-2026 2020
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Economy 341

INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC
ORGANISATIONS
INTERNATIONAL WORLD BANK (WB)
MONETARY FUND (MF) World Bank is the institution created at
• IMF wvas conceived on 22nd July, 1944 and the Bretton Woods Conference in
came into existence on 27th December, 1944. Along with the IME it constitutes
1945, vhen 29 countries signed the twin-sister of Bretton Woods.

e
agreement. It originally had 45 members. World Bank has 190 members and is
India is the founding member. headquartered in Washington DC.

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• IMF at present has 190 members and The World Bank provides loans to
headquartered at Washington DC. On 16th developing countries for capital
October, 2020 Andorra (a microstate in programme and its official goal is
Europe) became 190th member of this reduction of poverty.
organisation. The capital resources of the • International Finance Corporation
ra
IMF comprise Special Drawing Rights (IFC) was established in 1956, to
(SDRs) and currencies that member pay provide loans to private industries of
under quotas calculated for them when developing nations.
they join the IME •
International Development Association
nt

• The quotas
deternine the amount of (IDA), known as the soft loan window
foreig exchange, membera may borrow of the WNorld Bank was established on
from the IMF and its voting power on
. 24th
IMF September, 1960.
policy matters. Quotas are denominated in International Centre for Settlement of
ie

SDRs. Investment Disputes (1CSID) 3vas

• The member with largest quotas is USA established in 1966, to provide facilities
followed by Japan and China. Tuvalu is the for the conciliation and arbitration of
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member with smallest quota. India with a investment disputes between member
quota share of 2.76% is now placed eighth countries. It has 157 members.
quota country at IME. .
largest holding the Multilateral Investment Guarantee
• Based on noting share, India (together Agency (MIGA) was founded in 1988 to
with Bangladesh) Bhutan and Sri Lanka promote foreign direct investment into
@

are ranked 22nd in the list of developing countries. It has 175

24 constituencies. members.
• For India, Finance Minister is the
Ex-officio Governor of the Board of WORLD TRADE
Governors of the IME. Governor of the
RBI, is India's alternate Governor.
ORGANISATION
• It was
constituted on lst January, 1995,
Special Drawing Rights under the Marrakesh Agreement and
The SDAs were created in 1969 are
took the place of GATT (General
Agreement on Trade and Tariff) as an
Supplementary foreign exchange reserves assets
maintained by the IME. SDRs are not a Currency. effective formal organisation. GATT
was an informal organisation, which
Instead it represents a claim to currency held by
IMF member countries. SDR, value is determined
regulated world trade since, 1948.
• It is
by weighted currency basket of five major headquartered at Geneva. At
curencies :the Euro, the US dollar, the British present, it has 164 members.
pound and Japanese Yen and Chinese Yuan. SDAs (Afghanistan has become the 164th
are also called 'paper gold'. WTO member).
 342) GENERAL KNOVWLEDGE~ Indian Economy

Functions ofWTO ASIAN DEVELOPMENT

• To implementation and BANK
Oversee,
administration of WTO agreements. To •
(ADB)
provide a forum for negotiations. It was established in December, 1966
. To with the aim to accelerate economic and
provide a dispute settlement
social development in Asia and Pacific
mechanism. To provide facilities for
implementation, administration and region. It is headquartered at Manila,
operation of multilateral and bilateral . Phillipines.
agreements of the world trade. The ADB offers hard loans from ordinary
• The WTO is currently endeavouring to capital resources on commercial terms
persist vith a trade negotiation called and the Asian Development Fund

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Doha Development Agenda (DDA), affiliated with the ADB extends soft
which was launched in 2001, to enhance loans from special fund resources with

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equitable participation of poor countries, concessional conditions.
which represent a majority the
of world's At the end of 2016, Japan holds the
population. largest proportion of shares at 15.67%.
Singapore Issues refer to transparency The United States hols 15.66%, China
holds 6.47%, India holds 6.35% and
in government procurement,
ra
trade
facilitation, trade and investment and Australia holds 5.81%. It has 67 member
COuntries.
trade and competition.
• Swiss
Pormula relates to NAMA Asian
(Non-Agricultural Market Access).
Infrastructure
nt

WTO Ministerial Conferences

Investment Bank (AIIB)
It is a Multilateral Development Bank
Conferenoe Year Place (MDB) conceived for the 2lst century.
Chinese President Xi Jinping and Premier
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First 1996 Singapore

Second 1998 Geneva
Li Keqiang announced the AIIB initiative
during their respective visits to South-East
Third 1999 Seattle (USA)
Asian countries in October 2013.
Fourth 2001 Doha (Qalar)
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By the deadline of March 31st for

Fifth 2003 Cancun (Mexico)
submission of membership applications,
Sicth 2005 Hong Kong the Prospective Founding Members had
Seventh 2009 Geneva increased to 57, and the 4th CNM was
Eight 2011 Geneva organised in Beijing in April 2015, after
@

Nine 2013 Bali, Indonesia ratifications were received from 10

Tenth 2015 Nairobi, Kenya member states holding a total number of
Eleventh 50% of the initial subscriptions of the
2017 Buenos Aires
Authorised Capital Stock.
Twelfth 2022 Geneva
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ Indian Economy 343

Committees on Various Sectors of lndian Economy

Cornmittee Sector
AC Shah Corinittee Non-Banking Financial Company
Bimal Jalan Cormmittee Market Infrastructure Instrurments
Malegam Committee Functioning of Micro-Finance Institutions
Birla Committee Corporate Governance
Kirith Parikh Cornmittee Rationalisation of Petroleum Product Prices
Chatunvedi Committee Improving National Highways

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SR Hashim Cormmittee Urban Poverty
Abhijit Sen Committee Wholesale Price Index

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C Rangarajan Committee Services Prices Index and Financial Inclusion
Abid Hussian Cormittee Development of Capital Markels
Darmodaran Committee Customer Servioe in Banks

Khandelwal Cormmitee
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Human Resource in Commercial Banks
Patil Committee Corporate Debt
VK Sharna Committee Credit to Marginal Farmers
Sarangi Comimittee Non-Pertorming Assets
nt

Khanna Cormmittee Regional Rural Banks

Dantawala Committee Lead Bank Scheme
Gadgil Committee Financial Inclusion
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Thorat Committee Deregulalion of Small Saving Deposit Rates

Deepak ohanty Committee Monelary Syster in India
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Raghuram Rajan Comnitee Financial Sector Reform

Naresh Chandra Conmittee Civil Aviation

Rakesh Mohan ComImittee Railways

Kakodkar Cormmittee Rail Safety
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Pitroda Commitlee Rail Modernisation

JJ Irani Committee Company Law Reforms

CB Bhave Cormmnittee Disclosure Standards
Karve Committee Small Scale Industry
Raja Mannar Committee Banking Laws
LC Gupta Committee Derivatives Trading
KR Chandratre Cornmittee Delisting of Shares
344 GENERAL KNOVWLEDGE~ Indian Economy

Glossary
Absolute Advantage The ability to than its imports, it has a balance of trade
produce more units of a good or service Surplus. If the value of a country's imports
than some other producer, using the of goods and services is greater than its
same quantity of resources. exports, it has a balance of trade deficit.
Aggregate Demand (AD) A schedule Balanced Budget A financial plan, in
(or graph) that shows the value of which income is equal to expenses.
output (1eal GDP) that would be Blue Chip Stocks Stocks in large,
demanded at different price levels. nationally known companies that have

e
Aggregate Supply (AS) A schedule (or been profitable for a long time and are
graph) that shows the value of output well-known and trusted.

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(real GDP) that would be produced at Command Economy An economy, in
different price levels. In the long run, which most economic issues of
the schedule shows a constant level of production and distribution are
real GDP at all price levels, determined resolved through central planning and
by the economy's productive capacity at controlling.
ra
full employment. In the short run, the Consumer Price Index (CPI) A price
aggregate supply schedule may show
index that measures the cost of a fixed
different levels of real GDP as the price basket of consumer goods and services
level changes.
and compares the cost of this basket in
nt

Automated Teller Machine (ATM) A one time period with its cost in some
machine that provides cash and base period. Changes in the CPI are
performs banking services (for deposits Used to measure inflation.
and transfers of funds between Cost-Push Inflation Inflation caused by
accounts,) automatically, when
ie

rsing costs of production.

accessed by customers using plastic
cards coded with Personal
Crowding-Out Increased interest rates
Indentification Numbers (PINs). and decreased private investment
caused by government borrowing.
jm

Balance of Payments Deficit An Currency Devaluation A government

imbalance in a nation's balance of
payments, where more currency is adjusts the value of the nation's
currency so that it buys less of foreign
flowing out of the country than is currencies than before.
@

flowing in. This unequal flow of

currency is considered unfavourable Current Account Part of a nation's
balance of payments accounts; records
and can lead to a loss of foreign exports and imports of goods arnd
CUIrency reserves.
services, net investment income and
Balance of Payments Surplus An transfer payments with other countries.
imbalance in a nation's balance of
payments, in which more currency is Current Account Balance The inflow of
flowing into the country than is flowing the goods, services, investment income
out. This unequal flow of currency is and transfer accounts into the
domestic country from foreign
considered favourable and can lead to
an increase in foreign currency countries netted against the outflow of
goods, services, investment income and
l'eserves.
transfer accounts from the domestic
Balance of Trade The part of a nation's country to foreign countries.
balance of payments accounts that deals Demand-Pull
Inflation Inflation caused
only with its imports and exports of
by increasing demand for output or too
goods and services. The balance of trade
is divided into the balance on goods much money chasing too few goods.
(merchandise) and the balance on Depreciation A reduction in the value
services. If the value of a country's of capital goods over time due to their
exports of goods and services is greater Use in production.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy 345

Depreciation of Currency A decline in make it possible for a single firm to

the price of one currency relative to produce the entire output of the
another:. market at a lower average cost than a
Depression A severe, prolonged economic number of firms each producing a
contraction. smaller quantity.
Fixed Exchange Rate An exchange rate Non-Price Competition Competition by
that set and therefore, prevented from firms trying to attract customers by
rising or falling with changes in supply methods other than reducing prices;
and demand for a nation's currency. examples include advertising and
Flexible Exchange Rate An exchange promotional gifts.
rate that is determined by the Oligopoly A
market structure, in which

e
a few, relatively large firms account for
international demand for and supply of
a nation's money; a rate free to rise or all or most of the production or sales
of a good or service in a particular

nc
fall (to float).
Hyperinflation A very rapid rise in the market and where barriers to new
overall price level. firms entering the market are very
high. Some oligopolies produce
Imperfect Competition Any market homogeneous products; others
structure, in which firms are not price
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produce heterogeneous products.
takers, but instead must seek the price
and output levels that maximise their Open Market Operations The buying
profits. and selling of government bonds and
securities by the federal Reserves to
Initial Public Oflering (IPO) A company's central bank reserve and the money
nt

first sale of stock to the public. When a supply.

company 'goes public', it sells blocks of
stock shares to an investment firm that Pegged Exchange Rate An exchange
rate that is fixed within a certain range
specialises in initial offerings of stock or against a major currency or basket
ie

and resells them to the public. of currencies.

Market Failures The systematic over
production or underproduction of some Perlect Competition A market
structure, in which a large number of
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goods and services that occurs, when

producers or consumers do not have to relatively small firms produce and sell
bear the full costs of transactions they identical products and in which there
are no significant barriers to entry into
undertake. Usually related to or exit from the industry.
externalities or the need for public
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goods. Progressive Tax A tax that take a

larger percentage of income from
Monopolistic Competition A market
structure, in which slightly people in higher-income groups than
differentiated products are sold by a from people in lowver-income ones; the
US federal income tax is an example.
large number of relatively small
producers and in which the barriers to Recession A decline in the rate of
new firms entering the market are low. national economic activity, usually
Monopoly A market structure in which measured by a decline in eal GDP for
there is a single supplier of a good or atleast two consecutive quarters (i.e. 6
months).
service. Also, a firm that is the single
supplier of a good or service, for which Regressive Tax A tax that takes a
there are no close substitutes; also larger percentage of income from
known as a monopolist. people in lower-income groups than
Monopsony A market situation, in which from higher-income ones. Sales taxes
there is only one buyer of a resource. and excise taxes are examples.
Also, a firm that is the only buyer of a Velocity of Money Member The
resource; also known as a monopsonist. average number of times each dollar is
spent on final goods and services in a
Natural Monopoly An industry, in which year.
the advantages of large-scale production
346 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy

FAQs (Indian Economy)

1. The Indian economy should be 19. When was the dual exchange rate
developed on the socialistic pattern of system adopted in India?
society was enunciated, at which 20. What is reverse repo rate and what is
Summit of the Indian National the present rate of repo?
Congress? 21. Which are the four connectivities
2. In which plan did the Indian economy enunciated under the PURA model of
managed to cross the barrier of Hindu growth in India?
rate of growth of 3-3.5%? 22. Who is the present head of the Asian
3. How many Miniratnas Category-I Development Bank and from where

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companies are there at present? does he belong?
4. What is the punch line of the Twelfth 23. The Durgapur Steel Plant was set-up

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Five Year Plan? incollaboration with which country?
5. Who headed the Committee on Rail 24. What was the rate of devaluation of
Safety? rupee in June, 1 966?
6. The SO released the New Series of 25. Which plan did not set any target for
National Accounts with base production?
Crop
ra
yearinstead of the base year 2004-05. 26. The 'cafeteria approach' is associated
7. Which was the firstinsurance company with what?
in India?
27. Which state registered the maxinunm
8. Which were the two Five Year Plans growth rate in population according to
nt

when the set target for the foodgrain the Census 2011?
production was achieved during the 28. In India, for how many days in a year a
overall plan period? worker should work to be called as a
9. Which sector of the Indian economy is major workeror an employed person?
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the second largest provider of the 29. In which crop, India has the highest
employment after agriculture? productivity in the world?
10. Which state accounts for 9/10th of the 30. What is the core element of 'evergreen
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natural rubber production in the revolution' which has been envisaged for
country? the rejuvenation ofagriculture in India?
11. What is the rankof India in the recently 31. Who coined the term 'Green
released Human Development Revolution'?
Report-2019? 32. Which year of the Five Year Plans in
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12. Who gave the first scientific estimates India is referred to as "Second Green
of National Income in India? Revolution"?
13. When was the National Statistical 33. With which is the Colin Clark thesis
Commission formed and who was the associated?
Chairman? 34. Rolling Plan was adopted in India, in
14. Which country is the largest foreign which year?
direct investor in India after in 2015? 35. What is the percentage of tax proceeds
15. Which country is the smallest holder of which need to be shared with the
the quotas in the International States by the centre as per the
Monetary Fund at present? recommendation of the 13th Finance
16. What is the present rank of India in Commission?
terms of voting share in the IMF? 36. Is Good and Services Tax (GST) a sales
17. What is the present number of member tax or Value Added Tax? (VAT)
nations of the World Trade 37. What is the main goal of the World
Organisation? Bank?
18. What is the alternate name of the 38. In order to arrive at Gross National
Bombay Plarn prepared by SOme Product at factor cost from Gross
industrialists in l944? National Product at market prices, what
needs to be deducted?
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ Indian Economy 347

39. Which concept among the various

concepts of National Income is referred Answers
as Real National Income?
1. Avadi Summit 2. Seventh Plan
40. Which Indian Bank has the maximum 3. 54 4. Faster, sustainable and
number of branches outside India?
41. How many Zonal offices does Life inclusive growth 5. Dr Anil Kakodkar
6
2011-12. 7. Oriental Life
Insurance Corporation (LIC) have at
present? Insurance Company, in 1818 8. First
42. Who spearheaded the nationalisation of and Fifth Plan 9. Services sector
insurance industry in India and in which provides 29% employment followed
year? by Industry sector 10 6.6%

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43. How many associate banks does SBI have 11. Kerala 12. 129th 13. Professor V
at presernt? KRV Rao 14. 2005, Professor SD
44. Who headed the committee on micro

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Tendulkar 15. Mauritius 16. Tuvalu
finance institutions reforms? 17. 8th 18. 157 19. Plan of
45. Which industrial policy for the first time Economic Development for India
recognised the role of small-scale 20. 1992 21. Reverse Repo Rate is
industry?
the rate, at which RBI allows
ra
46. As per the MSME Act, 2006, what is the
investment limit of the medium Commercial Banks to park surplus
enterprises in the manufacturing sector? fund with the RBI. It withdraws
47. What are the essential components of liquidity form the market. The
inclusive growth? present Repo Rate is 7.75%.
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48. How money multiplier is arrived at? 22. Physical, electronic, knowledge
49. Which measure of money supply in India and economic 23. Takehiko Nakao,
is also called the narrow money? Japan 24. The UK 25. 57.5%
50. Who was the first Governor of RBI?
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26. Tenth Plan 27. Family Planning

51. Agriculture in India is associated, with 28. Bihar 29. 273 30. Pulses
which type of unemployment? 31. Sustainability 32. Dr William
52. What is the present rate of saving and
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Gaced 33. 1983-84 34. Structural

investment in India? change in the economy 35. 1978
53. When was Banking Ombudsman 36. 32.5% 37. Both 38. Reducing
Scheme implemented in India? poverty 39. Net indirect tax 40. Net
54. Who gave the concept of Physical Quality National Product at factor cost
@

of Life Index (PQLI)?

41. State Bank of India 42. 8 43. C D
55. What is the rank of India in terms of
Green House Gases (GHGs) emissions in Deshunukh, 1956 44. 5 45. Y H
absolute terms in the world? Malegam 46. Industrial Policy, 1977
56. The National Solar Mission has set the 47. 5
Crore to 10 CIore
target of generating 20000 MW 48. Poverty reduction, agriculture,
electricity through solar power, by which social sector development, reduction
year? in regional disparities and protecting
57. The National Manufacturing Policy, environment 49. Broad Money
2011 seeks to generate, how much (M3)/Reserve Money (M,) 50. MI
additional employment by 2022? 51. Sir Osborne Smith 52. Disguised
58. What does NIMZ stands for? unemployment 53. 36.8% and 38.1%
59. What is the decadal growth rate of 54. 2006 55. Morris D Morris 56. 3rd
population from 2001 to 20112
57. 2020 58. 100 million
60. What is the present system, which is
59. National Investrnent and
adopted by the RBI in the management of
currency in India? Manufacturing Zone 60. 17.64%
61. Who is the Vice-Chairman of newly form 61. Minimum Reserve System, 1957
NITIAayog? 62. Arvind Panagriya.
 GENERAL
SCIENCE

e
PHYSICS

nc
Physics is the study of nature and its laws. The word physics has been derived from a
Greek word physis which means nature. Physics is one of the academic disciplines,
perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy.
ra
Units
Measurement of any physical quantity Greatest Units
involves comparison with a certain basic light year =9.46 x1015 m
1
nt

arbitrarily chosen and widely accepted I parsec=3.086 x10!® m=3.26 ly

reference standard called unit. IAU = 1.5x 10!'m

SISYSTEM l metric tonne = 10 kg

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1
quintal =10° kg
It is based on the following seven basic
units and two supplementary units Dimensionsof Physical
Name of Quantity Narme of Unit
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Basic Units
Quantities
Dimensions of a physical quantity are the
Length metre powers, to which the fundamental
Mass kilogram quantities must be raised to represent that
Time quantity completely. There fore, the
@

second
Electric Current ampere dimensional formula of a quantity is
Thermodynarnic kelvin expressed in terms of fundamental
temperature quantities, commonly mass M, length L and
Luminous intensity candela time T. Any physical quantity is either a
Amount of substance
scalar or a vector.
mole e.g. Force = |MLT Density =|ML|
Supplementary Units
Plane angle
Solid angle
radian Scalar Quantities
steradian Physical quantities which have magnitude
only and no direction are called scalar
Important Derived Units quantities. e.g. mass, speed, volume, work,
Physical Quantity Definition S/ Unit time, power, energy etc.
Area Length
square
Vector Quantities
Physical quantities which have both
Velocity Displacement ms-!
per unit time magnitude and direction and also obey
triangle law of vector addition are called
Force Mass x
acceleration
kgms
-2 vector quantities.
e.g. displacement, velocity, acceleration,
force, momentum, torque etc.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 349

KINEMATICS
•
If the body covers first half distance with
velocity vj and next half with velocity vg,
It is the branch of mechanics, which deals then
with the motion of object.
Average velocity =
Distance
.
The length of the actual path covered by a
•
Ifa body travels with uniform velocity u, U
for time and with uniform velocity
body in a particular time interval is called
for time to, then
distance. It is always positive.
• It is a scalar quantity. Average velocity
.
Its unit is metre.

e
t + to
Displacement • If body is moving on a circular path,
a
then after completing one complete

nc
• The difference between the final and the
initial position of an object is called cycle, its average velocity is zero.
displacement. It may be positive,
negative or zero.
Uniform Velocity
• It is a vector quantity. Its An object is said to be moving with uniform
unit is metre.
ra
velocity if it undergoes equal
• The magnitude of displacement may or in equal intervals of ime.
may not be equal to the path length displacements
traversed by an object. Non-Uniform Velocity
|Displacement|s|Distarnce| An object is said to be moving with non
nt

Speed uniform or variable velocity if it undergoes

•
unequal displacements in equal intervals
Speed is the distance covered by a of time.
moving body in per unit of time interval.
ie

• It is a
scalar quantity. It is always equal to Relative Velocity
or greater than magnitude of the velocity. When two bodies are moving in the straight
.
The average speed of a particle for a line, the speed (or velocity) of one with
jm

given interval of time is defined as the respect to another is known as its relative
ratio of total distance travelled to the speed (or velocity).
total time taken. =velocity of with respect to B
A

Average speed
=V -Vg
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Total distance travelled

Total time taken Acceleration
• If the
speed ,
body covers first half distance with
and next half with speed v,
t is the rate of change of velocity. Its SI
unit is m/s“. It isa vector quantity.
then • When the velocity of a body increases
Average speed = with time then its acceleration is positive
and if velocity decreases with time then
its acceleration is negative and is called
Velocity retardation or deceleration.
The rate of change of displacement of a Acceleration of an bject is zero, if
body is called velocity. it is at rest or moving with uniform
velocity.
Velocity = Displacement
Time Average acceleration,
• Velocity is a vector
quantity.
• It may be positive or negative. a=
At
• Average velocity A
Total displacement
Total time
350 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

MOTION/REST Graphical Representation

If the position of a body or
a system of Motion
of
bodies does not change with time, it is
said to be at rest. Displacement-Time Graph
On the other hand, if the position change If a body moves with a uniform velocity then
with time, it is said to be in motion. displacement - time graph is a straight line.
A particle in rest does not have the speed lhe slope or gradient of the straight line is
speed.
and acceleration, while a particle in the Displacement
motion has its speed and also may have
some acceleration, if the speed changes
with respect to time.

e
Equation of Motion Slope= tan 0

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For motion on a straight line with 9,
Time
constant acceleration a
(î) v =u + at (i)s = ut + -a Velocity-Time Graph
1. Constant Acceleration Ifa body moves
ra
(üi) u²=u+2ns with a constant velocity, velocity-time
Equation ofMotion Under graph isa straight line.
Velocity
Gravity
nt

(a) Downward Direction

i) v =u + gt (ii) h = ut+. B

(ii) v²u²+2gh
ie

where, s = displacement travelled Time

h=height, t= time 2. Unilormly Accelerated Motion The

u =initial velocity
velocity-time graph is a straight line.
jm

V
=final velocity Velocity
a =acceleration,
g=acceleration due to gravity
for retardation a will be replaced by – a
@

(b) Upward Direction If velocity of a

body is decreasing instead of
Time
increasing, then equation of motion
are
V=U- gt Two Dimensional Motion
In this motion of a body is described in a
h=ut-g rectangular co-ordinate axis.

=u'-2gh Projectile Motion

(c) Distance travelled by a body in nth When a particle is projected so that it
secondsth makes certain angle with horizontal then
the motion of the particle is said to be
Syth
= +
(2n – 1)" projectile. Path of a projectile is parabolic
2
• in nature.
If the body is thrown upwards, then it • The initial velocity z of the projectile can
will rise until its vertical velocity
be resolved into two components
becomes zero. Then, the maximum
u () u cos e (horizontal direction)
height attained is h=. (ii) u sin 0 (vertical direction)
2g
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 351

Por the Projectile Motion

Height It
FORCE
Maximum is the Force is a push or pull which can change the
maximum vertical distance
position or direction of a body.
travelled by a body.
It is given by (H) =
usin e Centripetal Force
2 A body performing circular motion is acted upon
Horizontal Range The distance by a force which is always directed towards the
between projecting and landing centre of the circle. This force is called centripetal
point. force. Any of the forces found in nature (such as
u sin 20 frictional force, gravitational force, electrical
=
It is given by (R) force, magnetic force etc) may act as a centripetal

e
force.
Time of Flight Time taken in• Cyclist bends his body towards the centre on a

nc
reaching the landing point from turn while turning to obtain the requied
projecting point. It is given by centripetal force.
2u sin • Generally, in rain the scooter slips at the
(T)
turning of a road because the friction between
tyre and road is reduced. Due to this, necessary
• For maximum range 0 =45°.
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centripetal force is not provided. Roads are
Therefore, a long jumper takes banked at turns to provide the requied
Jump at an angle of 45°. centripetal force for taking a turn.
• For maximum height
=90°.
• The horizontal range is the same Centrifugal Force
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when the body is projected at or Pseudo Force When we in a non-inertial frame of

.
(90°- 0). reference to apply Newton's laws, we have to apply
When a body is dropped freely a force on the object equal to mass times in
from the top of the tower and opposite direction of accelerationor retardation of
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a Pseudo
another body is projected the frame. Centrifugal force is such
horizontally from the same point, force. Itis always equal and opposite to centripetal
both will reach the ground at the torce.
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same time. Cream separator, centrifugal drier etc work on the

.
When two balls of different principle of centrifugal force.
masses are projected horizontally
they will reach ground at same
NEWTON'S LAWS
OF MOTION
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time.

Circular Motion First Law

• When an object moves along a
• "Every body retains its state of rest or state of
uniformn motion, until an external force is
circular path, then its motion is
called circular motion e.g. motion applied on it." This law is also known as law of
of top etc. If an object moves along inertia or law of Galileo.
a circular path with uniform First law gives the definition of inertia. Inertia
speed, its motion is called uniform is the virtue of a body due to which it tries to
circular motion. It is accelerated retain its state.
even if the speed of the body is Inertia is of three types
constant. The motion ofa satellite Inertia of rest
is an accelerated motion. Inertia of motion
• The acceleration is directed Inertia of direction
towards the centre and is given by • A person sitting in a moving car falls forwvard,
when the car stops suddenly. This is because
a=, where v is the speed and r
the feet of the passenger comes to the rest along
is the radius. This is called with the car, but the upper part of his body,
centripetal acceleration. tends to remain in motion due to inertia of
motion.
Z52 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

• The dust paricle come out from a Impulse =Change in momentum

carpet, when it is beaten wvith a stick = Force x Time interval
to
due their inertia of rest. • Its SI unit is N-s or kg-m/s.
• Frame
Inertial Whenever the frame of
reference is moving with uniform
velocity or is at rest. Concept of Impulse
• A cricketer moves his hands backwards while
Non-nertial Frame Whenever the
catching a ball.
frame of reference is accelerating or
retarding or rotating is called non A person jumping from a height ona 'concrete'

inertial frame of reference. floor receives more injury than when jumping
on a spongy floor.

e
Second Law Vehicles like cars, buses and scooters are
•
"The force applied on a body is equal provided with shockers.

nc
to the product of mass of the body Bogies of the trains are provided with buffers to
and the acceleration produced in it avoid severe jerks during shunting of trains.
e.g. F = Ma"
. Buffers increase the time-duration of jerks
The second law of motion gives the during shunting. This reduces the force with
definition of force. which bogies push or pull each other and thus
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• A force is any influence
that causes an severe jerks are avoided.
object to undergo a certain change,
either concerning its movement,
direction and geometrical structure. Third Law
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• SI
unit of force is Newton (N). • "Every action have equal and opposite
reaction." Action and reaction always act
Linear Momentum on the different bodies.
• The product of the mass and the On firing the bullet, the gunner is pushed
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velocity of a body is called the linear in backward direction.

momentum of the body. When the boatman is jumped from the
• It is a vector quantity. Its boat, the boat is pushed back.
unit is kg-m/s.
.
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Linear momentum = Mass x Velocity In a rocket, gases are ejected with a great
•A heavier body ahas a larger linear speed from the rocket backwards and
momentum than lighter body moving rocket is pushed forwards.
with the same velocity. While swimming, a person pushes the
• In the absence of external forces, the water backwards (action). The water
@

total linear momentum of the system pushes the swimmer forward with the
remains conserved. same force (reaction).

Application of Conservation of Equilibrium

Linear Momentum • If the
resultant of all the forces acting on a
• When a man jumps from a boat to the body is zero,
then the body is said to be in
shore, the boat slightly moves away equilibrium. If a body is in eguilibrium, it
from the shore. Rocket works on the will be either at rest or in uniform motion.
principle of Consevation of If it is at rest, the equilibrium is called
momentum. static, otherwise dynamic.
• When a bullet is fired from a gun, the • Static equilibrium is of the following two
gun recoils or gives a sharp pull in types
backward direction. (i) Stable Equilibrium If on slight
displacement from equilibrium
Impulse position a body has tendency to regain
•
Ifa force acts on a body for a very short its original position, it is said to be in
time At, then the product of force and stable equilibrium.
time is called the impulse.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~General Science 353

(iü) Unstable Equilibrium If on a slight displacement from equilibrium position, a

body moves in the direction of displacement and does not regain its original
position, the equilibrium is said to be unstable equilibrium. In this equilibrium, the
centre of gravity of the body is at the highest position.
Neutral Equilibrium
If on slight displacement from equilibrium position a body has no tendency to come back
to its original position or to move in the direction of displacement, it is said to be in
neutral equilibrium.
• In
neutral equilibrium, the centre of gravity always remains at the same height.
Condition, for Stable Equilibrium

e
For stable eguilibrium of a body, the following two conditions should be fulflled

nc
(i) The centre of gravity of the body should be at the minimum height.
(ii) The vertical line passing through the centre of gavity of the body should pass through
the base of the body.
Centre of Mass Centre of mass of a body (system of particles) is a point where the entire
mass of the body is supposed to be concentrated. We can define position of centre of mass
ra
r by
+m,r,
X=M,r,
+1,

where, r,,r,
....., are position vectors of constituent particles.
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FRICTION
• If we slide or try to slide a body over a surface, the motion is resisted by a bonding
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between the body and the surface. This resistance is called frictional force.
.
The opposite force that comes into play when one body tends to move over the surface
of another body but actually motion has yet not started is called static friction.
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.
The maximum value of the static frictional force which comes into play when a body
just begins to slide over the surface of another body is called limiting frictional force.
• When two bodies actually roll on each
other (as in case of ball bearing), the rolling
friction comes into play.
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• When two bodies actually slide over each other, sliding

friction comes into play.

•
E>H, here
respectively.
,,
• When a body moves over the
other body, then the force of friction acting between two
Surfaces in contact in relative motion is called Kinetic Friction.
andu, are called coefficient of static, kinetic and rolling friction

Advantages
.
and Disadvantages of Friction
Walking is possible due to friction.
•
The transfer of motion from one part of a machine to other part through belts is
possible by friction.
• Brake works on the basis of friction.
• Friction causes wear and tear of the parts of machinery in contact. Thus, their lifetime
gets reduced.

Methods of Reducing Friction

• By polishing, by lubrication, by proper selection of material and by using ball bearing
friction can be reduced to some extent.
354 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Work, Energy and Power

.
WORK When momentum is doubled, kinetic
energy becomes four times.
When a body is displaced by applying a
force on it, then wvork is said to be done. If a •
Kinetic energy of air is used to run wind
body is displaced by a distance s on mills.
,
applying a force F on it, then work done
W= F-s = Fs cos where '0 is the angle
Kinetic energy of running water is used
to run the water mills.
between the force and the direction of • A bullet fired from a gun can pierce a
displacement. It is a scalar quantity. Its unit

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target due to its kinetic energy.
is joule (J).
•
If a body is moving in horizontal circle
then its kinetic energy is same at all

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Positive
.
Work Done points, but if it is moving in vertical
Positive work means that force is applied
circle, then the kinetic energy is
along the direction of displacement. e.g. different at different points.
when a horse pulls a cart on a level road,
when a body falls fireely under PotentialEnergy
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gravitational pull. • It is the energy possessed by a body by
Negative Work Done virtue of its position.
Negative work means that force is opDOsite Suppose a body is raised to a height h
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to displacement. e.g. when a positive above the surface of the earth, then
charge is moved towards another positive potential energy of the body =mgh.
charge, when a body is made to slide over a
•
When a body is falling downwards, then
rough surface. its potential energy goes on changing to
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kinetic energy.
Zero Work Done •
The potential energy of the wound
If the force is perpendicular to the spring of a clock is used to drive the
displacement and if either the force or the
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hands of the clock.

displacement is zero, work done is zero. e.g. •
The potential energy of water in dams
when a body is moved along a circular path is used to run turbines in order to
with the help of a string, vhen a coolie produce electric energy using the
travels on a platform with a load on his generators.
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head and when a person does not move

from his position but he may be holding any Conservative and
amount of heavy load. Non-conservative Forces
non-dissipative force is known as
A
ENERGY conservative force e.g. gravitational force,
• as
It is defined capacity of doing work. Its electrostatic force. Non-conservative
unit is joule in SI and erg in CGS system. forces are dissipative forces e.g. frictional
•
Mechanical energy is in two forms; forces, viscous force.
kinetic energy and potential energy. Law of Conservation Energy of
•
Kinetic Energy According to the law of conservation
of energy. "Energy can neither be
• It is the energy possessed by a body by Created nor be destroyed but it can only
virtue of its motion. be tramsformed from one form to
• If a body of mass m is moving with another"
velocity U, then kinetic energy •
The sum of all kinds of energies in an
1
KE= isolated system remains constant at all
times.
where, p is the linear momentun.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science

Transformation of Energy Simple Machines

•
In heat engine, heat energy changes
a It is based on moment of force.
into mechanical energy. Lever, inclined plane, screw guage etc. are
.
In the electric bulb, the electric energy simple machine.
is converted into light energy. Scissors, sea saw, brakes of cycle, hand pump,
• In burning coil, oil etc., the chemical
plass are lever of first kind.
energy changes into heat energy. Nut cracker and waste carrying machine are
•
In solar cell, solar energy changes into lever of second kind.
electrical energy. Tong, man's hand and tiller are lever of third
• In playing sitar, mechanical energy kind.

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changes into sound energy.
•
In microphone, sound energy changes
intoelectrical energy. GRAVITATION

nc
• In loud speaker, electrical energy In 1686, Newton stated that in the universe
changes into sound energy. each particle of matter attracts every other
• In battery chemical energy changes paricle. This universal attractive force is called
energy. gravitation.
into mechanical
.
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In electric motor, electrical energy
changes into mechanical energ.
Gravitational Force
• It is always attractive in nature.
• In candle, chemical energy changes is the weakest force but is a long range
into light and heat energy.
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force.
• Mathematically it is represented as
POWER GMm
• Rate of doing work by a body is called Fc
power.
2
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Work done where, Fc is gravitational force, G is

i.e. Power gravitational constant, M is the mass of first
Time taken particle, m is the mass of second particle
P=
W and r is the distance between them.
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• This is called
Newton's universal law of
• SI unit of power is watt (W) orjoule per gravitation.
second and it is a scalar quantity. .
The value of Gis 6.67 x 10 1 N-m/kg
1
W=1J/s
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1
kW =10 W Gravity
MW=
1 10 W • It is the force by which the Earth attracts
a body towards its centre.
1
Horse Power (HP) =746 VW
• The acceleration due to gravity is the rate of
Iwatt/second (W-s) =1J
Iwatt/hour (W-h) = 3600 J
increase of velocity of a body falling freely
towards the Earth. It is represented by
I kilowatt hour (kW-h) =3.6x 10° J
GM,
g=
Torque
• The turning effect of a force on a body where, M, is the mass of the Earth and R, is
is known as the moment of the force or the radius of Earth.
torque. Torque is a vector quantity. • The value of g at the surface of Earth is
ie. Torque, Z = F.d
9.8 m/s.
Where, F=force The Earth is surrounded by an
d=perpendicular distance of force from atmosphere of gases due to gravity. The
the axis of rotation. value of g on the Moon is 1/6th of that on
the Earth surface.
356 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Variation in the Value of g Weight of a Body in a Lift

• When we go above the surface of the stationary or moving with uniform speed
If lift is
Earth, the acceleration due to gravity (either upward or downward), the apparent
goes on decreasing. weight of a body is equal to its true weight.
• When we go below the surface of the If lift is going up with an acceleration, the
Earth, the acceleration due to gravity apparent weight ofa body is more than the true
goes on decreasing and becomes zero weight. If lift is going down with an acceleration,
at the centre of the Earth. the apparent weight of a body is less than the
• Decreasing the rotational motion of true weight.
Earth, the value of g increases. If the cord of the lift is broken, then it fals freely.

e
In this situation, the weight of a body in the lift
• When we go from the equator towards
becomes zero. This is the situation of
the poles, the value of g goes on
weightlessness.

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increasing.
While going down, if the acceleration of lift is
•
IfEarth stops its rotation about its own more than acceleration due to gravity. a body in
axis, then at the equator the value of g
increases and consequently the weight the lift goes in contact of the ceiling of lift.
of body lying there increases.
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• The value of g is maximum on the SATELLITE
surface of the Earth. • The heavenly body which revolves around
Centre of Gravity the plamets is called satellite. Moon is a
natural satellite of Earth.
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• The centre of gravity of a body is that

point at which the whole weight ofthe The speed of a satellite does not depend
upon the mass of the satellite.
body appears to act.
A satellite revolving very close to Earth's
It can be inside the material the
• of

surface has a period of revolution about 84

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or
body outside it.
• For regularly shaped body, the centre
min and its speed is nearly 8 km/s.
of gravity ies at its geometrical Every body inside the satellite is in a state of
weightlessness. Total energy of the satellite
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centre.
is negative.
Mass •
Artificial satellites are of two types
• The mass of a body is the quantity of Geostationary and Polar satellites
matter contained in it.It is a scalar (i) The satellite whose time period is 24 h, is
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quantity and its SI unit is kg. called geostationary satellite. It is used

• Mass is measured by an ordinary to reflect TV signals and telecast TV
equal arm balance. programs from one part of the world to
• Mass of body does not change from another:. This satellite revolves around
place-to-place and remains constant. the Earth at a height of 36000 km.
INSAT-2B and INSAT-2C are
Weight geostationary satellites of India.
• The weight of a body is the force with, (ii) Polar satellites revolve around the
which it is attracted towards the earth in polar orbits at a height of
centre of the Earth. It is a vector approximately 800 km. The time period
quantity and its SI unit is Newton of these satellites is approximately 84
(N). minute. These satellites are used in
• It is measured by a spring balance. weather forecasting, in studying upper
• It is not constant and it changes from region of the atmosphere, in mapping
place to place. etc. PSLV Series Satellites are Polar
Satellites of India.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 357

Escape Velocity Kepler's Laws

• The minimum velocity that should be Allplanets move around the Sun in elliptical
given to the body to enable it to orbits having the Sun at one foci of the orbit.
escape away from Earth's The areal speed of a planet around the Sun
gravitational field is called escape is constant.
velocity. It is given by The square of the period of revolution (T) of
2x acceleration any planet around the Sun is directly
V,= due to gravity x Radius of proportional to the cube of its mean distance
the Earth from the Sun (a) i.e. T « as.
Its value on the Earth's surface is
Quick Digest

e
11.2 km/s.
• The value of the escape velocity of a The Earth rotates on its axis from West to East.
body does not depend on its mass. Its This rotation makes the Sun and the stars appear

nc
value on the moon surface is to be moving across the sky from East to West.
2.38 km/s. So, there is no The response of plants to gravity is called
atmosphere around the moon. geotropism.
.
Escape velocity is \2 times the orbital We are able to see a live telecast of cricket
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velocity. matches or other programmes with the help of a
• Satellites are launched with the communication satellite, which
escape velocity as needed. geostationary satellite.
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General Properties of Matter

Matter It is the substance that occupies Strain
definite space and mass which is perceptible . The change in length, volume, shape
ie

to sense. of the body per unit of the original

value under the application of the
ELASTICITY
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deforming force is called strain. Strain

• It is
that property of the material body by is unit less quantity.
virtue of which the boay, any • Hooke's law and Modulus of
change in its shape or size whenOPing Elasticity The ratio of stress to strain
forces are applied to it, and recovers its is a constant for the material and is
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original state as soon as the deforming called modulus of elasticity.

forces are removed. Stress
• Steel is more elastic than rubber. E=
Strain
• Elastic Limit The maximum limit of the .
It is also called Hooke's law, which
external force upto which elasticity of the states that within the limit of elasticity
body is maintained.
the strain produced in a body is directly
proportional to the stress applied to it.
Plasticity •
Young's Modulus
. If strain
The property of a body by virtue of which it longitudinal, then the modulus of
does not regain its original configuration elasticity is called Young's modulus.
even after the removal of deforming force
•
is called plasticity. Bulk Modulus If under the effect of
• Putty, paraffin wax are nearly perfectly uniform pressure, the volume of the
plastic bodies. body changes it is called the bulk
modulus of elasticity.
• Modulus of Rigidity The ratio of
Stress
The internal restoring force acting per unit tangential stress to shearig strain is
area of cross-section of the deformed body is called modulus of rigidity.
called stress. or
Its unit is N/m² pascal.
358 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

• Therefore, during swimming a person

MECHANICAL displaces the water with hands and
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS legs and thus total weight of displaced
water becomes equal to the weight of
PRESSURE the body.
• It is defined as force acting normally on unit • If ice floating in water in a vessel
area of the surface. melts, the level of water in the vessel
does not change.
Pressure Normal force
=
• The density of sea water is more than
Area
that of normal water. This explains
• Its
unit is N/m also called pascal. It is a why it is easier to swim in sea water.

e
scalar quantity.
• Pressure in a liquid is given by p= hpg
Pascal's Law
where, h is the height, (p) is density of the . The pressure exerted anywhere at a

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liquid and g is acceleration due to gravity. point of confined fluid is transmitted
• Atmospheric pressure of I atm equally and undiminished in all
= 1.01 x 10°
N/m=760 torr directions throughout the liquid.
• Atmospheric pressure decreases with Hydraulic lift, hydraulic press,
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altitude. This is why (i) it is dificult to cook hydraulic brake work on the basis of
on the mountain, (ü) the fountain pen of a Pascal's law.
passenger leaks in aeroplane at height.
• Atmospheric pressure is measured by BUOYANCY
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barometer. The slow rise in the barometric The upward force exerted by a fluid on
reading is the indication of clear weather. the immersed body is called buoyant
• Sudden fall in barometric reading is the force or upthrust. The upthrust acts at
indication of storm. the centre of gravity of the liquid
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• Slow fall
in barometric reading is the displaced by the submerged part of the
indication of rain. body that is called the centre of
buoyancy.
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• Buovant force depends on the density

DENSITY AND of the fluid and not on the density of
RELATIVE DENSITY body and acts on centre of gravity of
• The density of a substance (p) is defined as displaced fluid.
the ratio of its mass (M) to its volume (V).
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Mass Archimedes' Principle

i.e. Density=
Volume When a solid body is immersed wholly
Its unit is kg/m. or partially in a liquid, then there is
• Density of water is maximum at 4°C. some apparent loss in its weight. This
• The
relative density is deined as the ratio loss in weight is equal to the weight of
of the density of the substance to the
the liquid displaced by the body.
density of water at 4°C ie. Law of Floatation
Relative density
Density of substance Whenever a solid body is dipped into a
Density of water at 4°C fluid, the fluid exerts force of
buoyancy on it, if the force of
• Relative density has no unit.
buoyancy equals to weight of the solid,
• Relative density is measured by hydrometer. the solid will remain in equilibrium.
• Ice floats on water surface as its density This is called floatation.
(0.92 g/cm) is lesser than the density of If density of material of body is equal
water (1 glcm). to density of liquid, the body floats
• The density of
human body is less than the fully submerged in liquid in neutral
density of water but the density of head is equilibrium.
greater than the density of water.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~General Science 359

• When body loats in neutral

equilibrium, the weight of the body is
CAPILLARITY
equal to the weight of displaced Capillary tube A long glass tube of very fine
liquid. The centre of gravity of the (hair like) bore is called capillary tube.
body and centre of gravity of the The phenomenon of rise or fall of liquids in a
displaced liquid should be on one capillary tube is called capillarity.
vertical line for the condition. • The liquids which wet glass and for which
the angle of contact is acute rise up in the
SURFACE capillary tube, while those which do not wet
TENSION (T) glass, for which the angle of contact is
obtuse are fall down in the capillary tube.
• It is the force (F) acting normally to

e
an unit length () of an imaginary line Note The angle of contact is zero for pure water
drawn on the surface of liquid. and clean glass. It is 90° for water and

nc
silver, 8°
for ordinary water and glass and
iie. 135° for mercury and glass.

• Its unit is N/m.

•
Some Practical Examples of
Cohesive force It is the Capillarity
ra
intermolecular force of attraction
acting between the molecules of the
The kerosene oil in a lanterm and the melted
wax in a candle, rise in the capillaries formed in
same substance.
• Adhesive the cotton wick and thus they are burnt.
force is the
Writing nib is split in the middle so that a fine
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intermolecular force of attraction

capillary is formed in it When it is dipped in ink
acting between the molecules of
different substance. the ink rises in the capillary
• The surface tension decreases with The water given to the fields rises in the
innumerable capillaries formed in the stems of
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rise in temperature and becomes zero

at the critical temperature. plants and trees and reaches the branches and
• Due to the leaves.
the surface tension, rain drops
are spherical in shape. The farmers plough their flelds after rains so
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Warm soup is tasty because at that the capillaries formed in the soil are broken
and the water remains in the lower layers of the
high temperature its surface
soil.
tension is low and consequently
the soup spreads on all part of the
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tongue. VISCOSITY
When kerosene oil is sprinkled on . It is the property of the liquid by virtue of
water, its Surface tension which it opposes the relative motion
decreases. between its adjacent layers.
Some Phenomena Based on • Viscosity of an ideal fluid is zero.
• Viscosity is the property of both liquids and
Surface Tension gases. With rise in temperature, viscosity of
•
Small drops of mercury are liquids decreases and that for gases
spherical, while large ones are flat. increases.
• Formation of • Viscosity of gases is much less than that of
lead shots.
• Floatation of needle on water. liquids.
• Dancing of camphor on water. • Viscosity of liquid increases with increase in
• Bigger bubbles can be formed from pressure.
the soap solution easily than fom • Viscosity of a fluid is measured by
water. its coefficient of viscosity. Its SI unit is
• Detergent helps (N sm) or pascal-second (Pa-s).
in cleaning the
clothes.
360 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Terminal Velocity no force acts on the particle.

. velocity is maximum.
When a body falls in a viscous medium, its
velocity first increases and finally becomes acceleration is zero.
constant. This constant velocity is called kinetic energy is maximum.
terminal velocity. potential energy is zero.
• Terminal velocity of a spherical body faling in When a particle executing SHM is
a viscous medium is proportional to the square at the extreme end, then
.
of radius of the body. velocity of particle is zero.
. acceleration of the particle is
When a liquid flow through a pipe, its speed is
maximum near axis and minimum near the maximum.
walls of the pipe. kinetic energy of particle is zero.

e
• According to the equation of continuity the potential energy is maximum.
speed of fluid flow becomes faster in the restoring force acting on the

nc
narrow pipe. particle is maximum.
•
Stream Line Flow or Steady Flow In this Note
flow velocity at every point in the fluid will • In case of spring block system the
remains constant. restoring force F=-kx
.
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Turbulent Flow In this flow, the speed of where, x is displacement of the block
water is quite high, then the flow becomes from mean posilion and k is spring
irregular. constant.
•
Critical Velocity The limiting velocity of a • In case of spring block system, time
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liquid above which flow will become turbulent. period of oscillation is given by
• Principle of Continuity For a tube of flow,
T=2r where 1 2s mass of the
between two points having area of
Cross-section A, and A, and velocities v, and block.
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V, between two points Au= Constant,

Periodic Motion
• Any motion which repeats itself
Bernoulli's Theorem after a regular interval of time is
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• When an incompressible and non-viscous called periodic or harmonie

liquid (or gas) flows in streamlined motion motion and the period of repetition
from one place to another, then at every point is called time period.
of its path the total energy per unit volume Motion of hands of a clock, motion
@

(pressure energy + kinetic energy + potential of Earth around the Sun, motion of
energy) remains constant. the needle of a sewing machine are
i.e. p+pgh+pu²= constant the examples of periodic motion.
where, p= pressure, p = density of fluid, v= OscillatoIy Motion
velocity of flow, h= height of the tube of flow • If a particle repeats its motion after
• Venturimeter, Pitot tube, Bunsen's burner, a regular time intervals about a
atomizer, filter pump and magnus effect are fixed point, motion is said to be
based upon the Bernoulli's theorem. Oscillatory or vibratory.
• Motion of piston in an automobile
SIMPLE HARMONIC engine, motion of balance wheel of
a watch are the exanmples of
MOTION oscillatory motion.
• If a body moves to and fro on a straight line
about a fixed position, then its motion is called Simple Pendulum
simple harmonic motion. • It is a heavy point mass suspended
When a particle executing SHM passes through from a rigid support by means of an
the mean position, then elastic inextensible string.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 361

• Time period of simple pendulum ascending, then time period of pendulum

will decrease.
length of pendulum
T=2. Vacceleration due to gravity
• If a lift falling freely
under gravity, then the
time period of the pendulum will be
where, l is the length of simple infinite. At Moon, the time period of simple
pendulum and gis the acceleration due pendulum increases, because acceleration
to gravity.
due to gravity at Moon decreases.
• The maximum time period of a simple
pendulum is 84.6 min.
Resonance
•A pendulum clock goes slow in It is a phenomenon that occurs when a vibrating
Summer and fast in winter.
system or external force drive another system to

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•
Ifa sinmple pendulum is suspended in oscillate with greater amplitude at a specific
lift descending down with
acceleration, then time period of preferential frequency.

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pendulum will increase. If lift is

Wave Motion
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WAVES Electromagnetic Waves
•A wave is a disturbance which The wave which do not require medium for
propagates energy from one place to their propagation ie. which can propagate
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the other without the transport of even though the vacuum are called
matter. electromagnetic wave. They propagate as
. transverse wave.
These are of two types
() Mechanical waves The wavelength range of electromagnetic
ie

wave is 10 m to 10'm
(ii) Electromagnetic waves
• Cathode rays, canal rays, d-rays, B-rays are
Mechanical Waves not electromagnetic waves. Light and heat
waves are examples of electromagnetic
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•
The waves which require material
medium (solid, liquid or gas) for their waves.
propagation are called mechanical Important Terms
waves or elastic waves.
. These are
of two types Related to Waves
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1. Longitudinal waves
• Amplitude Maximum displacement of a
vibrating particle of medium from its mean
2. Transverse waves
position is called amplitude.
Longitudinal Waves •
Phase The position of a point in time
•
If the particles of the medium vibrate (instant) on wave form cycle.
in the direction of propagation of wave Wavelength Wavelength is the distance
motion, the wave is called longitudinal between any two nearest particle of the
wave. Waves on springs or sOund medium, vibrating in the same phase.
wavesS in air are examples of Frequency Frequency of vibration of a
longitudinal waves. particle is defined as the number of
vibrations completed by the particle in one
Transverse Waves second.
• If the particles of the medium vibrates 1
Frequency (f) =
perpendicular to the direction of Time Period (T)
propagation of wave, the wave is called
.Velocity of wave (U)
transverse wave. Waves on strings
x
under tension, waves on the surface of =Frequency () Wavelength ()
water are examples of transverse waves.
362 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

• The speed of sound in air is very slower as

SOUND WAVE compared to the speed of light in air.
• It is longitudinal mechanical waves. Therefore, in rainy season, the flash of
• The longitudinal mechanical waves lightning is seen first and the sound of
which lie in the range 20 Hz to thunder is heard a little later:.
20,000 Hz are called audible or sound The speed of sound ina medium is given
waves. by v E
. where, E is modulus of
These are sensitive to human ear.
.
The ongitudinal mechanical waves elasticity of the medium, p=density
having frequencies less than 20 Hz,
called infrasonic. For gases, V=

e
• These are produced by earthquakes,
volcanic eruption, ocean waves and Where, p is pressure and y is ratio of
specific heats.

nc
. elephants and whales.
The longitudinal mechanical waves
having frequencies greater than
Characteristics
20000 Hz are called ultrasonic waves. of Sound Waves
• Human ear cannot detect the ultrasonic Intensity
ra
waves. But certain creatures like dog,
Intensity of sound at any point in space is
cat, bat, mosquito can detect these defined as amount of energy passing
waves. Bat produce ultransonic waves.
normally per unit area held around that
• Ultrasonic waves are used for sending point per unit time. SI unit of intensity is
nt

signals, measuring the depth of sea, W/m?.

cleaning clothes and machinery parts of
• Intensity of sound at a point is inversely
clocks, removing lamp shoot from proportional to the square of the distance
chimney of factories and in
of point from the source and directly
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ultrasonography.
proportional to square of amplitude of
vibration, square of frequency and density
Speed of Sound of the medium.
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• Speed of sound is maximum in solids

The loudness depends on intensity as well
and minimum in gases. as upon the sensitivity of the ear.
• Speed of sound in air is 332 m/s, in
water is 1483 m/s and in iron is 5130 Pitch
m/s. Speed of sOund basically depends . It is that characteristic of sound
@

upon elasticity and density of medium. which

• When sound enters from one medium
distinguishes a sharp sound from grave
a
sound.
to another medium, its speed and •
Pitch depends upon frequency of sound
wavelength changes but frequency waves.
remains unchanged.
• Speed of The pitch of female voice is higher than
sound remains unchanged by the pitch of male voice.
the increase or decrease of pressure.
• The pitch of sound produced by roaring of
The speed of sound increases with the lion lower, whereas the pitch of sound
increase in temperature of the produced by mosquito whisper is high.
medium. The speed of sound in air
increases by 0.61 m/s when the Quality
.
temperature is increased by 1°C. It is that characteristic of sound which
The speed of sound is more in humid air enables us to distinguish between sounds
than in dry air because the density of Droduced by two source having
the same
humid air is less than the density of intensity and pitch.
dry air.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 363

Shock Waves Sonar

•A body moving with supersonic speed It stands for sound navigation and
in air leaves behind it a conical region ranging. It is used to measure the depth of
of disturbance which spreads a sea, to locate the enemy submarines and
continuously. Such a disturbance is shipwrecks
called shock wave. • The transmitter of a sonar produces pulses
•
These waves carry huge energy and of ultrasonic sound waves of frequency of
may even make cracks in window about 50000 Hz.
panes or even damage a building. • The reflected sound waves are received by
• The speed of supersonic wave is the receiver.

e
measured in mach number. One Mach
number is the ratio of speed of source
to the speed of sound.
DOPPLER'S EFFECT
If there is a relative motion between

nc
•
Velocity of source of sound and observer the
Mach number =. SOUrce
Velocity of sound apparent frequency of sound heard by the
• If Mach number >1, body is called observer is different from the actual
Supersonic. frequency of sound emitted by the source.
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• This phenomenon is called Doppler's
If Mach number > 5, body is called effect.
hypersonic. source
• If Mach number <1. body is said to be When the distance between the
moving with subsonic speed. and observer decreases, the apparent
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frequency increases and vice-versa.

Reflection Uses
of Sound Wave (i) By police to check over speeding of
• When sound waves incidence on any vehicles.
ie

rigid surface, it returns to its original (ii)At airport to guide the aircraft.
mediumn, this is called reflection or
(ii) To study heart beats and blood low in
sound wave.
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different parts of the body.

Echo
• The repetition of sound due to
HEAT
reflection of sound waves, is called an • It is a form of energy which flows from
echo. To hear echo, the minimum
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hotter to colder body by virtue of

distance between the observer and temperature difference.
reflector should be 17.2 m. Persistence of It is due to the kinetic energy of the
ear s.
. At is 1/i0 molecules constituting the body.
the Moon the echo is not heared due Its units are calorie (cal), kilocalorie (kcal)
to absence of atmosphere. or joule J).

•A group of soldiers on a bridge are • Ical = 4.18J, 1 kcal = 1000 cal

advised not to walk in steps because
their movement causes the bridge to
vibrate. If they walk in step, the TEMPERATURE
frequency of vibration may match the • It is the measurement of hotness or
natural frequencey of the bridge coldness of a body.
structure and thus causing resonance. • An instrument used to measure the
This resonance of frequencey can temperature of a body is called a
cause the bridge to collapse. thermometer.
• When a gun
is fired at a visible The normal temperature of a human body
distance, the sound heard a little after
the smoke is seen because the velocity
of light is much higher than that of
.- is 37°Cor 98.4°E
40° is the temperature at which Celsius
and Fahrenheit thermometers read same.
sound.
364 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science

• The clinical thermometer reads from • Hot water burns are less severe than that
96°F to 10°E of steam burns because steam has high
. latent heat.
Triple point is the state at which all the
three states of matter coexist. The • Latent
heat of fusion of ice is 80 cal/g.
triple point of water is 273.16 K. • Latent
heat of vaporisation of steam is 536
• Scales of temperature measurement cal/g.
Its SI unit is J/kg. Ice at 0°C appears
C_F-32_ R_K-273 colder than that water at 0°C, because ice
5 9 4 5
• The temperature at which Celsius and takes more heat.
• Molar Heat Capacity at Constant
Reaumur scale read the same is zero.
• Freezing point of mercury is Pressure (Cp) It is the amount of

e
39°C.
Hence, to measure temperature below heat required to raise the temperature of 1
of gasby 1 Kat constant pressure.
this temperature, alcohol thermometer • mole

nc
is used. Freezing point of alcohol is Molar Heat Capacity at Constant
115°C. Volume (C) It is the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of
Pyrometer 1
mole of gas by 1 Kat constant volume.
• Pyrometer measures Cp-Cy=R (Mayer's relation)
ra
the temperature is gas constant
a
of body by measuring the radiation where,
R

=2 cal molK
Cp
emitted by the body. Y==ratio is of specific heat capacities
• It cannot measure temperatue below Cy

800°C because at low temperature Thermodynamics

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emission of radiation is very small and

• If two
cannot be detected. Zeroth law of Thermodynamics
A
bodies and B are separately in thermal
equilibrium with the third body C, then A
SPECIFIC HEAT
ie

and B will be in thermal equilibrium with

• It is the amount of to
heat required each other.
raise the temperature of a unit mass of First Law of Thermodynamics The
the substance by 1°C. Its unit is J/kg-°C. amount of heat given to a system is used
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• It is given by S= Q up in two ways, first to increase the

where m is the
internal energy and second to do the
mass Q is amount of heat given to the external work.
substance and A0 is change in •
ie. dQ = dU (internal energy) + dW
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temperature. (work done).

• Speciñc
heat of water is 4200 Jkg-loc-1 • Second Law of Thermodynamics The
lcalg °c which is high in second law of thermodynamics is the
outcome of human experience under
comparison to most other substances.
which heat energy can be converted into
Therefore, water is used as coolant in mechanical energy.
radiator of vehicle. . Kelvin-Planck's
• For most substances, the specific Statement It is
heat impossible to construct a device which
increases with rise in temperature and operates in a cycle that will take heat from
assumes a constant value at high a body and convert it completely into the
temperatue. work without producing any other effect.
.
The specific heat of water, however
Clausius Statement It is impossible to
decreases with rise in temperature from construct a self acting device which
0°C to about 4°C after which it operates in a cycle that will transfer heat
increases ivith temperature. from a cold body to a hot body without
• Mercury has low specific heat. expenditure of work.
•
Latent Heat of Vaporisation It is the • Change in entropy at temperature T.
amount of heat required to change the When AQ amount of heat exchanged is
phase of the substance at constant AsAts SI unit is J/K.
temperature. T
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science 365)

Thermal Expansion Transmission of Heat

• It is the increase in size of the body on Transfer of heat from one place to other
heating. place is called transmission of heat.
• A solid can undergo three types of thermal There are three processes, by which

erpansions transmission of heat takes place.

• Conduction
1. Linear expansion (expansion in
length). Convection
2. Superficial expansion (expansion in Radiation
area).
3. Cubical expansion (expansion in
Conduction
•
In this process heat is transferred

e
volume).
without actual movement of the
Note Almost every liquid expands with the particles of medium.

nc
increase in temperature. But when • In this process path of
temperature ofwater is increasedfrom 0°C heat transfer is
to 4°C, its volume decreases, after this its
irregular: In solid, transmission of
volune
heat takes place by conduction
increases. process.
Relation between the coefficients oflinear,
ra Mercury though a iquid is heated by
superficial and cubical expansions:
:B:y=l:2:3 conduction and not by convection.

Convection
Practical Applications • In this process, heat is transferred by
nt

of Thermal Expansions
the actual movement of particles of
Telephone wires are given enough gap to
the medium due to difference in
allow the wires for contraction in winter. densities of different parts of the
An ordinary pendulum clock runs faster in medium.
ie

winter but slower in summer, because in • In liquid and gases transmission of

summer the length of pendulum increases,
heat takes place by convection
while in winter it decreases. process. This process is also slow.
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In the construction of bridges, ends of steel

The chimney used in kitchen or in a
girders are not fixed but placed on rolls to allow factory is based on the convection.
free expansion and contraction in summer and In rooms ventilators are provided to
winter respectively to avoid any damage to the escape the hot air by the process of
bridge.
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Convection.
A gap is provided between the iron rails ofthe
railway track so that rails can easily expand Radiation
during summer and do not bend.
It is the quickest way of transmission of
heat in which there is no need of
Humidity medium for transfer of heat. Heat from
•
The amount of water vapour in air is called the Sun reaches the Earth by radiation.
as humidity. In this process, heat is transferred at the
• The amount of water vapour present in
1
m3 Speed of light.

. air
is called its absolute humidity. KirchhoffsLaw
The ratio of amount of water vapour (72) . Kirchhoff's law signifies that good
actually present in a certain volume of air absorbers are good emitter.
at a given temperature to the amount of •
water vapour (M) required to saturate it, is Ifa shining metal ball with some black
called Relative Humidity (Ry). spot on its surface is heated to a high
temperature, the shining ball becomes
•
Relative humidity is measured by dull but the black spots shines brilliantly
hygrometer:. because black spot absorbs radiation
• Relative humidity increases with the during heating and emit in dark.
increase of temperature.
366 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Perfectly Black Body Summer outside temperature is higher

as compared to the temperature of water
• A perfectly black body is one which obtained from underground which
absorbs completely all the radiations
falling on its surface, whatever be the
remains practically unchanged due to
wavelength. Earth being bad conductor of heat.
Note Since perfectly black body is a perfect LIGHT
absorber, hence according to Kirchloff's
law, it will also be aperfect radiator.
• It is the radiation which makes our eyes
able to see the object. Its speed is
Stefan's Law 3x10 m/s
• The radiant energy emitted by unit area • It is the form of energy. It is a transverse

e
of perfectly black body per unit time is wave.
directly proportional to the fourth power • It takes & min 19s to reach on the Earth

nc
of its absolute temperature. from the Sun.
E
T² = E=oT • The ight reflected from Moon takes

where, Gis Stefan's constant and its value 1.28 s to reach Earth.
is 5.67 x10- WmK4 • It represents the phenomenon of
ra reflection, refraction, interference,
Newton's
.
Law of Cooling differaction, scattering and polarisation.
The rate of loss of heat by a body is
directly proportional to the difference in
Refection of Light
• The return of light into the same
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temperature between the body and its

surrounding. medium after striking a surface is called
. reflection.
Cooking utensils are made of
aluminium, brass and steel because Taws of Reflection
ie

these substances have low specific heat

and high conductivity. There are two laws of reflection
(i) The angle of incidence is always
•
In deserts day temperature are very high
and night temperature are extremely low equal to angle of reflection.
jm

because the specific heat of sand is very (ii) The incident ray, normal and
low. Therefore it absorbs the heat readily reflected ray all lie in the same
and its temperature raises by a large plane at point of incidence.
degree during the day. At night sand
radiates the heat equally readily making Reflection from
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the temperature loss. Plane Mirror

• Human breath is visible in winter but not • Size of image is always equal to size of
in summer because in winter air is cold object.
and so water vapours present in the • The image a plane mirror appears as
human breath condense, making it far behind the mirror as the object is
visible. infront of it.
• A thick glass tumbler often cracks when . If the object is displaced by a
distance a
very hot liquid is poured into it because
towards or away from the mirror, then its
the inner surface of the thick glass image will be displaced by a distance a
tumbler coming in contact with the hot towards or away rom the mirror.
liquid expands more in comparison with
The minimum size of the mirror
the outer surface which has relatively required to see the full image of an
lower temperature. This unequal
observer is half the height of the
expansion of inner and outer surfaces
causes the tumbler to crack. observer.
• Water Îrom a hand pump is warm in
winter and cold in summer because in
If the plane mirror is rotated in the
plane of incidence by an angle then,
the reflected ray rotates by an angle 2.
winter outside temperature is low and in
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 367
• Focal length of plane mirror is infinity. i.e. Uses of Mirrors
power of the plane mirror is zero.
•
1. Plane mirrors are used as looking
Linear magnification produced by plane
1.
glass.
mirror is
2. Concave mirror is used as shaving
• When two plane mirrors are kept facing
each other at an angle and an object mirrors, used by doctors, shades of
placed between them, then table lamp, for search lights.
(a) Number of images, 3. Convex mirror is used as back view
360° mirrors in vehicles, in street lamps etc.
Refraction of Light

e
360° is even or
the object lies• When a ray of light passes from
one medium to other, it bends from
symmetrically.

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its path. This phenomenon of
(b) Number of image, bending of light ray is called as
360° is refraction of light.
odd or the
When a ray of light travels from one
object lies asymmetrically. medium to another the wavelength and
ra
velocity of light changes, but the
Reflection at Spherical frequency does not change.
Surface
. Laws ofRefraction
Spherical mirrors are the miiTrors in There are two laws
nt

of refraction
which reflecting surface side is spherical.
(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray
There are two types of spherical mirrors and the normal at the point of
(i) Convex mirror incidence all lie on the same plane.
ie

(ii) Concave mirror (ii) The ratio of the sine of the angle of
Mirror formula is given by-+ incidence to the sine of the angle of
u= object distance, refraction is a constant for a given
medium
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V=image distance
f=focal length of the mirror sin
Magniication (n)
Length (height) of inmage where, Hg is called refractive index of
second medium with respect to first
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Length (height) of object medium.

Image Formation by Concave Mirror

Position of Object Position of Image Size of Image Nature of Irmage
At infinity AtF Highly diminished Real and inverted
Between infinity and C Between F and C Diminished Real and inverted
At C AtC Same size Real and inverted
BetweenFand C
Belween infinity andC Enlarged Real and inverted
AtF At infinity Highly enlarged Real and inverted
Between F and P Behind the mirror Enlarged Virtual and erect

where, C is centre of cuvature, P is pole of the mirror and F is focUs.

Image Formation by Convex Mirror
Position of Object Position of Image Size of Image Nature of Image
At infinity AtF Highly diminished Erect and virtual
Between infinity and pole Between F and P Diminished Erect and virtual

where, F is focus, P is pole and C is centre of Cuvature.

368 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

• Twinkling of stars is based upon This phenomenon is called scattering

refraction. of light.
• Due to relraction, rivers appear shallow,• Red colour of light is scattered least and
coin in a beaker filled vith water appears violet colour of light is scattered most.
raised, pencil in the bealker appear Therefore, danger signals are of red
broken. colour.
• At sunset
and sunrise, due to refraction, • Blue colour of sky is due to scattering of
Sun appears above horizon, vhile it is light. The brillant red colour of rising
actually below horizon. and setting Sun is due to scattering of
• The duration of day appears to be light.
increased by nearly 4 min due to • Clouds appear white due to scattering

e
atmospherie refraction. of light.
• Writing on a paper appears lifted when a
Optical Fibre

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glass slab is placed over the paper.
• The refractive index of a medium is It is a device based on total internal
maximum for violet colour of light and reflection by which
a
light signal can be
transferred from one place to the other
. minimum for red colour of light.
Refractive index decreases with rse in the with a negligible loss of energ.
ra Itis used in testing the internal organs of
temperature. human body i.e. endoscopy.
Total Internal Reflection Lenses
ofLight Lens is a transparent medium bounded
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• When a light ray goes to rarer medium by two curved surfaces. Lenses are of
from denser medium, then as we increase two types
the angle of incidence, angle of refraction (i) Concave or divergent lens.
ie

also inceases. The angle of incidence for (ii) Convex or convergent lens.
which the angle of refraction becomes 90°
is called eritical angle.
• If the angle of incidence in denser
jm

medium is greater than critical angle (C),

then the ray is reflected back into the 2F1 F1 F2 2F2
denser medium, this phenomenon is
called total internal reflection. It is Convex lens
necessary for the total internal reflection
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of light to occur that the light ray should whee, O = optical centre
go to rarer medium from denser medium.
F = frst focus
• Angle of incidence in denser medium Fo = second focus
should be greater than critical angle.
• In desert, the phenomena of mira e Lens formula is given by1
occurs due to total internal reflection.
• The air bubbles in glass paper weight
appear silvery white due to total internal
reflection. Sparkling of diamond is due to
multiple total internal reflection taking 2F1 F
O
2F2
place inside the diamond.

.Scattering of Light Concave lens

When ray passes
light through a medium Magnification ()
in which particles are suspended, whose
szes are of the order of wavelength of Length (height) of imagev
light, then light on striking these Length (height) of object u
particles, deviated in different directions.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 369

Image Formation by a Convex Lens Dispersion of Light

Position of Position of Size of Nature • When a narrow beam of light is
Object Image Image of Irmage incident on a prism, the emergent
At infinity beam is not only deviated, but at the
AtF Highly Real and
same time splits up into a coloued
diminished inverted
band of seven colours. This
Beyond 2F Between F Diminished Real and
and 2F, inverted phenomenon is called dispersion of
Same size light.
At 2F, At 2F Real and
inverted • The seven colours of band are violet,
Between indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and
2F, and F
Beyond 2F Enlarged Real and
red.

e
inverted
AtF At infinity Highly Real and Violet colour deviates through maximum
enlarged inverted angle and red colour deviates through

nc
Belween E Behind the Enlarged Virtual
the minimum angle.
and lens object, on and • Red, green and blue are called primary
the same erect colours or basic colours.
side of the
object Mixing of Colours
ra
• Red + Green + Blue = White
Image Formation • Red + Blue = Magenta
by a Concave Lens • Blue + Green = Peacock blue
Position of Position Size of Nature of (or Cyan)
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Object of Irmage Image Irmage • Red + Green = Yellow

At infinity AtFa Dirminished Erect and • If all the colours of white light are
virtual reflected back from the object, then it
appears white.
ie

Between Belween Diminished Erect and

infinity F and virtual • And if all the colours of white light is
and lens lens absorbed by an object, then it appears
black.
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If the lens is immersed in a medium having

Polarisation is the only phenomenon
refractive index more than that of lens, then the which proves that light is a transverse
nature of the lens changes i.e. convex lens wave.
behaves as convave lens and vice-versa. The layer of kerosene oil over water
If the lens is immersed in a medium having
@

surface appear coloured in the

refractive index equal to that of the lens, the presence of sunlight due to proper
lens behaves as a plane glass plate.
interference of light.
An air bubble in water behaves as a concave
lens. HUMAN EYE
• It is an optical instrument just like a
Power of Lens photographic camera. It forms the real
• It is the reciprocal of focal length of lens. It image of the object on retina of the
is measured in metre. eye.
1 • For the normal eve, the range of vision
P
f(m) is from 25 cm to infinity.
• Its unit is dioptre (D). Defects of Vision Myopia
Prism • In this case, the person cannot see the
distant object clearly.
• It is a uniform transparent refracting
Image is formed before the retina.
medium bounded by two plane surfaces
inclined at certain angle. Concave lens is used for correcting
myopia.
370 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Hypermetropia Compound Microscope

• In this case, the person cannot see near • It consists of two convex lenses.
object clearly. In a compound microscope the focal
.
Image is formed behind the retina. length of the objective lens is short
• Convex lens is LIsed for correcting and that of the eyepiece is slightly
hypermetropia. greater than it. The final image
formed by the compound microscope
Astigmatism is inverted, magnified and virtual.
• In this case, the curvature of cornea becomes Magnifying power =0
irregular and image is not clear. Cylindrical

e
lens is used for correcting astigmatism. where,
Vo =
Presbyopia distance of image from the
objective

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•
In old age the power of accommodation of uo = distance of object from the
the eye lens decrease, therefore, neither near objective
nor
distant objects are clearly seen.
Presbyopia can be renmoved by using bifocal Telescope
lenses.
ra • It is used to see the magmified
Cataract images of the distant objects.
• In this defect, an opaque, white
membrane is There are two types of telescopes
developed on cornea due to which a person (i) Astronomical telescope
nt

loses power of vision partially or completely. (ii) Galilean telescope

. In an astronomical telescope, the
This defect can be removed by removing this
membrane through surgery. objective lens is a convex lens of
large focal length, but eye-piece is a
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convex lens of short focal length.

SIMPLEMICROSCOPE
• It consists of a convex lens of short focal Magnifying power = 4)
length.
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• It is used to see the magnified images of very • In Galilean telescope, the objective
sImall objects. lens is a convex lens of large focal
D length, but the eye-piece is a
Magnifying power concave lens of short focal length.
@

Electricity
Electric Charge where, e=+1.6 x 10-1°c
• It is something that a body attains when it Conductors are those substances
loses or gains the electrons. which allow passage of electrical
• The positive and negative labels and sign for charge to flow through them and
electric charges were chosen arbitrarily by have very low electrical resistance.
.
Benjamin Franklin. Metals like silver, iron, copper are
Similar charges repel each other while conductors.
opposite charges attract each other. Human body and Earth act like a
• Charge is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is conductor. Silver is the best
coulombC. conductor.
• Electricity is associated with the charge. Insulators are those substance
• The proton possesses positive charge (+e) which do not allow passage of charge
and electron possesses an equal negative through themselves. Rubber, wvood,
charge (e), mica, glass, ebonite are insulators.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 371

Coulomb's Law ELECTRICAL CAPACITY

The force of attraction or the force of • When a conductor given a charge, its
repulsion acting between the two point potential rises in proportion to the charge
charges is proportional to the product of the given, the constant of proportionality is
magnitudes of the two charges and inversely called capacitance (C) ie. C=2
proportional to the square of the distance
between them. • Its SI unit is coulomb (C)/volt (V called
ie. Fæl992 Farad (F) For capacitances C,Co, C3....are
4
2
TEnr in parallel, equivalent capacitance is given
by C=C +Cgt.....C,

e
For capacitances in series
Electric Field
• The region around an electric charge 1_41t...

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in which the electric efect can be
C
experienced is called the electric field. Potentiometer is used to measure the
exact potential difference between two
Electric Field Intensity (E) points of an electric circuit or to measure
the electromotive force (emf) of a cell.
ra
The electric field intensity at any point is
the force experienced by a unit positive
charge placed at that point. Electric Current
• It is amount of charge that flows per second
ie. Electic field intensity (E)
through a cross-sections of conductor.
nt

where, go is positive test charge Current is scalar quantity. Its unit is

ampere (A).
• Electric field intensity inside a charged
hollow conductor is zero. Ohm's Law
.
Electric Field Lines of Force Electric. It states that the physical conditions
ie

field at a place is pictorially represented (temperature, mechanical strain etc)

by these lines. These originate at remaining unchanged, the current ()
positive charge and terminate at flowing through a conductor is always
jm

negative charge. directly proportional to the potential

difference. (V) across its two ends.
Electric Potential i.e. Io V
• Electric potential at any point of the
electric field can be measured by the wherp Ris a constant V= IR
@

called resistance of
amount of work done in bringing a unit
circuit.
positive charge from infinity to that
point.
• Its unit is volt and it is a scalar quantity.
. • SI unit is ohm (2).
The electric potential inside
spherical surface is same at each point
and is equal to the potential on the Resistance
Surface. • The ability of material to oppose the
• Electrical potential Earth is electric current through it, is known as its
considered to be zero. electrical resistance.
a
• Work done in bringing a unit positive The resistance
of
conductor is directly
charge from one point to other point is proportional to its length and inversely
proportional to its cross-sectional area (A),
the potential difference between the
two points. ie. Ro
• The work done
in moving charge on A
equipotential surface is zero, because where, p is the resistivity of material.
potential remains same throughout the On increasing the temperature of the
surface. metal, its resistance increases.
 372 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science
• On increasing the temperature of
conductor, its resistance
Important Points
semi-
decreases. -A lightning conductor is fixed to tall building to
• protect them from the distructive effect of the
On increasing the temperature of lightning.
electroltes, their resistance The filament of an electric bulb is made of
decreases. tungston because it has a high melting point and
• For resistances in series can be heated to a high temperature to emit light.
An electric bulb makes a bang when it is broken
•
R=R +Rt..... R,
because there is a vacuum inside the electric
For resistances in parallel
bulb, when the bulb is broken air rushes in at
1_1,1 great speed from all sides to fill the vacuum. The
rushing of air produces a noise generally referred

e
to as the bang.
Resistivity

nc
•
Specific resistance or resistivity Electric Power
depends only on the material of It is the electric work done by the electric
conductor and its temperature.
Resistivity increases with temperature.
• Resistivity of a
instruments per unit time, i.e.P
ra t
Its =.
conductor change unit is watt.
with impurity.
. Resistivity of an alloy greater Kilowatt Hour (kWH)
is than the . It is the unit of energy and is equal to the
resistivity of its constituents. energy consumed in the rate of 1 kilowatt
• If a vire is stretched or doubled on
nt

(1000 J/s) for 1 hour:.

itself, its resistance willchange, but its . lkilowatt hour =3.6 x 10 joule
specific resistance will remain
unaffected. Electric Fuse
• It is a small conducting wire of alloy of
ie

Galvanometer copper, tin and lead having low melting

• It is a device used to detect and
measure electric current in a circuit. • point aand high resistance.
It is protective device used in series to
It can measure current up to 10°A.
jm

prevent the damage due to excess flow of

• A galvanometer can be converted into
current.
a voltmeter by connecting a very high AII electric appliances like bulbs, fans etc
resistance in its series. are connected in parallel across the live
Note Shunt is a low resistor connected in wires and the neutral wires.
@

parallel with a cirCuit or device that

reduces the amount of electric Electric Cell
current tlowing thrugh it. •
Electrical cell is a device which converts
Ammeter chemical energy into electrical energy.
It is a device which is used to Electrical Cells are basically of two types
measure electric current in a circuit. ) Primary cell (i) Secondary cell
• It is connected in series in the circuit. Primary Cell
• The resistance of arn ideal ammeter is In primary cell electrical energy is obtained
zero. from the irreversible chemical reaction
Voltmeter taking place inside the cell. After complete
discharge, primary cell becomes
• It is a device used to measure the Lunserviceable.
potential difference between two •e.g. Voltaic cell, Leclanche cell, Daniel
points in a circuit. cel, Dry cell etc.
.
It is connected in parallel in the
Secondary Cell
circuit.
• The resistance of an ideal voltmeter is
• Secondary cells can be charged again and
again. Acid and alkali accumulators are the
infinite. types of secondary cells.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 373

on it is called magnetie field. The unit of

TRANSFORMER magnetic field is newton/ampere- metre or
• Transformer is a device which converts weber/ metre or tesla.
low voltage AC into high voltage AC and • Magnetic lines of force are imaginary
high voltage AC into low voltage AC. It is
based on electromagnetic induction. lines in the magnetic field, which shows
the direction of magnetic field
• Microphone converts sound energy continuously.
into electrical energy and works on the •
principle of electromagnetic induction. The magnetic lines of force outside the
magnet always travel from North pole to
• DC motor is a device which converts
South pole and inside the magnet from
electrical energy into mechanical energ,.
South pole to North pole.

e
Step-up ransformer converts a low voltage
of high current into a high voltage of low Characteristics of Substance
Current. Step-down transfomer converts

nc
Diamagnetic Bismuth, zinc, copper, silver,
a high voltage of low current into a low Substance gold, diamond, mercury, etc.
voltage of high current. Alurminium, platinum,
Paramagnetic
Substance manganese, sodium, oxygen
AC Dynamo (or generator) is a device used etc.
ra
to convert mechanical energy into electrical
Ferromagnetic Iron, cobalt, nickel, ferric
energy. It works on the principle of ohloride etc.
Substance
electro-magnetic induction.
Permanent Magnet
nt

MAGNETS
. The material They are made of steel and temporary
which can attract the magnet or electromagnets are made of soft
magnetic substances (such as cobalt. iron.
iron and nickel) is called a magnet and The soft iron can be magnetised or
ie

the property of attracting the magnetic demagnetised easily.

substance by a magnet is called
magnetism. Curie Temperature
jm

• The magnets which do not lose

their • As temperature increases, the magnetic
magnetism with normal treatment are property of ferromagnetic substance
called permanent magnets. decreases and above certain
. temperature the substance changes into
The materials which retain their
magnetism for a long time are called paramagnetic substances. This
@

hard magnetic materials. When a temperature is called Curie temperature.

magnet is freely suspended, it aligns • For soft iron, Curie temperature is
itself in the geographical North-South 1000 K.
direction. • Magnetic
Flux (o,) The number of
• The permanent magnets are made of
magnetic lines of force crossing a surface
certain alloys of nickel, cobalt and alloys normally
of iron with some carbon. They are made
in various shapes such as bar, rod, disc,
ring etC. where, B is magnetic field strength and A
is area normal to the field lines. Its SI
• When poles of Lwo magnets are brought
unit is weber.
close together, they exert force on each • Electromagnetic
Induction The rate of
other. change of magnetic flux through a coil is
• Similar poles repel each
other and called induced emf.
dissimilar poles attract each other. .
The direction of induced emf will be
• The area surrounding the magnet in
such that it opposes the cause.
which, another magnet experience a force
374 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science

Atomic and Nuclear Physics

Cathode Rays • X-rays produce illumination on
on
• Cathode rays are the stream of high speed falling fluorscent substances.
negatively charged particles moving from X-rays ionise the gas through which
cathode to anode in a discharge tube. they pass.
• Cathode rays are used in cathode ray • X-rays penetrate through different
oscilloscope and in production of X-rays. depth into different substances.
• X-rays shows photoelectric effect.
Properties of Cathode Rays

e
• X-rays are used in surgery, radio
1. Cathode rays travel in straight lines. therapy, engineering department and
2. Cathode rays can ionise the gases.

nc
searching.
3. Cathode rays can produce X-rays. •
The intensity and the penetrating
4. Cathode rays can produce fluorescence. power of X-rays can be controlled
5. Cathode rays can penetrate through thin independently.
metal foils
ra Photoelectric Effect
6. Cathode rays are deflected in magnetic
field. The phenomenon of emission of
7. Cathode rays are deflected in electric field. a
electrons from metal surface when
light of appropriate frequency is
Anode Rays or Positive
nt

incident on it, is called photoelectric

Rays or Canal Rays effect. The electrons emitted during
• Positive rays are moving positive ions of the photoelectric Current, are called
gas filled in the discharge tube. The mass of photoelectrons.
ie

these particles is nearly equal to the mass of Applications of

the atoms of gas.
Photoelectric Cells
Properties of Positive Rays
jm

• In reproduction of sound in cinema,

•
These rays travels in straight line. television and photo telegraphy.
• To control the temperature in
These consists of fast moving positively
charged particle. furnace and in chemical processes.
•
These rays are deflected in magnetic feld n automatic doors.
@

and electric field. •

In photoelectric counters.
• Speed of positive rays is less than that of • In automatic switches for street
cathode rays. These rays can affect the lights.
photographic plate. • In photoelectric sorters.
•
These rays penetrate through the thin
aluminium foil. Photoelectric Cell
•
These rays can produce fluorescence and • It is a device based on phenomena of
phosphorescence. photoelectric efect which converts
light energy directly into electric energy.
X-Rays • Photoelectric effect is based on the
These rays were discovered by Roentgen. law of conservation of energy.
These rays are electromagnetic in nature.
Properties ofX-Rays
Fluorescence and
• X-rays travels in straight line.
Phosphorescence
• Speed of X-rays is equal to speed of lioht Fluorescence is the phenomena of
These are not deflected by electric and emission of light of low frequency
magnetic fields. from a substance when some light
from a source is incident on it.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 375
• While in phosphorescence the substance can •
Nuclear Fission The process of
emit light for some time even after the source is the splitting of a heavy nucleus
removed. into two or more lighter nucleus
• Zinc sulphide exhibit the phenomena of is called nuclear Fission.
phosphorescence. •
Nuclear Fusion The process of
combining of two lighter nucleus
to form one heavy nucleus, is
RADIOACTIVITY called nuclear fusion. Hydrogen
• Henry Becquerel, Madame Curie and Pierre bomb is based on nuclear fusion
Curie discovered the phenomenon of and it is more destructive than an
radioactivity in 1896 and for this they jointly atom bomb.
Noble prize.The rays emitted by

e
wOn
radioactivity Were first recognized by Mass-Energy Relation
Rutherford. • Albert Einstein establised a

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• Radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon. It is relation between I1ass and
spontaneous emission of radiation from the energy on the basis of special
nucleus. theory of relativity in 1905.
• The nucleus having protons 83 or more are According to this mass can be
ra
unstable. They emit o, B particles and y rays to converted into energy and
become stable. The elements of such nucleus vice-versa.mc
are called radioactive elements and the i.e. E =
phenomenon of emission of a, B particles and Y where, c is the velocity of light
rays is called radioactivity. and E is the energy equivalent of
nt

• The penetrating power for d-particle is Imass m.

minimum and for Y-rays is maximum.
Important Points
SEMICONDUCTOR
ie

•
The substance in which electric
The effect on the mass number and atomic number with conduction is not possible at a low
the emission of o., B and Y rays is decided by temperature but on increasing the
Soddy-Fajan law. Radioactivity is detected by temperature, electric conduction
jm

cOunter. becomes possible are called the

When a radioactive atom emits one d-particle then semiconductor.
atomic number of resultant atom decreases by 2 unit At absolute Zelo kelvin,
and mass number decreases by 4 unit. semiconductor behaves like a
@

When a radioactive atom emits one B-particle then perfect insulator.

atomic number of resultant atom increases by 1 unit The electrical conductivity of a
and masS number remains same. semiconductor increases with
When a radioactive atom emits y-rays the mass the increase in temperature.
number and atomic number remain unchanged. Germmanium and silicon are two
Half-life of a radioactive material cannot be changed important semiconductors.
by physical or chemical processes. The percentage of A pure semiconductor is called
atoms left after one mean life time is equal to 37%. intrinsic semiconductor and to
Radioactive carbon-14 is used to measure the age increase its conductivity a
of fossils and plants. In radio carbon dating age is chemical process is performed
decided by measuring the ratio of gC12 and gc. on it which is called doping.

•
In pure semiconductors,
Madame Curie and her husband Pierre Curie impurity must be less than in
1

discovered a new radioactive element radium 108 parts

of semiconductor.
and found that an ore of uranium is much more An impure semiconductor is
radioactive than the pure Uranium. The end
product of all natural radioactive element after called extrinsic semiconductor.
These ae of two types
emission of radioactive rays is lead. 1. =type 2. p-type
376 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

n-type Semiconductor TRANSISTOR

• If pentavalent impurity atom (such as It is a combination of two p-njunctionsjoined
antimony, arsenic, phosphorus etc.) is in series. Transistors are of two types : -p-n
added to the pure germanium or silicon junction transistor and p-bp junction
crystal, the crystal so obtained is called transistor
the -type semiconductor. Triode valve can be used as amplifier,
• Pentavalent impurities are called donor. oscillator, transImitter and detector.
p-type Semiconductor Air bubble rises up in water because of
• If trivalent impurity atom (such as upthrust and its potential energy decreases.
aluminium, boron, gallium etc.) is When two protons are brought towards

e
added to the pure germanium or silicon each other they repel each other being similar
Crystal, the crystal so obtained is called charges, thus work is done us in bringing

nc
P-type semiconductor. them close. So, potential energy increases.
.
Trivalent impurities are called accepter. When the energy of the satellite is
negative, it moves in either a circular or an
p-n Junction elliptical orbit. When the energy of satellite
• An arrangement consisting a p-type is zero, it escapes away from its ortbit and its
ra
semiconductor brought into a close path becomes parabolic.
contact with -type semiconductor, is When the energy of a satellite is positive,
called a p-njunction. it escapes from the orbit following a
.
Rectifier is a device which converts hyperbolic path. When the height of the
nt

alternating voltage into direct voltage or satellite is increased, its potential energy
Current. Diode valve acts a rectifier. increases and kinetic energy decreases.
• LEDs are specially designed diode
made of GaAs GaP and are used in
ie

•
electronic gadgets as indicator light. NANOTECHNOLOGY
. Nanotechnology
Zener diode is a highly doped p-n js the study of
junction diode which is not damaged by manipulating matter on an atomic and
jm

high reverse cUrrent. molecular scale. Generally nanotechnology

deals with strcutures sized between 1 to
Noble Prize 100 nanometre in at least one dimension,
• 2016 The Noble Prize in Physics 2016
and involves developing materials or
was awarded to David J. Thouless, E
@

devices within that size.

Duncan, M. Haldane and J. Michael The term nanotechnology was defined by
Kosterlitz for "theoretical discoveries Tokyo University of Science Professor
of topological phase transitions and Norio Taniguchi in a 1974 paper as
topological phases of matter." follows: "Nanotechnology mainly consists
These theoretical discoveries revealed of the processing, separation,
the possibility of a bizarre world where consolidation, and deformation of
matter can take on different and strange one atom or one
stages. materials by by
• 2015 The Nobel prize is Physics 2015
molecule."
• Molecular nanotechnology sometimes
was jointly awarded to Takaaki Kajita
called molecular manufacturing,
and Arthur B. MC.Donald "for the describes engineered nanosystems
discovery of neutrino oscillations,
(nanoscale machines) operating on the
which shows that neutrinos have mass" molecular scale. Molecular
• 2014 The Noble prize in Physics 2014
nanotechnology is especially associated
was awarded jointly to Isamu Akasaki, with the molecular assembler, a machine
Hiroshi Amano and Shiji Nakamura, that can produce a desired structure or
for inventing a new energy efficient device atom-by-atom using the principles
and environment friendly light source of mechnosynthesis.
the blue Light Emitting Diode (LED).
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 377

• Spintronics a technology that exploits the intrinsic spin of the electron and it
associated with magnetic with moment, in addition to its fundamental electronic
charge, in solid-state devices.
• Diamondoids Non-scale molecules with characteristic diamond structure isolated from
petroleum.
• Grey Goo is hypothetical end-of-the-world scenario involving molecular
nanotechnology in which out of control self- replicating robots consume all matter on
earth, while building more of themselves.
• Carbon nanotubes and nanofibers are molecular-scale tubes of graphitic carbon with
outstanding properties.
• Nano computing is the techique of computing by using the various nano

e
components.
Units of Measurement

nc
Quantily Unit (SI) Quantity Unit (S)
Volume Cubic Tmetre Heat Joule
Acceleration Metre/second Absolutetemperature Kelvin
Density Kilograr/metre
ra Resistance Ohm
Momentum Kilogram metre/second Electromotive force Volt
Work Joule Electrical conductivity Mho/metre
Energy Joule Electric energy Kilo wat hour
nt

PresSure Pascal or Newton/melre Electric power Kilo watt or watt

Freguency Hertz Magnetic intensity Orsted
Power Watt Charge Coulomb
ie

Weight Newton or Kilogram Magnetic indUction Gauss

Impulse Newton-second Intensity of sound Decibel
Angular velocity Radian /second Power of lens Dioptre
jm

Viscosity Poise Depth of sea Fathom

Surface tension Nevton/metre

Important Laws/Theories and their Scientist

@

Laws/Theories Soierntist
Gravitational Law, Laws of Motion Newton
Theory of Relativity A. Einslein
Discovery of X-ray WC Rontgen
Principle of Lever, Relalive Density Archimedes
Kinetic Theory of Termperature Kelvin
Theory of an Atom Dalton
Laws of Electrolysis M Faraday

Important Scientific Instruments

Instrument Use
Altimeler It measures altitudes and is used in aircrafts.
Ammeter It measures strength of electric current (in ampere).
Audiomeler It measures intensity of sOund.
Baromeler It measures almOspheric pressure.
Binocular It is used to view distant objects.
378 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Instrument Use
Calorimeler It measUres quantity of heat.
Cardiogram It traces movements of the heart, recorded on a cardiograph.

Chronomeler It delermines longitude of a place kept on board ship.

Cinematography It is an instrument used in inema making.

Dynamo It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Dynamometer It measures electrical power.

Electrometer It measures electricity

Electroscope It detects presence of an electric charge.

e
Endoscope It examines internal parts of the body.

Fathometer It measures the depth of the ocean.

nc
Galvanometer It measures the electric Ourrent of low magnilude.

Hydrometer It measures the specific gravity of liquids.

Hygrometer It measures humidity in air.

Hydrophone It measures sound under water.

ra
Lactometer It deterTines the purity of milk.
Manometer It measures the pressure of gases.

Mariner's compass It is an instrument used by the sailors to determine the direction.

Microphone Itconverts the sOund waves into electrical vibralions.

nt

MicrOscope It is used to obtain magnified view of small objects.

Odometer It is an instrument by which the dislanoe covered by wheeled vehicles
is measured.
ie

Phonograph It is an instrument for producing sund.

Photometer This instrument compares the luminous intensity of the source of light.
Periscope It is used to view objects above sea level (used in sub-marines).
jm

Radar It is used for delecting the direction and range of an approaching

plane by means of radio microwaves.
Radiometer It measures the emission of radiant energy

Seismograph It measures the intensity of earthquake shocks.

@

Salinomeler It delerrnines salinity of solution.

Spectrometer It is an instrument for measuring the energy distribution ofa particular

type of radiation.
Speedometer It is an inslrument placed in a vehicle to record ils speed.
Sphygmomanomeler It measures blood pressure.
Spherometer It measures the ourvalures of surfaces.
Stereoscope It is used to view two dimensional pictures.
Stethoscope An instrument which is used by the doctors to hear and analyse heart
and lung sounds.
Stroboscope It is used to view rapidly moving objects.
Tachometer An instrument used in measuring speeds of aeroplanes and motor
boals.
Telescope It views distant objects in space.
Thermometer This instrument is used for the measurement of temperatures.
Thernostat It regulates the temperature at a particular point.

Voltmeter It measUres the electric potential difference between two points.

GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science 379

Inventions and Discoveries

Invention Year Inventor Country
Adding machine 1642 Pascal France
Aeroplane 1903 Orville & Wilbur Wright USA
Air conditioning 1902 Carrier USA
Airplane (Jet engine) 1939 Ohain Gerrnany
Airship (Non-rigic) 1852 Henri Gifard France
Atornic bomb 1945 J Robert Oppenheimer USA
Ball-point pen John J Loud USA

e
1888
Barometer 1644 Evangelista Torricelli Italy

nc
Battery (Electric) 1800 Alessandro Volta Italy
Bicycle 1839-40 Kirkpatriok Maomillan Britain
Bicycletyres (Pneumatic) 1888 John Boyd Dunlop Britain
Bifocal lens 1780 Benjamin Franklin USA
Bleaching powder
ra Tennant Britain
1798
Bunsen burmer 1855 R Willhelm von Bunsen Germany
Burglar alarm 1858 Edwin T Holmes USA
Camera (Kodak) 1888 Walker Eastman USA
nt

Car (Steam) 1769 Nicolas Cugnot France

Car (Petrol) Karl Benz Germany
1888
Carburetor 1876 Gotlieb Daimler Gerrmany
ie

Cassette (Videotape) 1969 Sony Japan

Cerment (Portland) 1824 Joseph Aspdin Britain
Cinema 1895 Nicolas & Jean Lumiere France
jm

Clock (Mechanical) 1725 &

-Hsing Liang Ling-Tsan China
Clock(Pendulum) 1656 Christian Huygens Netherlands
Compact disc 1972 ACA USA
@

Compact disc player 1979 Sony, Philips Japan,

Netherlands
Computer (Laptop) 1987 Sinclair Britain
Computer (Mini) 1960 Digital Corp USA
Diesel engine 1895 Rudolf Diesel Germany
Dynamo 1832 Hypolite Pixi France
Electric flat iron 1882 HW Seeley USA
Electric lamp 1879 Thomas Alva Edison USA
Electric motor (DC) 1873 Zenobe Gramme Belgium
Electric motor (AC) 1888 Nikola Tesla USA
Electric iron 1882 Henry W Seely USA
Electric washingmachine 1906 Alva JFisher USA
ElectrO-magnet 1824 William Sturgeon Britain
Electron 1897 Thomson J Britain
Electroplating 1805 Luigi Brugnatelli Italy
Electronic computer 1824 Dr Alan M Turing Britain
380 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Invention Year Inventor Country

Facsimile machine 1843 Alexander Bain Britain
Fibre optics 1955 Kepany Britain
Film (Moving outlines) 1885 Louis Prince France
Film (Talking) 1922 J Engl, J Mussolle & H Vogt Germany
Galvanometer 1834 Andre-Marie Arpere France
Gramophone 1878 Thomos Alva Edison USA
Helicopter 1924 Etienne Oehmichen France
Hydrogen bomb 1952 Edward Teller USA

e
Intelligence testing 1905 Simon Binet France
Jet engine Sir Frank Whittle Britain

nc
1937
Laser 1960 Theodore Maiman USA
Launderette 1934 JF Cantrell USA
Lift
(Mechanical) 1852 Elisha G Otis USA
Lighting conductor
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1752 Benjarnin Franklin USA
Loudspeaker 1900 Horace Short Britain
Machine gun 1918 Richard Gatling Britain
Magnetic recording tape 1928 Fritz Pleumer Germany
nt

Microphone 1876 Alexander Graham Bell USA

Microscope (Comp.) 1590 Z Janssen Netherlands
Microscope (Elect.) 1931 Ruska Knoll Germany
ie

MicrOwave oven 1947 Percy LeBaron Spencer USA

Motor cycle 1885 G Daimler Germany
Movie projector USA
1893 Thomas Edison
jm

Neon lamp 1910 Georges Claude France

Neutron bornb 1958 Samuel Cohen USA
Optical fibre 1955 Narinder Kapany Germany
Pacemaker 1952 Zoll USA
@

Photoelectric cell 1893 Julius Elster, Hans F Geitel Germany

Photography (On metal) 1826 JN Niepce France
Photography (On paper) 1835 WH Fox Talbot Britain
Photography (On film) 1888 John Carbutt USA
Piano 1709 Cristofori ltaly
Pistol, revolver 1836 Colt USA
Radar 1922 AH Taylor & Leo C Young USA
Radiocarbon dating 1947 Libby USA
Radio telegraphy 1864 Dr Mohlon Loomis USA
Radio telegraphy (Trans 1901 G Marconi Italy
Ailantic)
Rayon 1883 Sir Joseph Swan Britain
Razor (Electric) 1931 Col Jacob Schick USA
Razor (Safety) 1895 King C Gillette USA
Refrigerator 1850 James Harrison, Alexander USA
catlin
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 381

Invention Year Inventor Country

Rubber (Latex foam) 1928 Dunlop Rubber Co Britain
Rubber (Tyres) 1846 Thomas Hancock Britain
Rubber (Vulcanised) 1841 Charles Goodyear USA
Rubber (Waterproof) 1823 Charles Macintosh Britain
Safety pin 1849 Walter Hunt USA
Ship (Stearn) 1775 ICPerier France
- Ship (Turbine)
1894 Hon Sir C Parsons Britain
Steam engine Thomas Savery

e
1698 Britain
Steam engine (Piston) 1712 Thomas Newcomen Britain

nc
Steam engine (Condenser) 1765 Jarmes Watt Britain
(Stainless)
Steel Harry Brearley Britain
1913
Stethoscope 1819 Laennec France
Submarine 1776 David Bushnell USA
Super computer
ra
1976 JH Van Tassel USA
Tank 1914 Sir Ermest D Swington Britain
Tape recorder 1899 Fessenden Poulsen Denmark
Telegraph 1787 M Lammond France
nt

Telegraph code 1837 Sarmuel FB Morse USA

Telephone (Cellular) 1947 Bell Labs USA
Telephone (Imperfect) 1849 Antonio Meucci Italy
ie

Telephone (Perlected) 1876 Alexander Graham Bell USA

Telescope 1608 Hans Lippershey Netherlands
Television(Mechanical) 1926 John Logie Baird Britain
jm

Television (Electronic) 1927 PT Farnsworth USA

Television (Colour) 1928 John Logie Baird Britain
Transformer 1831 Michael Faraday Britain
Transistor USA
@

1948 Bardeen, Shockley & Brattain

Transistor radio 1955 Sony Japan
Uranium Fission (Atomic 1942 Szilard Fermi USA
reactor)
Vacuum cleaner (Elec.) 1907 Spangler USA
Video tape 1956 Charles Ginsberg USA
Washing machine (Elec.) 1907 Hurley Mlachine Co USA
Watoh 1462 Bartholomew Manfredi Italy
Wireless (Telegraphy) 1896 G Marconi Italy
 CHEMISTRY
MATTER AND Boiling Point
ITS STATES • It is a temperature at which vapour
pressure of a liquid becomes equal to
MATTER atmospheric pressure and at which a
substance converts from its liquid state
• Matter is anything which has mass and to gaseous state.
occupies space. • It is different at different places.

e
• It exists in five states, viz, solid, liquid,• Boiling point of water at nomal
gas, plasma and Bose-Einstein conditions is 100° C
condensate. Out of which the former .

nc
It usually decreases at high altitudes,
three are commonly seen. that's why, at high altitudes, the boiling
point of water is less than 100°C and
States of Matter more time is required to cook a food.
The five states ofmatter are discussed below • Boiling point of water in pressure cooker
ra
is high due to high pressure and hence,
Solids less time is required to cook the food.
• They have defânite volume and definite • Boiling point increases in the presence
shape. of impurity.
nt

• They are incompressible and have

strongest intermolecular interactions. Evaporation
• They are very dense as compared to liquid It is the process of conversion of a liquid
and gas. e.g., wood, stone, iron, etc. into vapours at any temperature below
ie

its boiling point. It increases with

Melting Point increase in surface area and
• It is a temperature at which a substance temperature.
converts from its solid state to liquid .
jm

It produces cooling. That's why we feel

state. Melting point of ice is 0° C. cool when some nail polish remover or
• Melting point decreases in the presence spirit is kept on our palm.
of impurity.
Gases
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Sublimation • They have neither definite volume nor

• It is the process of conversion of a definite shape. They take the shape and
substance from the solid state to the gas volume of the container in which they
state without passing through an are filled.
intermediate liquid phase. They are highly compressible.
• It is used to separate a sublimate • They can flow so considered as fluids,
(substance undergoing sublimation like e.g., air, oxygen and nitrogen.
camphor, naphthalene, ammonium
chloride, etc) from non-sublimate. Condensation
• It is the process of conversion of gas into
.Liquids
They have definite volume but no definite
liquid or liquid into solid
Solids. liguids and gases are inter
shape. They take the shape of the vessel convertible by changing the conditions
in which they are kept. of temperature and pressure.
• They can flow, hence, considered as heat heat
fluids e.g., milk, water, mercury etc. SolidLiquid: Gas
Cool
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science 383

Plasma • Examples of elements are sulphur,

• phosphorus, oxygen etc.
The fourth state of matter is called
plasma. This state contains jonised gas Elements known at present are 118. Out
with super energetic and super excited of which 94 are natural. Elements which
particles.
are liquid at room temperature are
. mercury (Hg) and bromine (Br).
Fluorescent tube contains helium (He)
gas and neon (Ne) gas. Sign bulb Elements which become liquid at a
temperature slightly above the room
contains neon (Ne) gas. temperature (303 K) are gallium (Ga) and
Bose-Einstein Condensate caesium (Cs).
• In 1924-25, Satyendra Nath Bose and Elements have the following order of

e
Albert Einstein gave the information abundance in earth crust : Oxygen >
about Bose-Einstein condensate. It is a silicon > aluminium > ion > calcium.
.

nc
state of matter of a dilute gas of boson Elements have the following order of
cooled up to temperature which is very abundance in human body : Oxygen >
close to absolute zero or -273.15°C. In carbon > hydrogen > nitrogen.
fact, it is a fifth state of matter.
Compounds
ra
Particles of Matter •
These contain more than one kind of
atoms. These cannot be separated into
Atoms constituent atoms by simple physical
• It is the smallest particle of matter that methods.
nt

takes part in chemical reactions. • Their examples are silica (Si02), water
(by Dalton's atomic theory). (H,0), sugar (C;H0,), salt (NaCl), etc.
• It can neither be created nor destroyed
(law of conservation of mass given by Impure Substances
ie

Lavoisier). A substance is said to be impure, if all the

• It does not exist in free state and has a constituent particles of that substance are
fixed atomic mass e.g., iron (Fe), gold not same in their chemical nature.
jm

(Au), silver (Ag), etc.

Mixtures
Molecules •
These are obtained by mixing two Or more
•
These are the smallest part of the substances in any proportion.
matter that exist in free state. • Mixtures can be homogeneous, i. e., have ,
@

g.
• They are formed by the joining of two or uniform composition throughout (e. salt
more atoms in fixed ratio (law of solution, Sugar solution, air. true
multiple proportions given by Dalton). solutions, etc) or heterogeneous, i. e., have
• They have fixed molecular mass which non-uniform composition (e.g., mixture of
is obtained by adding the atomic masses salt and sugar, colloidal solutions, etc).
of all the atoms present in a molecule,
e.g., water (H,0), ammonia (NH),
Solutions or True Solutions
carbon dioxide (CO), etc. These are homogeneous mixtures of two
or more substances.
Pure Substances •A solution contain two components :
A substance is said to be pure if all the solute (in less quantity) and solvent (in
more quantity). Examples of solutions are
constituent particles of that substance are
the same in their chemical nature. e.g., sugar solution, tincture of iodine
all the elements and compounds are pure (solution of iodine in alcohol), aerated
substances. drinks like soda water, air, alloys, etc.
• Concentration of solution may be
Elements expressed by percentage, mole fraction,
• They contain only single type of atoms. parts per million, gram per litre, molarity
Elements combine to give molecules. molality, normality, etc.
384 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Colloidal Solutions Separation of Mixtures

• are heterogeneous mixtures.
. These
A number of physical and chemical
These contain two phases, i.e., dispersed methods are used to separate the number
phase and dispersion medium. of mixtures. Some important methods are
belouU
•
These can scatter light because of the discussed
presence of large solute particles, i.e.,
Centrifugation
they show Tyndall effect and Brownian •
movement. It is based upon the principle that the
•
Blue colour of sky is also due to denser particles are forced to the bottom
scattering of light by dust particles and the ighter particles stay at the top
when spun rapidly.

e
Suspended in air.
• They are separated by special technigue t is used in diagnostic laboratories for
like centrifugation. blood and urine tests, in dairies and

nc
• Colloidal solutions are coagulated by home to separate butter from cream, in
washing machine to squeeze out water
adding an electrolyte. from wet clothes, etc.
• Colloidal solutions are purified by
dialysis, which is also used in the Distillation
ra
purification of blood with the help of It is a method of separating mixtures
artificial kidney machine. based on differences in volatilities
• Coagulation found its Use of components in a boiling liquid
purification of water by alum, stop mixture.
nt

bleeding by FeCl a, formation of delta at • It is used to separate mixtures of ether

the junction of sea and river. and toluene, benzene and aniline, etc.
• They are of following types on
the basis
of dispersed phase and dispersion Fractional Distillation
ie

medium. • It is used to separate liquids having very

Dispersed Dispersion Type of Examples less difference in their boiling points.

phase medium colloid It is used to obtain pure diesel, petrol,
kerosene oil, coaltar, etc from crude oilor
jm

Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, clouds,

mist mineral oil.
• It is used to separate a mixture of
Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke,
automobile acetone (329 K) and methyl alcohol
exhaust (338 K).
@

Gas Liquid Foam Shaving

Cream
Vacuum Distillation
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk,
• It is also knowvn as distillation under
face-crean. reduced pressure.
Solid Liquid Sol Milk of It is used for the substances which
magnesia, decomposes below their boiling point.
MUd
It is used to obtain glycerol and H,0, and
Gas Solid Foam Foam, to concentrate sugarcane juice in sugar
rubber, industry.
sponge,
pumice Steam Distillation
stone
It is used to separate a steam volatile
Liquid Solid Gel Jelly,
cheese, compound from non-volatile Or
butter non-steam volatile compounds.
Solid Solid Solid Coloured It is used to purify sandalwood oil,
sol gemstone, terpentine oil, aniline, nitrobenzene, etc.
milky glass
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science 385)

Crystallisation Number of moles

Mass (in gram)
• It is used to separate a mixture of
inorganic solids with the help of suitable Atomic weight
solvent. (or molecular weight)
•
Their examples include separation of a
mixture of sugar and salt by using GAS LAWVS
ethyl alcohol.
Mass (m), Volume (V), pressure (p) and
Chromatography temperature (T) of a gas are the
• It is the modern technigue Used fr measurable properties. The laws which
gas
separation and purification of organic nter-relate these properties are called

e
compournds. It was discovered by Tswett. laws.
• It is Ised for the separation of coloured Boyle's Law

nc
pigments from a plant.
At constant temperature, the pressure
Reverse Osmosis of a fixed amount of gas (number of
• It is a technique in which solvent moles) is inversely proportional to its
volume.
molecules move from the solution of
ra
higher concentration to the solution of The mathematical equation is
lower concentration when these are p or pV=k or p,-PV
separated by semipermeable membrane
and excess pressure is applied to the p=Pressure of the gas,
nt

solution of higher concentration. V=Volume of the gas,

• It is used for desalination of sea water. k=Constant
Physical Change Charles' Law
ie

• It is the change which only affect the At constant pressure, volume of a fixed
physical properties like colour, hardness, mass ofa gas is directly proportional to
density, melting point, etc., of matter. its absolute temperature.
• It does not affect the composition and
jm

This law can be written as V T

chemical properties of matter. where, Vis the volume of the gas,
• Examples of physical changes are Tis the absolute temperature.
crystallisation, sublimation, boiling,
vaporisation, cutting of trees, dissolving Gavy Lussac's law
@

common sugar in water, etc.

At constant volume, pressure of a fixed
Chemical Change amount of a gas varies directly with
as temperature, i.e. px Tor Kor
P- 2
•
These affect the composition as well T
chemical properties of matter and result
a new substance. (K = constant).
. in the formation of
Their examples are burning of fuel,
burning of candle, electrolysis of water
Combined Gas Law
burning of paper, photosynthesis, OT ldeal Gas Equation
ripening of fruits, etc. It is a gas law which combines
Charles' law, Boyle's law and
Mole Concept Gay-Lussac's law.
It states that the number of molecules This law can be stated mathematically
present in 12 g of C-12 is called one mole, as,
i.e., 1 mnol = 6.023 x 1023
= Avogadro's number (NA) p=R: pV= RT
T
e.q.. 1 mole of atom = where, R=Universal gas constant
=gram atomic weight For n moles of the gas, pV = nRT
=6.023 x 102 atoms
386) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Avogadro's Law ATOMICSTRUCTURE

It states that equal volumes of all gases at
•
the same temperature and
pressure Modern Atomic Theorv
contains the equal number of molecules. According to this theory, 'atom is made up
. of three fundamental particles called
It is stated mathematically as,
electrons, protons and neutrons.
V« n 0r V=kn
V= Volume of the gas, Discovery of Cathode Rays and
n=Number of moles of the gas, Electrons (-e)
.
k=Proportionality constant These rays were discovered by Sir Julius

e
Plucker.
Graham's Law of Diffusion •
These originate from cathode and travels
According to this law, "the rate of diffusion in a straight line towards anode.

nc
of a gas is inversely proportional to the Cathode rays cause mnechanical motion,
square root of its density." i.e., they consists of material particles.
•
These rays carry negative charge and
generate X-rays.
ra
where, ;, is the rate of diffusion for the Electron was discovered by JJ Thomson.
[It's antiparticle is positron (41e").
first gas (volume or number of moles per . It
unit time). has mass 9.1 x 1031 kg or 0.00054 u.
To
is the rate of diffusion for the second • It has charge -l6 x10-19 C (by
nt

gas. Millikan's oil drop experiment).

d, is the density of gas 1.
do is the density of gas 2. Discovery of Anode Rays
M, is the molar mass of gas 1. and Protons ( H'or P)
ie

M, is the molar mass of gas 2. .

These rays were discovered by Goldstein
(also called positive rays).
Dalton's Law of Partial •
These do not originate from anode.
jm

Pressures •
These are positively charged and have
It states that the total pressure exerted by a velocity less than cathode rays.
gaseous mixture of two more •. Proton was discovered by Rutherford.
non-reacting gases is equal to the sum of It is positively charged.
@

the partial pressures of each individual . It is present in the nucleus.

component in the gas mnixture. .
It has charge + 1.6 x 10-19 C and mass
Protal P + P2 + ... + Pu
1.672 x 10 kg or l.00727 u.
Ideal and Real Gases • It has mass 1836 times than that of the
• Ideal gases follow gas laws in all electron.
conditions of temperature and pressure.
Discovery of Neutron (on)
• Real gases follow gas laws only at high
temperature and low pressure. • It was discovered by Chadwick.
• It has zero charge and l.674x 102 kg
Critical Temperature or1.00867u mass.
• It is the temperature above which a gas
It js present inside the nucleus. Its
cannot be liquefied. antiparticle is antineutrino.
At STP • Hydrogen is the only atom in which
mm Hg
p=l atm =760 neutrons are not present.
273 K=0°C .
. one Electromagnetic forces bind electrons
Volume of mole of all the gases with the nucleus.
= 22.40L= 22400mL
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science 387
• Atoms having same number of electrons Isobars
and protons are neutral. If electrons are
less than proton, the atom carries positive These have the same mass number, but
charge and if electrons are more than different atomic number.
proton, the atom carries negative charge.18Ar"19 K 20 Ca"are isobars.

Discovery of Nucleus Isotones

• The model known as Rutherford's These have same number of neutrons, e.g.,
Model, was based upon d-particle H° and He as both have two neutrons.
scattering experiment and suggests that
most of the part of an aton is empty. Various Models and Theories
• It als0 suggests that the entire mass of

e
an atom is concentrated on its centre at Niels Bohr Model
the nucleus. The nucleus is surrounded This model suggests that the electrons are

nc
by electrons that move around the confined into clearly defined, quantised
nucleus with a very high speed in orbits and could jump between these, but
circular paths called orbits. could not freely spiral inward or outward in
• It contains protons and neutrons which intermediate states.
are collectively called nucleons.
ra
Planck's Quantum Theory
Characteristics of Atom According to this theory
Atomic Number (Z) 1. Atoms and molecules could emit or
absorb energy only in the form of
nt

• It is equal to the
number of protons. discrete packets of energy called quanta.
• It is
equal to the number of electrons in 2. The energy of quantum(E) is
neutral atom. proportional to its frequency (v),
• It is written as a subscript to the left of
e.g., E = hu
ie

the symbol of the atom, e.g., C here 6 where, h=Planck's constant

is the atomic number of carbon (C). (6.626 x 10-31 Js)
Mass Number (A 3. The energy is quantised (multiple of
jm

• It is equal to the sum of nhv)

number of
. protons and number of neutrons. de-Broglie Concept
It is written as a superscript to the right It suggests
that matter possesses dual
of the symbol of the atom, e.g., here nature, i.e., has wave nature as wvell as
C
@

12 is the mass number of carbon (C). particle nature. It also suggests that
wavelength (2) of electron is inversely
Mass number = Number of protons + proportional to its momentum (p) i.e.,
Number of neutrons = Atomic number +
Number of neutrons =Number of electrons + h
Number of neutrons (in case of neutral atom)
where, m = mass of electron
Different Atomic Species and V = velocity of electron

Isotopes
.
Heisenberg's Uncertainty
These have same atomic number but Principle
different mass number. e.g., isotopes of This principle states that it is impossible to
hydrogern e.g., ,H, P (protium), or D H
determine simultaneously the exact position
,
(deuterium) and or
H
T (tritium). T is and exact momentum (velocity) of an
radioactive. electron. It is given as
• Isotopes of polonium are maximum.
• Hydrogen (H-l) is the lightest isotope
Ar- Ap >h 4

and lead-208 is the heaviest isotope Ar is the uncertainty in position

zuhere,
(with mass 207.974). and Apis the uncertainty in momentum.
388 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Orbits and Subshell Elements Configuration

• According to quantum mechanical *Chromium 2,8, 13, 1 1s.s,2p, 3s,
model. the orbits contain subshell which (2:Cr) 3p, 3d, 4s

in turn contain orbitals. Iron (28Fe) 2,8, 14, 2 1s2,, 2p,3s,

• Four subshells are defined in different
atoms, i.e., s, p, d andf.
*Copper 2,8, 18, 1
1s2, 252, 2p°, 3s2,
• S-subshell
contains One orbital, (23Cu) 4s
3p,3d10
p-subshell contains 3-orbitals, d-subshell
contains 5-orbitals and fsubshell
contains orbitals.
7- Aufbau Principle
orbital can accommodate only (building up, construction)

e
• An

maximum of 2-electrons. • It is used to determine the electronic

configuration of an atom.

nc
The distribution of subshells in different
orbits is as follows • According to it, orbitals are filled in order
Orbits Subshel of their increasing energies, starting with
the orbital of lowest energy. Increasing
order of energies of various orbitals is,
2 p
ra
S, Is < 2s < 2p <3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p
3 S, P, d < 5s < 4d< 5p < 6s<4f < 5d < 6p <7s
4 S, p,d, f < 5f < 6d <7p
S, p, d, f
Hund's Rule of Maximum
nt

S, p, d
7 S, p Multiplicity
It states that if two or more orbitals of equal
The names of these subshells are taken as energy are available, electrons will occupy
ie

including the orbital name with the them singly before filling them in pairs.
subshell name, e.g., the s-subshell of 5th
orbital is termed as 5s, 6d, etc. Quantum Numbers
jm

These show the position and energy of

Electronic
. It is
Configuration electrons in an atom. These aTe four in
the arrangement of electrons in zunbers
various shells, subshells and orbitals in
an atom. Principal Quantum Number, n
.
@

It is written as 2, 8, 8, 18, 18, 32 • It describes the energy of electron and is

always a positive integer (electron shell).
• It is written as ... or 1,
n
(where, n indicates It is represented by K,L, M, N, 2,
the principal quantum number, 3, 4,....
indicates the azimuthal quantum It shows the distance of outer electron
number or subshell and xis the number from the nucleus.
of electrons).
•
Number of electrons in n shell =2,2 Azimuthal Quantum
Number. I
e.g., in second shell the number of It describes the subshells and orbital
=
electrons =2 x2* 8 exceptions of angular momentum of each electron.
normal rule. • It shows
the shapes of orbitals, e.g.
Electronic configuration of some elements S-orbital is spherical, p-orbital is
are tabulated below dumb-bell shape, dorbital is double
Elements Configuration dumb-bell shape and f-orbitals have
complicated structure.
2, 8, 8... nl type • It has values 0 to n -1.
type equal to 0 shows s-orbital, 1 shows
1s2, s2,2p, s'
•I
Sodium 2, 8, 1 p-orbital, 2 shows d-orbital and 3 shows
(,Na) f-orbital.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science 389

Magnetic Quantum Number, m Pauli Exclusion Principle

It shows the orbital of a subshell or It is the quantum mechanical principle
orientation of electron and has values from which states that no two identical
-l to + lincluding zero. fermions (particles with half-integer
spin) may occupy the same quantum
Spin Quantum Number, s state simultaneously.
• It describes the spin of each electron OF
(spin up or spin down). • Only two electrons may exist i the sane
• The value of s can be orbital but these electrons must have
opposite spin.

e
RADIOACTIVITY

nc
• It was discovered by Henry Becquerel but 0ccupy a position one place right to the
term radioactivity was given by Madam parent nuclei in the periodic table
Curie. It is the process of spontaneous (Soddy Fajans group displacement law).
disintegration of nucleus and is
Gamma (y) Rays
measured by Geiger counter.
ra
• It is a nuclear phenomenon, thus These are electromagnetic radiation and
remains unaffected by external factors have very high penetrating power.
like temperature, pressure, etc. •
These have low ionising power and
kinetic energy.
nt

Radioactive Rays • Their emission does not affect the

Radioactivity involves emission of a, B and position of nuclei in the periodic table.
Y rays or particles and has units Curie,
Becquerel, Rutherford. Half-Life Period
ie

Alpha («) Rays It is the time in which a radioactive

substance remains half of its original
•
These rays consist of positively charged amount.
jm

helium nuclei (He+), They have +2 unit

charge and 4 u mass.
Nuclear Fission
• It is a process in which a heavy
nucleus
• They have low penetrating power but is broken down into two or more lighter
very high ionising power and kineic
fragments.
@

energy. •
• An o-emission reduces the atomic mass It is usually accompanied with the
by 4 and atomic number by 2, thus, the emission of neutrons and large amount
new nuclei formed occupy a position two of energy. It is used in nuclear reactor
places left to the parent nuclei in the
and atom bomb.
periodic table (Soddy Fajans group Atom Bomb
displacement law). It is based on uncontrolled nuclear fission.
Beta (B) Rays It contains 235U or 23 Pu as fuel.
•
These rays consist of negatively charged Nuclear Reactor
electrons (Cie) and have -1 unit charge. It is a device that is used to produce
and zero mass. electricity and permits a controlled chain
•
These are more dangerous than 0-rays. nuclear fission.
. • It contains fuels e.g., gp U
moderator
These have high penetrating power as
compared to -rays. (e.g., graphite and heavy water, D,0) to
•A B-emission increased the atomic slow down neutrons and control rods
number by one with no change in atomic (made up of boron steel or cadmium) to
mass, thus, the new nuclei obtained absorb neutrons.
390 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

• It may also contain liquid sodium as Tons

coolant.
These are of two types : cation and anion.
Nuclear Fusion Cations are formed by the loss of electrons
e.g., Nat, Mg2+
• It is a process which involves fusion
oe and carry positive charge,
two or more lighter nuclei to give a Anions are formed by the gain of electrons,
and carrynegative clharge e.g., Ci-, F-, etc.
heavier nuclei.
• It occurs only at extremely high Electrovalent Bond
temperature (>10°K), so also called or
thermonuclear reactions. Ionic Bond
• It is
used in hydrogen bomb. Enerey of It is a type of chemical bond formed

e
Sun is also a result of a series of nuclear through an electrostatic attraction
fusion eactions. between two oppositely charged ions.

nc
• It is formed between a cation, which is
Hydrogen Bomb uSually a metal, and an anion, which is
usually a non-metal, e.g.,
It contains a mixture of deuterium oxide
(D,0) and tritium oxide (T,0) in a space + xCl
XX

surrounding an ordinary atom bomb. Na [Na']L:Ç 1

ra
Radiocarbon 2 8,1 2 87 sodium chloride
Dating
It is used in deternining the age of carbon lonic Compounds
bearing materials such as wood, animal • They can conduct electricity in molten
nt

fossils, etc. It is based on the concentration or

state in solution, but not in solid state.
of C4 and Cg isotopes. • They have a high melting point and tend
Uranium Dating to be soluble in water. Examples of such
It is used to determine the age of earth, compounds are limestone (CaCO3).
ie

common salt (NaCl), lime (CaO),

minerals and rocks.
magnesium oxide (MgO), etc.
Uses of Radioisotopes •
The energy required to separate the ions
jm

1. lodine-131 is employed to study the of an ionic compound is called lattice

structure and activity of thyroid gland. energy.
It is also used in internal radiation
therapy for the treatment of thyroid
Covalent Bond
• It is a type of chemical bond that is
@

disease.
2. Iodine-123 is used in brain imaging. characterised by the sharing of electrons
between two atoms.
3. Cobalt-60 is used in external radiation
therapy for the treatment of cancer.
• It may be a single bond (, formed by
sharing of two electrons i.e., one electron
4. Sodium-24 is injected along with salt from each atom, double bond
solution to trace the flow of blood. (=), fornmed by sharing of four electrons
5. Phosphorus-32 is used for leukemia i.e., two electrons from each atom, or
therapy. triple bond (=), formed by sharing of six
6. Carbon-14 is used to study the kinetics electrons i.e., three electrons from each
of photosynthesis. atom.
•
The geometry of few covalent molecule
CHEMICAL BONDING H,0 (water) - Bent, NH, (ammonia)
•
pyramidal, CH, (methane)-tetrahedral,
It is formed by elements to complete CO, (carbon dioxide) -linear.
eight electrons in their outer shell i.e., to • Single bond contains only 1 -bond;
complete their octet. double bond contains 1 o and l-bond;
• It results in decrease in energy and and triple bond contains lo and
increase in stability. 2-bonds.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science 391

Covalent Compounds van der Waals' Interaction/Force

1. They are non-conductor of The attractive forces among the non-polar
electricity. molecules in solid or liquid states. These are
2. They have low thermal relatively weaker compared to normal chemical
conductivity. bonds.
3. They are insoluble in water, but which can hang on a
The ability of Geckos
soluble in non-polar solvents like glass surface using only one toe-to climb on sheer
benzene, acetone, ether, etc. surfaces has been attributed to the van der Waals'
4. They have low melting and boiling forces between these surfaces and spatulae or
points (diamond and graphite microscopic projections, which cover the hair-like
have very high melting point.)

e
setae found on their footpads.
5. They are directional. So, have
definite geometry.

nc
CHEMICAL REACTION
Coordinate or Dative Bond
• It is a special type of covalent bond
The process in which substances (reactants)
react to form new compounds (products), is
in which both the electrons for known as chemical reaction.
sharing i.e., shared pair of
ra
electrons) are given by only one Types of Chemical Reactions
atom. Chemical reactions are of following types
• Coordinate compounds have
properties in between the ionic and Combination Reactions
nt

covalent compounds. In such reactions, two or more substances

• Examples of coordinate compounds combine to give a single substance, e.g.,
are CaO + H0 Ca(0H),
Water Calcium
ie

Calcium hydroxide
OXide

CN, etc Decomposition Reactions

(Cyanide ion) These are those irreversible reactions in which,
jm

a molecule decomposes into two or more

(Ammonium ion) simpler molecules e.g.,
Hydrogen Bond 2KCIO,
A 2KCI + 302
Potassium Potassium
@

• It is the attractive interaction of a chloride Oxygen

hydrogen chlorate
attached to highly
electronegative atom (such as N, F Dissociation Reactions
O) with another electronegative
atom, such as nitrogen, oxygen or These are those eversible reactions in which a
fluorine. molecule dissociates into two or more simple
molecules, e.g.
• It is stronger (has energy 5 to
30 k]/mol) than a van der Waals' 2HI H, + l,
Hydrogen Hydrogen
interaction. iodide lodine
• It 0CCUrS in both inorganic
molecules such as water and Reversible Reactions
organic molecules such as DNA. Reversible reactions are thse which occurs in
• Ethanol, amine (except 3° amine), forward as well as in backward direction but
etc., can form H-bond with water, never go to completion.
so these are soluble in water
although these are covalent Irreversible Reactions
compounds. Irreversible reactions occur only in forward
direction and go to completion.
 392) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Displacement Reactions Oxidising Agent or Oxidant

In such reactions, an atom or a group These are the substances that have the ability to
of atoms of a molecule is replaced by oxidise other substances, e.g., H,02, MnO,.
another atom or group of atoms e.g., CrO3. Cr0.
Os0 or elec- tronegative
+
CuSO, Fe FeSO4 + Cu elements (0, F, Cl, Br) etc.
Copper Ferrous
sulphate sulphate
Reducing Agent or Reductant
Double Displacement These are the substances that have the ability to
Reactions reduce other substances, transfer electrons to
another substance; e.g., electropositive element,
These involve exchange of ions metals such as lithium, sodium, magnesium,

e
between two compounds. e.g.,
iron, zinc, and aluminium, hydride transfer
NaCl + AgNO,AgCl + NaNO reagents, such as NaBH, and LiAlH4, etc.

nc
Reactions occurring between the ions Reduclion
or ionic compounds are very fast.
+2 +2 +1 +4
Exothermic Reactions 2HgCh + SnClalag) HgClpls) + SnCl4
(Oxidising (Reducing
These are those reactions in which
ra Agenl) Agent)
energy is released, e.g., burning of
natural gas, respiration, decomposition Oxidalion
of vegetable matter into compost,
combustion reactions etc. Catalysis
nt

• It was discovered by Berzelius.

Endothermic Reactions • It is a term, used for the reactions/ processes
These are those reactions in which which occur in the presence of certain
energy is consumed, e.g., digestion, substances that increase the rate of the
ie

photosynthesis, evoporation of water, reaction without being consumed. Such

melting of an ice, etc. substances are called catalysts.
• Catalysis is called homogeneous when
Redox Reactions
jm

reactant and catalyst are in same phase e.g.,

In such reactions, oxidation and for the manufacture of sulphuric acid.
reduction occurs, simultaneously.
NO(9, SO,9)
These are called disproportionation so,(4) +0,e)
reaction when the same element is
@

Oxidised as well as reduced. • Catalysis is called heterogeneous, when

reactant and catalyst are in different phase,
Oxidation
. It involves e.g., Haber's process for the synthesis of
addition of Oxvgen or any ammonia.
other electronegative element ike
luorine (F), chlorine (Cl), nitrogen Ngg) + 3H,(9)- Fe(s) 2NH (g)
(N), etc.
•
• Catalysis is called autocatalysis, when one of
It involves removal of hydrogen (H) the product increases the rate of the reaction
or any other electropositive element
i.e., acts as catalyst. e.g.,
like sodium (Na). It involves loss of
electroms i.e., increase in the CH,C00C,Hs + H,0
positive charge of ion. CH,COOH + C,H,OH

Reduction PERIODICTABLE
• It involves addition of hydrogen or • It is a tabular display of the chemical
any other electropositive element.
. It involves remnoval oxygen or any elements, organised on the basis of their
of properties.
other electronegative element. It • It
contains horizontal rows called periods
involves gain of electron, i.e., and vertical columns called groups.
decrease in oxidation state.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science 393
• It is the only block which contain metals,
Mendeleefs Periodic Law non-metals and metalloids.
Itstates that, 'the physical and chemical
properties of elements are the periodic Heavier elements show inert pair effect.
s and p-block elements are collectively
function of their atomic masses.
called representative elements.
Modern Periodic Law d-Block
It states that, "physical and chemical
properties of the elements are periodic
• It comprises 10 groups (3 to 12). These
functions of their atomic numbers" elements are called transition elements.
• General electronic coniguration of
Long Form d-block elements is (n-1)d-ns2

e
ofPeriodic Table • Elements of this block contain unpaired
electrons and are paramagnetic.
It is just graphical representation of Aufbau

nc
principle. It is based on the electronic These elemnents are generally coloured and
confguration of elements and contains used as catalyst.
118 elements. It is divided into four blocks Hg, Zn,Cu, Sc, etc., are d-block elements,
but not the transition elements.
$-Block
ra
• It contains 1
and2 group, i. e., hydrogen
f-Block
and alkali metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr) . It usually offset below the rest of the periodic
and alkaline Earth metals (Be, Mg, Ca, tabie, cOmprises two rows of 14 elements.
Sr: Ba, Ra). General electronic called lanthanides and actinides
nt

configuration of these elements is respectively.

• General electronic configuration of this
• These elements are soft metals, block elements is (–2)f4 (n–I)
electropositive and form basic oxides. dl-10nsl-2
ie

-Block There are two series in this block 4f and 5f

. It series. 4f series elements are called
comprises the last six groups lanthanides and 5fseries elements are called
(13-18).
jm

actinides. Elements of this block are called

• General electronic configuration of
inner-transition elements and present in
this block elements is ns²np-6. IIIB (3) group only.
dnoug
@

S-block p-block
IIA| IVA| VA
O
pas IA
IA VIA|VIA
1)(2) l(13)(14)|(15)(16)(17)l(18)
H He
1

Be B C N F
d-block or transition elements
4 10
Na Mg (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) Al
Si S C
3 IVB VB VIB VIIB
12|IB VIIB |B IIB 13 4 15 16 17 18
K Sc Ti V Mn Ni Cu Zn Ga
Ge As Se Br
K

Ca
4 19 20 22 25 262728 29 30 31
3233 34 35 B6
no
5
Sr Y Nb lc HL Rh Pd Cd Sn e Xe
37 38 40 41 42 43 45 46 47 48 49 50 5 52 53 54
Cs Ba La Hi Ta Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg TI Pb Po At Rn
6
66 56 57 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Fr Ra Ac RF Db Sa Bh Hs Mt| Ds Rg CnUut FI UUp Lv Uus|Uuo
87 88 89104|105|106| 107 10810911o111|112|113|114| 115116|117| 118|
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb
D
Ho Er Tm Yb
58 59 61 62 63 64 65 67 69 70 71
Th Pa Np PuAm Cm Bk FmMd No
90 91 92 93 94 9596 97 96 100 101 102 103
Fblock or inner-transition elements
394 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

• For p-block elements, they show variable

Newly Discovered Element valencies [P(3, 5), S(4, 6) but tendency to
a
Ununseptium, recently discovered, show higher valency decreases when ve
superheavy chemical element with atomic move down in a group due to inert pair
number 117, is a member of group-17 in the effect.
periodic table below the five halogens For d-block elements Fe(2, 3), Cu (1, 2) the
(fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and
elements of same group may have different
astatine). Its synthesis was claimed in valencies, and the element itself exhibit
Dubna, Aussia by a joint Russian-American different valencies.
collaboration. In 2014, the GSI Helmholtz
Centre for Heavy lon Research in Germany Oxidation State
also claimed to have successfully repeated

e
• It is the hypothetical charge that an atom
original experiment. Ununseptium is a would have if all bonds of atoms of different
temporary systematic name that is elements were removed.

nc
intended to be used before a permanent • It is typically represented by integers, which
one is established. It is commonly called
can be positive, negative or zero.
element-117, instead of ununseptium.
It is +1 for hydrogen, – 2for oxygen (except
in peroxide i.e., -l and in F0 i.e., +2), +1
ra
Periodic Properties for sodium and potassium and +2 for
magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), strontium
and their Trends (Sr).
Periodic properties are those which -
It is 1 for fluorine (always).
shows a regular trend along a period is zero for a neutral molecule.
nt

It

and a group. Example

:
Calculation of oxidation number of
Mn in KMnO4
Atomic Size Y.
• It generally increases
on moving Let the oxidation number of Mn is
ie

KMnO, =1+ X+ 4(-2) 0=

down the group because number Or Therefore. the oxidation number of Mn in
shells increases.
KMnO, is +7.
• It decreases along a period from left
jm

to right. Thus, size of alkali metal is Metallic Character

largest and that of halogens is • It is the tendency of an
smallest in a period. element to form
cation by the loss of electrons.
• Smallest atom is hydrogen and • It decreases along a period from left to right
@

largest atom is cesium.

•
and increases in a group on moving
Most poisonous metal is plutonium. downwards.
Valency Ionisation Energy
• It is
the combining capacity
element.
of
an• It is the energy required to remove an
electron from the outermost shell of an
• It increases from I to 7 along a period isolated gaseous atom.
with respect to oxygen whereas with. It generally increases along a period
respect to hydrogen, it first increases from left to right but ionisation energy of Be,
from 1 to 4 and then decreases to 0. Mg, Ca, Sr is larger than the ionisation
• For alkali metal (i.e., sodium, energy of B, AI, In, TI, respectively.
potassium, etc.,) it is 1, for alkaline Moreover, ionisation energy of N, P is larger
Earth metals (i.e., magnesium, than ionisation energy of 0, S respectively.
calcium, etc.,) is 2, for aluminium, it • Itgenerally decreases in a group on moving
is 3 and for nitrogen it is 3. It remains downwards.
the same in a group.
• Fors-block elements, all the elements Electron Affinity (EA)
in a group have same valency. • It is defined as the energy liberated when an
extra electron is added to an atom.
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science 395

• It increases across a period from left to Sodium and potassium burn in water
right but EA of II(2), 15 group and 0 while calcium loats over it.
group is 0 or positive. Copper (Cu) is the first metal used by
. It
decreases on moving down a goup. man.
• It is highest for chlorine. Pb (lead) is a bad conductor of electricity.
• Ti (Titanium) is called strategic metal.
Electronegativity
It is the tendency of an atom in a molecule Non-Metals and their Properties
to attract the shared electrons towards itself.
These may be solid, liquid or gas
It increases regulary along a period from left (bromine is the only liquid non-metal).
to right and decreases on moving down a
These are soft, non-lustrous, brittle,

e
group. It is highest for fluorine.
non-sonorous and non-conductor of heat
Metals and their Properties and electricity.

nc
•
These are the elements which are hard, These have low melting and boiling
lustrous, ductile, malleable, sonorous points.
and conductor of heat and electricity in
• These form oxides with oxygen which are
generally acidic.
. their solid as well molten state.
as
Examples are noble gases lie., heliumn
These form oxide with air. These oxides
ra
are generally basic, but oxides of zinc (He), neon-(Ne), argon (Ar), kypton
and aluminium are amphoteric, i.e., (Kr), xenon (Xe) and some other p-block
have acidic as well as basic properties. elements].
• Diamond is the hardest substance known.
These evolve hydrogen gas when reacts
nt

•
with water and acids. Iodine is lustroUS. Melting point is very
• Metals which are highly reactive high for diamond and graphite.
displace the less reactive metals from The order of hardness of SOme
substances is : diamond > corundum >
ie

their salts. The order of reactivity is :

potassium (K) > calcium (Ca) topaz > quartz.
sodium (Na) > magnesium (Mg) > Helium
aluminium (Al) > zinc (Zn) > iron (Fe)
jm

> lead (Pb) > hydrogen (H) > copper It is a noble gas (discovered by Lockyear
(Cu) > mercury (Hg) > silver (Ag) > and Janssen).
gold (Au) (Thus, gold is less reactive • It is used for filling balloons and other
metal). lighter aircrafts. Helium, when mixed
e.g., When iron nails are kept in copper with Oxygen, is used by deep-sea divers
@

sulphate solution (blue), iron being more for breathing and for respiratory patients.
reactive displaces the copper from copper It is used as a heat transfer agent in gas
sulphate solution and thus, the blue cooled nuclear reactors.
colour of solution disappears.
• Mercury (metal) is liquid at room Neon
temperature. It was discovered by Ramsay and Travers. It is
• Metal with lowest density is lithium. used in neon signs.
.
Tungsten is the metal having highest Argon
melting point.
. Reactivity It was discovered by Rayleigh and Ramsay. It
of metals increases while that is used to generate inert atmosphere for
of non-metals decreases on moving welding and to fll incandescent light bulbs.
down the group. A mixture of mercury vapours and argon gas
• Sodium and potassium are soft and is filled in tube
ights.
highly reactive metals. These react with
air and water. That's why these are kept Xenon
in kersene oil. Silver, gold and It is called stranger gas. Xe, when mixed
platinum do not react with air even on with Kr, used in high intensity, short
strong heating. exposure photographic flash tubes.
396 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Uses of Some Important Metals Ores

Metals and Non-Metals Alurminium
(AI)
Bauxite (Al,0,-2H,0)
Corundum (Al,04)
• Ferrous Oxide (FeO) is used to Cryolite (Na AlF;)
prepare ferrous salts and green glass. Feldspar (KAISi Og)
•
Ferric Oxide (Fe,0) is used in Polassium Nitre (KNO)
(K)
jeweller's rouge. Carnalite (KCI- MgCl, :6H,0)
•
Silver Nitrate (AgNO,) is called Magnesium Magnesite (MgCO,)
(Mg) Dolomite (MgCO,- CaC0,)
lunar caustic and is used to prepare Epsom salt (MgSO, 7H,0)
the ink used during voting. Calcium Calcite (Ca CO,)
.
Silver lodide (Agl) is used for

e
(Ca) Flurospar (CaF;)
artificial rain.
• Copper (Cu) Cuprite (Cu,0)
Mercuric Chloride (HgCl,) is used to Copper glance (Cu,S)

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prepare calomel and as a poison. Copper pyrites (CuFeS,)
• Hydrogen
Peroxide (H,0,) is used as Silver (Ag) Ruby silver (Ag,S- Sb,Ss)
an oxidising agent, bleaching agent, Horn silver (AgCl)
as an insecticide and for washing old Zinc (Zn) Zinc blende (ZnS)
ra Calarmine (ZnC0,)
oil paintings.
Zincite (Zn)
Metalloids Mercury (Hg) Cinnatbar (HgS)
Tin (Sn) Cassiterite (SnO,)
These have properties of metals as well
as non-metals. They are present only in
nt

Lead (Pb) Galena (PS)

p-block. Their examples are arsenic, Cerrusite (PbCO,)
antimony, germanium, tellurium, Iron (Fe) Haematite (Fe,0,)
silicon and boron. Magnetite (Fe 04)
Siderite (FeCO)
ie

Minerals Uranium (U) Pitch blende (kernatite) (U,0,)

These are the substances in the form of Thorium (Th) Monazite
which metal is found in nature.
jm

• The main
constituent of pearl is METALLURGY
calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
•
Ruby and sapphire are chemically It is the process of extraction of metal from its
aluminium oxide, Al,03. Oes.
. Ores
@

In haemoglobin and myoglobin, iron

is present as Fe+,
Moderately reactive ores
Ores
Highly Moderately reactive Less
•
These are the minerals from which reactive reactive
melals
metal can be obtained conveniently melals melals
and beneficially.
• Allores are minerals but all minerals Electrolysis
Carbonale Sulphide
Sulphide
are not ores. ore ore ores
of fused
melals
Gangue or Matrix Calcination Roaling Roasting

These are the impurities associated Pure

Metal oxide
Melal
with the ore. melals
Relining
Ores of Some Important Metals Reduclion (smelling)
of melal
Metals Ores Impure melal
Sodium (Na) Chile salt petre (NaNO,)
Cormmon salt or brine Relining of impure melal
(NaCI)
Pure Metal
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science 397

Calcination
• It is the process of heating the concentrated ore in absence or in limited supply of air
below its melting point. It is done for hydroxide or carbonate ore.
• It is done in reverberatory furnace.
Roasting
• It is the process of heating the concentrated ore in excess of air.
• It is used for sulphide ores.
• It is done in reverberatory furnace.
Smelting

e
It is the process of heating the oxides of elements with coke and flux above their melting
point.

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Flux and Slag
•
These are the substances which converts infusible impurities into fusible substances
called slag.
.
ra
These are of two types : Acidic flux such as SiO, (used to remove basic impurities) and
basic flux such as CaO, MgO (used to remove acidic impurities).
Electrolytic Refining
In electrolytic refining, anode is made up of impure metal and cathode is made by thin
nt

strip of pure metal.

Alloys
These are mixtures of two metals or a metal and a non-metal. They have properties
ie

different from the main metal. An alloy of mercury is called amalgam.

Alloys and their Uses

jm

Alloy Composition Uses

Brass Copper (70%) +Zinc (30%) In making utensils
Bronze Copper (90%) + Tin (10%) In making coins, bell, utensil
Copper (88%) + (10%) Tin+Zinc (2%) making gun, barrels, gears
@

Gun metal In
and bearings
German silver Copper (60%) +Zinc (20%) +Nickel (20%) Inmaking utensils
Solder Lead (50%) +Tin (50%) For soldering
Bell metal Copper (80%) +Tin (20%) For casting bells, statues
Munz metal Copper (60%) +Zinc (40%) In making coins

Magnalium Aluminium (95%) + Magnesium (5%) For frame of aeroplane

Duralumin Aluminium (94%) +Copper+Magnesium and For making automobile parts
manganese
Type metal Lead (80%) +Antimony (15%) +Tin (5%) Inprinting induslry
Stainless steel Iron (75%) +Chromium (15%), Nickel For making utensils and
(10%)+Carbon (0.5%) surgical cutlery
Babbit melal Tin (89%) +Antimony (9%) +Copper (2%) In making heater coil
Nickel+Chromium
398 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

bases reacts with non-metallic oxides to

ACIDS, BASES AND give salt and water which shows that
SALTS non-metallic oxides are acidic in nature.
• When dissolved in water, acids release
Arrhenius Concept H* ions and bases (or especially alkalies)
According to this concept, "acids are those releases OH ions.
substances which give H* ions in their HA + H,0 H,0t + A9
aqueous solution and bases are those
substances which give OH ions in their BOH+ H,0 +OHe
B*
aqueous solution." Acids like HCI, HNO, H,SO4, etc., and
HCl (ag) H+ C bases like NaOH, KOH, etc., are good
conductors of electricity in their aqueous

e
NaOH (ag) Nat+OH solutions.

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Bronsted LowIy Concept Some Important Points
According to this concept, "acids are Aqua Regia is a mixture of conc HCl and conc.
proton donors and bases are proton HNO, in a ratio of 3 :1 and is used to dissolve
acceptors." noble metals like gold, platinum, etc.
CHCO0H +H,0 +
CH,CO0
ra
H,0* Pickles are always kept in glass jar because
Acid Base Conjugate Conjugate acid present in them reacts with metal of
Base acid metallic pot.
H,0 + H,0 OH +
H,0+ • Acidity is the number of replaceable OH
nt

NH, + NH NH, + NH,* ions, e.g,, it is 1 for NaOH, 2 for

.
Ca(OH) Whereas Basicity represents
Lewis Concept the number of replaceable H* ions, e.g.,
According to this concept, "Acids are it is 1 for HCI, 2 for H,SO4
ie

electron pair acceptors and bases are

electron pair donors."
Sources of Some Naturally
:NH, +BF, HN: BE Occurring Acids
jm

Base Acid
Acids Sources
Properties of Citric acid Lemon, orange, grapes
Acids and Bases Maleic acid Unripe apple
@

Tartaric acid Tamarind

• Acids have sour taste and turns blue
litmus red. While, bases have bitter taste Acetic acid Vinegar
and turns red litmus blue. Lactic acid Milk
• Acids reacts with metal to liberate
Hydrochloric acid Stomach
hydrogen gas. Oxalic acid Tomato
Acid + Metal Salt + Hydrogen gas.
• Bases also reacts with some metals to
Uses of Some Acids and Bases
liberate hydrogen gas.
e.g., Zn + 2NaOH Acids Uses
NaZnO, + H, Nitric acid, oxalic
• Acid photography
and base reacts together to form salt acid
and water and the reaction is called
Sulphuric acid petroleum exploration
neutralisation reaction.
Acid + Base Salt + Ha0. Hydrochloric acid leather industry
+
HCI(ag) NaOH(ag) Benzoic acid, preservation for fopd
NaCKag)+ H,0() formic acid, stuff
• Acids reacts with metallic oxides to give citric acid,
salt and water which shows that metallic acetic acid
oxides are basic in nature. Whereas,
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science 399

Bases Uses Salts

Calcium hydroxide manufacturing of bleaching These ae the product of neutralisation
calcium oxide powder reaction between an acid and a base
Magnesium antacid, in sugar industries e.g.,
hydroxide
HNO, (a) + KOH (ag)
Sodium hydroxide manufacture of hard soaps acid base
and drugs, paper and textile KNO, (a) + H,O ()
industry, petroleum refining salt water
Potassium manufacture of soft soaps These are of the following types :
hydroxide
Mixed Salt

e
pH Value These are obtained by neutralisation of
• It is a measure of acidity or basicity of a an acid by two base or a base by two

nc
solution. acids. e.g., bleaching powder (CaOCl).
• It is defined as the negative logarithm of the
concentration in mol/L of hydrogen ions Double Salt
which it contains, .e., It is obtained by mixing tvo or more
pH =-log [H"1= log 1
ra salt, e.g.
H
Alum (K,S0,-Al,(SO, ),24H,0),
[H]= 1x 10-pH Mohr Salt (FeSO, (NH, ),S0, 6H,0).
• It is 7 for neutral solution, greater than 7 for Important Salts
nt

basic solution and less than 7 for acidic

solution. Common Salt
• pH sone connon substances ae:
of
•
. It is sodium chloride (NaCI).
is
It obtained from sea water.
ie

Substance phH Substance pH • It is also known as table salt.

Gastric juice 1.0-3.0 Rain water 6.0
Soft drinks 2.0-4.0 Tears 7.4 Baking Soda
jm

Lermon 2.2-2.4 Sea water 8.5 •

Milk of
It is sodium hydrogen carbonate
Vinegar 2.4-3.4 (NaHC0). It is a mild non-corrosive
10.5
magnesia
base.
Urine 4.8-8.4 Milk (cow) 6.3-6.6 .
(human) When mixed with a mild edible acid
@

Saliva 6.5-7.5 Blood 7.30-7.42

such as tartaric acid it is called
(human) plasma baking powder and is used to make
(human) bread or cake soft and spongy.
• It is used as mild antiseptic for skin
Indicators
.
infections, in soda-acids and as fire
These are the substances which give extinguishers.
acidic and Ant or bee sting contains methanoic or
different colours in basic•
solutions. formic acid. Due to which victim feel
• Some
indicators and their colour in acidic pain and irritation. Use of a mild base
like baking soda is a remedy for it.
and basic medium are:
Indicators Colour Washing Soda
|In Acid It is chemically sodium carbonate
In Base
decahydrate (Na,C0-10H,0) and is
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink
used in glass, soap and paper industries
Methyl orange Orange Yellow and also for removing permanent
Methyl red Red Yellow hardness of water.
Phenol red Yellow Red
400 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Bleaching Powder ELECTROCHEMISTRY

• It is chemically Ca(0CI)CI
CaOCl2 It is the study of production of electricity from
energy released during spontaneous chemical
• It is used for bleaching cotton and
reactions and use of electrical energy to carry
linen in the textile industry, for Out non-spontaneous chemical
bleaching wood pulp in paper transformations.
factories.
• It is used for disinfecting drinking ELECTROLYSIS
water.
The process in which a non-spontaneous
Plaster of Paris reaction is carried out by using electrical

e
• It is chemically calcium sulphate energy.
It is used

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hemibydrate CasO,H,o and
in production of oxygen for space craft and
•
nuclear submarines.
obtained by heating gypsum
(CaSO, -2H,0). It contains half in layering metals to fortify them.
molecule of water of crystallisation. in production of hydrogen for fuel.
ra
• It is a white powder and on mixing• in electrolytic etching of metal surfaces like
with water, changes into a hard solid tools or knives with a permanent mark or
mass, called gypsum. logo.
• It is Used to plaster fractured bones. Electrometallurgy is the process of
nt

for making toys, materials for reduction of metallic compound into pure
decoration and for making smooth • metal by electrolysis.
surfaces. Anodisation is an electrolytic process that
makes the surface of metals resistant to
Copper Sulphate (Blue Vitriol)
ie

COrTosion.
Copper sulphate when anhydrous, is • Electrolysis of brine (the water, saturated or
white and when associated with water nearly saturated with salt, usually sodium
jm

of crystallisation (i.e., CuSO, -5H,0), is chloride) gives hydrogen and chlorine. The
blue, so it is called blue vitriol. It is used products are gases.
to test the presence of water. 2NaCl + 2H,0 2NaOH + H, + Cl,
Lime
. It is Faraday's Lawsof Electrolysis
@

chemically calcium oxide (Ca0)

and also called quicklime.
First Law of
Electrolysis
• It is used in the manufacture of glass, It states that the quantity of elements
cement, etc., and for drying ammonia Separated by passing an electric current
and alcohol. through a molten or dissolved salt is
• Excessive use of fertilizers makes the Proportional to the quantity of electric charge
soil more acidic. To neutralise it PaSSed through the
circuit.
W o Q; w= ZQ =Zit
quicklime is added to soil as acidic
soil is not good for growth of the (Charge (Q=Current (i) xTime (t)
plant. Second Law of Electrolysis
Potassium Nitrate The amount of different substances liberated
It is used as fertiliser, in gun powder at the electrodes by the same quantity of
(C+S+ KNO3), in matchsticks, etc. electricity passing through the electrolytic
solution are proportional to their chemical
Magnesium hydroxide equivalent weights.
It is used as a remedy for hyper acidity Wo E or
in stomach. W,
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science 401)

• It is used in automobiles and invertors.

Electrochemical Cell a
• It is a device that produces an electric tConsists of lead as anode and grid of
lead packed with lead dioxide (PbO,) as
CUIrent firom energy released by a
spontaneous redox reaction (in short which cathode. A 38% solution of sulphuric
converts chemical energy into electrical acid is used as an electrolyte.
energy). This kind of cell includes the • It consists of a series of six identical
galvanic cell or voltaic cell. cells assembled in series. Each cell
• It has two conductive electrodes, i.e., may produce a potential of 2 V, hence
anode (at which oxidation occurs) and overallvoltage produced is 12 V.
cathode (at which reduction occurs). PbSO, is formed when lead storage
• It contains an electrolyte in between the battery is in use and lead dioxide are

e
electrodes, which contains ions that can formed when it is charged.
move fireely.

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Fuel Cell
BATTERY These are galvanic cells which use energy
of combustion of fuels like hydrogen (H,),
• It is an arrangement of one or more cells
methane (CH,), methanol (CH,OH), etc.,
connected in series. as the source to produce electrical energy.
ra
• It is basically a galvanic cell. e.g., hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell.
These are of two types
1. Primary batteries (non-rechargeable)
Corrosion
• It is the process of oxidative
e.g., dry cell, mercury cell etc.
nt

deterioration of a metal surface by the

2. Secondary batteries (rechargeable) e.g.,
action of environment to form
lead storage battery, nickel- cadmium
battery. unwanted products.
• e.g., conversion of iron into rust
ie

Lechlanche Cell or Dry Cell [Fe,O,-x H,0], tarnishing of silver

(due to the formation of Ag,S),
• It consists of a zinc container that acts as
development of green coating of
anode and carbon (graphite) rod Cu(0H),-CuCO3
jm

(basic copper
surrounded by powdered manganese carbonate)] on copper and bronze. It is
dioxide and carbon which acts as cathode. basically an electrochemical process.
It contains a paste of NH, Cl and ZnCl, in •
between the electrodes. Corrosion of iron is called rusting. It is
accelerated by the presence of
@

• It is used in transistors and clocks.

impurities i.e. H+, electrolytes such as
• It
has a potential of 1.5 V. NaCl, gases such as CO2, SO2, N0,
NO2, etc.
Mercury Cell •
Formation of a layer of aluminium
• It is suitable for the low current devices oxide over aluminium surface protects
like hearing aids and camera, etc. the metal from further corrosion.
• It consists of zinc-mercury amalgam as
•A sliced apple turns brown if kept
anode and a paste of Hg0 and carbon as open for somne time due to the
cathode. The electrolyte is a paste of KOH oxidation of iron present in the apple.
and ZnO.
prevented by the following methods
• It
has potential of 1.35 V. This potential It• is
By electroplating.
remains constant during its whole life. • By surface coating
(.e., coating of
Lead Storage Battery surface with oil, grease, paint and
• It is a secondary battery. varnish), by alloying, by galvanisation
• It acts as electrochemical cell during of iron (process of deposition of a thin
layer of zinc over iron surface).
discharging (i.e.,during use) and as
electrolytic cell during charging.
402) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

•
CARBON AND ITS Urea It is the first synthesised organic
compound (discovered by Wholer).
COMPOUND •
Acetic Acid It was the first organic
compound synthesised in the laboratory
Carbon from its elements.
It is a member of group 14 in the Periodic
Table, with symbol C and atomic number 6. Hydrocarbons
Ithas three crystalline allotropes • These are the compounds of only carbon
and hydrogen.
Graphite These are of three types
• It is opaque and black.

e
• It is a very good conductor of electricity. Saturated Hydrocarbons
• It is soft enough to form a streak on • These compounds contain only single

nc
bonds.
. paper:
It is Ised for thermal insulation (i.e. • These are also called allkanes Or
firebreaks and heat shields). paraffins and have general .... formula
• It is a very good lubricant. CH2 *2 where, n =12,3 Methane
is the first member of this group.
ra
Diamond
• It is highly transparent. Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
• These have atleast one double (=) or
• It is the hardest material known.
• It is an electrical insulator. triple (=) bond and are called alkene
nt

. and allkynes, respectively.

Under normal conditions, it has the . These have general formula C,Hg, for
highest thermal conductivity of all alkene and CHa- 2 for alkynes.
known materials. • Ethylene
(C,H,) It is the first member of
ie

• It is an ultimate abrasive.
alkene and acetylene (C,H) is the first
Fullerenes member of alkyne.
• Can looks like a soccer
ball (or bucky Aromatic Hydrocarbons
jm

ball).
• These have ring structure with
• It alternate
contains 20 six membered rings and
12 five membered rings carbon atoms.
of double bonds
(Huckel's rule).
and obey (4n+2) e
• It acts as a wonderful lubricant and the
@

• Benzene is the first member of aromatic

alkali metal compounds of Csn are used
as superconducting substance at the hydrocarbons.
temperature range of 10-40 K.
Functional Group
Graphene • It is an atom or group of atoms in a
Graphene is an allotrope of carbon. Its molecule, which is responsible for the
structure is one-atom-thick planar sheets of chemical properties of the molecules.
carbon atoms that are densely packed in a •-OH is alcoholic group, –CHO is
honeycomb crystal lattice. The term graphene aldehyde group, >C=0 is keto group,
was coined as a combination of graphite and -COOH is carboxylic acid group, -O
the suffix-ene by Hanns-Peter Boehm, who is ether group.
discovered single-layer carbon foils in 1962.
Homologous Series
Organic Compounds • It is a series of compounds in which
adjacent members differ by a CH
•
These are the compounds of mainly unit (14 unit mass).
carbon and hydrogen or compounds of a
carbon and hydrogen with other Al members of homologous series
elements like phosphorus, oxygen, have same functional group and same
nitrogen, sulphur, halogens etc. chemical properties.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science 403)

Isomerism Glycerine (CzH,0)

Compounds having the same molecular It is LIsed to synthesise explosive
formula, but different structure are called nitroglycerine, stamp ink and boot polish.
isomers and the phenomenon is called
isomerism. e.g., C,H;0 can have the Formic Acid (HCOOH)
following structures CH0CH and It is used as a preservative for fruits and
CzH,OH. juices, in leather industry and in
coagulation of rubber.
Uses of Some Important Acetic Acid (CH,C0OH)
Organic Compounds It is used in vinegar, medicines and act as a
solvent.

e
Methane (CH)
It is used to manufacture printer ink, Oxalic Acid (CH 04)

nc
methyl alcohol and to obtain light and It is used in printing of clothes, in
energy. photography and in the synthesis of coaltar.
Ethylene (C,H,) Glucose (CgH,pOs)
It is used to prepare mustard gas (war gas) It is used for the synthesis of alcohol and as
and for ripening of fruits. a preservative for fruit juice.
ra
Glycol (C,HO,) Benzene (CGHe)
It is used as an antifreeze mixture in car It is used as a solvent for oil fat and in dry
radiator and prevent the freezing of fuel in cleaning. Sodium benzoate is a food
space crafts. preservative.
nt

Acetylene (C,H,) Toluene (CçH,CH)

It is used to generate light, to weld metals It is used to synthesise explosive TNT, for
as oxy-acetylene flame and to prepare dry cleaning and for the synthesis of
ie

synthetic rubber (neoprene). medicines like chloramine.

Methyl Alcohol (CH,OH) Phenol (CeH,OH)
It is used as a fuel with petrol, used to It is used to synthesise explosive,
jm

synthesise varnish and polish, used to 2, 4, 6-trinitro-phenol (picric acid) and

denature ethanol. bakelite.
Chloroform (CHCl) Ethyl Alcohol (C,H,OH)
It is used as an anaesthetic and to preserve It is used for drinking as a liquOr, in
substances obtained from plants and medicine to prepare tincture and as an
@

animals. It converts into poisonous insecticide and as a fuel with petrol.

phosgene (COCI,), when exposed to
sunlight. So, it is kept in dark bottles.

Name Rum Brandy Whisky Beer Champagne Cider

Alcohol % 45-55% 40-50% 40-50% 3-6% 10-15% 2-6%
Raw material Molasses Grapes Barley Barley Grapes Apple
404) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

• Bituminous is the most common variety

ENERGY RESOURCES of coal. Coal is used for the synthesis of
water gas and producer gas.
Natural Resources
These resources are obtained by nature lilke Petroleum
air, water, mineral, sunlight, etc. • It is a dark coloured oily liquid
These are of two types
with offensive odour. It is also called rock
oil, mineral oil, crude oil or black gold.
Renewable Natural Resources .
When subjected to fractional distillation,
These are available in excess amount e.g., it gives different products at different
air, sunlight, etc.
temperatures.

e
Non-Renewable Natural Liquefied Petroleum
Resources

nc
These resources are available in limited
Gas (LPG)
It is a mixture of rbutane, so-butane and some
quantity, e.g., minerals, coal, petroleum,
propane.
natural gas, etc. • It is easily compressed under pressure as
Fuels
ra liquid and stored in iron cylinders.
These are the substance which produce A strong foul smelling substance called

heat and light on combustion. ethyl mercaptan, is added to LPG which

detect the gas leakage.
Coal
nt

• It is believed to formed by the slow Compressed Natural

carbonisation of vegetable matter buried Gas (CNG)
underneath the Earth from centuries It consists mainly of methane (959A)
ago, in limited supply of air under hioh
ie

which is a relatively unreactive

temperature and pressure prevailing
hydrocarbon and makes its nearly
there.
• complete combustion.
It is available in different varieties : Peat
lt has octane rating of 130.
jm

(60% C), lignite or brown coal (70% C)

bituminous coal (80% C) and anthracite
(90% C).

Different Fuels, their Composition and Source

@

Fuel Composition Source

Waler gas Carbon monoxide (Co) + hydrogen (H) By passing steam over red
hot coke
Producer gas Carbon monoxide (Co) + nitrogen (N) By passing insufficient air
Over red hot coke

Oil gas Methane (CH4)+ ethylene (CHa) By destructive distillation of

+ acetylene(CH) kerosene
Coal gas Hydrogen (H,) + methane (CH,) By fractional distillation of
+
ethylene + acetylene + CO wOod
Nalural gas Methane (83%) + ethane From petroleum
LPG Butane (C,Hho)+ propane (CHa) From oil wells
Biogas or Gobar Methane (CH4) + carbon dioxide (CO,) +
From organic wastes
gas hydrogen (Hg)+ nitrogen ( N)
 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science 405)

Different Fractions Obtained by Fractional Distillation of Petroleum

S.No. Fraction Boiling Range Uses
Uncondensed gases room ternperature Fuel gases, refrigerants, production of
carbon black, hydrogen
2
Crude naphtha (lIt gives 30-150°
on refractionation)
) petroleum ether 30-70° Solvent
(ii) petrol or gasoline 70-120° Motor fuel, dry cleaning, petrol gas
(i) benzene derivatives 120-150° Solvent, dry cleaning
3
Kerosene 150-250° Fuel, illuninant, oil gas

e
4
Gas oil
250-350° As a fuel for diesel engines converted to
5 Fuel oil
gasoline by cracking

nc
6 Diesel oil
7. Lubricating oil 350-450° Lubrication
8 Paraffin wax > 500°C Candles, boot polish, wax paper
9. Vaseline > 500° C Ointments, lubrication paints, road
surfacing as fuel
ra
Some Important Physical Octane Number
Quantities • Octane
number is the percentage of
iso-octane in the mixture of iso-octane
nt

Calorific Value and 7-heptane which has saime

• It is defined as knocking properties as the fuel sanple.
the heat obtained when 1 g
of a fuel is burnt in excess of oxygen and is • It is a measure of quality of petrol
expressed in kcal/g. (gasoline). It is zero for heptane and
ie

Calorific value of some important fuels are as 100 for iso-octane. (2, 2, 4-trimethyl
follow pentane).
Calorific Value (kJ/g) • Higher the octane number, better is
Fuel
jm

Coal 25-32
the fuel.
Kerosene oil
48 Cetane Number
Petrol 50 • Cetane number is the percentage of
Diesel 45
@

cetane in the mixture of cetane and

Bio gas 35-40 O-methyl naphtalene which has same
LPG 50 knocking properties as the fuel sample.
Wood 17 • It is a measure of quality of diesel. It is
Cow dung 6-8 100 for Cetane and 0 for o-methyl
Ethanol 30 naphthalene.
Methane 55
Hydrogen 150 Flame
Natural gas 35-50 It is the hot part of fire and has three
• parts
Hydrogen is the fuel of future.
• Alcohol, when mixed with petrol, is called
1. Innermost Region of Flame It is
power alcohol. It is an alternative source of black because of the presence of
unburned carbon particles.
energy.
2. Middle Region It is yellow luminous
• For the combustion of a substance, its due to partial combustion of fuel.
ignition temperature should be low.
3. Outermost Region It is blue
Note Substances that are used to reduce the (non-luminous) due to complete
knocking property are known as combustion of fuel.
anti-knocking compounds. e.g., Tetra Ethyl
Lead (TEL)
 406 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

It is the httest part of flarneand is used by the Gass

Goldsmith to heat the gold. • It is an amorphous or transparent
solid, also called supercooled liquid.
Fire Extinguisher • It contains mainly silica (SiO,).
In case of electric fires and oil fires, water
It can be of the following types
cannot be used as an extinguisher as it is a
conductor of electricity and oil being lighter comes 1. Soda or Soft Glass is sodium
above the water. Such fires are extinguished by calcium silicate (Na,0-CaO- 6Si0,)
carbon dioxide. It is the ordinary glass and used for
making bottles, window panes, etc.
2. Potash Glass Or Hard Glass
Safety Match Stick

e
contains potassium (from KC04).
Safety match stick contains a mixture of It has higher softening temperature.

nc
antimony trisulphide and potassium chlorate It is used for making chemical
at its one end. ts box side contains a mixture apparatus such as beakers, flasks,
of powdered glass and red phosphorus. funnel, etc.
3. Crown Glass contains potassium
Man-Made Materials oxide (K,0), barium oxide (BaO),
ra
Soaps boric oxide (B-0) and silica (SiO,).
It is used for optical apparatus.
These are sodium and potassium salts of
4. Flint Glass contains lead oxide
higher fatty acids. e.g., sodium palmitate,
sodium stearate, etc. (PbO) and used in optical
nt

instruments like lenses, prisms.

Detergents 5. Crook's Glass contains cesium
oxides. It is used for spectacles as it
•
These are sodium or potassium salts of long absorbs UV rays.
chain alkyl or aryl sulphonates or sulphates
ie

e.g., sodium allkyl sulphonate, sodium allkyl 6. Jena Glass contains B,0, and
benzene sulphonate, etc. alumina. It is stronger and more
•
These are also called soapless soap. resistant to acids and alkalies, that's
jm

• why used for making laboratory

Detergents form lather with hard water.
bottles, for keeping acids and
• Detergents cause pollution but straight alkalies.
chain alkyl group containing detergents are 7. Milky Glass is prepared by adding
biodegradable and do not cause pollution. tin oxide (SnO), calcium phosphate
@

• The cationic detergents are used as fabric [(Caz(PO,)]or cryolite (NagAlF;) to

softeners and germicides while non-ionic the melt glass.
detergents are used as liquid dish washing 8. Glass Laminates is made by fixing
detergents. polymer sheets between layers of
glass. It is used to make windows
Fertilisers and screens of cars, trains and
•
These substances increase the fertility of aircraft. Specially manufactured
soil by providing elements essential for the glass laninates are Used as
growth of plants like nitrogen, phosphorus bulletproof material.
and potassium. e.g., basic calcium nitrate
[CaO-Ca(NO3)21, ammonium sulphate Different Substances gives
[(NH),S041. These two chemicals Different Colours to Glass
increases the acidity of soil which can be Colour Substance Added
removed by adding lime.
Red Copper () oxide (Cu,0)
• Other examples are calcium cyanamide or Chromiurm oxide (Ci,0,)
Green
nitrolim (CaCN), Urea or carbamide (it
does not effect the pH of soil), calcium Violet Manganese oxide(MnO,)
super phosphate or super phosphate of lime Blue Cobalt oxide (CoO)
[Ca(H,PO,)+2CaSO, -2H,01. Brown Iron oxide (Fe,0)
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 407

Cement or Portland • Dettol is a mixture of chloroxylenol and

O-terpineol. Chloroxylenol is responsible
Cement for its antiseptic property.
• It is a complex material containing
the. Antibiotics are obtained from
silicates and aluminates of calcium microorganisms and used to destroy the
with small amount of gypsum. other microorgarnisms e.g., penicillin,
• It has
the followingconposition (discovered by A. leming in 1929)
Calcium oxide (CaO) = 50-60% ampicillin, amoxycillin (all are narrow
Silica (SiO,) = 2025% spectrum), ofloxacin, tetracycline,
Alumina (Al,Oz) = 5-10% chloramphenicol (all are broad
spectrum).
Magnesium oxide (MgO) = 2-3%

e
• lt is manufactured from limestone and Antimalarial are used to treat malaria.
clay. If cement contains excess lime,
e.g.. chloroquine.

nc
Cracks during settings can occur and if • Sulpha drugs are alternatives of
lime is less, cement is of weak strength. antibiotics, e.g., sulphanilamide,
• Gypsum decreases
the rate of setting of sulphadiazine, etc.
cement. •
Antacids are used as a remedy for acidity.
ra e.g., magnesium hydroxide, sodium
•A paste of sand, cement and water is
called mortar and is used for joining bicarbonate (baking soda), etc.
bricks and plastering walls. •
Pesticides are used to destroy the
• A mixture of stone chips (gravel), sand, organisms that harm the crop.
cement and water is knoWn as concrete These are of the following types
nt

and is used for flooring and making 1. Insecticides e.g., DDT, aluminium
roads. phosphate, gammexane.
• Concrete with steel bars and wires is
2. Fungicide e. g., bordeaux mixture.
called Reinforced Concrete (RC) and
ie

3. Herbicides e.g., benzipram,

used for constructing roofs, bridges and benzadox.
pillars.
4. Rodenticides e. g., aluminium
jm

Medicines phosphide.
These are the chemicals used for the
treatment of diseases and reduce Polymers
suffering from pain. These are classified They are made up of many repeating units
known as monomers. Some important
@

•
Analgesics are used to reduce pain. olymers such as plastics, fibres and rubber
are discussed belovw.
e.g., aspirin, paracetamol, morphine,
etc. Plastics
• Antipyreties
is used to reduce body . These are cross-linked polymers (a
temperature during high fever, e.g. substance having high molecular weight
paracetamol, aspirin, phenacetin, and repeating unit) and are very tough.
analgin and novalgin. • Lac is a
• Tranquilisers are used to treat stress, natural plastic (polymer).
mild and severe mental disease. These These are of two types
1. Thermoplastics are the polymers which
are also called psychotherapeutic
can be easily softens on heating and hard
drugs. e.g., equanil, valium, veronal,
on cooling e.g., polythene, polystyrene,
serotonin, chlorodiazepoxide,
meprobamate, etc. polyvinyl chloride, teflon etc.
• Antiseptics 2. Thermosetting plastics are the
prevent the growth of
microorganisms or kill them but are not polymers which undergo permament
harmful to living tissues. e.g., dettol, change on heating due to excessive
savlon, iodine tincture, boric acid, Cross-linking. These cannot be reused,
e.g., bakelite.
hydrogen peroxide, etc.
 408) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science

Some Important Polymers and AIR, WATER

their Monomers
Polymer Monomer Air or Atmosphere
• Air a homogeneous mixture of
is
Polyethylene Ethylene
Polystyrene
different gases.
Styrene
• It has the following composition : 78%
Polyvinyl chloride Vinyl chloride
(PVC) nitrogen; 21% oxygen, 0.03-0.05%
Polytetrafluoro Tetratluoro ethene
carbon dioxide (C0,), argon, etc.
ethylene (PTFE) or • An atmosphere is a layer of these gases
teilon surrounding a planet or other material
body of sufficient mass that is held in

e
Bakelite Formaldehyde +
Phenol place by the gravity of the body.
Urea formaldehyde Urea + Formaldehyde

nc
resin Constituent of
Atmosphere
Melmac Melarmine + It has different density at different heights
Formaldehyde
from sea level. Thus, several layers are
formed. These layers are
Fibres
ra
These have strong intermolecular forces Troposphere
like hydrogen bonding. e.g., nylon-66, • It is the lowest layer of atmosphere,
dacron, orlon, etc. extend upto a height of 18 km from sea
level.
nt

Natural Rubber • It is aturbulent and dusty zone which

It is an elastomer. It is a polymer of isoprene contains air (N2, O2, CO,) much water
(2-methyl-1, 3 butadiene). It is also called vapours and clouds.
Cis-polyisoprene. Synthetic rubber
ie

(neoprene) is a polymer of chloroprene. Stratosphere

• It is insoluble
in water, dilute acids and It lies between 18-60 km above sea level.
alkalies, absorbs a large amount of water • It is the laver which contains ozone
jm

and has low tensile strength and layer (protects us from harmful UV rays
elasticity.
• It is
coming from the Sun), so called
heated with sulphur compounds at 0zonosphere.
373K in the presence of ZnO to improve
the properties. This process is called Mesosphere
@

vulcanisation of rubber. • It extends from 60-85 kn above sea

•
Ifit is Vulcanised with 5% S, it is used for level.
making tyres and if with 30% sulphur, it is • Its temperature decreases with height
used in making battery cases. and reaches to -100° C. That's why
• Trans-polyisoprene
is called when any meteors enter in mesosphere,
gutta-purcha. it burns up.
• Thiokol rubber is a polymer of ethylene
chloride and sodium polysulphide and is Thermosphere
used in the manufacture of hoses, tank It extends up to 10-50 km above sea
lining, engine gaskets and rocket fuel. level.
• In this region, the temperature can rise
Explosives to l500°C, a person would not feel warm
Some examples of explosives are because of the extreme low pressure.
trinitrotoluene (TNT), nitroglycerine or
The international space station orbit is
trinitroglycerine (TNG), cyclotrimethylene also in thermosphere.
trinitroamine (RDX, also called cyclonite).
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 409)

Exosphere Carbon Dioxide (CO,)

• It lies between 500-1600 km above sea • It is used by plants for photosynthesis.
level. • It is 1.5 times heavier than water.
• This egion contains ionised gases. It turns the lime water milky which
• Beyond this region, interstellar space is disappears in the excess of CO, due to
present. conversion of millky calcium carbonate
(CaCO) into soluble calcium
Major Gases in Air bicarbonate.
It is used to extinguish fire and for
Oxygen (O,) artificial respiration when mixed with
• It was discovered by K Scheele.

e
Oxygen (carbogen).
• It is obtained during photosynthesis.
It is dangerous to have charcoal fire
• It is colourless, odourless,
neutral gas burning in a closed room because it

nc
which gets adsorbed over alkaline produces carbon monoxide gas, which
Pyrogallol. is suffocating.
• It is non-combustible, but helps in Plants respire at night and releases
combustion. It form oxides with metals CO, which reduces oxygen content of
ra
and non-metals. air required for breathing, so it is
• It is used for artificial respiration and in dangerous to sleep under trees at night.
oxy-hydrogen flame and, oxygen-ethylene Eno (fruit salt) produces effervescence
flame and oxygen-acetylene flame (used if dissolved in water due to evolution of
for welding) and as a rocket fuel. CO, gas.
nt

•
Metal oxides are generally basic but Water (H,0)
alumina (Al ,03), zinc oxide (ZnO) and tin
Oxide (Sn0) are amphoteric oxides. • It contains two elements : hydrogen and
ie

• Oxygen (H,0). It constitute about 70%

Carbon dioxide (C0,) is acidic while
part of Earth.
carbon monoxide (CO) is neutral.
It is a universal solvent and maintains
Ozone (O;) the body temperature due to its high
jm

• It is an allotrope of oxygen.
specific heat.
• It is used as an insecticide, in purification It has boiling point 100° C and freezing
of water, to preserve food, to synthesise point 0°C. Its density is maximum at
4°C.
artificial silk and camphor, act as a
@

bleaching agent. Types ofWater

Nitrogen (N) There are different types of water
• It was discovered by Rutherford (in 1771). Soft water Soft water easily forn lather
with soap due to absence
odourless, calcium and magnesium. of
• It colourless, soluble salts,
is a
non-combustible, non-poisonous gas.
• It is Hard water It does not form lather with
neutral and ighter than air soap due to presence of Calcium and
N2.
. containing magnesium salts.
It is filled in sealed packets and bulbs to It is of two types
create inert atmosphere.
• Living beings die in an
environment of Temporary Hard Water
nitrogen. It contains bicarbonates of calcium and
• Soil contains several pores filled with air magnesium.
containing N,. At the time of raining these It is converted into soft water by boiling
pores get flled with water. That's why or by adding calculated quantity of
earthworm come at the surface to breath. calcium hydroxide (Clark's process).
410) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Permanent Hard Water Soil Pollution

• It contains sulphates and chlorides of It is alteration in soil. It is caused by
calcium and magnesium. pesticides, insecticides (e.g., DDT, BHC etc)
• It is converted into soft water by herbicides (e.g., sodium chlorate), fungicides
adding sodium carbonate (Na,C04), or (e.g., organomercury compounds).
calgon or zeolite.
Hazardous Effect of Pollution
Heavy Water
It isdeuterium oxide, D-0 (molecular mass
Greenhouse Effect
20). It is used as a moderator in nuclear It is the heating of Earth and its objects
reactors, in the study of mechanisms of because of the trapping of IR radiations by

e
chemical reactions involving hydrogen and carbon dioxide (CO,), methane (CH, ), nitric
its compounds, etc. oxide (NO), 0zone (0), chlorofluoro carbons

nc
(CFCs) and water vapours.
Global Warming
POLLUTION • It is a result of increased concentration of
Pollution isthe contamination of greenhouse gases.
material particles or energy into the
ra
It may result in melting of ice caps and
natural environment. It causes adverse glaciers, spreading of several infectious
effects on the ecosystem.
diseases like malaria, sleeping sickness,
Types of Pollution etc.
nt

Acid Rain (By Robert Augus)

Air Pollution • It has pH less than 5. It is due to the
• It occurs when any harmful gases, presence of oxides of nitrogen and sulphur
dust, smoke enters into the
ie

atmosphere and make it difficult for in air that dissolve in rain water and forms
plants, animals and humans to nitric acid and sulphuric acid.
• It damages the buildings and other
survive.
structures made up of limestone and
jm

• Common respiratory diseases such as

results in several diseases such as skin
asthma, bronchitis can occur. infections.
• pH of normal rain water is 5.6.
Water Pollution
• It is due to the presence of foreign
@

substances like sewage, algae, soluble

Pollutants
salts, etc., in water. These are the substances that contaninate the
two types
• It can also be due to presence of environnent and of
metals in water. This pollution causes Primary Pollutants
following diseases.
These persist in the environment in the forIM
Metal Disease in which they are produced e.g., sulphur
Chromium and Cancer dioxide (SO), nitrogen dioxide (NO,), etc.
Arsenic
Cadmium Itai-itai
disease
Secondary Pollutants
Mercury Minamata disease
• These are the products of reaction of
primary pollutants e.g., PAN
• For a healthy aquatic life, dissolved (Perocyacylnitrates), ozone (O), aldehyde,
oxygen (DO) is 5-6 ppm. etc.
• For clean water, BOD (biochemical •
The order of different pollutants to cause
Oxygen demand) is less than 5 ppm pollution is carbon monoxide (CO), S0, >
while for highly polluted water, it is 17 hydrocarbon > particulates > nitrogen
Ppn or more. oxides.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 411)

• It is formed in cool humid climate when

Carbon Monoxide (CO) carbon soot particles combine with
• It is formed by incomplete combustion. gaseous oxides of sulphur.
• It is a colourless, odourless gas.
• It
contain a triple bond and are fairly Photochemical Smog
polar, resulting in a tendency to bind It is also called Los Angeles smog.
permanently to haemoglobin molecules,. It occurs in warm, dry and sunny climate
displacing oxygen, which has a lower by the action of sunlight on unsaturated
binding affinity. hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxide.
• It is oxidising in nature.
Particulates
These are minute solid particles and liquid Tropospheric Pollution

e
droplets dispersed in air. e.g., mists, dusts, Presence
of undesirable solid or gaseous
smoke, fumes, etc.

nc
particles in the air Gaseous air pollutants
Disease Cause are S, N and C, HS, hydrocarbons, 0zone
Pneumoconiosis Due to inhalation of coal and other oxidants. Particulate pollutants
dust. are dust, mist, fumes, smoke, smog, etc.
Silicosis Due to inhalation of free
silica (Si0,).
ra Stratospheric Pollution
Black lung disease Found in workers of coal
mines.
• Stratospheric pollution means depletion
of ozone layer (ozone hole) by certain
White lung disease Found in textile workers.
Byssinosis compounds like chlorofluorocarbons
Due to inhalation of
(CFCs), oxides of nitrogen (which are
nt

cofton fibre dust.

released into upper atmosphere from
engines of supersonic transport planes).
Smog CCI4, halons and methyl chloroform also
It is a consequence of particulate pollution deplete 0zone layer.
ie

and is of two types • Depletion of ozone layer can cause skin

Classical Smog cancer, sunburn, ageing of skin, cataract
. It is or even blndness and also increases the
jm

also called London type smog.

• It is educing
evaporation of surface water.
in natue.
Industrial Names of Some Important Compounds
@

Industrial Name Chemical Name and Formula

Alum Potassium aluminium sulphate
(K_SO, Al(SO,) 24 H0)
Alcohol Ethyl alcohol (CHOH)
Baking powder Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO)
Blue vitriol Copper sulphate (CuSO,5H,0)
Bleaching powder Calcium hypochlorite (Ca0Cl,)
Borax Sodiurm tetraborate decahydrate (NaB,0, 10H,0)
Brine or salt Sodiurm chloride (NaCl)
Calomel Mercurous chloride (Hg,Cl, or HgCi)
Caustic potash Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
Caustic soda Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Chile salt petre Sodium itrate (NaNO)
Chloroform Trichloromethane (CHCI,)
Dry
ice Solid carbon dioxide (CO)
412 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Industrial Name Chemical Name and Formula

Epsum Magnesium sulphate (MgSO4 7H,0)
Glauber's salt Sodium sulphate decahydrate (Na SO, 10H0)
Green vitriol Ferrous sulphate (FeSO, 7H,0)
Gypsum Calcium sulphate (CaSO, 2H,0)
Hypo Sodium thiosulphate pentahydrate (Na SO3 5H,0)
Laughing gas Nitrous oxide (N,O)
Litharge Lead oxide (PbO)

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Lunar castic Silver nitrate (AgNO,)

Magnesia Magnesiurn oxide (MgO)

nc
Marble or chalk or pearl Calciurm carbonale (CaCO,)
Marsh gas Methane (CH4)
Mohr's salt Ferrous ammonium sulphate,
-
(NH, ),S04 -FeSO, GH,0
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Mosaic gold Stannous sulphide (SnS)
Muriatic acid Hydrogen chloride (HCI)
Pearl ash Potassium carbonate (K,CO4)
nt

Plaster of
Paris
Calcium sulphate hemihydrate|CasO, Ho
Quicklime Calcium Oxide (CaO)
Redlead Lead peroxide (Pb04)
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Rock salt Sodium chloride (NaCI)

Ruby or sapphire Aluminium oxide, (AIO,)
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Sand Silicon dioxide (SiO,)

Sal ammoniac Ammonium chloride (NH.CI)

Slaked lime Calciurn hydroxide [Ca(OH)]

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Spirit Methyl alcohal (CH,OH)

Soda ash Sodium carbonate (Na,C0,)
Vinegar Acetic acid (CHCOOH)
Vermilion Mercuric sulphide (HgS)
Washing soda Sodium carbonate decahydrate (Na,CO310H,0)
White vitriol Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4 7H,0)
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science 413)

Important Points
A candle blows off when covered because Chlorine is used for the purification of
it does not get Oxygen which helps in water, for synthesis of baking powder, etc.
burning. Na and K are highly reactive. They react
Phosphorus catches fire if kept in air but with air and water that's why, they are kept
it is unreactive with water, so it is kept in in kersene oil.
water. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry (2014)
When sugar is heated above 200°C, it Eric Betzig, Stefan W Hell, William E
decomposes into carbon and water. Moerner won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry

e
Therefoe, gets charred. (2014), for the smart work of surpassing
While making ice cream, salt is mixed the limitations of the light microscope,
with ice to reduce freezing temperature

nc
which has brought optical microscopy into
from 0°C to 5°C, This helps to freeze the the nano dimension. By this achievement,
Clea. scientists can visualise the roadways of
Lactose content of milk undergoes individual molecules in the living cells.
fermentation and changes into lactic acid Now this can be seen that how molecules
produce synapses between nerve cells in
ra
which on reaction with lactose fornms curd.
Zinc phosphide is used for killing rats and ne bain. Also they can find proteins
zinc chloride is used for coating furniture involved in different diseases like
Parkinson. Alzheimer and Huntington as
to prevent termites.
well as in fertilised eggs.
Calcium hydride (CaH) is called hydrolith.
nt

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry (2015) was

In flash bulb, magnesium wire is kept in awarded jointly to Tomas Lindahl, Paul
atmosphere of nitrogen gas. Modrich and Aziz Sancar. "for mechanistic
Barium sulphate is used in X-rays of studies of DNA repair".
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abdomen as barium meal. They have mapped, at a molecular level,

Silver and copper are best conductor of how cell repair damaged DNA and
electricity. Gold and silver are the most safeguard the genetic information. Their
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malleable metal. work has provided fundamental knowledge

Iron pyrites (FeS,) is known as fool's gold. of how a living cell function and can be
used for the developments of new cancer
Zinc oxide (ZnO) is known as flower of zinc
or chinese white and is used as white paint. treatment.
Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2016
Silver spoon is not used in egg food as it
@

turns black. The Nobel Prize in chemistry for 2016 has

Mercury is stored in iron pot. been awarded to Jean-pierre. Sauvage, sir
J. Fraser Stoddart and Bernars L. Feringa
Radium is extracted from pitch blende. for developing molecular machines.
Phosphine gas is used in Holme's signals. "Molecular machines will most. Likely to
Sea weeds contain iodine. Bones contain be used in the development of things such
57% calcium phosphate. as were materials, sensors and energy
Artificial perfumes are prepared from storage systems."
ethyl acetate.
 BIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION CHARACTERISTIC OF
• Biology is natural science LIVING ORGANISMS
concerned with the study of life and . They have cellular organisation and also
living organisms, i.e., plants and
respire, i.e., take in O, and evolve CO,.
animals. It is classified into wo part: .
Botany and zoology. Metabolism is one of the most important
characteristic feature of living organisnm. It

e
• Study of plants is called Botany and comprises two phases that are anabolism
study of animals is called Zoology. (constructive phase) and catabolism
Zoology and Botany are collectively

nc
(destructive phase.)
called Biology. The term Biology' •
They take nutrition for their growth.
was coined by Lamarck and •
Treviranus. They have tendency to reproduce.
•
The scientist who gave his thought They have the ability to respond to changes
ra in both internal and external environment
for the first time about the life of
plants and animals was Aristotle. i.e., they have sensitivity. Their survival
are maximum.
That's vhy he is known the Father • chances
as
of Biology. He is also known as the They move from place to place as animals or
Father of Zoology. Some bacteria. Plants cannot move but
nt

some novement can occur in plants.

• Theophrastus is known as Father of
Botany.
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The Cell
• The Cell is the basic structural and 2. Eukaryotic Cells (Eu = true, karyos =
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functional unit of all known living nucleus) These have a well defined
organisms. It is the smallest unit of nucleus and membrane bound cell
life and is often called the building organelles. These are present in
block of life. unicellular and multicellular plant and
@

• The branch of biology which deals animal cells.

with the study of cel, is called Differences between Prokaryotic
Cytology.
•
and Eukaryotic Cel
Robert Hooke coined the term cell Prokaryotic Cell
when he saw honey-comb like Eukaryotic Cell
structure in the section of cork. Simplest and Developed and
However, he only discovered cell wall. primitive in nature. comparatively complex in
nalure.
• The first living cell was discovered by
Leeuwenhoek. Lacks nuclear Nucleus is present with
envelope elaborate nuclear envelope
Types ofCells Membrane bound Mernbrane bound cell
These are of two types cell organelles are organelles are present.
1. Prokaryotic Cells absent.
(Pro=primitive, karyos=IUcleus) Single naked Many chromosomes are
These are primitive cells, lacking a chromosome present.
present.
well defined nucleus and most of
the other cell organelles, e.g., Cell division is Cell division ocCurs by
bacterial cell. direct. mitosis or meisis.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 415

Facts about Cell Mitochondria

• It was discovered by RAltman in
The largest known cells are unfertilised Ostrich
egg cells (size 6 inch diameter). 1880 and the term mitochondria
The smallest cell is of PPLO (Mycoplasma was coined by Carl Benda.
gallisepticum of size 0.1-0.3 um). It is bounded by a double memb
Human nerve cell is
the longest animal cel. rane. The inner membrane has
many folds, called the cristae. Fluid
Largest unicellular plant is Acetabularia (10 cm)
and animal is Amoeba (1 mm). (called matrix) is present on interior,
The largest human cell is the female ovum and which contains many enzymes and
coenzymes. It isa semi- autonomous
the smallest human cell is the red blood cell.
(can form its own copies) organelle

e
and is called power house of the
Parts of Cell and their cell because in it, stepwise oxidation

nc
of fuel occurs which results in
Functions release of chemical energy. This
A typical cell consists of cell wall and energy is stored in the form of ATP
protoplasm.
Plastids
ra
Protoplasm of Cell
These are present only in plant cells
It is the living fluid matter present inside the
and are of three types- chloroplasts
plasma membrane. The fluid present outside (green), leucoplasts (white) and
the nuclear membrane is called cytoplasm and chromoplasts (of various colours
nt

the fluid present inside the nuclear membrane except green). Chloroplast is the site
is called nucleoplasm. Deutoplasm is the of photosynthesis as it contains
non-living matter of the cell. chlorophyll, while leucoplasts are
Cell Wall storage plastids. Chloroplast is called
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the kitchen of the cell.

It is present in plant cells, bacteria, fungi, algae
and some archaea. It is composed of cellulose The red colour of tomatoes is due to
in plants and chitin in fungi. It is non-living. Its the presence of lycopene pigment,
jm

i.e., chromophore.
main function is to provide shape and rigidity to
the cell. The colour of carrot is due to
carotene pigment.
Plasma Membrane Endoplasmic Reticulum
The cell is enclosed by a thin membrane called
@

the cell membrane or plasmalemma. It is It was discovered by KR Porter. These

composed of proteins and phospholipid are hollow membranous system having
molecules. It is elastic, living and selectively ribosomes (thus called Rough ER) or
no ribosomes (thus called Smooth
permeable, i.e., provide passage for various
substances. ER).
Nucleolus Nitochondria Rough endoplasImic reticulum is
Nucleus
Ribosomes Cytoskeleton the site of protein synthesis, while
sImooth endoplasmic reticulum is the
site of synthesis of steroids and
Rough
endoplamic
Golgi detoxification.
apparalUs
retioulum
Golgi Apparatus
CeliiolE It was discovered by Camillo Golgi. It
PoronGomo HilTsmic is made up of sac-like flattened
iim
PESIla structures and play an important role
in secretion, transportation and
Structure of the Cell acrosome formation.
 416) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Nobel Prize in Physiology and Chromosome

Medicine 2013 Chromosome is thread-like structure,
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or medicine 2013 vwas found in the nucleus. Bead-like
awarded jointly to James E Rothman, Randy W structures found on chromosome are
Schekman and Thomas C Sudhof for their called genes, which are made up of
DNA and are the carrier of genetic
discoveries of machinery regulating vesicle traffic, a
major transport system in our cells. In general, we information from generation to
call it Golgibody. Randy Schekman discovereda set generation. Chromosomes are units of
of genes that were required for vesicle traffic.
inheritance. In some virUses e.g.
retrovirus, RNA is the genetic
James Rothman discovered machinery that allowS material.

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vesicle to fuse with their targets to deliver the
stored matter. Differences between
Plant and Animal Cell

nc
Ribosomes Plant Cel Animal Cell
It Cell wall is usually
Ribosomes were discovered by GE Palade. has cell wall.
absent.
These are minute, non-membranous particles,
composed of RNA and protein. 70 S type of Plastids are found. Plastids are usually
ra
ribosomes are found in prokaryotes, while 80 S absent.
type in eukaryotes. These are the site of protein Centrioles and Centrioles and
synthesis. centrosome are centrosomes are
absent. found in all cells.
A big vacuole is Vacuole is absent
nt

Lysosomes present. or very small in

• Lysosomes were discovered by de Duve. size.
These are polymorphic organelles having
hydrolytic enzymes. These enzymes function Nucleic Acids
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at (acidic) pH ~5. These are sometimes genetic

These contain the
called suicidal bags of the cell. instructions used in the development
• Lysosome helps in carcinogenesis, i.e., and functioning of all known living
jm

conversion of a normal cell into cancerous organisms.

cell. These are of two types : DNA and RNA.
CentroSome Deoxyribonucleic
It was discovered by T Boveri. It is composed of
Acid (DNA)
@

two set of centrioles and participate in the

DNA was discovered by James
formation of mitotic spindle during cell division.
D Watson and Francis Crick, who
Vacuoles got Nobel Prize for this discovery.
These are non-iving reservior, bounded by It is a long polymer made from
a membrane called tonoplast. Pigment repeating units called nucleotides.
anthocyanin is present in the cell vacuole, Each nucleotide consists of a
which provide colour flowers. It stores toxic nucleoside (i.e. nitrogenous base
metabolic waste and helps in osmoregulation. and deoxyribose sugar) and a
phosphate group. joined together by
Nucleus phosphodiester bonds.
It was discovered by Robert Brown. It contains It has four bases, i.e. adenine,
nucleoplasm, nucleolus and chromatin guanine, cytosine and thymine.
material. Nucleolus is rich in protein and RNA. • Adenine and guanine are the
All this material is covered up by a nuclear purine bases; cytosine and thymine
membrane. Chromatin is the controlling are pyrimidine bases.
centre of cell as it form chromosomes.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science 417

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) It is of two types - Mitosis and Meiosis

•

• It is also made up of a long chain of (i) Mitosis It 0CCUrS in unicellular

nucleotides. organism during asexual reproduction.
• Each nucleotide consists of a Each mitotic cell division results in the
formation of two daughter cells having
nitrogenous base, a ribose sugar, and
a phosphate group. number of chromosomes equal to the
parent cell.
• It
contains uracil in place of thymine. Tumour or cancer is result of
• RNA is of three
types uncontrolled mitosis.
mRNA (messenger RNA) (ii) Meiosis It occurs in reproductive cells
rRNA (ribosomal RNA)
and is called reduction division because of

e
tRNA (transfer RNA) the presence of single set of chromosomes
These three RNA's take part in protein (i.e., half of the parent chromosomes). It

nc
synthesis. results in the formation of four daughter
cells.
Cell Division • Exchange of genetic material occurs
• It is the process by which a cell between chromatids (branches of
increase in number. It is essential for chromosome) of a diploid set during
ra
the growth, development and repair pachytene stage of meiosis and is known as
of the body. Crossing over.

Differences between DNA and RNA

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DNA RNA
It usually ocours inside nucleus and in some Very little RNA occurs inside nucleus. Most of it
cell organelles like mitochondria and is found in the cytoplasm.
chloroplast.
some
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DNA is the genetic material exoept in ANA is not the genetic material except in
viruses. certain viruses, e.g, HIV, reovirus.
It is double stranded with the exception of RNA is single stranded with the exception of
some viruses like x 174. some viruses, e.g., double stranded in To, T,,
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T, bacteriophage.
DNA shows regular helical coiling. There is no regular coiling except in parts of
ANA.
It contains deoxyribose sugar. Itcontains ribose sugar.
Nitrogen base thymine occurs in DNA along Thymine is replaced by uracil in ANA. The
@

with other three i.e. adenine, cytosine and other three are adenine, cytosine and guanine.
guanine.
It
replicates to form new DNA molecules. It cannot replicate itself except in RNA-ANA
viruses.
DNA controls heredity, evolution, melabolis, ANA controls only protein synthesis.
structure and differentiation.

BIOMOLECULES some others are exceptions. So this

Biomolecules are the substances that definition has been changed. According to
are essential for a living being to modern definition, these are the
perform the basic functions, polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones or their
e.g., carbohydrates, proteins, lipids derivatives.
(fats), nucleic acids and vitamins. • These are the source of energy and about
50-75% energy is obtained by the oxidation
Carbohydrates
.
of carbohydrates.
It was believed that these are the The main end product of carbohydrate
organic compounds which have carbon, digestion is glucose, which is called blood
hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio of sugar. It oxidises to give energy along with
1:2:1 but starch (CGHyoO5),, and CO, and H,0.
 418 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science

• I gm glucose provides about 17 kJ energy (S). These form l15% part of human body.
or 4.2 kcal energy. Snake venom, ricin of castor and bacterial
.
Carbohydrates are better fuel as toxins are proteinaceous in nature. Main
CoImpared to proteins and fats as they sources of protein are groundnuts,
decompose to give energy. soyabean, pulses, fish etc.
. readilysources
Main of carbohydrates are wheat,
maize, rice, potato etc.
Function of Proteins
The carbohydrates are categorised into These are important for the growth and
following three types repair of the body (75% of our body is
protein only). However, in the
Monosaccharides deficiency of carbohydrates, these acts
as the source of energy. Protein also

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•
These are simple sugars, which cannot be control the development of genetic
hydrolysed further, e.g., ribose, glucose,
characters.

nc
fructose, galactose etc.
• In Deficiency of protein causes
human beings, blood glucose level is Kwashiorkor (a disease in which hands
100-120 mg/mL. Extra glucose, if any, is get
and legs of children slimmed and the
converted into glycogen in the liver by a comes out) and Marasmus (a
process called glycogenesis. stomach
ra disease in which muscles of children are
D-iructose is the sweetest of all sugars loosened). Kwashiorkor occurs in
and is found in fruit juice, honey etc. children between I to 5 years of age and
marasnus in children below Iyear.
Oligosaccharides
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• They release 2-10 monosaccharides on Lipids (Fats)

hydrolysis, like disaccharides, e.g. • These are also the compounds of carbon
Sucrose, lactose maltose etc and (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (0)
trisaccharides, like raffinose etc. Chemically, these are the ester of
ie

• Sucrose is also called invert sugar. It glycerol and fatty acids. These are
gives glucose and fructose when present in cytoplasm, cell wall etc.
subjected to hydrolysis. The main source of fats are ghee, butter,
jm

almond, cheese, egg yolk, meat,

Polysaccharides soyabean etc.
• They release more than ten • Fats are digested by enzymes called
monosaccharides on hydrolysis. These lipases in the small intestine. Generally.
are non-sugars, i.e., do not have sweet at 20°C, these are in solid state but if
@

taste, e.g., cellulose, glycogen and starch. their state is liquid at this temperature,
• Cellulose is found in plant cell wall and is
these are termed as oils.
digested by ruminants (like cow, goat, Fatty acids are of two types- Saturated
buffalo, etc), but not by carnivorous or and Unsaturated. Saturated fatty acids
omnivorous animals like human beings. are found in coconut oil and palm oil,
Thus, it acts as roughage in case of while unsaturated fatty acids are found
human beings. in fish oil and vegetable oil.
• Excess of saturated fats raises the level
Function of Carbohydrates of blood cholesterol and may cause
• Carbohydrates provide energy, that acts
as reserve food, help in the synthesis of arteriosclerosis. This may lead to
heart attack.
nucleic acid and form exoskeleton of
animals. Excessive intake of carbohydrate
Function of Lipids
results in digestive problems and obesity. The
main functions of lipids are
• These provide twice the energy than
Proteins that from carbohydrates.
These are found in all living cells. These are
the compounds of carbon (C), hydrogen These remain under the skin and
(H),oxygen (0), nitrogen (N) and sulphur prevents the loss of heat from the body.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science 419

These are divided into two groups

Malnutrition Effects
• 1. Fat soluble vitamin, viz. vitamin
Deficiency of fat results in dryskin and weight
A, D, E and K.
loss.
• If fat s in excess, the body gets fatty and 2. Water soluble
vitamin-B and C.
vitamin, viz.
result in several heart diseases and high
blood pressure. Vitamin-B1g contains cobalt.
• The skin fat, in case of whales and seals, Vitamin-D is synthesised in our skin
by the action of ultraviolet rays of
forms a thick layer called the blubber. It acts
as reserve food and also maintains the body the sunlight. Vitamin-K is
temperature. synthesised in our colon by the
bacteria.

e
Vitamin Water soluble vitamins normally do
• It was first discovered by FG Hopkin. not show hypervitaminosis (this

nc
However, the term vitamin was coined by C disease occurs due to excess intake
Funk. of vitamins) as excess of these
vitamins is normally excreted
• Vitamin is an organic compound, which through urine.
cannot besynthesised in sufficient quantities
In halanced diet, all the important
ra
by an organism and must be obtained from
nutrients (like carbohydrate,
the diet.
protein, fats, vitamins etc.) are
• They provide no calories, they only regulate available in sufficient quantity.
chemical reactions 0cCurring in the
nt

metabolism of the body.

Vitamins, their Deficiency Diseases and Sources
Vitarmin Chemical Name Deficiency Disease Source
ie

Vitamin-A Retinol, Night-blindness(Nyctalopia) Orange, green vegetables,

, Hyperkeratosis,
carotenoids carrols, pumpkin, squash and
Keratomalacia spinach.
Vitarmin-D Calciferol Rickets and Osteomalacia Fish, eggs, liver and
jm

mushrooms.
Vitamin-E Tocopherols, Infertility Many fruits and vegetables.
tocotrienols
Vitamin-K Phylloquinone Non-clotting of blood Green vegetables
@

Vitamin-B, Thiamine Beri-beri, Oatmeal, rice, vegetables,

Wernicke-Korsakoff cauliflower, potatoes, liver
syndrome and eggs.
Vitanin-B, Riboflavin Cracking of skin, reddish Dairy products, bananas,
eye, oracking of tongue popcorn and green beans.
Vitamin-B Niacin and Pellagra,Glossitis Meat. brocooli and avocados.
nicotinic acid
Vitarmin-B, Pentothenic acid Prermature greying of hair Meat, fish, eggs, many
(Achromolrichia), vegelables, mushrooms.
Vitamin-B Pyridoxine Dermatitis, anaemia, mental Meat, vegetables, tree nuts
disorder and bananas.
Vitarmin-B, Biotin Dermatitis, enteritis and Raw egg yolk, liver, peanuis
anaemia and vegelables.
Vitarmin-B, Folic acid, folinic Megaloblastic anaemia and Leafy vegetables, pasta,
acid birth defects. bread, cereal and liver.
Viltanin-B2 Cyanocobalanin Pernicious anaemia Meat and other animal
(contains cobalt) products.
Vitarnin-C Ascorbic acid Scurvy (Sailer's disease) Peppers, citrus fruits.
420) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science

Biological Evolution
Origin of Universe Organic Evolution
• The universe is made up of matter and More and more creation of organisIn by
energy. Scientists believe that it was gradual changes from low category animal to
formed about 10 to 13 billion years ago higher animal is called organic evolution.
as a vast, dense, red-hot and rotating There ae several evidences regarding
gaseous cloud of cosmic dust called the organic evolution.
"primaeval matter or 'ylem'.
• hypothesis
Evidences from morphology

e
Two i.e., Big -Bang
(universe formation through a very big and anatomy
explosion) and Nebular (universe On the basis of morphology (outer

nc
formation by the condensation of appearance) and anatomy (inner structure),
gaseous cloud) were given to explain several evidences have been described as
origin of Earth. follows

ORIGIN OF LIFE Homologous Organs

ra
• The organs which are similar in basic
.
Life originated on Earth about 3.5 structure and origin but dissimilar in
billion years ago. Some philosophical function are called homologous organs,
theories like special Creation, e.g., wings of bat, cat's paw, front foot of
spontaneous generation, Biogenesis,
nt

horse, human's hand and wings of birds.

panspermia (life originated in the form
of pansperms from some unknown These show divergent evolution.
part of the universe) or cosmozoic and Analogous
catastrophism (ife orginated suddenly
Organs
ie

from inorganic matter) were given (Homoplastic)

explain origin of life. The organs which are similar in shape and
. function but dissimilar in their origin and
The first scientific account of the
development. e.g., wings of insects, birds
jm

origin of life was given by Russian

scientist AI Oparin in his book 'Origin and bats, eyes of octopus and mammals.
of life'. They show convergent evolution.
• The primitive atmosphere contained
hydrogen, methane, ammonia and VestigialOrgans
@

water vapour. In it, oxygen and ozone • These are degenerate, non-functional
were absent. Thus, it was believed that organs which were functional earlier.
life is originated from inorganic• Human body has been described to possess
substances by a series of complex about 90 vestigial organs. Some of these
reaction. are muscles of ear pinna, canine teeth and
• Hydrogen atoms were most numerous third molar teeth, body hairs, vermiform
and most reactive in the primitive appendix, nictitating membrane of eye,
atmosphere. First, these combined caudal vertebral (coccyx or tail bone) etc.
with all available oxygen atoms,
forming water and leaving no free AtaviSm or Reversion
Oxygen atoms. Thus, the primitive It is the sudden reappearance of some
atmosphere was 'reducing unlike the ancestral features. Appearance of thick body
present 'oxidising' atmosphere. This hair, large canines, monstral face, short
was also supported by Miller and Urey temporary tails, extra nipples etc are
in 1953. examples of atavism.
• In Miller-Urey a
experiment, mixture Evidence
of water, hydrogen, methane and
from Connecting
ammonia was cycled through an Links
apparatus and the organic compound, Connecting link is one which exhibit
amino acids were obtained. characteristics of more than one groups.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science 421

Intermediate Forms between Two Mutation Theory

Groups of Organisms • Hugo de Vries proposed the theory
Organism Connecting Link Between of mutation, while working
Oenothera lamarckiana plant.
Virus Living and non-living .
Mutations are discontinuous
Euglena (Protozoa) Plants and animals variations.
Proterospongia Protozoa and Porifera • Mutations are due to changes in
(Protozoa) chromosomes, genes and DNA.
Peripatus (Arthropoda) Annelida and Arthropoda These may or may not be imherited.
Synthetic Theory

e
Neopilina (Mollusca) Annelida and Mollusca
Balanoglossus Non-chordala and According to it, the fiue basic factors

nc
(Chordata) Chordata are
Dipnoi (Lung tish) Pisces and Amphibia 1. Gene mutation
Archaeopteryx (Aves) Reptiles and Aves 2. Changes in chromosome
Prototheria Reptiles and Marnmalia structure and number
(Marnmalia) 3. Genetic recombination
ra
4. Natural selection
THEORIES OF 5. Reproductive isolation

EVOLUTION First three factors are responsible for

nt

genetic variablity.
Lamarckism (18o9) Devonian period is known as Age of
• Jean-Baptistede Lamarck gave the idea that fishes.
an organism can pass on characteristics that it
ie

Mesozoic era is knOwn as Age of

acquired during its lifetime to its offspring Reptiles.
(also known as heritability of acquired
characteristics). Coenozoic era is known as Age of
Mammals.
jm

• Lamarck's theory of evolution was published

in Philosophie Zoologique and had four
propositions, viz Classification of
1. Living organisms and its parts tend to Organisms
increase in size due to internal force of life.
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In Linnaeus time, a two kingdom

2. Formation of new orgars is the result of a system of classification with Plantae
new need and new involvement. and Animalia kingdom was developed.
3. Individuals lose characteristics that they do The system díd not distinguish
not require (Or use) and develop between the eukaryotes and
characteristics that are useful. prokaryotes, unicellular and
4. Individuals inherit the traits of their multicellular and photosynthetic
ancestors. organisms.

Darwinism (1859) Five Kingdom System

• Darwin's theory of evolution uas Origin of RH Whittaker (1969) proposed a five
Species by Natural Selection. kingdom classification. The lingdom
•
The theory consists of five propositions. they named were Monera, Protista, Fungi,
Plantae and Animalia.
are
1. Overproduction or enormnous fertility
Classification of
2. Struggle for existence
Animalia Kingdom
3. Variation and heredity
Storer and Usinger classified
4. Survival of the fittest or natural selection
animals into following phyluns
5. Origin of species.
 22 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Characteristics of the Five Kingdoms

Character Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Arimalia
Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
Cell wall Non-cellulosic Present in some Present Present Absent
Nuclear Absent Present Present Present Present
membrane
Body Cellular Cellular Multicellular/ Tissue/ Tissue/
organisation loose tissue organ organ/organ
system
Mode of Autotrophic and Autotrophic and Helerotrophic Autotrophic Helerotrophic

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nutrition helerotrophic helerotrophic
Examples Bacteria Amoeba Acholrophylus, Multicellular Multicellular

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archaebacteria Euglena heterotrophic eukaryotic animals
cyanobacteria Dinoflagellates fungi planls
and some
primitive fungi ra
Phylum--Protozoa
.
Phylum- Platyhelminthes
These are unicellular animals, i.e., made Animals of this phylum have
up of only one cell. alimentary canal with single opening,
• In these, all the metabolic activity like anus is absent.
nt

digestion, respiration, excretion and . Excretion takes place by flame cells.

reproduction takes place in unicellular There is no skeletal system such as,
body.
respiratory system, circulatory system
• Respiration and excretion take place etc.
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through diffusion. These are hermaphrodite animals

e.g., Anoeba, Plasmodium, Euglena etc. (males are not separated from
females).
Phylum-Porifera
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e.g., Planaria, Liver fluke, Tape worm

• These are found in marine water and have etc.
porous body. The pores are called ostia.
are multicellular animals. Phylum-Aschelminthes
. These
Their skeleton is made up of minute These are long, cylindrical,
@

calcareous or siliceous spicules. unsegmented worms.

e.g., Sycon, Sponge etc. Their alimentary canal is complete in
which mouth and anus both are
Phylum-Coelenterata present.
•
These are aquatic animals, have thread-like• There is no circulatory andrespiratory
structures called tentacles around the system but nervous system is
mouth which help in holding the food. developed. Excretion takes place
• They have specialised cnidoblast cell to through protonephridia.
help in catching the food. They are unisexual.
• Phenomenon of polymorphism (many Most forms are parasitic but some are
forms) and metagenesis (alternation of free living in soil and water.
generation) are associated with e.g., Ascaris, Threadworm, etc.
coelentrates.
e.g., Hydra, Jelly fish, Sea Anemone etc. Threadworm is found mainly in the
anus of child. Due to which children
• Hydra has a tendency of xegeneration of
feel itching and often vomits. Some
body organs. children urinate on the bed at night.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 4423

Phylum-Annelida • Excretion takes place through kidneys.

• e.g., Pila, Aplysia (Sea rabbit), Doris (Sea
Their body is long, thin, soft and
metamerically (truly) segmented. lemon), Octopus (Devil-fish), Sepia
•
(Cuttle-fish).
Alimentary canal is well-developed.
• These are Eyes of octopus are similar to chordate
the first to have proper organ eyes.
. systems. system
Nervous is normal and blood Phyluum-
(called haemolymph) is red (iron rich
Echinodermata
• All the animals in this group are marine.
haemoglobin).
• Their blood flovs in closed vessels. They have water vascular system.
Brain is not developed in nervous

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• Like
in earthwornm, there are five pairs of System.
blood vessels called as heart. • They have a special capacity of

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• They respire through skin,
in some regeneration.
animals respiration takes place through
coelom.
•
These are the only invertebrate animals
• which contain proper bone like
Excretion by nephridia. structures (ossicles).
• They move through setae made up of
ra e.g., Star fish, Sea urchin, Sea cucumber
chitin. etc.
e.g. Earthworm, Nereis, Leech etc.
Phylum-Chordata
.
Phylum-Arthropoda They have notochord. A dorsal hollow
nt

• Arthropoda is the largest phylum tubular nerve cord and paired

pharyngeal gill slits at some stage of their
(contains maximum number of animals
life span.
and its existence is recorded for •
maximum period over the Earth). In advanced forms, notochord changes
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• to vertebral column, nerve cord develops

Jointed leg is their main feature. to brain and spinal cord and pharyngeal
•
Their body is divided into three gill slits to structures of jawattachment.
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parts-head, thorax and abdomen. • This phylum is sub-divided into two

• Circulatory system is open type. sub-phylum, i.e., Protochordata and
Cockroach's heart has 13 chambers. Vertebrata.
• Trachea or book lungs, body surface are Some main classes of phylum- Chordata
respiratory organs. are as follows
@

e.g., Cockroach, Prawn, Crab, Bug, Fly,

Mosquito, Bees, etc. Pisces
Insects generally have six feets and four • These are aquatic animals (cold-blooded
wings. animals). Their heart pumps only
a
Ant is social animal which reflects impure blood and have two chambers.
division of labour. • Respiration takes place through gills.
a
Termite is also social animal which e.g., Trygon, Scoliodon, Torpedo etc.
lives in colony.
Amphibia (First land
Phylum-Mollusca vertebrates)
•
Their body is soft and divided into head • These are found both on land and water.
and muscular foot.
• All of them are cold-blooded.
Mantle is always present in it, which •
secretes a hard calcareous shell. Respiration takes place through gills,
•
skin and lungs.
Their alimentary canal is well
•
developed. They have three chambered heart.
e.g., Frog, Necturus, Toad, lcthyophis,
• Respiration takes place through gills or
ctenidia. Blood is colourless. Salamander.
 424 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science

Reptilia (First true land Mammalia is divided into three

sub-classes
vertebrates) •
Prototheria It lays eggs, e.g.,
•
These are crawling animals. Echidna.
• These are cold-blooded and contains two • Metatheria It bears the immature
pair of limbs. child, e.g., Kangaroo.
• The skeleton is completely flexible. • Eutheria It bears the well developed
• Respiration takes place through lungs. child, e.g., Humans.
• They have 3- chambered heart (four They give birth to young ones, but
Echidna and Platypus are the egg
chambered in crocodile). laying mammals.

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•
Their eggs are covered with shell made up
of calcium carbonate. SYSTEMS OF

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e.g., Lizard, Snake, Tortoise, Crocodile, HUMAN BODY
Turtle, Sphenodon etc.
. Cobra
is the only snake which makes The
Integumentary System
human skin (integumentary) is
nests.
ra composed of a minimum of three major
Heloderma is the only poisonous lizard. layers of tissue, the epidermis, dermis
Sea snake is also called Hydrophis and hypodermis.
belcheri. It is the vorld's most poisonous
snake. Epidermis
nt

The top layer of skin is made up of

Aves (Aerial Vertelbrates epithelial cells and does not contain
Birds) blood vessels.
• The animals of this group are
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warm-blooded tetrapod vertebrates with

Dermis
flight adaptation. • Itgives elasticity to the integument,
allowing stretching and conferring
•
Their fore-feet are modified into wings to
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flexibility, while also resisting

fly.
• They espire through lungs. distortions, wrinkling and sagging.
• Nails grow l mm per week on an
• Birds have no teeth, beak helps in feeding.
. They average.
have a single ovary and pneumate. Protein, keratin
stiffens epidermal
@

bones. e.g., Crow, Peacock, Parrot etc. tissue to form inger nails.
Flightless birds are Kiwi and Emu.
Largest bird is Ostrich. Hypodernmis
• It is made up of adipose tissue.
Smallest bird is Humming bird.
-

Largest zoo in India is Alipur (Kolkata) It performs several inportant functions

and the largest zoo of the world is Cruiser 1. Protect against invasion by
National Park in South Africa. infectious organisms.
2. Protect the body from dehydration.
Mammalia 3. Maintain homeostasis.
• These are warm-blooded animals. 4. Act asa receptor for touch, pressure,
. pain, heat and cold.
Tooth comes twice in these animals
(diphyodont). 5. Protect the body against sunburns by
•
There is no nucleus in their red blood cells secreting melanin.
(except camel and llama).
in 6. Generate vitamin-D through
• Skin of mammals contains hair. exposure to ultraviolet light.
• External ear
is present. 7. Store water, fat, glucose and
vitamin-D.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 425

Animal Nutrition and and oxygen and constitute about 4% of

total body weight.
Digestion • Milk, eggs, meat,
fruit, food, vegetables
Animals are not able to snthesise their etc are the sources of minerals.
own food. therefore they obtain it from Minerals are of two types
outside environment for their nutritional 1. Macronutrients These are required in
requirements.
large amount, e.g., calcium (Ca),
Mineral phosphorus (P), potassium (K) etc.
.
Nutrients 2. Micronutrients These are required in
These are metals, non-metals and their very small amount (less than l g), e.g.,
salts other than the four iodine (1), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn)etc.

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elements-carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen
Minerals and their Functions in the Body

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Mineral Major Food Source Uses Deficiency Disease
Macronutrients
Calcium Mik, cheese, bread Muscle contraction, nerve Tetany and rickels.
(Ca) and vegelables. action, blood clotting and
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the formation of bone.
Phosphorus Cheese, eggs P Bone and tooth formation, Tetany and riokels.
(P) nuts and most energy transfer from foods,
DNA, ANA and ATP
formation.
nt

Sulphur (S) Dairy producls, meat, Formation of thiaine, Disturbed prolein

eggs and broccoli. keratin and coenzymes. metabolism
Potassium Polatoes, meat and Muscle contraction, nerve Nervous disorder, poor
(K) chocolate. action, active transport. Muscles leading to
paralysis.
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Sodium (Na) Any salted food, meat, Muscle contraction, nerve Nervous, depression,
eggs and milk. action and aclive transport. muscular cramps, pH
disbalance
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Chlorine (CI) Salted food and Anion/cation balance and Loss of appetite muscle
seafood. gastric acid formation. cramps.
Magnesium Meat, chocolate and Formation of bone, Irregularity of metabolism.
(Mg) green vegelable formation of coenzyrmes in
cell respiration.
@

Micronutrients (Trace Elements)

Iron (Fe) Liver, kidney, red Formation of haemoglobin, Anaermia and low immunity.
meat, cocoa powder myoglobin and cytochromes.
and water cress
Fluorine (F) Water supplies, tea, Resislance to tooth decay. Weak teeth (if present in
sea food, meat, liver excess causes mottling of
and beans. (teeth)
Zinc (Zn) Meat, liver and beans. Enzyme activation and Anaernia, relarted growth,
carbon dioxide transport. weak immunity and fertiltly.
Copper (Cu) Liver, meat and fisth. Enzyme, melanin and Anaemia, weak blood
haemoglobin formation. vessels and connective
tissues.
lodine () Seafood, iodised salt Thyroxine production Goitre
and fish.
Manganese Tea, nuts, spices and Bone development and Irregular growth of bones
(Mn) cereals. enzyme activation. and connective tissues.
Chromium Meat and cereals. Uptake of glucose. Irregular metabolism.
(Cr)
Cobalt (Co) Meat and yeast. Synthesis of vitarmin- B, Anaemia
formation of red blood cells
 426) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Water • The number of teeth are different in

different animals. These are represented
About 70% of the human body consists of by dental formula as
water. Tvo-third of water exists inside
cells, the other one-third is outside the
ICPm M- Upper half jaw
1C Pm M- Lower half jaw
cells in tissue fluid and blood plasma. It is
essential for digestion, transportation, Where, I-Incisors,C-Canines,
excretion and to regulate body Pm -Premolars and M-Molars.
temperature. • Premolars and molars are called cheek
Many factors affects the health of human teeth. Milk teeth do not include molar
body. One of them is adulteration. teeth.
In humans, first teeth come in between

e
•
Food Adulteration 6 and 8 months. By the age of 6, milk
Addition of undesirable, cheap and teeth are gradually replaced by permanent

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harmful substances in the food is called teeth.
food adulteration. • Hardest part in the body is tooth enamel.
Indian Standards Institution (1SI) Mark
and Agmark (Agricultural marketing) are
• In elephants, the tusks are the incisors of
upper jaw.
given by the Bureau of Indian Standards
ra
after testing the purity and quality of Maximum number of teeth are present in
material and food respectively. horse and pig.
Some Common Adulterants Dental Formulae of
in Food Some Mammals
nt

Food Item/Stuff Adulterant Marmmal Dental Total Number

Milk, Water and urea Formula of Teeth
curd and
cheese Man (child) 2102/2102 x 2 20
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Sweets Saccharin, harmful colour Man (adult) 2123/2123 x 2 32

Ghee Vanaspati and animal Horse 3143/3143 x 2 44
fats Dog 3142/3143 x 2 42
Stones, sand and grit 0033/3133 x 2
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Cereals Cow and 32

Dhania powder Powdered horse dung Sheep
Haldi powder Lead chromate Cat 3131/3121 x 2 30
Pulses Melanil yellow Rabbit 2033/1023 x 2 28
Edible oils Argemone oil Mouse 1003/1003 x 2 16
@

Black pepper Papaya seed

Tongue
• Saliva, secreted by the salivary glands, is
HUMAN DIGESTIVE mixed with the chewed food by the
SYSTEM tongue.
The human digestive system consists of • Tongue also contains taste buds due to
alimentary canal and digestive glands. which we sense bitter, sou, salty or sweet
The alimentary canal consists of mouth, taste.
(having teeth and tongue) oesophagus,
stomach, small intestine and large
intestine.
Bitter
Teeth
• Sour Sour
With the help of teeth the food is
chewed. Teeth are of four types
Incisors (for cutting) Salt Salt
Canines (for tearing) Sweet
Premolars (for chewing) Taste Areas on the Human Tongue
Molars (for chewing and grinding)
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~General Science 427

Functions of the Complete digestion process takes place in

following four steps
Digestive System
Splitting of complex food materials into .Ingestion of Food
simpler molecules by hydrolysis so that Ingestion takes place in buccal cavity.
they can be easily absorbed by
intestine is the main function of
the. aliva Jubricates the food and binds the food
particles together to form bolus.
digestive system.
. Salivary gland have starch spitting enzyme
Man and other animals have holozoic ptyalin.
nutrition i.e., solid form of food. • Parotid gland is the largest salivary gland.

e
Oral cavity
Tongue
-Pharynx
Parolid gland

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Salivary Submandibular Oesophagus
Gland gland
Sublingual -Cardiac orifice
gland
Liver
ra
Ascending portion Pyloric
sphincler Stomach
of large intestine Gall bladder.
Pancreas
Ileum
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of small
intestine -Srmall
inlestine Duodenum of
Large small intestine
intesline
Caecum
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Appendix
Anus
Rectum
Human Digestive System
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Digestion of Food Digestion in Duodenum

Digestion in Mouth Chyme moves to duodenum.
•
•
Food is mixed with bile (liver) to breakdown
In mouth, salivary amylase acts on
@

starch. fats into smaller globules.

• Trypsin acts upon proteins and break them
Plyalin
Starch Maltose into polypeptides. Amylase converts starch
(Complex form) (Simple form) into simple sugar.
.
Lipase convert fats into fatty acids and
glycerol.
Digestion in Stomach
•
The food passes down through the Digestion in Intestine
oesophagus into stomach. • Food passes into ileum and mixes with
• Now food is mixed with gastric juice intestinal juice, where
and hydrochloric acid which Maltase converts maltose into glucose
disinfect the food and creates acidic Lactase converts lactose into glucose
mediun. and galactose
• Pepsin digests proteins and converts Sucrase converts sucrose into glucose and
them into peptones. fructose
• Rennin convert milk into curd. Trypsin digests the peptides into amino
• Digested food now is called chyme. acids
 428 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Absorption and Assimilation of Pancreas

Digested Food • It is the second-largest gland of the
• human body and contains islets of
Ileum's internal surface has finger-like
folds called villi. Langerhans and exocrine part secreting
• It helps in absorption of food. enzymes for carbohydrate, protein and
• Intestinal juice is alkaline in nature. nucleic acid digestion.
• pH of saliva, gastric juice, pancreatic
• The most common is the B-cells, which
secretes insulin, a hormone deffciency
juice and intestinal juice is respectively
6.8, 2.0, 7.0 and 8.5. of which causes diabetes melitus.
• Excess of insulin causes hypoglyaemia,

e
Ejection of Unwanted Food in which one loses the reproducing
• Digested food passes into large intestine. capacity and vision.

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• Large intestine cannot absorb food, but
absorbs much of the water.
Tntestinal Gands
. Crypts of Lieberkuhn and Brunner's
The remaining semi solid waste is Called olands are intestinal glands and secrete
faeces and is passed into rectum. intestinal juice which is alkaline in nature.
• It is expelled out through anus.
ra
Roughage RESPIRATORY
• Roughage is another term for dietary SYSTEM
fibres e.g., Natural food, dalia etc. Respiration is a catabolic process in
nt

.
It does not provide energy but only helps which the respired oxygen is Ised in the
in retaining water in the body. oxidation of food resulting in the elease of
energy. It brought about by respiratory
organs.
SOME DIGESTIVE
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GLANDS Respiratory Organs

of Some Animals
Liver
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•
Respiratory Animal
It is the largest gland of the human body organ
and secretes bile juice, which is stored in
gall bladder. Lungs Reptiles like lizards,
• mammals like man, camel,
It regulates the quantity of glucose in the
@

cattle, etc.
blood by converting extra glucose (if any)
into glycogen or glycogen (during Skin Frog, earthworm and leeches
deficiency of glucose) is converted into Gills Fishes, tadpoles and prawns
glucose. Trachea Insects, centipedes and
• It destroys dead RBC and regulates body millipedes.
temperature. It converts excess of amino Body surface Armoeba, Euglena,
acid into ammonia (which is converted Chlarmydomonas, Spirogyra,
into urea by Ornithine cycle). Urea Hydra, etc.
comes out from the body through kidney. Book lungs Spider, scorpion, ticks and
• If there is any obstruction in bile duct, miles.
liver cells stop taking bilirubin from the Book gills King crab, prawn, cray fish
blood, consequently it spreads and Daphnia.
throughout the body which is called Air
jaundice. bladder Lung fish and bony
fishes(e.g., Labeo).
• Liver is an important body organ in
Air sacs/lungs Birds
investigation of a person's death that has
been due to poison in food.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 429

Human Respiratory System Glucose.

yeast
Carbon dioxide+
• Overall passage of air in humans is as ethyl alcohol
follows:
muscles +Energy (in plants)
Nostrils Pharynx Larynx Trachea Glucose Lactic acid
Bronchi Bronchioles Alveoli + Energy (in animals)
Cells Blood.
• The human respiratory system is shown
in the following diagram.
PHASES OF AEROBIC
-Epiglotis RESPIRATION
-Larynx
External Respiration

e
-Trachea
(Breathing or Ventilation of

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Bronchus Lungs)
Pleural • It involves inspiration and expiration of
Cut end -membranes
of rib air.
-Alveoli
Lung -Pleural fluid Inspiration is the process of intake of air.
Diaphragm
Bronchiole
ra During inspiration, muscles of the
diaphragm contract and diaphragm
Human Respiratory System flattens.
.
The lower ribs are raised upward and
outwards. The chest cavity enlarges, the
nt

Types of Respiration air pressure in the lungs gets decreased

Aerobic Respiration and air rushes into the lungs.
•
The respiration taking place in the •
Expiration is breathing out of air. During
presence of oxygen is known as aerobic expiration, relaxation of muscles of the
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respiration. ribs and diaphragm takes place.

• This respiratory oxygen oxidises the Diaphragm again become dome-shaped.
substance into carbon dioxide, water Chest cavity is reduced and air is
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and energy, as follows forced outwards through nose and

Glucose +O, Carbon dioxide trachea.
+ Water + Energy. • Breathing rate in
humans is 18 - 20 times
In this process, each glucose molecule is per min.
converted into two molecules of pyruvic• The exchange of gases, i.e., oxygen and
@

acid by the process, called glycolysis. It carbon dioxide takes place due to the
takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell. difference in their partial pressures.
The pyruvic acid formed, releases energy
with the formation of carbon dioxide and Internal Respiration
water (in Kreb's cycle which occur in (Oxidation
of Food)
mitochondria). • It is a complex process in which food is
Anaerobic Respiration broken down to release energy.
•
The respiration taking place in the Iransporation of oxygen takes place by
absence of OXVgen is known as haemoglobin of blood. Whereas
anaerobic respiration. transportation of only 10-20% carbon
• It is found dioxide takes place by haemoglobin of
in endoparasites like blood.
roundworm. In this process, the
respiratory substances are incompletely APproximately 400 ml water is lost
oxidised to carbon dioxide and alcohol. through breathing everyday.
430) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science

Respiration being a catalytic process, also fluid, which allows frictionless

reduces the weight of the body. movements of heart and protects it from
Larynx or voice box or Adam's apple
mechanical shocks.
produces sound. It has a small flap of
cartilage called the epiglottis, which
AortaFm Blood lo
the body
prevents the food from entering the trachea. Blood from Blood lo the
- the body lungs
Purring sound in cats is due to the
Blood from
vibration of false vocal cord.
the lungs
In hippopotamus, true vocal cord is absent.
Left
Total Lung Capacity (TLC) = 6000 mL Right auricle
Residual Volume (AV) = 1200 mL

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auricle
Tidal Volume (TV)=500-600 ml

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Lelt
Right ventriole
CIRCULATORY ventricle

SYSTEM Human Heart

• It is a transport system that supplies the •
ra Fishes have only two-chambered heart
useful material and removes the waste (one auricle and one ventricle).
from the body cells.
consists of heart, blood vessels and amphibians, heart is
blood. three-chambered.
• In crocodile, birds and mammals, the
nt

HEART heart is divided into four chambers (two

auricles and two ventricles).
• Heart is a thick, muscular, contractile,
automatic pumping organ of blood Reptilian heart is structurally three
chambered but is functionally four
ie

vascular system.
• chambered (ie., incomplete four
The chamber which receives the blood
chambered) except in crocodile.
from body tissues are called auricles and A new born baby's heart weight is about
the chambers of heart which pump blood
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to body tissues are called ventricles. 20 g.

•
There is a thin two layered sac around The average weight of heart in men
the heart known as pericardium, filled is 280-340 g, while in Women is
with a watery fluid called pericardial 230-280g.
@

Diseases of Heart
Angina pectoris Pain in heart muscles, appearing as chest pain. It is caused due to
obstruction in coronary artery.
Tachycardia Increased rate of heartbeat.
Bradycardia Decreased rate of heartbeat.
Heart attack Breathlessness, palpitations, pain in the chest, unconsciousness
appear suddenly (Nitroglycerine is used for the treatment).
Heart block When heart beat is not passed to the ventricles properly. This is the
defect of conducting system of the heart.
Coronary thrombosis Due to the formation of clot in coronary artery.
Myocardial infarction It is the death of a part of heart muscle following cessation of blood
supply to it. It is acute heart attack.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 431

• The circulation of blood through the whole This extra blood supplies additional
body can be shown as Oxygen to body cells.
Superior Vena cBva • During blood clotting fibrinogen
Right Alight ventriole changes into fibrin by thrombin
|atrium
Inlerior Vena cava which is obtained from thrombop
Pulmonary arlery lastin in the presence of Ca+
De-oxygenaled blood The haemoglobin content of adult
Oxygenated blood
Lungs female varies from 13.5-14.5%
Capillaries in Capillaries in Pulmonary veins
whereas in adult male its amount
head region body organs varies from 14.5-15.5% Haemoglobin
count is highest in the foetus and is

e
-Aorta Left ventricle Lett alrium about 23 g per 100 mL of blood at
Circulation of Blood through the Whole Body birth.

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• To pump out blood, the heart chamber Blood Vessels
undergoes alternate contraction called Blood vessels are of three types
systole and relaxation called diastole. The
regular sequence of these systole and Arteries
ra
diastole causes the heart sound Lub and . These are thick walled blood vessels
Dub. which carry the blood away from the
• Arteries carry pure blood from
the heart heart to various body parts. These are
while veins carry impure blood to the heart. deep seated in the body and have no
nt

• Human
heart beat is myogenic in nature, valves in them.
a
i.e., initiated by patch of modified heart • These carry oxygenated blood except
muscles itself without requiring an external the pulmonary artery which carries
stimulation. This patch is called SA node deoxygenated blood to the lungs. In
ie

(sino-auricular node) or pacemaker. arteries, blood flows at a high

•
When SA-node becomes defective, i.e., it pressure and a higher speed.
does not generate cardiac impulses, it can
be cured by surgical grafting of an artificial Veins
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pacemaker (an electric device) in the chest• These are thin walled blood vessels
of the patient. It stimulate the heart and carry blood away from various
electrically at regular intervals. body parts towards the heart. These
• The normal rate of heartbeat at rest is have valves in them to prevent
@

about 70-72 times per minute. In a newly back flow of blood in them. Blood
born baby, heartbeat rate is about 140 per flows at low pressure and at a lower
minute. speed.
• During
heavy exercise it may be high as These carly deoxygenated blood
170-200 times per minute. except the pulmonary vein which
carries Oxygenated blood to the heart.
BLOOD Capillaries
• Blood is a fluid connective tissue and
composed of blood corpuscles, plasma and These are the thinnest blood vessels
platelets. and connect arteries to the veins.
•
• It is slightly alkaline is nature (pH 7.4). These help in exchange of materials
like the nutrients, gases, waste
• Its volume in an adult is 5.8 L. products etc., between blood and
• The oxygenated or pure blood is bright red cells.
while the deoxygenated blood is purple
coloured (Darker shade of red).
• People who live at high altitudes have more
blood than those who live in low regions.
 432) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Blood Type of Parent and their Children • Mature red blood cells lack a
nucleus and organelles in
Blood Type of Parert Possible Blood Type of mammals. However, in camel
(Homo or Heterozygous) Children and llama it is nucleated.
.
Ox0 One RBC contains about 280
OxA O, A haemoglobin molecules.
OxB 0, B

Ox AB A, B Leukocytes (WBCs)
AxA A, O These are part of the body's
AxB 0, A, B, AB immune system; they destroy and
remove old or aberrant cells and
A, B, AB

e
Ax AB
cellular debris, as well as attack
BxB B, O
infectious agents and foreign
Bx AB A, B, AB substances. These are much

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less
AB x AB A, B, AB in number than RBCs (1 : 600).

Blood Cells Thrombocytes

Erythrocytes (RBCs) (Platelets)
ra
It is responsible for blood clotting
• Red blood cells contain the blood's haem0globin
and distribute oxygen. (coagulation). It changes
fibrinogen into fbrin.
• RBCs are the most abundant cells.
nt

Comparison between Plasma and Lymph

Plasma Lymph
Itcontains 92% waler, 8% blood plasma Lymph contains a variety of substances
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proteins and trace amounts of other malerials

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including proteins, salts, glucose, fats, water

and WBCs.
It is cellfree part of blood, contain salts, It is modified tissue iluid, contains oells like
Considerable aOunt of proteins as well as
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lymphocyte and monocytes, salt and small

more or less all constiluents of body. amount of proteins. It is colourless.
It flows within blood vessels. It flows within lyrmphatic
vessels.
It takes part in nutrition, exCretion, respiration, It supplies nutrition to tissue devoid of blood
etc., by transporting various materials and helps supply, takes part in fat absorption and
@

in the defence mechanism of the body by defence mechanism of the body.

producing antibodies.
It can coagulate because it contains fibrinogen li can coagulate but very slowly
because it
and prothrombin. contains these tWO in small quantities.

Blood Pressure (BP) If a person has persistent high

•
. pressure then it is called
The pressure created by the blood on the walls of blood
the blood vessels due to the repeated pumping of hypertension and persistent
heart is called blood pressure. It is measured by high blood pressure is 150/90
mm Hg. Factors responsible are
sphygmomanometer.
over eating, fear, worry, anxiety,
• It can be felt at certain places in our body viz,
sorrow etc. Hypotension is
wrist of the hands etc.
condition of low blood pressure,
• Blood pressure is recorded as systolic/diastolic.
i.e., persistent 100/50 mm Hg.
Blood pressure in a normal person is 120/ 80 .
mmHg. Factors affecting blood pressure are age, Electrocardiograph (ECG) is
used to check proper working of
cardiac output, total peripheral resistance etc.
heart by using electrodes.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science 433

Hips (Pelvic girdle)

SKELETAL SYSTEM Ilium, ischium,
Pubis
2

The human skeleton consists of both fused (Innominale)

and individual bones supported and Thigh Fermur
supplemented by ligaments, tendons, Knee Patella 2
muscles and cartilage. Tibia-Fibula
Shank 4
It is divided into two parts Ankle Tarsal 14
Sole Metatarsal 10
Axial Skeleton (80 Bones)
• Toes Phalanges O8
It includes skull, vertebral column and
bones of chest (ribs and sterrnum).
Vertebral column is responsible for the Joints

e
.
upright position of the human body. The structural arrangements of tissues by
Which bone and bone or bone and cartilage

nc
• Most of the body weight is located at the
joined together.
back of the vertebral column. It provides
flexibility to the neck and protection to They are of following types
spinal cord. Joint Nane Location
Immovable
ra Bones of skull
Appendicular Slightly movable Pubic bones of pelvic
Skeleton (126 Bones) girdle
Hinge Ankle, Knee, elbow
Their function is to malke locomotion
possible and to protect the major organs of Ball and Socket Shoulder and hip
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locomotion, digestion, excretion and Pivot Radius and humerus

reproduction.
Saddle Metacarpal and carpal
Important Bones in the Body Gliding Vertebra, radio-ulna and
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carpals
Body Part Name of the Total
Bones Number •
Skull (29) Facial
Tendons join the muscles and bones.
14 •
The muscles which join bone to bone are
jm

Cranium 3
called ligaments.
1
Hyoid
Ear ossicles 6 Diseases of Skeletal System
(maleus, • Hard tissue deposits over articular
@

Incus,slapes) cartilage along with higher secretion of

Vertebral Cervical 7 synovial fluid causing pain and stiffness
column(26)
lead to rheumatoid arthritis. (An auto
(Note-The total Thoracic 12 immune disease).
number of bones in Lumbar • Tearing of
vertebral column,
5 articular cartilage and
initially is 33 and Sacrum 1(5) development of bony lumps at places
after development, Cocoyx 1(4) causing pain, stiffness and permanent
it
reduces to 26) bending lead to osteoarthritis.
Bones of chest (25) Sternurm .
Osteoporosis is loss of bone density due
Ribs 24 to excessive absorption of calcium and
(12 pairs)
phosphorus from the bone.
Shoulder (Pectoral Scapula 4 • Osteopetrosis is a hereditary disease
girdle) Clavicle
marked by abnormally dense bone and by
Upper arm Humerus 2 the common occurrence of fractures of
Fore arm Radius-ulna 4 affected bone.
Wrist • Birds have spongy bones with air filled
Carpals 16
Palm Metacarpals 10 spaces, called pneumatie bones.
Fingers Phalanges 28 Rigor mortis is the state of body
stiffening after death.
 434 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science

.
Chronic fatigue is the inability of a Ureotelic Animals
muscle to contract due to depletion urea,
of its chemicals and lactic acid Ihey excrete nitrogen in the form of
e.g., mammal (man), frogs, toads, other
accumulation by repeated contraction. amphibians
A completely fatigued muscle refuses to and cartilaginous fishes like
sharks.
respond to nervous stimuli.
Uricotelic Animals
Muscular System They exCrete the nitrogenous wastes in the
• Human body has about 639 types of form of uric acid, e.g., Reptiles, snakes,
muscles. lizards, crocodiles and birds.
• Muscles specialised to contraction are
Human Excretory System

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of three types, i.e., striated, unstriated
and cardiac. The human excretory system includes-the

nc
• kidneys (two), ureters (wo), urinary bladder
Striated muscles Also called skeletal
muscles or voluntary muscles. Thev are (one) and urethra (one).
present in limbs, tongue, pharynx etc. Kidney
• . It
Unstriated muscles These are is bean-shaped, chocolate brown organ
involuntary muscles and present in
ralying in the abdomen, one on each side
urinary bladder, in walls of large blood
vessels and alimentary canal. the vertebral column just below the
. diaphragm.
Cardiac muscles They are involuntary, The left kidney is placed a little higher
striated and non-fatigued fibres which than the right kidney (but reverse in
nt

are found in the wall of heart, where rabbit).

they form myocardium. They generate .
These form the urine and controls
their oVn wave of excitation. osmotic pressure within the organism with
respect to external environment.
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EXCRETORY SYSTEM .
Nephrons are the functional and
The process of removal of nitrogenous structural unit of kidney. Each nephron is
wastes from the body is called excretion. made up of BowIman's capsule and renal
jm

The organs of excretion are called tubule. Renal tubule is made up of

excretory orgas. Proximal Convolutid Tubule (PCT),
Henle's loop, Distal Convoluted Tubule
Excretory Organs (DCT) and Collecting Tubule (CT).
of Some Animals
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Excretory Organ Animal

Ureters
Contractile vacuole Armoeba
These bring the urine downward and open
into urinary bladder.
Flame cells/solenocytes Tapeworm
Renette cell Ascaris Urinary Bladder
Earthworm • It temporarily stores the urine.
Nephridia
Malpighian tubules Cockroach •
Itcan hold about 0.5-1.0 L of urine.
Coxal glarnds Scorpion It is absent in birds. In both reptiles and
Green glands Prawn birds, ureters and rectum, opens into a
Common sac called cloaca.
Excretory Products Urethra
Ammonotelic Animals • It is a muscular and tubular structure
These animal excrete nitrogen in the which extends from neck of bladder to
form of ammonia, e.g., aquatic outside. In females, this tube is small and
serves as a passage of urine only.
invertebrates Amoeba, Hydra, Prawn,
Pila, and freshwater fishes, bony fishes, In males, it is long and functions as a
Frog's tadpole. common passage for urine and spermatic
fluids.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science 135)

Urine The functions of brain parts are as

follows
• It is a pale yellow coloured fluid due to
presence of urochrome pigment. Forebrain
• It is acidic nature
in (pH 6.0) and is slightly Cerebrum leads to consciousness,
heavier than water. storage of Imemoly having
• It has a faint aromatic odour due to urinoid. information.
Daily urine output in normal adult is Thalamus deals with touch, visual
1.5-1.8 L. system, sleep and wakefulness.
.
Chemical composition of urine : water is . Hypothalamus deals with water
95-96%, urea is 2% and some other substance balance in body, behavioral patterns
like uric acid, creatinine, etc., are 2-3%.

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of sex, sleep, stress emotions etc. It
• The
urine on a
standing gives pungent smell. also regulates pituitary hormones
It is due to conversion of urea into ammonia metabolism

nc
and of fat,
by bacteria. carbohydrate water and maintain
Haemodialysis is the process of removal of body temperature (homeostasis).
excesss urea from the blood of patient using
artificial kidney. Midbrain
ra auditory
•
Kidney stone are generally calcium oxalate It deals with visual analysis,
crystals. etc.
Broca's area is present in brain and is
NERVOUS SYSTEM related with speech production, while
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• The nervous system provides the fastest Wernick's area of brain is related
means of communication within the body so with understanding of speech.
that suitable response to stimuli can be made
at once. Hindbrain
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• Nervous system is found only in animals and . Cerebellum controls coordination

absent in plants. of accurate movements and
• In most animals, the nervous system consists balancing.
jm

of two parts-central and peripheral nervous. Medulla oblongata is long

system. part to
connecting of brain spinal
cord. It deals with control of heart
Central Nervous beats, blood vessels, breathing,
System (CNS)
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salivary secretion and mostly reflex

and involuntary (uncontrolled)
Brain Imovements.
• Brain lies in the cranium of skull.
• Cerebrospinal fluid is present in brain and
spinal cord. Nobel Prize in Medicine 2016
The Nobel Prize in physiology or
Brain medicine 2016 was awarded to
Yoshinori Ohsumi "for his discoveries of
mechanisms for autophagy.
The word 'autophagy' originates from
Forebrain Midbrain Hindbrain
the Greek words auto, meaning 'self and
-Cerebrum Optic lobes -Cerebellum phageil meaning to 'eat'. It is an
(Largest part Tectum -Medulla evolutionarily conserved process in
of brain) oblongata which the eukaryotic cell can recycle
Thalamus Cerebral
(Hypothalamus) Pons varolii part of its own content.
peduncle
-Olfactory Lobes
 436) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Spinal Cord Electroencephalogram (EEG) is a test

that measures and records the electrical
Deals with impulses to and from the brain activity of our brain.
and is the centre for reflex actions like
blinking of the eye when an object comes
near to eyes suddenly, rapid SENSEORGANS
withdrawal of hand while coming near to Eye
heat, knee jerk reflex etc. are the sensitive detectors of light. The
Acquired reflex action is also called Eyes eye can distinguish about 10 million
human
conditioned reflex as dependent on past colours.
experience, training and learning.
lt consists of three parts
It was first demonstrated by Ivan Petrovich
Sclerotic Layer

e
Pavlov e.g. learning, dancing, cycling,
which
swimming, singing and driving etc are It is the outermost, bony layer,

nc
controlled by spinal chord. It is under ncludes
cerebral control during learning. Cornea the clear, dome-shaped tissue,
covering the front of the eye.
Peripheral Nervous Conjunctiva, the continuation of upper
eyelid.
System (PNS)
ra
• It is a collective term for the nervous Choroid Layer
system structures that do not lie within
the CNS. It is the middle layer and consists of
• It is composed of cranial and spinal 1. Pupil is the black hole in the centre
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nerves. There are 10 pairs of cranial of the iris. It changes size as the
nerves in fishes and amphibians and amount of light changes.
12 pairs in rest of the higher chordates. 2. Ciliary muscles regulates the lens
• There are 10 pairs of spinal nerves Curvature.
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found in fishes and amphibians and 3. Iris is the coloured part of the eye. It
31 pairs in humans. controls the amount of light that enters
• The PNS is divided into two divisions: the eye by changing the size of the
jm

Somatic Nervous System (SNS) and pupil.

Autonomous Nervous System (ANS). 4. Lens is biconvex transparent
• It is a part of peripheral nervous system circular solid located just behind the
that relays impulses from the CNS to iris. It focuses light onto the retina.
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skeletal muscles. Retina

Iris Lens
Fovea (point of
Autonomous Nervous central focus)
System (ANS) Optic nerve to
Pupil brain's visual
It is also a part of peripheral nervous Cortex
system that transmits impulses from the Cornea
CNS to involuntary organs and smooth Blind spot
muscles of the body. Autonomic nervous
system consists of two divisions The Eye
1. Sympathetie Nervous System
increases defence system of body Retina
against adverse conditions. It is active Light sensitive tissue that lies at the
in stress condition, e.g., pain, fear and back of the eve. It contains millions of
anger. photoreceptors (rods and cones) that
2. Parasympathetic Nervous System convert light rays into electrical impulses
provides relaxation, comfort, pleasure that are relayed to the brain via the optic
at the time of rest. It helps in the nerve.
restoration and Conservation of The image formed on retina is real and
energy. inverted.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 437

•
Rods are highly sensitive to dim light and Correspondence between
contain a reddish purple pigment called Camera
rhodopsin. Night vision involves mostly rods
and Eye
(not cones). Part of Carmera Corresponding
Part of Eye
• Cones are sensitive to bright light, hence
differentiate the colours. Box Sclera
• The fovea centralis the area of sharpest Black inner paint Choroid
vision due high concentration of cones.
to Shutter Eye lids
• The blind spot (optic disc) has no rods and Diaphragm Iris
cone cells, hence no image is form in this
Light hold Pupil
region.

e
Lens Lens
Eye Defects Light sensitive film Retina

nc
plate
Nearsightedness (Myopia)
. A condition in which nearby objects are seen
more clearly than distant objects because
Ear
light is focused in front of the retina, not on it. Ears are meant for both balancing
and hearing.
ra
It carn be corrected by using concave glasses.
• It can be divided into three parts
Farsightedness (Hypermetropia) as External ear (pinna +
• A condition in vhich distant objects are seen external auditory canal), Middle
more clearly than nearby objects because light ear (tympanic cavity) and Internal
nt

is focused behind the retina, not on it. ear (bony and membranous
• It can be corrected by using convex glasses. labyrinth).
• Hearing is controlled by auditory
Astigmatism area of temporal lobe of cerebral
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• A condition in which the lens is warped, COrtex.

causing images not to focus properly on the Human ear can receive the sound
retina. ranging between 60-80 decibel.
jm

• The cylindrical glass can correct the defect. Human ear is sensitive to sounds
• Colour blindness also called Daltonism is frequency 50-20,000 cycles/sec.
caused due to deficiency of cones. While Defects of ear are : Otalgia ear,
night blindness is due to deficiency of ache (Pain in ear); Othitis media
@

rhodopsin in rods. (Acute infection of middle ear)

•
Retina of Owl contains only rods while fowl Labyrithine disease (malfunction
contains only cones. of inner ear).
• The eyes of
carnivores like cat, dog, iron sea
etc, glow in night due to tapetum lucidum. Nose
Eyes are most sensitive to yellow green. Nose is a sense organ for smell or
colour. Bees can see ultraviolet light. olfaction. It contains
Presbyopia 1. Olfactory cells which are more
• It is a reduction
chemosensitive than taste cells.
in pupil size and the loss of 2. Olfactory stimuli such as,
accommodation or focusing capability with
age, leading to substantial decrease in light
a chloroform and ammonia are
received at the retina. irritating and can cause tearing.
• Dogs have an acute olfactory sense.
• Bifocal lens can correct the defect.
•
Conjunctivitis is inflammation of They can trace people because they
can distinguish between the odours
conjunctiva by bacteria. of different persons.
 438) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Males can produce spermatozoa

REPRODUCTIVE (sperm) throughout their life from age
SYSTEM of 13-14 years. The growth of hairs on
• The pro cess by which new individuals are body is due to masculine hormones.
produced from their parents is called
reproduction and the organs which are
Used for this process, collectively Urinary
constitute the reproductive system. bladder Seminal
• Reproduction is of two types, i.e., asexual vesicle
(behind
and sexual. bladder)
•
In asexual reproduction, only one parent Proslale

e
gland
is involved and sex cells are not involved. Bulbourelhral -Urelhra
• In
sexual reproduction, two parents are gland

nc
-Sorolum
involved and formation and fusion of Ereclile tissue
gametes takes place. of penis
Vas delerens Glans
Modes of Reproduction in penis
Different Organisms Epididymis
ra Teslis
Mode of Orgarisrn Male Reproductive System
Reproduction
Fission (asexual) Amoeba, bacteria,
flatworm etc.
Female Reproductive
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Budding (asexual) Hydra, yeast and sponge

etc. System
Syngarny (sexual) Cockroach, frog and Female reproductive system includes
human being etc. following organs which are tabulated
ie

below
Male Reproductive System Reproductive No Function Performed
• The various organs which constitute the Organ
male reproductive system and their
jm

Ovaries 2 To produce ova and

functions are tabulated below: hormones.
Reproduotive No Function Oviducts 2 To move the ovum
Organ towards uterus.
Uterus 1 To provide space for
Testes 2 Produce sperm and
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developing child.
testosterone
Vagina 1 To receive the
Sperm duct 2 Conduct the sperm
from the testes to sperms.
urethra Oviduçt
Serninal vesicles Ovaries
2 Secrete seminal Follicles
plasma
Epididyrmis Temporarily store
sperm and provides
mobility.
Urethra Conduct urine and
sperms. Uterine Corpus
Ulerus Vwall
Prostale gland 2 Secrete an alkaline luteum
tluid to neutralise the Cervix Endomelrium
acidity of urethra and
make the sperM
more active. Vagina

Cowper's gland 2 Secrete an alkaline

white lubricating tluid. Female Reproductive System
Penis (have rich 2 Pass urine and
blood supply) deposit sperm in If sperm is present, the egg will be
female genital tract. fertilised in the ampullary isthmic
junction of Fallopian tube.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 439)

• After maturity the ovary releases an • Amniocentesis or amniotic fluid test is

oVum (egg cell) after every 28 days. technique of finding out sex and disorder
• The connection between developing of foetUs.
embryo and mother is made by
placenta. It supplies blood, organic and Gestation Periods of Some
inorganic nutrients, hormones. Animals
antibodies etc. Animal Gestation Animal Gestation
• The embryo develops for nine months in Period Period
uterus. It is called gestation period. 310 days Horse
•
Buffalo 340 days
Child is delivered after its development 610 days
Elephant Leopard 105 days
and mother produces milk to nourish 120 days 103 days
Lion Tiger

e
the child (lactation).
Whale 365 days Squirrel 40 days
• The first milk which comes out from the
mother's mammary gland just after

nc
•
child birth is called colostrum.
This milk is rich in protein, antibodies
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
It includes endocrine or ductless glands.
which imparts imnmunity to new born
baby. Their secretion is known as hormones.
Different types of hormones are
ra
Menstrual Cycle Steroids, e.g., oestradiol, testosterone,
• Reproductive period of a human female androsterone, aldosterone, cortisol and
extends from puberty (10-14 years) to cortisone.
menopause (40-50 years). Peptides, e.g., insulin, glucagon,
nt

• The release of the first menstrual flow or pituitary hormones, parathormone and
period is called menarche. relaxin.
• of Amino acid derivatives, e.g., adrenaline,
Menarche marks the Onset
reproductive life and onset of puberty in noradrenaline and thyroid hormones.
ie

females. Various glands are:

• Menopause is stopping of ovulation and
menses. It normally occurs between the Hypothalamus
jm

age of 45 to 55. This stage onwards, It is a part of forebrain and regulates the
woman lose the ability to reproduce. pituitary glands and maintains body
(homeostasis).
•
The periodic vaginal bleeding during temperature
menstrual cycle is called menstruation.
pituitary Gland or
@

• On an average menstural cycle is

completed in 28 days. Hypophysis
• It is absent during pregnancy, may be It governs other endocrine glands like
Suppressed during lactation and thyroid, adrenal and gonads.
permanently stops at menopause. About• Pituitary gland is also known as master
13 mature eggs are released from two gland.
ovaries of female in a year.
•Menstrual cycle is controlled by FSH, Thyroid Gland
LH, oestrogen and progesterone• It is the largest endocrine gland and
hormones. located in neck region.
It is the 'pace setter of the endocrine
Birth Control Methods or system. It secretes
Contraception Methods 1. Thyroxine, which regulates BMR
• The prevention of union of spermn and (Basal Metabolic Rate), physical,
oVum is known as contraception. The mental and sexual development.
various methods used for it ale 2. Thyrocalcitonin secreted by the
diaphragm, contraceptive pills, C-cells and regulates the calcium
tubectomy, vesectomy, copper-T etc. homeostasis (lowers calcium level).
440 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Pancreas HEALTH
It is both an exocrine and endocrine gland. Healrh is
the functional or metabolic
The islet of Langerhans (endocrine) have
three major types of cells efficiency of a living being. In human, it is
a
1. Alpha-Cells secretes glucagon hormone the general condition of person's mind,
body and spirit. usual meaning, to be free
which increases blood sugar level. from illness, injury or pain.
2. Beta-Cells secretes insulin, which
decreases the amount of sugar in the DISEASES
blood.
3. Delta-Cells secretes Somatostatin It is a condition of the body or its part in
which is an anti-growth factor. which functions are disturbed. The

e
diseases may be broadly classified into
Adrenal Gland two types, i.e., congenital and acquired.

nc
• It is also known as emergeney gland.
(a) Cortex (outer layer)
Congenital Diseases
(b) Medulla (inner layer) It secretes twoThese are anatomical or physiological
orabnormalities present from birth.
important hormones-- Epinephrine or
They may be caused by
ra
adrenaline and nor-epinephrine
• A single gene mutation (alkaptonuria,
noradrenaline
• It increases the blood glucose level, blood phenylketonuria, albinism, sickle-cell
pressure and cardiac output. anaemia, haemophilia and colour
blindness).
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Pineal Gland • Chromosomal aberrations (Down's

• It is situated in
the brain and also knoWn syndrome, Klinefelter's syndrome and
as clockvwork gland. Turner's syndrome).
the ovaries and has an effect Environmental factors (cleft palate
ie

• It regulates
on the biological rhythm. and harelip). Unlike the gene and
chromosome induced congenital
defects, environmentally caused
GONADS
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abnornalities are not transmitted to the

These secrete steroid hormones. children.

Ovarian Hormones Acquired Diseases

(Oestrogens)
@

These diseases develop after birth.

It helps in the development of primarv and Ihey are further of tvo types, i...
secondary sexual characters (oestradiol. Communicable and non-communicable.
1. Communicable (infectious)
oestriol and estrogen). Hypersecretion of
androgenic steroids in female results in diseases are caused by pathogenic
stopping of menstruation, hairs on face and micro-organisms, such as bacteria,
breasts. viruses, parasites or fungi; the
diseases can be spread, directly or
Testicular Hormones indirectly from one person to
another. Infectious diseases, are also
(Androgens) known as transmissible diseases.
These are produced by Leydig cells of 2. Non-communicable (non
testes.It stimulate growth, maturation and infectious) diseases are not passed
maintenance of male gonads and by organisms among people, but
development of secondary sexual characters, come from genetic or lifestyle
e.g., testosterone, androsterone etc.
factors.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science 441

COMMUNICABLE Treatment
Antibiotics to treat bacteria that
DISEASES cause pneumonia. Antiviral medications.
These are the diseases which may pass or High doses of steroids to reduce swelling in
carried from one human or animal to the lungs. Oxygen, breathing support
other. (mechanical ventilation) or chest therapy.
Communicable diseases are illness caused
by germs such as bacteria, viruses and Hepatitis
spread by an infected person, animals or Hepatitis is a swelling and inflammation of
object to other persons. the liver. It is not a condition, but is often
used to refer a viral infection of the liver.
Viral Diseases

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Hepatitis can be caused by
Viruses are parasitic and causes a number . Immune cells in the body attacking the

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of diseases. liver and causing autoimmune hepatitis.
Bird Flu (H,N) Infections from viruses (such as
hepatitis-A, B or C), bacteria or
Bird flu (Avian influenza) is a disease parasites. Liver damage from alcohol,
caused by an influenza virus-A, that poisonous mushrooms or other poisons.
ra
primarily affect birds. • Medications, such as an overdose of
The following persons may be on higher risk acetaminophen, can cause harm or death
for developing the bird flu also.
• Farmers and others, who work with
nt

poultry. Symptoms
• Travellers, visiting affected countries. Abdomimal pain or distention. Breasts
• Those who have touched an infected development in males. Dark
urine and
bird. pale or clay coloured stools. Fatigue,
. Those who eat raw or undercooked general itching, fever, usually low-grade
ie

poultry meat, eggs from infected birds. jaundice (yellowing of the skin or eyes)
and loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting and
Symptoms weight loss.
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Fever, cough, sore throat, muscle aches and

eye infection (conjunctivitis). AIDS
Acquired Immuno Deffciency Syndrome
Treatment (AIDS) is a disease of the human immune
@

Treatment with the antiviral medication system caused by the Human

Oseltamivir (tamiflu) or zanamivir (relenza) Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). AIDS was
may make the disease less severe. first recognised by the Centres for Disease
Oseltamivir may also be prescribed for Control and Prevention (CDC) in 1981.
persons, who live in the same house as
those diagnosed with avian flu. HIV Infection
AIDS is a condition caused by HIV
Severe Acute Respiratory infection. The condition gradually
Syndrome (SARS) destroys the immune system, which
makes it harder for the body to fight
It is a serious form of pneumonia. It is infections.
caused by a virus that was first identified in
2003. Infection with the SARS virus causes Transmission
acute respiratory distress (severe
Dreatmš HIV Can be spread by the following
difficulty) and sometimes death.
• Through sexual contact i.e. oral, vaginal
Symptoms and anal sex.
Cough usually starts 2-3 days after other Through blood transfusions, accidental
symptoms like Fever, headache and muscle needle sticks or needle sharing.
aches.
 442) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science

• From mother to child: A pregnant woman Causes of Cancer

can transmit virus to her foetus through
their shared blood circulation or a nursing Cancer is induced by physical,
chemical and biological factors or
mother can pass it to her baby through agents. These are called carcinogens
breast's milk. or cancer causing agents. lonising
Test forAIDS radiations such as X-rays, y-rays and
• Enzyme non-ionising radiations such as
Linked Immunosorbent Assay/ ultraviolet (UV) damage the DNA
Enzyme Immuno Assay (ELISA/EIA)
leading to neoplastic transformation.
• Radio Immuno
Precipitation Assay/ Indirect , Tobacco smoke contains chemical
Fluorescent Antibody Assay (RIP/IFA) carcinogens that causes lung cancer.

e
• Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
Viruses also cause cancer. These are
• Western Blot Confirmatory Test.
called oncogenic viruses as they have

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genes called viral oncogenes.
NON-COMMUNICABLE Cancer Detection
DISEASES and Diagnosis
There are various kinds of or blood cancer can be
ra
non-communicable diseases. which affert Leukaemiadetected based On biopsy and
the health of human beings. Some of the histopathological studies of the
common non- communicable diseases are tissue
and blood and bone marrow tests for
increased cell counts. Cancers of
Diabetes
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internal organs are detected using

Diabetes is a long-term condition caused by too techniques such as Radiography
much glucose (sugar) in the blood. There are Computed Tomography (RCT) and
two main types of diabetes Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI).
ie

Type 1 Cancer Therapy

Diabetes occurs when the body doesn't •
Cryo Surgery It is the technique of
produce enough insulin to function properly or
jm

using extreme rapid cooling that freeze

the body's cells don't react to insulin. This is tissues, thereby destroy them. Rapid
known as insulin resistance. cooling to temperature below freezing
point produces irreversible cell damage
Type 2 -
and cell death occurs at 20°C to 90°C.
Diabetes is far more common than type 1
@

Proton Therapy Itis a type of particle

diabetes, which occurs when the body doesn't therapy, which uses a beam of protons to
produce any insulin at all. iradiate iseased tissue, most often in
the treatment of cancer.
Symptoms
Radiation Therapy Radiation therapy
Symptoms common to both types of diabetes is a cancer treatment. Its goal is to kill
include cancer cells and shrink tumours.
) Feeling very thirsty. Stem CelI Transplantation Stem cell
(ii) Urinating frequently. particularly at night. transplants can be an effective treatment
(ii) Feeling very tired. for people with certain forms of cancer,
(iv) Weight loss and loss of muscle bulk. Such as leukaemia and lymphoma.
Peripheral Blood Stem Cell
Cancer Transplantation (PBSCT) It is also
It is uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in called peripheral stem cell support. This
the body. Some diseases cause emergence of procedure restore stem cells that has
tumours in body. These are called neoplastic been destroyed by high doses of
diseases. This includes from a minor role to a chemotherapy.
lethal cancer.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 443

Heart Diseases Osteoarthritis

Some heart diseases are as follow It is a joint inflammation that results
from cartilage degeneration. It can be
Angina Pectoris caused by ageing, heredity and injury
Human with angina, experience pain in the from trauma or disease. The most
centre of the chest. The chest can feel common symptom of osteoarthritis is
constricted and tight, but the pain can also be pain in the affected joint(s) after
oppressive, as if something is crushing your repetitive use.
chest. Pain starts in the centre of the chest
behind the breast bone (sternum) or on the left Gout
side of the front of the chest. It can spread out to Gout is a kind of arthritis. It can cause
other parls of your body like your arms and an attack of sudden burning pain,

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stomach. stiffness and swelling in a joint,
LUSually a big toe. These attacks can

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Myocardial Infarction happen over and over unless gout is
• It is commonly known as
heart attack, results treated. Overtime, they can harm
from the interruption of blood supply to a part yourjoints, tendons and other tissues.
of the heart, causing heart cells to die. Gout is most common in men.
•
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This is most commonly due to occlusion Sexually Transmitted Diseases
(blockage) of a coronary artery following the • Gonorrhoea It
rupture of a vulnerable atherosclerotic is caused by
plaque, which is an unstable collection of bacteria Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
Anyone who has any type of sexual
lipids (cholesterol and fatty acids) and white
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contact can catch gonorrhoea. The

blood cells (especially macrophages) in the
wall of an artery. infection can be spread by contact
• The result is ischemia (restriction in blood
with the mouth, vagina, penis or
anus.
supply) and ensuing oxygen, if left untreated
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Syphilis It is sexually
for a sufficient period of time, can cause transmitted infection caused by the
damage or death (infarction) of heart muscle spirochete bacterium Treponema
tissue (myocardium). pallidum sub-species pallidum.
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Heart Arrest The primary route of transmission

• It occurs when is through sexual contact; it may
the heart is unable to provide also be transmitted from mother to
sufficient pump action to distribute blood flow foetus during pregnancy or at birth,
to meet the needs of the body. Heart arrest
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can cause a number of symptoms including . resulting in congenital syphilis.

Genital herpes It is a Sexually
shortness of breath, leg swelling and exercise Transmitted Infection (STI) caused
intolerance. by the Herpes Simplex Virus
• The condition is diagnosed with (HSV).
echocardiography and blood tests. Treatment Trichomoniasis It is a sexually
commonly consists of lifestyle measures such transmitted infection caused by the
as smoking cessation, light exercise including
parasite Trichomonas vaginalis.
breathing protocols, decreased salt intake and
other dietary changes and medications. Mental Disorder
A mental disorder or mental illness is
Arthritis a psychological pattern or anomali,
• It affects the musculoskeletal system, potentially reflected in behaviour, that
specifically the joints. It is the main cause of is generaly associated with distress or
disability among people over 55 years of age in disability and which is not considered
industrialised countries. part of normal developmnent of a
• Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) It is a long-term person's culture. This may be
disease that leads to inflammation of the associated with particular regions or
functions of the brain or rest of the
joints and surrounding tissues. It can also nervous system, often in a social
affect other organs. context.
444 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Alzheimer's Disease Antihistamines

It is a progressive mental deterioration These are medicines that can be used to
that can occur in middle or old age, due torelieve severe itching and help in breaking
generalised degeneration of thebrain. Itis histamine cycle. It leads to thickening and
the commonest cause of premature weeping of the skin and generally makes the
senility. eczema worse and more likely to become
infected because scratching breaks the skin.
DRUGS Tranquiliser
A drug is a substance, which when taken
a an
in, alters the body functions. Repeated use It is drug that induces tranquility in a
of drugs particularly for obtaining quick individual. The minor tranquilisers induce

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pleasure is called drug abuse. feeling of calm and relaxation. Depending
on the medication and dosage, this can
Some Simple Drugs range

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from feeling of mild euphoria to states
Below are the types of simple drugs
of drowsiness, confusion and lightedness.
Sedative
Analgesic (Pain Killers)
It is a substance that induces sedation by
These drugs act in various ways on the
ra reducing irritability or excitement. At higher
peripheral and central nervous system; doses it may result in slurred speech,
they include paracetamol staggering gait, poor judgment and slow,
(acetarminophen), the non-steroidal uncertain reflexes.
anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such
Doses of sedatives such as benzodiazepines,
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as the salicylates, narcotic drugs such as

morphine, synthetic drugs with narcotic when used as a hypnotic induce sleep, tend
to be higher than amounts used to relieve
properties such as tramadol and various
anxiety, whereas only low doses are needed
others. to provide a peaceful and calming sedative
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Anaesthetic effect.
An anaesthetic is used to temporarily Narcotic
reduce or take away sensation, usually so
can be lt is originally referred medically to any
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that painful procedures or surgery

performed. psychoactive compound with any
sleep-inducing properties.
There are two types of anaesthetics
•
General which make the patient Antipyretics
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. unconscious. (Temperature Reduction)

Local which numb the part of the body These are drugs or
herbs that reduce fever.
that would otherwise feel pain. Antipyretics cause the hypothalamus to over
Antibiotics (Bactericidal) ride an interleukin-induced increase in
temperature. The body then works to lower
These are powerful medicines that fight the temperature, resulting in a reduction of
bacterial infections. When Used properly fever.
antibiotics can save lives. They either kill, Bacteria ofcholera and TB was discovered
bacteria or stop them for reproduing. by Robert Koch.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 445)

Disorders Caused by Hormonal Irregularities

Disorders Hormone Quantity Gland
Dwarfism GH Deficiency Pituitary
Gigantism GH Excess Pituitary
Acromegaly GH Excess Pituitary
Simmond's disease GH Deficiency Pituitary
Diabetes insipidus ADH Deficiency Piluitary
Cretinism Thyroxine Deficiency Thyroid
Simple goitre Thyroxine Deficiency Thyroid

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Myxoedema Thyroxine Deficiency Thyroid
Exophthalmic goitre Thyroxine Excess Thyroid

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Tetani Parathyroid Deficiency Parathyroid
Plurmmer's disease Thyroxine Deficiency
Addison's disease Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) Deficiency Adrenal cortex
and glucocorticoids (cortisol)
Crohn's disease
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Mineralocorticoids Excess Adrenal cortex
Cushing disease Corticosteroid Excess Adrenal cortex

Bacterial Diseases in Human Beings

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Disease Pathogen Affected Organ Symptom

Tuberculosis Mycobacterium Lungs Repeated coughing, high fever.
tuberculosis
Diphtheria Corynebacteriurn Respiratory tract Difficulty in respiration (mainly in
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diphtheriae child of age 2-5 yrs).

Whooping cough or Bacillus pertussis Respiratory Continuous coughing.
pertussis system
Vomiting, acute diarrhoea, mus
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Cholera Vibrio cholerae Intestine

Cular cramps, dehydration etc.
Leprosy or Hansern's Mycobacterium Chronic infection Ulcers, nodules, scaly scabs (the
disease leprae of skin and nenve infected part of the body
becomes senseless).
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Telanus (lock jaw) Clostridium telani Central nervous Painful oontraction of neck and
system jaw muscles followed by
paralysis of thoracic muscles.
Pneurnonia DiplococCUs Lungs Sudden chill, chest pain, cough,
pneumoniae high and fever.
Typhoid Salmonella typhi Intestine High fever, diarrhoea and
headache
Anthrax Bacillus anthracis Skin and intestine
Plague Pasteurella, Blood disease High fever, weakness and
Yersinia pestis haenorrhage which turn black.
) Bubonic plague
(ü) Pneurmonic plaque Lungs Haemorrhage of bronchi, lungs.
(ii) Septicemic Anaermia, fever,, chills leading to
plague death with in two days.
Gonorrhoea (sexual Neisseria Urinary tract Swelling in urinary tract
disease) gonorrhoea
446) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Viral Diseases in Human Beings

Disease Pathogen Affected Part Symptom
Measles (Aubella Rubella virus Whole body Loss of appetite, reddish eruption on
disease) the body
pox
Chicken Varicella virus Whole body High fever, reddish eruption on body.
Srmall pOx Variola virus Whole body Light fever, eruption of blood on body
Polio or Polio virus Throat, Fever, backbone and intestine wall
poliomyelitis backbone cells are destroyed. It leads to
and nerve paralysis.
Influenza (flu) Influenza virus Whole body Inflammation of upper respiratory tract,
nose throat and eyes.
Rabies RNA virus called Nervous Encephalitis, fear of water, high fever,

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(hydrophobia) rabies virus system headache, spasm of throat and chest
leading to death.

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Hepalitis (Epidermic Hepatitis virus Liver Loss of appetite, nausea, whitish stool
Jaundice) and jaundice.
() Hepatiis-A Hepatitis-A virus Not fatal
(i) Hepatitis-B Hepatitis-B virus Fatal
Dengue fever RNA containing Whole body, High fever, backache, headache,
dengue virus
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particularly retro-orbital pain behind the eye ball.
head, eyes
and joints
AIDS (Acquired HIV (Human White blood Weak immune system.
Immuno Deliciency Immuno cells
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Syndrome) Deficiency Virus)

Herpes Herpes virus Skin Swelling of skin.
Ebola virus disease Ebola Virus Whole body Fatal hermorrhagic fever, liver and
(filovirus) kidney disfunction vomiting, headache.
Whole body Headache, tiredness, sore throat,
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Swine influenza (flu) H,N, flu virus

(muscles) Vomiting, breathing problerns.
COVID 19 Novel Corona Respiratory Fever, dry cough, tiredness, aches and
Virus System pains, nasal congestion, headache,
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conjunctivitis, sore throat, diarrhoea,

loss of taste or smell or a rash on skin
or discoloration of fingers or toes.

Protozoan Diseases, their Vectors and Affected Part

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Disease Pathogen Vector Parts Affected and

(Causative agent) Symptoms
Pyorrhoea Entarnoeba gingivalis None, infection by Bleeding of gums.
lip kissing.
African Trypanosoma Tse-tse fly Blood and nervOus tissue.
trypanosomiasis garmbienes (Glossina palpalis) Man feels sleepy, may cause
death.
Amoebic dysenlery Entarmoeba None, Infection by Colon (intestine). Develop
(Amoebiasis) histolytica contamination. loose motion with blood, pain
in abdomen
Diarrhoea Giardia None, infection by Digestive system causes
contamination loose motions, vomitting.
Kala azar or Leishmania donovani Sand tlies Spleen and liver enlarge and
dumdum fever (Phlebotomus) high fever develops.
Filaria or Wuchereria bancrofti Culex mosquito Swelling of legs, testes and
elephantiasis other body parts.
Malaria Plasmodiurn sp. Female Anopheles Periodical attacks of high
mosquito fever, pain in joints
accompanied by chill, heavy
perspiration and fast pulse.
Fishes like cat ish, Garnbusia and aquatic birds eat mosquito larvae.
Quinone, a product of Cinchona tree, is administered for malaria.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 447

Fungal Diseases in Human Beings

Disease Pathogen (fungil Syrmptors
Asthma or aspergillosis Aspergillus furmigatus Obstruction in the functioning of lungs.
Athlete's foot Tinea pedis Skin disease, cracking of feet.
Scabies Acarus scabiei Skin itching and white spot on the skin.
Ringworm Tricophyton Verrucosum Round red spot on skin.
Baldness Tinea capitis Hair fall.

Some Immunological Tests and Diseases

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Test Disease Test Disease
Ames test Carcinogenecity Widal test Typhaid

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Dick test Scarlet fever Wayson stain test Plague
Montoux test Tuberculosis Tourniquet test Dengue fever
Rose-Waaler test Aheumatoid fever ELISA test AIDS
Wassermann test Syphilis
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Some iral Diseases in Animals
Animal Virus Disease
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Cow Variola vera Small pox

Buffalo Pox virido orthopox Small pox
Cow Blue tongue virus Blue tongue
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I Cow Herpes virus Herpes

Dog Street rabies virus Rabies

Vaccination
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• It is the process of artificial introduction of gerins or the germ substance called

antigen into the body for developing resistance a particular disease. The material
introduced into the body is called vaccine.
• A vaccine is a dead or weakened microbes. They are unable to produce disease as they
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are less in number but they stimulate the body to produce antibodies.
• World Health Organisation (WHO) in 1974 officially
launched a global vaccination
programme to protect children fromn six fatal diseases. Diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus,
polio, TB (Tuberculosis) and measles. It was launched in India in 1985.
• BCG (Bacillus Calmette Guerin) vaccine is given to protect against TB (Tuberculosis).
• DPT (diphtheria, Pertussis and Tetanus) vaccine is given to babies within first 6 weeks
of their birth.
Some Vaccines and their Doses
Age Vaocination Dose
Birth to DPT (triple vaccine, against Three doses (commonly oral) at
12 months diptheria, whooping cough/pertussis intervals of 4-6 weeks.
and telanus)
Polio (Sabin's oral, previously Salk's Three doses at intervals of 4-6
injectible)
weeks.
BCG (Bacillus Calmette Guerin) Intradermal and one vaccine
9-15 months Measles vaccine (MMR or Measles, One dose
Munps and Rubella)
448 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Age Vaocination Dose

8-24 months DPT Booster dose
Polio (oral) Booster dose
Cholera vaccine (can be repeated One
every year before summer)
5-6 years DT (Bivalent vaccine against Booster dose
diphtheria and tetanus)
TAB (vaccine against Salmonella Two doses at intervals of 1-2 months
typhi, S. paratyphi A and S paralyphi
B) or Typhoid Paratyphoid vaccine

10 years Telanus, TAB (typhoid) Boosler dose

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16 years Telanus, TAB Booster dose

a Glance)

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Human Body (At
.
Tolal nunber of muscles in the body 639
Total number of bones in the human body 206
Largest organ of human body Skin
Number of cells in body
ra 75 trillion
Longest bone Fermur (Thigh bone)
Smallest bone Ear-ossicle and stapes
Weight of brain 1424 g
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Blood volume 6.8 L (in 70 kg body)

Normal BP 120/80 Hgm

Hb content in body 500-700 gm

Blood platelets 200000-400000 per cubic mm
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Universal blood donor O Rh-(ve)

Universal blood recipient AB
Blood clotting time 2-5 minutes
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Normal body temperalue 98.4° F or 37°C

Breathing rate 16-20/minute
Dental formula Adult : 2123/2123 = 32
Child : 2120/2120 = 20 milk teeth
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Largest endocrine gland Thyroid

Largest muscle in the body Gluteus maximus (Buttock Muscle)
Greatest regeneration power In liver
Menopause age 40-50 years
Minimum regeneration power In brain cells

MinimUm distance for proper vision 25 om

Pulse rate 72/minute
Normal sperms cOunt 200-350 million/ejaculation
ESR (Eythrocyte Sedimentation Rate) 4-10 min/h
Thinnest skin Conjunctiva
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 449

Human Genetic Disorders

The important human genetic disorders can be categorised as follows
Human Genetic Disorder due to Autosomal Abnormalities
Disorder Chrornosome Effect
Complement
Down's Trisomy 21 (extra Short stalure, epicanthus, srmall round head, protruding
syndrome chromosome number) lower lip, flattened nasal bridge, mental retardation, short
life, daftiness.
Edward's Trisomy 18 (extra Long but narrow skull, small face, short digits, webbed
syndrorme chromosome number) neck, corneal opacity, mental retardation.

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Cri-du-chat Deletion is short arm of Microcephaly, encrusted distance between eyes, moon
syndrome chromosome 5 face, severe mental deficiency, cat like cry of neonale.

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Patau's Trisomy 13 (extra Lett plate and lip, polydactyl, mental retardation,
syndrome chromosome number) anomalies in dermal pattern, heart viscera and genitalia.

GENETICS
Some Important
It is the study of heredity
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and
variations. The term 'Genetics' was Genetic Terms
coined by W Bateson in 1905. Gregor Phenotype It is the physical appearance of an
Johann Mondel (commonly called individual.
Father of Genetics) proposed three
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Genotype It is the entire genetic complement

laws
of an individual organism.
(a) Law of Dominance It states that
Alleles The two individual genes in a
crossing of plant with red and particular gene pair that occupies same locus
white flower produced plants
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only with red flower ie., (position) on homologous pair of chromosome.

dominant trait and Dominant and Recessive Traits (inherited
ecessive disappeaar character) The traits may be dominant or
recessive depending upon the fact that on
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(b) Law of Segregation It states

crossing the individuals (which are
that allele of a gene separate a samne
during gamete formation. It is homozygous for particular trait of
also called law of purity of character the trait which appears in the
genetics or law of splitting of generation is called dominant and the other
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hybrids. It gives 3: 1 ratio in F, one is recessive.

generation. Hybrid An offspring, which is obtained from a
(c) Laww of Independent CrOSs between two genetically different
Assortment It states that tvo or parents.
more genes assort independently Linkage The phenomenon of genic
during inheritance. It gives 9 :3: inheritance in which genes of a particular
3 : 1 ratio in F generation. chromosome show their tendency to inherit
Linkage is an exception to this together, i.e., tendency to retain their parental
law. combination even in the offsprings is known as
•Test Cross The cross between linkage.
heterozygous F and homozygous Mutation It is a sudden change of a gene (gene
recessive is called test cross. In test mutation) or chromosome (chromosomal
cross, the monohybrid ratio is 1: 1 mutation) from one form to another, which are
and dihybrid ratio is l:1:1:1. passed to the daughter cells.
• Back Cross The cross between Heteroploidy It js the variation in
heterozygous F hybrid and chromosome number.
homozygous dominant allele is Pleiotropy It occurs when One gene
called back cross. influences multiple phenotypic traits.
450 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Human Genetic Disorder due to Abnormalities

in Sex-Chromosome Number
Narme Chromosormes Effect
Cornplement
Turner's 44+X0 (45) Phenotypically female, sterile due to undifferentiated
syndrome gonads, webbed neck, low posterior hair line
increased carrying angle of elbow, short slature.
Noonan's 44+ YO (45) Phenotypically male, short stature, webbed neck,
syndrome drooping upper eyelid, little development of gonads.
Super males 44+XYY (45) Male, tal, excess testosterone secretions,

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subnormal intelligence.
Super 44+XXX(47) Fermale, mental retardation, low fertility but genitalia
fermales normal.

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44+XXXX(48)
Klinefelter's 44+XXY(47) Male tall with long legs, some with gynecomastia,
syndrome 44+XXYY(48) small testes, azospermia, infertile, increased
excretion of gonadotropin.
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Human Genetic Disorder due to Gene Mutations in Autosomes
(Chromosome that is not a sex chromosome)
Disorder Dorminant/ Autosomal/ Syrmptorms Effect
recessive Sex-linked
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Phenylketonuria Recessive Autosomal Failure of brain to Defective form of

(chromosome 12) develop infancy enzyme phenyl
mental relardation. alanine hydroxylase.
Sickle-cell Recessive Autosomal Aggregation of Abnormal
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anaemia (chromsome 11) erythrocytes, more haemoglobin in

rapid destruction of RBCs
erythrocytes leading
to anaemia.
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Haemophilia Recessive Sex-linked Failure of blood to Defective form of

A/B (X-chromosome) clot. blood clotting factor
VIII/NX.

Colour Recessive Sex-linked Failure to Defect in either red

or/and green cones.
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blindness (X-chromosome) discriminate between

red and green colour.
Huntington's Dorminant Autosomal Gradual degeneration Production of an
disease (chromosome 4) ofbrain tissue in inhibitor of brain cell
middle ages. melabolism.
Cystic tibrosis Recessive Autosomal Mucus clogging in Failure of chloride
(chromosome 7) lungs, liver and ion transport
pancreas anomalies. mechanism.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 451

Biotechnology
It deals with technique of using live Golden Rice
micro-organisms, their parts or processes for
. It is a variety of Oryza
sativa (rice)
the manufacture of useful or commercial produced through genetic engineering
substances. It has two core techniques i.e., to biosynthesise beta-carotene,
genetic engineering and technique to precursor of pro-vitamin-A in the
facilitate the growth and multiplication of edible parts of rice. Golden rice was
only desired microbes. In genetic engineering
developed as a fortified food to be used
(also called recombinant DNA technology)
in areas, where there is a shortage of
restriction endonucleases are very useful.

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diet having vitamin-A.
They cleave the DNA at specific locations •
called restriction sites. Golden Rice 2 produces up to 23

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• Vectors are organisms or times more beta-carotene than the
their parts used to original variety of golden rice. Golden
transfer the desired DNA from One rice was created by Ingo Potrykus of
organism to another. The common vectors
are bacteriophage, cosmids, phagemids, the Institute of Plant Sciences at the
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology.
plasmids etc.
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working with Peter Beyer of the
• Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) University of Freiburg.
developed by Kary Mullis (1983) can clone •
or amplify the small amount of DNA. It Carotene impart orange colour to
carrots and is the reason why
involves denaturation, primer annealing
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genetically modified rice is golden. For

and polymerisation the definite
the golden rice to make beta-carotene,
sequence.
three new genes are inserted: two from
and the third from a
Applications of Biotechnology daffodils
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bacterium.
A number of transgenic plants, medicines,
acids are produced through genetic FlayT Savr
engineering. By the use of antisense RNA technology
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Bt Cotton the enzyme polygalacto-uronase, which

causes damage to pectin is deactivated
It was developed to reduce the heavy reliance and the tomato is kept fresh for longer
on pesticides. The bacterium Bacillus duration.
thuringiensis (Bt) naturally produces a
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chemical harmful only to a small fraction of Canola

insects.
It is either of rape seed (Brassica napus
Bt Brinjal L) or field mustard (Brassica campestris
L or Brassica rapavar). Its nodes are
It is a transgenic brinjal (also known as an egg used to produce edible oil suitable for
plant or aubergine) created by inserting a consumption by humans and livestock.
crystal protein gene (Cry IAc) from the soil The oil is also suitable as biodiesel.
bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis into the
genome of various brinjal varieties. Dairy Products
• Cheese is prepared by the coagulation
Bacillus thuringiensis (B0) of casein and other minor milk
It is Gram positive, soil-dwelling bacterium, proteins (curdling of milk) by an
commonly used as a biological pesticide. The Cry enzyme rennin extracted from calf
toxin found in the bacterium is extracted and used gastric mucosa.
as a pesticide. It also OccUrs naturally in the gut of
Streptococcus and Lactobacillus
caterpillars of various types of moths and species are involved in the
butterflies, as well as on the dark surfaces of plants. manufacture of most cheese.
 452) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science

• In cheese manufacture, Biochips allow rapid screening of gene

micro-organisms are important in both profiles, a tool that promises to have a
sOuring and ripening processes. revolutionary impact on medicine and
• Semisoft blue Roquefort cheese of society.
France is produced using the mold •Biochips can help in identifying precise
Penicillium rogueforti. forms of cancer.
• Yoghurt is a preserved milk product Gene therapy is the treatment of disease
having a distinct taste and a thick by replacing, altering or supplementing a
texture than milk. gene whose absence or abnormality is
• Yoghurt is made by fermenting whole responsible for the disease. Gene therapy is
milk with a mixture of Lactobacillus unique as it employs the genetic material,

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bulgaricus, Streptococcus lactis and S. i.e. DNA, itself as the means of treatment.
thermophilus at 40 to 46°C. DNA inger printing is the technique, in

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which the banding pattern of DNA
Vitamins fragments is compared and can be used in
many species, including human, to indicate
• Vitamin C was the first vitamin to be
produced by a fermentation process relativity. (used for rape victim, paternity,
using Acetobacter, a wild bacterium. other criminals).
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• Bacteria used for
industrial production Human insulin or humulin is the first
of vitamin-Bg are propionibacterium genetically engineered pharmaceutical
product, developed by Eli Lilly and
shermanii, P freundenreichii and company in 1982.
Pseudomonas denitrificans. .
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• Vitamin-B, (Riboflavin) is synthesised Genentech, a California-based company,

by many micro-organisms including
have produced human growth hormone
(hGH) from genetically engineered
bacteria, yeasts and fungi. The fungus, bacteria.
Ashbya gossypii is used for the
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microbial produetion of vitamin-B,. Somatostatin is the first polypeptide,

which was expressed in E coli as a part of
Biotechnologies in the fusion peptide.
• BST or Bovine Somatotropin is produced
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Human Health in a large quantity from milk production in

• Monoclonal antibodies are made coWs.
outside the body by the hybrid cell . In 1997, a transgenic cow Rosie'
cultures known as hybridomas. produced human alpha-lactalbumin
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• Monoclonal antibodies (mAb) ale

protein enriched milk (2.4 grams per litre).
antibodies that are identical because It is possible to cure phenylketonuria
they were produced by one type of disease by using recombinant DNA
immune cell and are all clones of a techniques in early period of pregnancy.
single parent cell.
Urokinase is involved in dissolution of
•A biochip is a on discrete collection of blood clots. It has been synthesised in huge
gene fragments a stamp-sized chip
quantity by using genetically engineered
that can be used to screen for the bacteria with urokinase genes.
presence of particular gene variants.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 453

Organic Acids Synthesised by Various Microbes

Organic Acid Micro-organism
Lactic acid Lactobacillus delbreuki, L bulgaricus, Streptococous lactis and
Rhizopus species
Acetic acid (vinegar) Acetobactor aceti
Citric acid Aspergillus niger, Penicilliurn sp and Mucor sp.
Gluconic acid Aceobacter aceti, Aspergillus niger, Peniciliurm and Chrysogenum
Propionic acid Propionibacterium
Butyric acid Clostridium acetobutylicum

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Oxalic acid Aspergillus sp.
Gallic acid Aspergillus niger

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Sorme amino acids Escherichia coli

Types of Antibiotic with their Source and Action

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Antibiotics Source Action
Penicilin Penicillium chrysogenum, Tonsiliis, Sore Throat, Gonorrhea,
P notatum + Phenyl Acetic Rheumatic Fever, some Pneumonia types
Acid
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Griseofulvin Penicillium griseofulvum Antiungal, especially for Ringworm

Nystatin Streptomyces noursei Antifungal for Candidiasis and overgrowth
of Intestinal Fungi during excessive
antibiotic treatment.
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Hamycin Streptomyces pimprina Antifungal Antibiotic

Fumagillin Apergillus furnigatus Broad spectrum antibaclerial especially
against Salrmonella and Shigella.
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Bacitracin Bacillus licheniformis Syphilis, Lymphonema or Reticulosis.

Streplomycin Streptomyces griseus Meningitis, Pneumonia, Tuberculosis and
Local Infection. Toxic in some, through
eighth oranial nerve.
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Chlorarmphenicol Streptormyces venezuelae, Typhoid, Typhus, Whooping cough,

Chloromycetin S. lavendulae Atypical Pneumonia, Bacterial Urinary
Infections.

Tetracyclines/ Streptomyces aureofaciens Viral pneumonia, Osteomyelitis,Whooping

Aureomycin Cough. Eye infections.
Oxytetracycline/ Chlorotetracycline Intestinal and Urinary Infections
Terramycin Hydrogenation Streptomyces (Spirochaeles, Ricketsia, Viruses)
rimosuS
Erythromycin Streptomyces erythreus Typhoid, Common Pneumonia,
(= S. erythraeus) Diphtheria, Whooping Cough etc.
Gentaycin Micromonospora purpurea Eftective against Gram (+) bacteria
Polymixin Bacillus polymyxa Antifungal

pasteurised (preserved) by boiling it at 62.8° for 30 minutes (Low Termperature Holding

* Milk is
method or LTH) or at 71.7.°C for 15 seconds (high temperature holding method). These
treatments kill all bacteria.
 454 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Botany
• It is
the branch of biology which PLANT MORPHOLOGY
deals with plants, which are plant morphology represents a study of the
considered as multicellular development. form and structure of plants and by
ulcerates. The cells of these implication, an attempt to interpret these on the
organisms contain a cell wall basis of similarity of plan and origin.
made up of cellulose and other
polysaccharides. Plants have the Classification of Plants
ability to synthesise their own Plant classification is the placing of known

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food (autotrophic) in the
presence of sunlight, via the plants into groups or categories to show their
process of photosymthesis. relationship.

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.
Plants have two main groups i.e., Thus, plants are classified into group having
same characteristics.
cryptogams (lower plants
without well defined flowers and Thallophyta A phylum of plants of very
diverse habit and structure, e.g., Algae, fungi
seeds) and phanerogams (higher
and lichens.
plants with well defined flowers
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and seeds). Bryophytes Have stems and leaves but lack
• Cryptogams further contains true vascular tissue and reproduce by spores
thallophytes and pteridophytes e.g., Mosses, hornworts, liverworts etc.
with bryophytes in between. Pteridophytes Vascular plants with leaves,
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Here, thallophytes means those stems and roots, but lack both seeds and
plants which have thallus like flowers, e.g., Ferns, Lycopodium, horsetails etc.
body i.e., without roots, leaves Gymnosperms Group of seed producing
and stem e.g., algae, fungi, plants. A plant that has seeds unprotected by an
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bacteria etc. ovary or fruit, e.g., Conifer, cycads, pine tree etc.
• All the plants of cryptogams are
Angiosperms (Vascular plants) A major group
considered as primitive as these of flowering plants. Their characteristics are the
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do not have well defined features

possession of protected seeds or fruits, e.g.,
of plants like presence of phloem Rose, tulip, tomatoes etc.
(a tissue for food transport) and
presence of xylem (a tissue for
water transport etc). Virus
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• Phanerogams are well defined The term virus was given by Pasteur. Virus was
advanced plants vith proper roots, discovered by lwanowski in the extract of diseased
leaves and stem and well tobacco plant. Virus is a nucleoprotein entity which
differentiated tissue system. These not have machinery of its own but can utilise the
can be categorised as synthetic machinery of living cell of other organisms for
Gymnosperms (Naked Seed) and its multiplication. Virus is considered to be a cellular,
(Covered seed) i.e. without a cell.
Angiosperms
plants. Bacteria
Algae like Nostoc, Anabaena etc are Basically, bacteria are unicellular prokaryotes. Their
Used asS manure.
cell wall is generally, made up of peptidoglycans and
polysaccharides. Genetic material is not organised into
Sphagnum a genus of mosses is
nucleus, i.e. a primitive nucleus is present (without a
used as fuel and antiseptic. nuclear membrane). All membrane bound cell

organelles are absent.

• Some plants catch insects to
fulfill their nitrogen requirement. Flagella, if present is single-stranded, made up of
protein flagellin.
Such plants are called
insectivorous plants. Gamete formation is absent.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~General Science 455)

PARTS OF A PLANT Stem

Different parts of a plant perform different It is the ascending organ of the plant,
function. Accordingly they are divided into which is formed by the elongation of
root, stem, leaves, flower, fruits and seeds. plumule. Thus, stem is that part of the
plant, which originates from plumule and
goes towards sunlight opposite to the
Root
It is that part of plant body, which develops ravity.
from radicle and grows down into the earth.
UndergTOund Modifications
It gives secondary and tertiary roots.
Plants have two types of root systems In the adverse conditions underground
stems store their food and become

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1. Tap root develop
from radicle, normally thickened and tuberous.
found in dicot plants.
Various types of modifications can be
2. Adventitious root with a main tap root described

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as
that is larger and grows faster than the Stem
branch roots. tuber Potato
Bulb Onion, garlic, tulips, lilies etc.
Modification of Tap Roots Corm Gladiolus, Crocus sativus
root
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thickened saffron etc.
Conical This type of is
towards base but thin near the side of the Rhizome Ginger, turmeric, arrow root
plant, e.g., Carrot. etc.
Napiform This type of root is very broad at Subaerial Modifications
the top and tapering like a tail at the bottom,
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e.g., turnip, beet root etc. There are various types of modifications
Pusilorm This type of oot is inflated in the etISts im such types of stem
middle portion, while thin towards bottom Runner Grass root, Mereilia etc.
Stolon Mint, jasmine, stravwberry etc.
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and top, e.g., Radish.

Pneumatophores This type of root is found Offset Water hyacinth, Pistia etc.
in salty soil near the sea and for the Sucker Pudira, chrysanthemum etc.
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respiratory activities, it undergoes toward

negative geotropism, e.g., Rhizophora, plant Aerial Modifications
Sundari etc. Various aerial modifications are:
Mycorrhizal These roots are known from Stem tendril Grape
90% of plant species and are mutualistic Stem thorn Lemon, oses, jujube plum
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association of a fungus with plant root tissue. or Chinese date

Most plants require specific mycorrhizal fungi Phylloclade Cactus
without, which they are unable to absorb
sufficient quantities of P Zn and Mn. Bulbils Ruscus.
The fungus takes the place of root hairs and Leaf
may penetrate the cortex completely
(endomnycorrhizae) or remain on the surface It is a green part, its main function is to
of the root (ectomycorrhizae). make food through photosynthesis and
respiration. Leaves are mainly of two
Functions of Root types
• Keeps the plants static. 1. Simple Leaf A leaf having one blade
. but blade is not divided, e.g., mango.
Transports water and mineral salts to the
stem and ultimately to the leaves. 2. Compound Leaf A leaf with more
• than one blade. All blades are
Absorbs water and mineral salts from attached to a single leaf stem, e.g.,
the soil. Rose, orange etc.
 456) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science

Partsof a Typical Leaf

Leaf Base It is the lowermost part of the leaf, borne onto the node of the stem or its
branches.
Petiole The stalk of leaf that connects the lamina with the stem or its branch is
called petiole.
Lamina It is the terminal, flattened, green and conspicuous part of a leaf and is
specialised to manufacture food (photosynthesis).
Differences between Stem and Root
Stern Root

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Cuticle or cutinised outer walls of epidermal Cuticle or outinised outer walls absent.
cells present.

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Epidermis is protective in function. Epidermis (young) is absorptive in function. It is
called epiblerna or rhizodermis.
Stomata is present in epidermis. Stomata is absent in epiblema.
Stem hairs are additional cells, i.e., they do Root hairs are tubular outgrowths of the epiblerna
not arise as outgrowths of epidernal cells. (epidermal) cells.
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Chloroplasts may be present in some outer Chloroplast almost absent.
cells of the cortex.
Cortex narrow. Cortex broad.
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Endodermis is inconspiCuOus. Endodermis is onspicuOUs.

Pericycle not involved in secondary growth. Pericycle actively involved in root branches
formation and in secondary growth.
Xylern characteristically endarch. Xylem characteristically exarch.
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Xylem and phloem fibres presernt. Xylem and phloem fibres usually absent.
Secondary growth, if occurs, takes place by Secondary growth, if present, takes place by
primary carmbium, which is both secondary cambium, the conjunctive parenchyma
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interfascicular and intrafasoicular. and pericycle slart meristermatic activity and

participate.

Inflorescence Cymose Inflorescence

The arrangement of lowers on a floral n
cymose inflorescence, the main axis ends
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axis is called inflorescence. The portion of in a flower, since the peduncle stops growing.
stem that bear cluster of flowers is called The flowers show basipetal succession.
peduncle and the stalk of individual flower Inflorescence
is called pedicel. The inflorescence has Common Racemose
been classified into five distinct types and thneir Presence
according to modes of branching and Inflorescence Presence
modification of peduncle.
Spike Adhatoda
Solitary
Racemose Spikelet Grasses
Cymose Catkin Morus
Mixed Spadix Banana and maize
Specialized Corymb Iberis amara (candy tuft)
Out of four, two types are most important. Capitulum (head) Sunllower
Special Intlorescence and their
Racemose Inflorescence presence
In racemose inflorescence, the main axis Oyathium Euphorbiaceae family
is capable of continuous growth. The Verticillaster Ocirmum and LeucUs
flowers show acropetal succession on the Hypanthodium Ficus
main axis.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 457)

FLOWER Pollination
It is a modified shoot that consists of Transfer of pollens from stamens to stigma
accessary whorls (calyx and corolla) and is called pollination.
essential whorls (androecium and It is of two types
gynoecium). The plant, which bears both
male and female Alower is called Selt-pollination
monoecious, while separate plants with Transfer of pollen from stamen to the
one type of flower are called dioecious. stigma of same flower or different flower of
the same plant.
Calyx
The outermost whorl consisting of units Cross-pollination

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called sepals; these are typically green and In this, pollen reach from anther of one
enclose the rest of the lower in the bud flower to the stigma of different flower of

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stage, however, they can be absent or same species. This is done with the help of
prominent and petal-like in some species. air, water, insects or animals (agents of
pollination). In most flowers, maximum
Corolla pollination occurs by the method of
The next whorl toward the apex, composed anemophily (by mind). In this mode,
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of units called petals, which are typically pollen-loss is maximum.
thin, soft and coloured to attract animals
that help the process of pollination. Fruits
It is ripened ovary of flower. The fruit may
Androecium
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be true (formed from ovary alone) or false

The next whorl, consisting of units called (developed from other part offlower except
stamens. It consist of two parts-a stalk Ovary). These are of three main types,
i.e.

called a filament, topped by an anther, simple, aggregate and composite.

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where pollen is produced by meiosis and Simple Fruit

eventually dispersed.
A simple fruit always develops from a single
Gynoecium ovary containing one or more carpels and
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•
The innermnost whorl of a flower. may or may not include additional
accessory floral (perianth)
modified
consisting of one or more units called
SlTuctures. In addition, a simple fruit is
carpels. The carpel or multiple fused an elther fleshy or dry. Fleshy fruits are edible
carpels form a hollow structure called are seen in the fresh fruit and
ovary which produces ovules internally. and
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• Ovules are megasporangia and they in market.

vegetable section of your local super
turn produce megaspores by meiosis,
which develop into female Aggregate Fruits
gametophytes. These give rise to egg These are groups of simple fruits, developed
cells. from multicarpellary or polycarpellary
• The gynoecium of a flower is also apocarpous ovary of a flower: These are
described using an alternative etaerio of follicle, etaerio of achenes, etaerio
terminology, wherein the structure one of berries and etaerio of drupes.
sees in the innermost whorl (consisting
of an ovary, style and stigma) is called Composite Fruits
a pistil. A
composite or multiple fruit develops from
• A pistil may consist of a single carpel or a the complete inflorescence. These are of

number of carpels fused together. The tUo types

sticky tip of the pistil, the stigma, is the Sorosis A multiple fruit derived from just
receptor of pollen. The supportive stalk, the pistils of many unisexual flowers of an
the style, becomes the pathway for pollen inflorescence, e.g., Mulberry, jackfruit,
tubes to grow from pollen grains pineapple etc.
adhering to the stigma.
 458) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Syconus A multiple fruit derived from Crop rotation also mitigates the build-up of
numerous ovaries borne on the inside of pathogens and pests that often occurs,
the flesby receptacle of an inflorescence. when one species is continuously cropped
Also in accessory ruit, the fleshy portion of and can also improve soil structure and
the fruit is formed by the hollow peduncle fertility by alternating deep-rooted and
of the (inside-out) inflorescence, e.g., shallow-rooted plants.
peepal, gular.
Intensive Cropping
Seeds It refers to efficient use of water, nutrients
Seed is a fertilised mature ovule that and tillage. The interdependence of and
possesses an embryonic plant. synergies among water, nutrients and
energy in regard to increasing crop

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There are two types of seeds
preferred.
Non-endospermic seeds non-albuminous performance is generally

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seed Endosperm is absent in this seed
and stores their food material in Main Crops for Rotations
cotyledons, e.g., Gram, pea. One yearly Paddy and wheat
Endospermic or albuminous seed These Two yearly Maize and cotton
possess endosperm and store their food in
Three yearly Tomato and lady's finger
it, e.g., Castor, maize, rice.
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Four yearly Cotton and wheat

AGRICULTURE Zero Tillage

• Agriculture is derived from Latin words
It is a way of growing crops from year to year
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Ager and Cultura. Ager means land or

field and Cultura means cultivation. without disturbing the soil through tillage.
Therefore, the term Agriculture means No-tillis an agricultural technique, which
cultivation of land, ie., the science and increases the amount of water and organic
art of producing crops and livestock for matter (nutrients) in the soil and decreases
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economic purposes. erosion. It increases the amount and variety

• It was the key development in the rise of of life in and on the soil.
sedentary human civilisation. whereby t has two distnctive features
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farming of domesticated species created Sole Cropping It is to cultivate a pure

food surpluses that nurtured the variety of crop.
development of civilisation. Monoculture Planting a sole crop in a
field regularly but harvest it single in a
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AGRONOMY year.
The branch of agriculture that deals with Companion Planting/Cropping
field Crop production and soil It is the planting of different crops in
management. Agronomists generally work proximity on the theory that they assist each
with that are grown on a large scale in nutrient uptake, pest control,
(e.g. Small orains) and that require nollination and other factors necessary in
relatively little management. Agonomic increasing crop productivity.
experiments focus on a variety of factors
relating to crop plants, including yield, Intercropping
diseases, cultivation and sensitivity to It is the practice of growing two or more
factors such as climate and soil.
crops in proximity. It is particularly
Cropping Pattern important not to have crops competing with
each other for physical space, nutrients,
Crop Rotation water or sunlight.
It is the practice of growing a series of The most common goal of intercroppirng is
dissimilar types of crops in the same area to produce a greater yield on a given piece of
in sequential seasons. It confers various land by making use of resources that would
benefits to the soil. otherwise not be utilised by a single crop.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 459)

Multiple Cropping Organic farming uses fertilisers and

pesticides but strictly limits the use of
It is the practice of growing two or more crops synthetic fertilisers, pesticides, plant
in the same space during a single growing growth regulators such as hormones,
season.
livestock antibiotics, food additives
It can take the form of double-cropping, in and genetically modified organisms.
which a second crop is planted after the first
has been harvested or relay cropping, in which Blanching
the second crop is started amidst the first crop the voung shoots of a plant are
In it.
before it has been harvested. covered to exclude light to prevent
photosynthesis, which would produce
Farming System chlorophyll and thus, remain pale in

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Mixed Farming colour. Blanched vegetables have a
It is one in which crop production is combined
more delicate flavour and texture than

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with the rearing of livestock. The livestock unblanched.
enterprises are complementary to crop
production, so as to provide balance and
a SEED SCIENCE
productive system of farming. • It is a basic and most important input
ra of agriculture. A good quality seed is
Ranching one, which is free from adulterants,
It is the practice of raising the grazing livestock diseased or insect-pest infestations,
such as cattles, sheep or poultry. The area is which hinder or reduce the quality of
kknown as ranch and the practice is called a seed.
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ranching. The ranching and cowboy tradition .

The era of hybridisation of seeds
originated in Spain. During the Reconquista in started after 1930. The hybrid seeds
middle ages the Spanish nobles got huge lands are the cross breeded seeds, which
on granmts. are artificially developed so as to have
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Terrace Farming the desirable characters. While

developing a hybrid seed, it goes
It is a piece of sloped land, which has been through the various developmental
landscaped in such a way that, the practice of
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stages.
farming can be easily carried out. These are
Generally, this type of farming is done in the
mountain regions along the slope. The land is Nuclear Seed It is initial pure seed
cutout along the slope and terraces are made. of an improved variety available with
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This system is more common in North-Eastern the breeder.

hilly tracts of India. Breeder's Seed It is the seed
obtained from the progeny
Truck Farming (generation) of nucleus seed.
(Marketing Gardening) -
Foundation Seed The breeder
It is a horticultural practice of growing fruits, seeds grown on State Government
vegetables, etc., on commercial basis, in trucks farms and agriculture umiversities
for direct delivery to big restaurants, hotels and under scientific observations and
motels. This technique was evolved by the check.
english speaking farmers, who referred them Registered Seed The seeds grown
as truck farms in 19th century.
from nucleus, breeder's and
foundation seeds.
Organic Farming
Organic agriculture means a process of Certiied Seed The seeds certified
developing viable and sustainable before release as a new variety
agroecosystem. It is an agricultural practice having all the desirable characters.
that relies on crop rotation, green manure,
compost and biological pest control.
460 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Synthetic and Composite Traitor Technology

Seed Varieties In this technology, to make the induced
gene active, certain chemicals are used.
• Synthetic variety: It is a variety Many Multi National Corporations
developed by selecting a number of inbred (MNCS) are trying to bring this in India
lines with good General Combinig Ability
(GCA). Synthetic varieties and environmentalists are opposing it.
can be
developed by using clones or inbreeds, Crop
e.g., ICMS 7703. Diversification
• It is intended to give a wider choice in the
Composite variety: It is a variety that is Droduction of a variety crops in a
of given
developed by mixing of seeds of various area so as to expand production related

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outstanding inbred lines, which have activities on various crops
and also to
similar characteristics. So, the exact lessen risk. Crop diversification in India is
reconstitution of composite variety is not generally viewed as

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shift from
possible, e.g., Sona, Shakti, African tall etc. traditionally grOWn less remunerative
Hybrid Seed Crops to more remunerative crops.
.
It is produced by cross-pollinated plants. AGROFORESTRY
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In hybrid seed production, the crosses are
specific and controlled. The advantage of It is an integrated approach of using the
growing hybrid seed compared to inbred interactive benefits from combining trees
lines conmes from heterosis.
and shrubs with crops and/or livestock. It
. To combines agricultural and forestry
produce hybrid seed, elite inbred technologies to create more diverse,
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varieties are crossed with well

productive, profitable, healthy and
documented and consistent phenotypes sustainable land-use systems. A narrow
(such as yield) and the resulting hybrid definition of agroforestry is trees on farms.
seed is collected.
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Vermicomposting
Artificial Seed using worms to transform
Itis a method of
It is encapsulated plant propagule (somatic organic waste into nutrient-rich
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embryo/shoot bud) in a suitable matrix, fertiliser. It is a healthy and clean way to

containing substances like nutrients, growtheliminate wastes going into our landfills,
regulators, herbicides, insecticides, which improves the environment.
fungicides and mycorrhizae, which will Vermicomposting is inexpensive and only
allow and help it to grow into a complete talkes two to three months to
produce
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plantlet.
results.
Genetically Modified Seeds Plant Preservation
It is that they have been altered or modified, Like other organisms plants can also be
through biotechnology to have their genetic infected with the disease. All these
structure changed. This is LUSually
accomplished by either adding or taking disease causing agents are called Pests.
Main causative agents are virus, bacteria
away genes of the original.
and fungi. As for example, wheat is
Terminator Seed infected with rust and smut. In paddy
generally blast is found, which is spread by
The term Terminator seeds as it applies to Gandhi bug. In cotton, bollworm causes
the area of agriculture can be defined as a disease.
descriptive term used by some for seeds that Keeping fruits and vegetables fresh for a
have been genetically engineered to produce longer period without hampering its
a crop whose first generation produces
physical and chemical properties, is
sterile seeds, thus preventing a second called fruits and vegetables preservation.
generation from being grown from seeds Essential Commodities Act, 1955 has
saved from the first. Part-3 for its revelation.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science 461

Methods of Preservation gaining resistance to chemicals produced

by the plant or applied to the crops. By
Various methods of preservation are not killing all the pests there are some
Low Temperature un-resistant pests left that will dilute any
Microbes become inactive at low temper resistant genes that appear.
ature. We can keep them in freezer:
Preventive Cultural Practices
Pasteurisation Selecting varieties best for local growing
crops is
It is a mild heating treatment at conditions and maintaining healthy
temperatures up to 100°C (which is the the first line of defence, together with plant
as
boiling point of water at elevations up to quarantine and cultural technigues such
crop

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300 metres above sea level). This method sanitation (e.g., removal of diseased
causes only a slight decrease in taste and plants to prevent spread of infection).

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nutritional value. Pasteurised products
therefore spoil faster than sterilised Monitoring
products. Regular observation is the cornerstone of IPM.
Observation is broken into two steps, first
Canning inspection and second, identifhcation. Visual
spore traps and other
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There are two primary mnethods of canning inspection, insect and
A hot water bath and pressure canning measurement methods and monitoring tools
are used to monitor pest levels.
which ever method you use, be sure to use
jars with lids made specifically for that Since, insects are cold-blooded, their
technique. Glass canning jars, which are physical development is dependent on the
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reusable, come in various sizes (most are temperature of their environment. Many
single pints or quarts), so cho0se one that insects have had their development cycles
best suits your canning needs. modelled in terms of degree days. Monitor
the degree days of an environment to
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Integrated Pest determime when is the optimal time for a

specific insect's outbreak.
Management (IPM)
It is an ecological approach to agricultural Responsible Pesticide Use
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pest control that integrates

pesticides/herbicides into a management Synthetic pesticides are generally used as
system incorporating a range of practices required and often only at specific times in a
pest life cycle.
for economic control of a pest. An IPM
system is designed around sir basic
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conponents Locust Control and Research

Acceptable Pest Levels On seeing the grave situation of locust
. attack, a warning centre as, locust warning
The emphasis is on control, not organisation has been created, at Jodhpur.
eradication. IPM programmes irst work It has locust surveillance and monitoring
to establish acceptable pest levels, called through 5 circle offices and 23 outposts.
action thresholds and apply controls if
those thresholds are crossed. IPM holds Mechanical Controls
that wiping out an entire pest population They include simple hand-picking, erecting
is often impossible and the attempt can insect barriers, using traps, vacuuming and
be expensive and environmentally unsafe. illage to disrupt breeding.
•
These thresholds are pest and site
specific, meaning that it may be Biological Controls
acceptable at one site to have a weed The main focus for biological control is on
such as white clover, but at another site promoting beneficial insects that eat target
it may not be acceptable. pests. Biological insecticides, derived from
• By allowing a pest population to survive naturally occurring microorganisms
at a reasonable threshold, selection (e.g., Bt, entomopa-thogenic fungi and
pressure is reduced. This stops the pest entomo- pathogenic nematodes).
462) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Animal Husbandry
The rearing of animals for specific • Mehsana It is found in Mehsana, Sabar
purposes is called domestication and Kantha, Palanpur and Banaskatha. It
such animals are called domestic gives 8-9 L milk per day. 8-13% fat is
animals. Domestication of animals present in its milk. It is considered as a
started during the hunting and gathering hybrid of Murrah and Surti breeds.
phase of human civilisation. .
Surti It found in Gujarat, South-West
part, Anand, Nadiad and Vadodara. It
BUFFALOES gives on an average 1700 L milk per year.

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Bubalus bubalis is its scientific name. 8-12% fat is available in its milk.
Generally, it is assumed that India is place • Nagpuri or EIlichpuri It found in
of its origin. There are two types breeds of

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Nagpur, Akola and Amrawati. It gives on
buffaloes an average 1000-1200 L milk per year.
7-8% fat is present in its nilk.
Exotic or Marshy •
Tarai It found in Tarai belt of Ramnagar,
These are generally found in Myanmar, Tanakpur. It gives about 900-1200 L milk
Malaysia,
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Philippines, Thailand, in a year.
Singapore, Indonesia, China. These are • Manda It found in the boundary of
used for cart mainly. Its breeds are Mondosa and Parlakimedi mountain.
Jerangi, Kuhzestani, Ongole, Sinhala, Male is used for carrying heavy loads.
Manofi, Suinue and Walede.
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• Toda It found on the Nilgiri

mountain in
Aquatic or Indian Tamil Nadu. It gives about 4-8 L milk per
day.
These are heavy or light weighted and
generally preferred to stay in water. It has COWS
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low heat-tolerancce capacity.

These ae again categorised into twUo types Bos Scientific name of cow is Bos indicus and
taurus. In India, 30 varieties of cows are
present. Rearing of cow and bull is preferred
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Heavy Weight Buffaloes

in India. 16% of the world cow and bull are
It includes three breeds present in India.
•Jaffrabadi Its place of origin is Varieties of Cows
supposed to be at Junagarh, Kutch and
Jamnagar of Gujarat. It gives 15-18 L Some varieties of cows are as follows
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milk per day. Its milk contains 7-9% fat.

•
Humped Indian Breeds
Murrah It found generally in Punjab,
Haryana, Delhi, Rajasthan, Uttar These are high milk-yielding and their calves
are not used for agricultural purposes.
Pradesh etc. It generally gives about 25 L
milk per day. Following are its important breeds
.
Nli Ravi It is found mainly in Sahiwal Actually ound in Mont- Gomari
Ferozpur of Punjab. Horns are small, in Pakistan. In India, it is found in Punjab,
white spots on mouth and head. Gives Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and
on an average l500-1800 L milk per Bihar. It gives around 2150 L milk in a year.
year. 4-6% is content of fat in its milk.
Red Sindhi Found i Allahabad,
Light Weight Bufffaloes Guwahati, Bengaluru. It gives around 5440
L milk in a year.
It includes following breeds
• Bhadawari It is Gir Generally found in Junagarth,
generally found in Kathiawad, Mumbai, Pune, Ahmedabad,
Etawah, Agra, Gwalior and surrounding Hyderabad. Oxen are very strong.
areas. It gives 4.5 Lmilk per day. 12-14%% 1746 L It gives
milk on an average. Fat content is
fat is found in its milk. Male buffaloes 4-5% in its milk.
are used as load carrying cattle.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science 463

Deoni Similar to Gir breed. It gives SHEEP

1600-1650 L milk in a year. Fat content is
4-5% in its milk. There are many breeds of sheep (0vis
aries) in our country. Today sheeps are
Dual Purpose Breeds raised in all parts of the world. Sheep
These breeds give more milk along wih its provides us with wool, skin and mutton.
calf is very useful in ploughing. Followina are A sheep lives for about 13 years.
its breeds
. Exotic Breeds of Sheep
Haryana It found in Rohtak, Haryana. It •
give 1000-1100 Lmilk in a year. Maximun Merino This is the main
milk yielding capacity is 3178 kg/yr Calf is representative of the Merino breed in

e
best for ploughing activities. Australia and is found in extremely
• Nimari It mainly found in Khargaun. high number throughout New South
Wales, Queensland, Victoria and

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Oxen are very strong. Western Australia.
• Tharparkar It mainly found in Kutch, South Devon The South Devon is a
Marwar and Northern Mumbai. It is also
in longwool and meat breed which
known as Thari. Its average milk yielding originated in South Devon and
capacity is 1474 kg. Cornwall in England. They are of the
ra
English Longwool type and are similar
Load Carrying Breeds to Devon Longwoolled but are larger.
.
Nageri Main place of origin is believed to Both sexes are polled and are naturally
be Rajasthan. Now maximum found in hornless.
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Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab. Lincoln It is found in England and it

Famous for fast walk and heavy load. is useful for wool and meat.
• Malvi Main place of origin is Uttar
Corriedale It is mainly found in New
Pradesh, now also found in Madhya Zealand and Australia. It is useful for
ie

Pradesh and in Rajasthan.

wool and meat.
• Amritmahal It found în Mysore of Romney Marshy The Romney
Karnataka. These breeds are fast running Marshy are found in England.
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and quick.
Romney wool has the finest fibre
• Gangatiri Main place of origin is Uttar diameter of all the longwool breeds.
Pradesh. These are very Iseful for These are mainly used for wool
agricultural practices. production.
• Siri It basically a hilly breed. Found in
@

Darjeeling and Sikkimn. Used in carrying Shearing of Wool

heavy loads. It is essential to promote the health of
Without Humped Cows sheep. The removal of hairs (wvool) from
the recommended periods for shearing
(Exotic Breeds) of wool are winter (February-March) and
rainy (August- September) season when
Milk rielding Breeds rich grazing ground is available.
• Jersey Its colour is almond and body is, The sheeps are washed properly before
spotted, milk yielding capacity is 4500 L per the xemoval of hairs. The manufacture
year 5% fat content in its milk.
of wool from sheep hairs is a
Brown Swiss It mainly found in complicated process consisting of
Switzerland. It gives 5200L milk in a year. cleaning, drying, bleaching, dyeing,
Fat content is 4%. spining and twisting.
464 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science

GOAT PIGS
There are many breeds of goat (Capra It is also called hog or swine and is an
capra) in our country. Goat provide us omnivorous, non-ruminant, gregarious
milk, meat, skin and hair. The fine soft . mammal of genus Sus.
wool called Pashmina is the underfur of All breeds of pigs have descended from the
Kashmir and Tibet goats. European wild boar Sus scrofa or a
crossbreed of this and the Asiatic species,
Noori S. indicus. The care and management of
World's first Pashmina goat clone, pigs is called piggery.
produced in Kashmir has been named • Pigs are the most prolific breeders and
Noori and Arabic word referring to light.

e
quick growers among the domestic animals.
Funded by world bank, the clone project
A group of 10 sOws (female hog) and
one
was a jointy worked on Skaust and Nari
boar may produce over a year.

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Karnal. 160 piglets in
• Pigs are most useful domestic animals,
The clone has come as good news for
fine fibre producing Pashmina goats, especially of lower classes of society. They
are only spotted at an are most economical sOurce of meat and
which altitude of
14,000 feet in Ladakh. animal fat.
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Breeds of Pig
Asom Hilly Breeds
These are smaller dwarf breeds of goats Dormesticated Distribution
found in the hilly tract of Asom and Indigenous Pigs
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other Eastern states. Ghori Manipur, Asom, Meghalaya

and Arunachal Pradesh
Important Breeds of
Desi Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab
Indian Goats and Madhya Pradesh
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Breeds Distribution Exotic Pigs

Gaddi and Himachal Pradesh Landrace Switzerland and Denmark
Chamba Large White UK
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Kashmiri and Himachal Pradesh, Yorkshire

Pashmina Kashmir and Tibet
Berkshire UK
Jamunapari Uttar Pradesh and
Madhya Pradesh
CAMELS
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Beetal Punjab
Marwari Rajasthan The camel is a large, horn less, ruminant
Berari Maharashtra mammal of genus Camelus. It is popularly
called the ship of the desert because of its
Malabari Kerala great travelling power in a desert.
Bengal Bihar and Odisha It is a valuable beast carrying burden in hot
desert and semi-desert regions as it can live on
Exotic Breeds of Goat minimum food and water when travelling with
Exotic breeds of Goats are load. There are two types of camels
• Saahen Alpine 1. Arabian camels (Camelus dromedarius)
Nubian Angora
With a single hump, short hair and found
Mubende in North Africa to India. It does not occur
Boer in wild form.
Sudan Nubian Kambing
Katjang
2. Turksh or Bactrian camels (Camelus
• Toggenburg bactrianus) With two humps, long hair
Khursani and found in Gobi desert of Central Asia.
•
Baluchi Anglo Nubian It occurs in wild form also.
 COMPUTER
INTRODUCTION Alan Mathison Turing is widely regarded as
The word computer has been derived from the Father of Modern Computers or Father
the Latin word 'COMPUTARE'. which of theortical computer science and Artificial
means to compute or to calculate. Intelligence (Al).
A computer can be defined as an Characteristics
of Computer
electronic device used to calculate and • Accuracy
manipulate the data (i.e. input) and Speed

e
Diligence • Versatility
generates an output in the form of useful
information by following a set of
Applications of Computer

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procedural instructions.
British scientist Charles Babbage is Education
considered as the Father of Computer. Hospitals
He invented the first mechanical . Business
computer in early 19th centur and
ra Weather forecasting
further in 1833, he conceived a automatic •
analytical engine for performing Entertainment
• Organisations
arithmetic functions.
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Generations of Computer
The history of computers is discussed in terms of different generations of computer.
Generation Technology Features Processing Exarnples Languages
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Used Speed
First Vacuum Magnetic drumfor Measured in Mark-1, Machine
(1940-1956) Tubes primary storage miliseconds UNIVAC, language
or Valves Punch card used as ENIAC
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secondary storage
Second Transistor Magnet core memory Measured in IBM-700, Assembly
(1956-1963) used as internal storage microseconds IBM 1401 language
Magnet tapes Used as and HLL
secondary storage (FORTRAN,
@

COBOL)
Third Semiconductor memory Measured in IBM 360 HLL
(1964-1971) (Integraled Used as primary storage nanoseconds series, (SNOBOL,
Circuit) Magnetic disks were ICL 1901 BASIC)
used as secondary
storage
Fourth VLSI or Massive use of Measured in IBM PC, HLL
(1971 Microprocess magnetic and optical picoseconds Pentium (ORACLE,
Present) storage devices and beyond. PC, APPLE, ÉDA)
Macintosh.
Fifth Bio-chips Artiticial intelligence will Very high Robolics Natural
(Present & & ULSI make computer speed Language
Beyond) intelligent and
knowledge based
466 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Types of Computer • Mini Computers This type of computers are

more powerful than micro computers, but
Computer can be classified on three less powerful than mainframe computers.
basis They are also termed as mid-range computers.
On the Basis of Functioms It is a muliprocessing system capable of
supporting 4 to about 200 users
• Analog Computers This is a type simultaneously. e.g. IBM mid range
of computer that reads data using computers, K-202, SDS-92 etc.
measurement and some program .
Mainframe Computers It is a very large
scale. It calculates by measuring computer and is used for handling major
continuous changes in the physical applications in large business organisations.
quantities. e.g. Mechanical They can also be used as centralised

e
integrators, nomogam, computers with several terminal users
speedometer etc. connected to it. They can contain large

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• Digital Computers This is databases and are also knoWTI as super
computer that performs calculations serve'S.
and logical operations with They cai handle huge amount of
quantities represented as binary input/output (I/O) operations at the same
digits. e.g. Desktop, mainframe etc. time. They are very expernsive. e.g. Fujitsu's
ra
• Hybrid Computers These ICL VME, Hitachi's Z800 etc.
computers are the combination of Super Computers It can be defined as the
both analog and digital computers. It most powerful computer in terms of
works by measuring quantity and performance and storage capacity. They are
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calculating logical operations. e.g. highly expensive and are employed for
ECG monitors, HRS-100 etc. specialised applications such as for weather
forecasting, several scientific researches etc.
On the Basis of Purposes NASA (National Aeronautics for Space
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•
General Purpose Computers This Administration) uses super computers for
type of computers are designed in launching space shuttles, controlling them
order to work in all environments. and for space exploration purpose.
They are versatile computers but are PARAM is the first super computer in India. It
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not efficient and als0 consume a is a series of gigaflops developed by the Centre
large amount of time in generating of Development of Advanced Computing
(C-DAC), Pune.
the results. e.g. ENIAC, desktops
.
etc. Super Computers Developed in India
@

Special Purpose Computers They Super Year Mft Company

are designed to perform only a
Cornputers
specified task. They are not versatile IIT,
Gandhinagar
Param Anant 2022
and their speed and size depends on Paran Siddhi 2020 C-DAC, Pune
the task. They are efficient and Param Shivay IIT, BHU
consume less time in generating 2019
Pratyush 2017 IITM, Pune
results. e.g. ATM, aircraft controllers PARAM C-DAC and NIT
2016
etc. Kanchenjunga Sikkim
PARAM ISHAN 2016 C-DAC and I|T
On the Basis of Size and Guwahati
Capability Aaditya 2013 Indian Institute of
Tropical Meleorology
• Micro Computers It is a digital PARAM YUVAlI|
C-DAC, Pune
Computer used by individuals and is 2013
also considered as an acronym for SAGA-220 2011 ISRO
Personal Computers (PCs). They are ANUPAM-Adhya 2010-11 BARC
small in ize. They are usually used PARAM YUVA 2008 C-DAC, Pune
Computational
at homes, in schools and offices etc. EKA 2007
e.g. Laptop, Palmtop, Notebook, Research
Laboratories, Pune
Desktop etc. PARAM SAAITA C-DAC, Pune
2007
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science 467
Top 10 Super Computers of World
Nane Manufactured Country Operating Mernory Speed
Company System
Frontier Hewlett Packard USA HPE Cray OS
Enterprise Frontier
Fugaku Japan Linux
Frontera Texas Advanced America Linux
Computing Centre
IBM Summit America IBM
Sunway Taihu Light National Super China Linux 1.31 PB 105 Pela flops
(2016) computing center
Tianhe-2 (2013)

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Sun Yat-Sen China Kylin LinUx 1,375 TB 33.86 Pelaflops
University
Tilan (2012) Oak Ridge National America Linux 693.5 TB 17.59 Petaflops

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Laboratory(Cray)
Sequoia (2011) IBM America Linux 1,572,864 GB 12 Pelallops
K-computer (2011) Fujiler Japan Linux 1,410,048 GB 10.5 Pelaflops
Mira (2010) IBM America Linux 8.16 Pelaflops
Piz Diant (2009) Cray INC
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Switzerland Linux 6.2 Pelaflops
Stampede (2008) Dell America Linux 192,192 GB 5.2 Pelallops
JU Queen (2007) IBM Germany Linux 458.752 GB 5 Pelallops
VULCAN (2005) IBM America Linux 393,216 GB 4.3 Pelallops
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Components of Computer 2. Output Unit

The computer system comprises of the This unit contains those devices that
following four main components provide the desired output (results) in
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the human acceptable format.

1. Input Unit
output devices are
It consists of those devices through which
.Some
Monitor is also known as Visual Display
User can a
enter the data into computer. It Unit (VDU). The monitor is provided
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links a computer to the external along with the computer to view the
environment. It translates the data into display result. The popular types of
computers understandable form. Some input monitor are
devices are • LCD (Liquid Crystal Display), a special
• Keyboard is used to enter or Lype of liquid is sandwiched between
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data
information, which may be in numeric
LWO
plates. It is a thin, lat and light
form or alphabetical form, in a computer weight screen made up of any number
or
of colour monochrome pixels
system.
• Mouse is a pointing device which provides arranged in front of a light sOurce.
a means to input data and commands in • LED (Liquid/Light Emitted Diode) is
an electronic device that emits light
graphic form by selecting through moving
an arrow called pointer. when electrical current is passed
• through it.
Trackball is another pointing device which • TFT (Thin Film Transistor) is a LCD
is an alternative to a mouse.
• Joystick is an input device that moves in all with active-matrix displays, each pixel
is controlled by one to four ransistors
directions and controls the movement of
that can make the screen faster,
the cursor. brighter, more colorful than
•
Scanner is an optical input device and passive-nmatrix and capable of being
uses light as an input source to convert an viewed at different angles.
image into an electronic form that can be • 3-D Monitors describe an image that
stored on the computer. provides the perception of length.
• Touch Screen is an electronic visual When 3-D images are made interactive
display that can detect the presence and then user feel involved with the scene,
location of a touch within the display area. and this experience is called virtual
reality.
468 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science

•
Printer prints information and data • ROM (Read Only Memory) is a non
from the computer onto a paper. It can volatile memory, which retains the data even
print documents in colour as well as in when the power gets switched OFE
black and white. Program and data that cannot be altered are
• Plotter is a special kind of output stored in ROM. There are basically three
Lypes of ROM: Programmable ROM(PROM),
channel, like a printer, that produces
images on paper. They are mainly used Erasable PROM(EPROM) and Electrically
to produce large drawings or images. EPROM(EEPROM.
•
Speaker is an output device that Secondary Memory The computer system
receives sound in the form of electric uses secondary memory to store data,
Current. It needs a sound card
program instruction and information. It
stores the data permanently. User carn

e
connected to a CPU, that generates
sOund. access or retrieve the data whenever
required. Types of Secondary Memory:

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3. CPU(Central Processing • Magnetic Tape (sequential access)
Unit) • Magnetic Disk (Floppy Disk, Hard Disk)
• Optical Disc (CD, DVD, Blu-ray Disc)
CPU is considered as the Brain of
Computer'. It is responsible for all the Solid State drive (Flash drive, SD cards)
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manipulations and processing of the
data provided to the computer. It is Cache Memory
further categorised basically into two type of memory used to hold the frequently
It is a
main components Used data. It acts as a buffer between the CPU
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• and the main memory. It consumes less access

Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU) This
unit performs both arithmetical and time as compared to main memory and thus, is
logical operations. Arithmetic opera used to match up the speed of fast running
tions involves addition, subtraction, processor.
multiplication, division etc and the
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logical operations involves AND, OR, Registers

NOT, NOR, NAND etc. These are defined as the special memory units
Used by the CPU to speed up the rate of accessing
• Control Unit (CU)
Itis an important
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information. There are some special type of

part that instructs, maintains and
registers used for specific work.
controls the flow of information but e.g. Program Counter (PC) is used to hold the
does not store the data. It tells the
memory, ALU and I/0 devices that address of the next instruction for execution.
Some other examples are Accumulator, Memory
how they have to respond to the
@

Buffer Register (MBR), Instruction Register (R) etc.

program's instTUctions.
4. Memory Unit Hardware
This unit stores the data and It can be defined as the physical components
instructions, intermediate results or the of a computer ie. the parts that can be seen
processed data and thus, provides the and touched.
relevant information whenever requred The four
by the other units of computer.
main categories of hardware are
• Input devices e.g. keyb0ard, mouse etc.
It consists of two types • Output devices e.g. printer, monitor etc.
• Primary Memory It is considered to
Storage devices e.g. hard disk, floppy disk etc.
be the main memory of computer that •
stores the data which is currently in Processing devices e.g. CPU etc.
Use by the computer:.
Software
Types of Primary Memory:
• RAM (Random Access Memnory) is a The term software can be defined as the set of
programs and procedures that enable a
volatile memory, vhich losses the data to perform a specific task or to
when the power gets switched OFE COmputer
process can be
There are basically two types of RAM: classifiedthe information. Software
into three types:
Static RAM and Dynamic RAM.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 469

System Software Programming Language

It is a set of one or more programs designed It is a set of keywords, symbols and a system
to control the operations of a computer of rules for constructing statements, by which
system incuding hardware components human can communicate, to be executed by a
and implementations of application computer.
software.
Programming languages are mainly
Types of System Software are
• Operating System It is a system categorised into two parts:
Low Level Languages These languages
software, consisting of an integrated set are designed to operate and handle the entire
of programs that controls computer hardware and instruction set architecture of a
resources (CPU, memory, I/0 devices,

e
Computer system directly. It is divided into
etc) and provides common services for
two parts:
efficient execution of various application

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software. Machine language, referred to as machine
code or object code, is a collection of binary
•
Language T'ranslator It helps in digits or bits that the computer reads and
converting programming languages to interprets.
machine language. There are three kinds uses structured
Assembly language
of language translator
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• Assembler It converts program writlen in
commands as substitutions for numbers,
assembly machine allowing humans to read the code easier.
language into
language. High Level Languages These languages
• Interpreter It converts a high level are not limited by the computer, designed for
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language into machine language by a specific task and are easier to read, write
converting it line by line. and understand. e.g. BASIC, C, FORTRAN,
• Complier It also converts high level JAVA etc.
language program into machine language
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at one go.
Application Software
Utility Software It is a set of one or more programs
It is a type of system software, which is used designed to carry out operations for a
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to support, secure and enhance the existing specific application. It cannot run on
programs and data in the computer system. itself, but it is dependent on system
It is also used to debug the software errors. software to get executed. It is written in
e.g. antivirus software, backup software etc. high level language.
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Application Software What Does It Do? Exarnples

Word Processor Virtually all personal computers are Microsoft Word,
equipped with a word-processing program, WordPerfect
which has the same function as a type-writer
for writing letters, reports or other
documenls and printings.
Spreadsheet A table containing text and figures, which is Microsoft Excel,
used to perform calculations. Spreadsheets Lotus 1-2-3
are usually used for budgets, statistics and
SO on.

Dalabase Management Used for storing information, e.g. the names Microsoft SQL Server,
System and addresses of the clients. Oracle
Accounting Program They generate extensive financial reports, Tally (all versions)
produce invoices and statements to
customers, handle accounts payable and
receivable, print payroll checks and payrol
reports and track inventories.
Presentation Tool To create presentations by allowing one to Microsoft PowerPoint
produoe slides or handouts.
470 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science

Application Software What Does It Do? Exarmples

Desktop Publishing For creating magazines, newsletters, books QuarkXPress,
and so on. Adobe Pagemaker
Multimedia Application Used for creating multimedia presentations. Dreamweaver, Flash,
e.g. Websites, animations and videos. Prermier
Telecommunication A program that helps a user to connect and Dial-up Networking,
Software transfer informalion and files to and from the Open Transport
Internet. It is often a part of operating system
or system software.

e
NETWORKING
Computer networking relates to the Types of Computer Network

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communication between a group of two or • Local Area Network (LAN) In this,
more computers linked together. When we computers can be connected with a
communicate on a network, we share geographical area spread over 1 km to
information data through
medium. E-mailing, 10 km or we can say within a same
communication
ra building. All the terminals are
instant messaging and web pages all are
dependent on communication that take connected to a main computer called
across server.
place underlying computer
network. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) It
is a data network designed for a town or
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Benefits of Networking city. Its main purpose is to share

• Data and Fill sharing hardware and software resources among
• the various users.
Software sharing
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• Hardvare sharing Wide Area Network (WAN) In this,

• the computers are farther apart and are
Reliability connected by radiowaves. Such a
Network Devices network may spread over countries.
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These are required to amplyfy the signal to Communication Media

restore the original strength of signal and to Communication media of a network refer
provide an interface to connect multiple
computers in a network. Many fypesof
Lo the transmission media or the
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connecting media used in the network.

Network Devices
. Transmission media can be divided into
Repeater is a device that amplifies the fwo broad categories; guided and
signals when they are transported over a unguided media.
long distance so that the signal can be as • Guided Media or Wired Technologies
strong as the original signal.
It consists of a cable composed of metals
•
Hub is like a repeater with muliple ports like copper, tin or silver. Basically, these
used to connect the network channels. are divided into three categories
• Gatevay is an interconnecting device, Ethernet Cable or Twisted Pair A
which joins twO different network Lype of cable that consists of EWO

protocols together:. independently insulated wires Iwisted

•
Switch forwards a data packet to a around one another: The use of WO
wires twisted together helps to reduce
specific route by establishing a temporary Crosstalk and electromagnetic
connection between the source and the induction.
destination.
• Bridge reduces the amount of traffhc on a
Coaxial Cable A type of wire that
consists of a center wire surrounded by
LAN by dividing it into two segments. insulation and then a grounded shield of
• Modem is a device braided wire. The shield minimizes
that converts digital
signal to analog signal and vice-versa. electrical and radio frequency
interference.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 471

Fiber-Optie Cable A ype of wire that Network Interface Card (NIC)

containing one or more optical fbers that
are used to carry light. The optical fiber It is a hardware component that connects
elements are typically individually coated a computer to a computer network as it
with plastic layers and contained in a contains the physical address of a
protective tube suitable for the computer. It is also known as network
environment. adaptor.
• Unguided Media Wireless
Technologies When the computers in a Public Switched Telephone
network are interconnected and data is Network (PSTN)
transmitted through waves, then they are It is the world's collection of inter
said to be connected through unguided connected voice oriented public

e
media. Some commonly used unguided telephone networks. It provides landline
media of transmission are phone service to residence and many

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• Radio Wave Transmission There are
other establishments. Thats why is also
IWO principal ways in which referred as Plain Old Telephone Service
electromagnetic (radio) energy ravels (POTS).
from a ransmitting antenna to a receiving
antenna. One way is by GROUND WAVES Value Added Network (VAN)
that are radio waves that Lravel near the
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surface of the Earth (surface and space It provides Electronic Data Interchange
waves) and the other is by SKY WAVES that (EDI) facility, It acts as a regional post
are radio waves that are reflected back to office that examines the from and to
Earth from the ionosphere. information. It subscribes services like
• Microwave Transmission It is the invoices sale purchase order etc.
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transmission of information or energy by

electromagnetic waves whose wavelenghs Integrated Service
are conveniently measured in small Digital NetWork (ISDN)
numberS of centimeler; these alre called
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microwaves. It is a set of communication standards for

•
Satellite Communication It igital ransmission of voice, videos and
DrOvides
communication links between various other data
services. It combines both
on Earth. It covers a vast range of CrCuit switching and packet switching for
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points
area. It is very useful in Lelevision the pUrpose of transmitting data.
transmission.
• Infrared Wave Transmission It refers to
Firewall
energy in the region of the electromagneticIt is a combination of both software and
radiation spectrum at wavelengths longer hardware based devices to permit or deny
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network transmission based on a set of

than those of visible light, but shorter than
those of radio. rules. It is frequently used to protect
s
Bluetooth It is a wireless technology network from unauthorised access while
Standard for exchanging data over short permitting legitimate communication to
distances from fixed and mobile devices pass.
and to create a Personal Area Networks
(PANS).
INTERNET
Network Related Terms Internet is defined as network of
Topology networks that consists of millions of
It is defined as the way private and public computer networks
in which several linked together and sharing information
nodes of the network are linked together. It using client server relationship. Data is
represents the physical path betwveen the shared by packet switching through
connected nodes. e.g. Bus, Ring, Star, T ree, standardised Intenet Protocol Suite
Mesh etc.
(TCP/IP).
472 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~General Science

Important Protocols Used Web Server

Over Internet It is a program that serves the files to the
web user with the use of client server
HyperText Transfer Protocol model approach and WwW's http. It
(HTTP) contains the web pages corresponding to
the website available on the Internet.
It is a set of rules for transmitting files such
as text, images, sound, videos etc, on the Client Server
World Wide Web (WWW). As soon as a web
a network architecture which
user opens the web browser, the user is It is
indirectly making use of HTTP Its primarv Separates ofthe
client from the server. Each
the client software can send
function is to establish a connection with nstance

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request to server.
the server.
Webpage

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Transmission Control Protocol/
It is a resource on WWW, usually written in
Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) HTML/XHTML with hypertext links that
It is a combination of two separate enable navigation from one page to
protocols TCP and IP which are used another.
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together. TCP ensures the reliability of data
transmission across the Internet Website
connected networks while IP ensures how It is a collection of web pages, grouped
packets of information are sent out over nder a same domain name on the WWW
networks. or Internet.
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Point to Point Protocol (PPP) Web Browser

It is dial account which puts the computer It js an application software that runs over
directly on the Internet. Using this protocol the client computer connect it with the
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each computer on the server has its own server or to access the Internet and the
name and IP address.
Www. e.g. Opera, Internet Explorer,
Mozilla Firefox etc.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
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It is a type of transfer protocol that enables Uniforn Resource Locator

the user to transfer their fles from one (URL)
computer to another in a network Web address is a synonym for URL. It is
environment and develop a basically a string of characters or an
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communication. e.g. E-mails etc. addressing scheme Used by WwW

browsers to locate sites on the Internet. e.g.
Telnet http://www.google.com/services/index.htm
It is a network protocol that allows a user
on one computer to log into another Domain Name
computer that is part of the same network. It is a way to identify and locate computers
It is an underlying TCP/IP protocol for connected to the Internet. It always have
accessing remote computers. two or more parts, separated by dots(.). e.g.
google.com, yahoo.com etc.
Terminology Related to
Wireless Application
Internet Protocol (WAP)
World Wide Web (www) WAP is a technical standard for accessing
It is a collection of connected documents by information over a mobile wireless
hypertext links, enabling the user to search network. A WAP browser is a web browser
for information by moving from one used by the mobile devices that are based
document to another; usually accessed by on this protocol.
web browsers via Internet.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 473

IP Address
Along with the physical address stored in NICs, Internet requires and additional
addressing that identifies the connection of a host to its network which is known as the IP
address. No two hosts on the Internet can have the same P address. Each IP address
consists of 4 bytes i.e. 32 bits defining 3 fields: Class, Network ID and Host ID.
Internet Service Provider (ISP)
It is an organisation that provides the Internet connection services to the people, who
want to used Internet.

Communication through Internet

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E-mail (Electronic Mail)
It is a service provided by the Internet that allows the exchange of digital messages

nc
through a network. It provides a communication medium through which people can
communicate with each other.
Instant Messaging
ra
There are several applications (apps) provided for instant messaging such as Viber,
WeChat, Line, WhatsApp etc. Among all, WhatsApp is considered to be the most globally
popular messaging app. It was bought by facebook in 2014. The messengers ae only
available for Android, Black berry, i0S and Windows phone mobile operating system.
nt

WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
The origin of wieless communication goes back to l896, when Marconi invented the
wireless telegraphy. Wireless communication is the transfer of information over a
distance without the use of electrical conductors or wires. The distance involed may be
ie

short or long. e.g. GPS units, wireless computer mice, keyboards and headsets, satellite
television etc.
jm

Generations of Wireless Communication

1G (The First Generation)

It is a wireless telephone technology and mobile telecommunication introduced in 1980s.
1G networks use analog signals as opposed to digital signals used by all the successive
@

generations. In this, voice calls were generally modulated to a higher frequency typically
150 MHz and up.

2G (The Second Generation)

It was commercially launched for the GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication)
standard in 1991 by Radiolinja in Finland. It was allowed for enhanced data services and
also introduced the Short Messaging Services (SMSs).
3G (The Third Generation)
It was introduced by NTT DoCoMo in Japan in 2001. Its data transfer rates are 384 K
bit/sec to 2M bits/sec. So, it allows for never before services like video calls, video
conferencing, mobile, TV etc.
4G (The Fourth Generation)
TeliaSonera was the first operator in the world to commercially launch 4G in late 2009 in
the City Centre of Stockholm and Oslo and a year later it was launched in Finland.
Bharti Airtel had launched 4G on mobiles in Bangalore, thus becoming the first in India
to offer such a service on 14th February 2014.
474 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

5G (The Fifth Generation)

It is a successor for 4G. It is a terIM Used in some research papers and projects to denote
the next major phase. 5G Services in India were formally launched on lst October 2022,
at the 6th edition of Indian Mobile Congress.

Security Threats
Phishing
It is characterised by the attempts to fraudulently acquire sensitive information such as
passwords, credit card details etc. by masquerading as a trustworthy person.
Intruders

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The attacker who would constantly fînd their way for breaking and entering into a
secured system to access confidential or users information are called inruders.

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Virus
It is defined as a program or a piece of code that gets loaded onto the computer without
users knowledge and replicates itself. Various kinds of virus are Boot sector virus, Macro
ra
virus, Resident virus, Polymorphic virus, Direct action virus etc.
e.g. Creeper, Stuxnet, Melissa, Conficker, Code red, SQL Slammer, Nimda (derived from
the word Admin') etc.
• Creeper is generally accepted to be
the first computer virus Written by Bob Thomas at
nt

BBN (Bolt Beranak and Newman) in 1971.

Worm
It is a self replicating computer program, similar to a virus. It is a self contained program
and does not need to be a part of another program to propagate itself.
ie

Spam
It is an unsolicited message sent over the Internetin the form of E-mails, to a large
jm

number of users for the purpose of spreading malware, advertising phishing etc.
Spyware
It is a type of malicious software installed on computers and collects information about
Users without their knowledge and may send such information to another entity. It can
@

assets control over the computer without the consumer's knowledge.

Malware
A softwarewhich is specifically designed to disrupt or damage a computer system. It is a
superset of computer viruses, worms, spyware, trojan horses and other malicious or
unwanted software.
Botnet
It is a number of Internet computers that have been set-up to forward transmissions
including spam and viruses to the other computers on the Internet without the
knowledge of their owners. It is also known as Zombie Army.

Antivirus
It is a software consisting of comnputer programs that attempt to identify, detect and
prevent the malware from the computer. It typically uses two different techniques to
accomplish this
• Examining files to look for known viruses by means of a virus dictionary.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 475

• Identifying suspicious behaviour from any computer program which might indicate
infection.
e.g. Kaspersky, Norton, AVG, Avast, McAfee etc.

Some Famous Personalities

BillGates
Bill Gates is an American Business magnate, computer programmer, Philanthrophist,
inventor and co-founder of Microsoft (the software company) with Paul Allen. He
acquired the posts like CEO, Chairman and Chief Executive Architect. He stepped down
in Febrauary 2014 and now is one of the Board of Members of Microsoft.

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Steve Jobs
Steve Jobs was an American businessman, inventor and industrial designer and the

nc
co-founder of Apple Inc with Stephen Wozniak. He was the Chairman and CEO of Apple
Inc.
Mark Elliot Zuckerberg
Mark Elliot Zuckerberg is an American computer progranmer and Internet
ra
entrepreneur best known as one of the co-founders of the famous social networking site
Facebook'. He is considered as one of the youngest billionaires as on April, 2013. He is
the Chairman and Chief-Executive of Facebook. Recently facebook bought Whatsapp (an
instant messenger) by paying S 19 billion.
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Tim Cook
Tim Cook is the CEO of Apple Inc. He has filled the seat of Steve Jobs. He is the decision
maker in a company that has revolutionized the way humans see and use technology.
ie

Tim Berners Lee

Tim Berners Lee also known as Tim BLis a British computer scientist and the inventor of
the World Wide Web (WWW). He implemented the first successful communication
between a Hypertext Transfer Protocol client and server via the Internet.
jm

Jan Koum
Jan Koum founded a proprietary, cross-platform instant messaging service for
Smartphones with Brian Acton, which is called WhatsApp in 2009. It is one of the most
@

popular mobile messaging application. Jan Koum is the CEO and co-founder of
WhatsApp Incorporation.
476 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Science

Glossary
"Algorithm It is a finite set of step-by-step, well defined instructions for accomplishing
desired actions or results.
Animation It is the optical illusion of motion created by the consecutive display of images of
static elements.
Artificial Intelligence It is a branch of science that deals with helping machines find
solutions to complex problems in a more human like fashion.
Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) It is also known as ROM BIOS. It is a consistent way for
application programs and operating system to interact with input/ouput devices.

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Biometric Device A device used for user authentication that verifies some physical
characteristios of a user such as the person's appearance, finger print etc.

nc
Blu-ray Disc It can be defined as a digital optical disc data storage medium, storing high
definition video resolution. It contains 25 GB per layer and 50 GB dual layer. It is a plastic
disc with 120 mm diameter and 1.2 mm thickness, the same size as of DVDs and CDs.
Camcorder It is a video camera recorder. It is a portable electronic device capable of
ra
recording live motion video and audio, for later playback.
Cloud Computing It is a general term for the delivery of hosted services over the Internet
whereby shared resources, softwares and information are provided to computers and
devices as a utility over the network.
nt

Cookies These are often used to store information on the computer system to track the
browsing pattern on a particular site.
•
Cryptography It is a method of storing and transmitting data in a paticular coded iorm so
that only those can read and process it, for whom it is intended. It includes encoding and
ie

decoding of data.
Firmware It is defined as the program that has been written on to ROM.It cannot be
changed or deleted by an end user. They are in the non-volatile memory. Firmware is the
jm

combination of both software and hardware.

•
Flow Chart It is the graphical representation formed with specified symbols (ig) and shows
the flow of data, operations performed and the sequence of their execution.
Microprocessor It is the controlling element in a computer system and is sometimes
@

referred to as the chip. e.g. Intel, Dual core, Pentium-1V etc. Intel 4004 was the first
microprooessor.
Motherboard The biggest piece of silicon housed in the system unit of a computer is
motherboard. All the other electronic devices and circuits of computer system are attached
to this board like, processor, ROM, RAM, expansion slots and USB ports. It also includes
controllers for devices like the hard drive, keyboard and mouse.
Multimedia It refers to the use of several medias such as text, audio, graphics, video etc, to
Convey information. It simply means, being able to communicate in more than one way.
Robot It is a system that contains sensors, control systems, manipulators, power supplies
and software all working together to perform a task.
Robotics It is the branch of technology that deals with the design, construction,
operation, structural disposition, manufacture and application of robots and computer
systems for their control, sensury feedback and information processing.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Science 477

Abbreviations
ANSI American National Standard Institute
ALGOL Algorithmic Language
ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange
ARPANET Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
BASIC Beginner's AllPurposes Syrnbolic Instruction Code
BIOS Basic Input Output System
BPS Bits Per Second

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CAD Computer Aided Design
CGI Common Gateway Interface

nc
COBOL Common Business Oriented Language
DSL Digilal Subscriber Lines/Domain-Specific Language
ENIAC Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer
EDI
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Electronic Data Interchange
FAX Far Away Xerox
FORTRAN Formula Translation
GPS Global Positioning System
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GIF Graphic Interchange Format

IBM International Business Machine
ISDN Integraled Services Digital Network
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LIPS List Processing

MICR Magnetic Ink Character Recogition
MMS Multimedia Messaging Service
jm

MODEM MODulator DEModulator

MIDI Musical Instrument Digital Intertace
NICNET National Information Centre Network
@

OMR Optical Mark Reader

OOP Object Oriented Programming
RISC Reduced Instruction Set Computer
SNOBOL String Oriented Symbolic Language
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
SOL Structured Query Language
TDMA Time Division Mulliple Access
TRAI Telecom Regulatory Authority of India
UPS Uninterruplible Power Supply
USB Universal Serial Bus
WiMAX World Wide Interoperability for Microwave Access
Wi-Fi Wireless Fidelity
WLAN Wireless Local Area Network
XHTML Extensible HyperText Markup Language
ZIP Zone Information Protocol
 GENERAL
KNOWLEDGE

e
First in World (Male)

nc
First Secretary-General of United Nalions Trygve Lie (Norway)
First President of United States of America George Washinglon
First President of the Republic of China Dr Sun Yat Sen (1912)
First Prime Minister of Great Britain Robert Walpole (1715)
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Pakistan's first Governor-General Mohanmed Ali Jinnah
First Ethnic-Indian Prime Minister of Fiji Mahendra Choudhary
First American President to visit India Dwight David Eisenhower
First Russian (Soviet) Prime Minister to visit India Nikolai Bulganin
nt

First European invader of Indian soil Alexander The Great

First man to go into space Major Yuri Gagarin (USSR)
First man to walk in space Alexey Leonov (Aussia)
First space tourist Dennis Tito (USA)
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First man to set foot on the Moon Neil Armstrong (USA)

First man to ily an aeroplane Wright Brothers
First man to reach North pole Robert Peary
jm

First man to reach South pole Roald Amundsen

First man to climb Mount Everest Sherpa Tenzing Norgay and Sir
Edmund Hillary (29th May, 1953)
First man to climb Mount Everest twice Nawang Gombu (1965)
@

First blind man to scale Mount Everest Erik Weihenmayer (25th May, 2001)
First person to sail around the world Ferdinand Magellan
First deaf and dumb to oross the Strait of Gibralter Taranath Shenoy (India)
First European to visit China Marco Polo
First man to draw the map of Earth Anaximander
First marn to compile encyclopaedia Aspheosis (Athens)
First man to win Nobel Prize for Literature Sully Prudhomme (France)
First man to win Nobel Prize for Peace Henry Dunant (Switzerland)
and frederic Passy (France)
First man to win Nobel Prize for Physics WK Roentgen (Germany)

First man to win Nobel Prize for Chermistry JacobusH Van't Hoft (Holland)
First man to win Nobel Prize for Medicine AE Von Behring (Germany)
First man to win Nobel Prize for Economics Ragnar Frisch (Norway) and Jan
Tinbergen (Holland)
First and only black man ever to win singles Arthur Asthe (USA)
Wimbledon Trophy
First Asian to head the International Cricket Council Jagmohan Dalmiya
First man to hit double century in One Day Sachin Tendulkar (India)
International Match
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 479

First in World (Female)

First worman President of UN General Assernbly Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit (1953)
First woman President of a country Maria Estela Peron (Argentina)
First woman Prime Minister ofa country S Bhandarnayake (Sri Lanka)
First woman Prime Minister of England Margaret Thatcher
First woman Prime Minister of any Muslim country Benazir Bhutto (Pakistan)
First woman cosmonaut in space Valentina Tereshkova (USSR)
First woman space tourist Anousheh Ansari (Irani American)
First woman Vioe President of United States Kamla Harris
First worman to set foot on the North pole Ann Bancroft, USA

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First woman to reach Antarctica Caroline Michaelson
First woman to climb Mount Everest Junko Tabei (Japan)
First woman in the world to cross the Strait of Gibralter

nc
Sophie Psilolignou (Greek)
First woman to chair US Central Bank 'Federal Reserve' Janet Yellen
First UNDeputy Secretary-General Louise Frechette (Canada)
First female Amputee to climb Mount Everest Arunima Sinha
First worman CFO and MD of World Bank Anshula Kant
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First fermale amputee to climb Mount Vinson Arunima Sinha
First woman chief econormist for IMF Gita Gopinath
First fermale ICC match releree GS Lakshmi
First astronauls complete historic all-female spacewalk Christina Koch and Jessica Meir
nt

First in World (Miscellaneous)

First country to make public transport free LUxernbOurg
First country to declare a climate energency UK
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First oountry to grant oilizenship righls to robot Saudi Arabia

First country to ban plaslic bags Bangladesh
First country to approve three parents baby United Kingdom
jm

First country to make a written Constitution United States of America

First country to appoint Lokpal Sweden
First oountry to ban capital punishment Venezuela
First country to give voting right to woman New Zealand
First country to impose carbon tax New Zealand
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First country to start VAT (Value Added Tax) Brazil, Germany and Denmark
First country to isSue paper currency China
First oountry to give oonstitutional status to animal rights Switzerland
First country to implement farmily planning India
First country to print books China
First country to sign nuclear agreement with India Franoe
First oountry to send human to Moon United States of America
First space ship landed on Mars Viking-l 20th August, 1975
First space shuttle launched Columbia
First country to launch satellite into space Russia (former USSA)
First country to launch radio telescope satellite into space Japan
First country to win the Football World Cup Uruguay (1930)
First country to host the Modern Olyrmpic Garmes Greece
First cloned human baby Eve
First religion of the world Sanatan Dharma
First university of the world Taxila University
First country to ban sunscreen (for protection of coral reels) Palau
First country io give legal rights to animals Eouador
480 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

Superlatives of the World

(Largest, Biggest, of the Smallest, Longest, Highest, Tallest etc)
Continent Smallest-Australia
Largesl-Asia
Country Largest (in area)-Russia
Largest (in population)-China
Mountain Range Longest-Andes (South Arnerica)
HighesHimalayas
Mountain Peak Highest-Mount Everest (Nepal) (8848 m)
Desert Largest Hot Desert-Sahara, Africa

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Largest Cold Desert (outside the poles)-Gobi Desert (Mongolia and China)
River LongestNile (6690 kn)

nc
Busiest-Ahine (Germany)
Largest (by water volume)-Amazon (South Arnerica)
Basin Largest-Amazon
Gorge Largest-Grand Canyon, on the Colorado river, USA
Waterfall
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HighestSalto Angel Falls (Venezuela)
Delta Largest-Sundarbans, India
Gulf Longest-Gulf of Mexico
Island Larges-Greenland (renarmed Kalaallit Nunaat)
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Bay Largest-Hudson Bay, Canada

Peninsula Largest-Arabia
Volcano Largest-Mauna Loa (Hawai lslands), Highest-ojos del Salado, Andes,
Argentine-Chile (6885 m)
ie

Sea (Inland) Largest-Mediterranean

Ocean Deepest and Biggest--The Pacific
Lake Deepest-Baikal (Siberia)
jm

Highest-Titicaca (Bolivia)
Largest (Fresh Water)-Lake Superior, USA
Largest (Artificial)Lake Kariba (between Zarmbia and Zimbabwe)
World's Rainiest Spot Mawsynram (Meghalaya)
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Sea Port Largesi- Shanghai (China)

Airport Largest-Beijing Daxing International Airport (PKX), China
Highest-Daocheng Yading Airport, Garzi, Tibet (China)
Airliner Largesl- Airbus A380
Dam Tallestinping-l Dam (China)
LongestHirakud Dam (Odisha), India
Biggest (Water storage capacity)- Kariba Dam, Zimbabwe
Largest (Concrete)-Grand Coulee Dan (USA)
Coral formation Largest-The Great Barier Reef (Australia)
Cruise ships Largest-Royal Caribbean
Canal Longest-Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal
Animal Most Intelligent-Chimpanzee
Fastest-Cheetah
Archipelago Largest (area)-Malay Archipelago
Largest (number)-Norway Archipelago
Asteroid Impact Zone Largest-Australia
Nation with Coastline Longest-Canada
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 481

Dome Largest-World Peace Monument Dome (Pune)

Plateau Largest Pamir Plateau (Asia)
Motorable Road HighestUmling La, Road Ladakh, (19,005 F)
Country Sharing Maximum-China (14) and Russia (14)
border with others
Country with Highest-Monaco
population Density
Bird LargestOstrich
Largest flying bird-Albatross
Fastest--Needle-tailed swift
Srmallest-Humming bird

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Mammal Largest-Blue whale
Smallest-Bumblebee bat

nc
Park Largest-National Park, Greenland
Railway LongestTrans-Siberian Railway
Railway Platform Longest-Gorakhpur, India
Largest-Grand Central Terminal, New York (USA)
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Tunnel Longest and Largest (Canal)-Le Rove Tunnel (South of France)
Longest (Railway)-Gotthard Base Tunnel (Switzerland)
Bridge Longes-Danyang-Kunshan Grand Bridge
(Bejing-Shanghai High-speed Railway)
nt

Building Tallest-aurj Khalia, Dubai (828 m)

Minar (Free standing) Tallest-Great Hassan IlMosque, Casablanca,Morocco
Statue Tallest-Statue of Unity (Gujarat, India)
ie

Tower Tallest-Tokyo Sky Free, Tokyo (Japan)

Mosque Largest-Masjid at Haran (Mecca)
Temple Largest-Angkor Vat (Combodia)
jm

Church Largest-Basilica of St Peter, Vatican City, Rorme (taly)

Museum Biggesl-Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC
Place ColdestVerkhoyansk (Siberia), Temperature-85°C
Hottest-A-Aziziyah (Libya, Africa), 136°F
Driest-Atacama Desert, Chile (South America)
@

Stadium Largest-Strahov Stadium in Prague (the Czech Republic)

Wall Longest-Great Wall of China
Capital City Highest-La Paz (Bolivia)
City HighestWen Chuan (Tibet, China)
Largest (in population)-Tokyo
Biggest (in area)Hulunbuir, China
Day Longest21st June (n Northem hemisphere)
Shortest-22nd Decernber (in Southern hermisphere)
Substance Hardest-Wurtzite boron nitride
Metal Lightest-Lithium
Heaviest-Osmium
Costliest-Californium 252 ($ 27 million per gram)
Diamond Largest-The Cullinan (over 1.5 lb)
Largest (Mine)Kimberley (South Africa)
Melting Point Highest-Tungsten, 34100°C
Gas Lighlest--Hydrogen
482) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

Countries with Capitals and Currencies

Country Capital Currency Country Capial Curency
Afghanistan Kabul Afghani Kazakhstan Nur-Sultan Tenge
Albania Tirana Lek Kenya Nairobi Shiling
Algeria Algiers Algerian Dinar Kuwait Kuwait City Kuwait Dinar
Angola Luanda New Kwanza Latvia Riga Euro
Antigua and Saixt John's East Caribbean Liberia Monrovia Liberian Dollar
Barbuda dollar Libyan Dinar
Libya Tripoli
Argentina Buenos Aires Peso Mauritius Port Louis Rupee
Armenia Yerevan Dram

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Mongolia Ulan Bator Tugrik
Australia Canberra Australian Dollar
Morocco Rabat Dirham
Austria Vienna Euro

nc
Mozarnbique Maputo Metical
The Nassau Baharnian dollar
Myanmar Naypyidaw Kyat
Bahamas
Bangladesh Dhaka Taka Namibia Windhoek Namibian Dollar
Barbados Bridgetown Nepal Kathmandu Rupee
Barabados
dollar
ra Netherlands Amsterdam Euro
Belarus Minsk Belorussian Nigeria Abuja Naira
ruble North Korea Pyongyang Won (WPW)
Belgium Brussels Euro Norway Oslo Krone
Bhutan Thimphu Ngultrum
Pakistan Islamabad
nt

Rupee
Bostwana Gaborone Pula Phillippines
Brazil
Manila Peso
Brasilia Real Poland Warsaw Zloty
Carmbodia Phnom-Penh Aiel
Portugal Lisbon Euro
Canada Otawa Canadian Dollar
ie

Qatar Doha Riyal

Chile Santiago Peso
Russia Moscow Ruble
China Beijing Yuan, Renminbi
Saudi Arabia Riyadh Riyal
Colombia Bogola Peso
jm

Singapore Singapore Dollar

Denmark Copenhagen Krone Sormalia Mogadishu Somali Shiling
Djibouti Djibouti Djiboutian Franc South Africa Pretoria Rand
East Timor Dili US Dollar
South Korea Seul Won (KAVw)
Egypt Cairo Egyption Pound
@

South Sudan Juba Sudanese Pound

Bir
Ethiopia Adis Abatba Spain Madrid Euro
Finland Helsinki Euro (Formerly Sri Lanka Colornb0, Rupee
Morka) SriJayawar
France Paris Euro (Formerly denepura
French Franc) Kottes
Georgia Tbilisi ari Sudan Khartoum Pound
Germany Berlin Euro Sweden Stockholm Krona
Greece Euro Switzerland Bern Swiss Franc
Athens
Reykjavik Krona Taiwan Taipei Taiwan New
lceland
Dollar
India New Delhi Rupee
Thailand Bangkok Baht
Indonesia Jakarta Rupiah
Turkey Ankara Lira
Iran Tehran Torman Uganda Kampala Uganda Shilling
Iraq Baghdad Dinar UK London Pound Slerling
Israel Jerusalem Shekel Ukraine Kiev Hryunia
Italy Rome Euro US Washington Dollar
Jamaica Kingston Jamaican dollar DC
Japan Tolyo Yen Zimbabwe Harare Dollar
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 483)

TOP 5
Largest and Smallest Countries
Largest Country Largest Country Smallest Country Smallest Country
(Area-wise) (Population-wise) (Area-wise) (Population-wise)
Russia China Vatican City Vatican City
Canada India Monaco Tuvalu
US USA Nauru Nauru
China Indonesia Tuvalu Palau
Brazil Brazil San Marino San Marina

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Languages and Religions

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Languages Spoken (Native Speakers) Religions of the World
Language Speaker Religion Mermber Percentage
Mandarin Chinese 918 million Christianity 2.4 billion 33.0%
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Spanish 480 million Islam 1.9 billion 21%
English 312-380 million Hinduism 1.1 billion 14%
Hindi 341 million Buddhism 0.52 billion 6%
Bengali 228 million Sikhism 0.30 billion 0.36%
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Geographical Epithets
Geographical Epithet Location Geographical Epithet Location
ie

Blue Mountains Nilgiri Hils Island of Cloves Zanzibar

City Beautiful Chandigarh Island of Pearls Bahrain (Persian
City of Golden Gate San Francisco Gulf)
jm

Key to the Mediterranean Gibrallar

City of Magnificent Washington (USA)
Buildings Coffee Port of the World Santos
City of Palaces Kolkata Land of Golden Fleece Australia
Land of Maple Canada
City of Seven Hills Rome
@

City of Skyscrapper New York (USA) Land of Morning Calm South Korea
Land of the Midnight Sun Norway
Cockpit of Europe Belgium
Land of the Aising Sun Japan
Dark Continent Africa
Land of the Thunderbolt Bhutan
Uranium City Saskatchewan
Land of Thousand Lakes Finland
(Canada)
Land of White Elephant Thailand
Forbidden City Lhasa (Tibet) South America
Continent of Birds
Windy City Chicago Guayaquil Port of
Pearl of the Pacific
Land of Golden Pagoda Myanmar Ecuador
Garden City Chicago Roof of the World The Pamirs, Central
Asia
Gift of the Nile Egypt
Spice Garden of India Kerala
Granite City Aberdeen
Sugar Bowl of the World Brazil
Hermit Kingdom North Korea
Land of Morning Calm South Korea
Holy Land Palestine Switzerland
Playground of Europe
Island Continent Australia Land of Kangaro0 Australia
484 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

Geographical Discoveries
Discovery Discoverer Discovery Discoverer
America Christopher Columbus North Pole Robert Peary
China Marco Polo South Pole Armundsen
Australia James Cook Mount Everest Edmund Hillary
Newfoundland Cabot Sebastian Sailed around the World Magellan
Hudson Bay Henry Hudson Sea route to India via Cape Vasco da Garma
of Good Hope
Tasmania Island Abel Tasman Planels Kepler
James Cook Solar System Copernicus

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Hawaian lsland
Cape of the Good Bartolomew Dias
Hope

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Important Monuments of Major Countries
Monument Country Monument Country
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Slatue of Liberty (New York) USA Christ the Redeemer Brazil
Krernlin (Moscow) Aussia Machu Picchu Peru
The Great Wall of China China Taj Mahal (Agra) India
Emperial Palace (Tokyo) Japan Tugu Negara (Kuala Lumpur) Malaysia
nt

Eifftel Tower (Paris) France The Great Sphinx (Giza) Egypt

Leaning Tower of Pisa Italy Pyramid (Giza) Egypt
Opera House (Sydney) Australia Kinder Disk Denmark
ie

Major News Agencies of the World

Agency COuntry
Agency Country
jm

Associaled Press (AP) USA

Algemeen Nederlands Netherlands
Novosti Russia Persbureau
Interfax Aussia Associated lsrael Press (AIP) Israel
China News Service, Xin Hua China Press Trust of India (PTI) India
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Allgemeiner Deutschar Germany United News of India (UNI) India

Nachrichtendienst lslarmic Republic News Agency Iran
Deutsche Presse Agentur Germany Petra Jordan
Agence France Presse France WAFA Palastine
(AFP)
Middle East News Agency Egypt
Agence Parisienne de Presse France
Anadol Ajansi Turkey
Kyodon Tsushin Japan
Antara Indonesia
Reuters UK
Malaysian National News Malaysia
Exchange and Telegraph UK Agency
Company
Associated Press of Pakistan Pakistan
Australian Associated Press Australia
Bangladesh Sangbad Bangladesh
Australian United Press Australia Sangstha
Agenzia Nazionale Stampa Italy Indonesian National News Indonesia
Associate (ANSA) Agency
Europa Press Spain Kenya News Agency Kenya
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 485

National Emblem of Major Countries

Country Emblern Country Ermblerm
Australia Kangaroo Italy White Lily
Bangladesh Waler Lily Japan Chrysanthernum
Canada White Lily, Maple Leaf Netherlands Lion
Chile Candor and Huermul New Zealand Southern Cross, Kivi, Fern
Dennark Beach Nonway Lion
France Lily
Pakistan Crescent and Star
Germany Corn Flower
Spain Eagle

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India Lion Capital of Ashoka
UK Rose
Iran Perso Arabic Script of
Arabic word Allah USA Great seal of United Slale

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Legislatures of the World
Country Name Legislature Narme Country Narne Legislature Narme
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Alghanistan Shora srael Knesset
Albania People's Assembly Japan Diet
Algeria Nalional People's Kenya National Assembly
Assembly
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Korea (Norh) Supreme People's

Australia Parliament/Federal Assermbly
Parliament
Korea (South) National Assernbly
Austria National Assembly
Libya General People's
Bangladesh Jatia Sansad
ie

Congress
Bhutan Tasongadu Malaysia Parliament (Dewan
Bolswana National Assernbly Rakyat, Dewan Negara)
National Congress
jm

Brazil Mongolia Great People's Khural

Britain Parliament (House of Nepal Rashtriya Panchayat
Commons and House of
Lords) Netherlands State General
Canada Parliament New Zealand Parliarment (House of
@

National People Aepresentalives)

China, Mainland
Congress Norway Storting
Colornbia Congress Pakistan National Assembly
Denmark Folketing Rormania Grand National Assembly
Egypt People's Assermbly Russia Duma
France National Assermbly South Africa Parliament
Gernany Bundestag Spain Cortes Generales
India Sansad (Parliarment) Switzerland Federal Assembly
Indonesia People's Consultative Syria People's Council
Assermbly
Turkey Grand National Assembly
Iran Majilis
Irag National Assembly USA Congress
Orieachtas Zambia National Assembly
Ireland
 486) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Political Parties of Major Countries

Country Political Party
Australia Liberal Party, Labour Party
Bangladesh Bangladesh Nationalist Party, Awami League, Jatiya Party
China Cormmuist Party of China
France Socialist Party, National Frot, Union for French Dermocracy
India Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), Bhartiya Janta Party (BJP), Communist Party of India
(CPI),Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPM), Indian National Congress (INC),
Nationalist Congress Party (NCP), Aam Admi Party (AAP), Nalional People's Party

e
Irag Ba'ath Party
Israel Labour Party, Likud Party, Hamas Party, Shas Party

nc
Nepal NepaliCommunist Party, Nepali Congress Party, Madhesi Jana Adhikar Forum
Pakistan Muslim League, Pakistan People Party
Russia Liberal Dermocratic Party, Democratic Choice of Russia, United Russia Party
South Africa African National Congress, Nalional Party, Inkatha Freedom Party
ra
Sri Lanka United National Party, Freedom Party
UK Conservative Party, Labour Party, Liberal Democratic Party
USA Republican Party, Dernocratic Party
nt

Major Newspapers of the World

Newspaper Country Newspaper Country
The Sydney Morning Herald Australia People's Daily China
ie

The Age Australia Mainichi Daily Nevws Japan

Globe and Mail Canada The New Zealand Herald New Zealand
The Gazette Canada The Press New Zealand
jm

Le Monde Dawn Paris (France) The Scotsman UK

Dawn Pakislarn The Guardian UK
Die Welt Gerrmany The Herald UK
The Times Britain The Courier UK
@

The Sun Britain Merdeka Indonesia

New York Times USA Pravada Russia
Washington Post USA The Hindu India

Official Books of Major Countries

Blue Book An official report of the British Government
Green Book and Iran
An official publications of ltaly
Grey Book An official report of the Government of Japan and Belgium
Orange Book An official publication of the Government of Netherlands
White Book An official publication of China, Germany and Portugal
Yellow Book French official book
White Paper An official paper of the Government of Britain and India on a particular issue
Joint Paper The point report of two or more than two governmenis
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 487

Some Important Symbols or Signs

Pen Symbol of culture and civilisation
Lotus Culture and civilisation
Red Cross Medical aid and hospital
Red Flag Revolution; also sign of danger
Black Flag Symbol of prolest
Yellow Flag Flown on ships or vehicles carrying patients
suffering from infectious diseases
White Flag Sign of truce, Symbol of Peace
Flag flown upside down Symbol of distress

e
Flag flown at half mast Symbol of national mourning
Pigeon or Dove Symbol of peace

nc
A blind folded woman holding a Symbol of justice
balanced scale
Black strip on face arm Sign of mourning or prolest
One skull on two bones crossing Sign of danger
each other diagonally
ra
Wheel (Chakra) Symbol of progress
Olive Branch Symbol of peace
nt

Fathers of Various Fields

Field Father Field Father
ie

Atom Bomb Dr Robert Oppenheimer Anatomy Andreas Vesalius

Aviation Alberto Santos Dumont Nuclear Physics Ernest Rutherford
Railways George Stephenson Modern Physics Albert Einstein
jm

Chemistry Robert Boyle Sanskrit Panini

Modern Chernistry Antoine Lavoisier Grarmmar
Eoonomics Adam Srmith Geomelry Euclid
Geography Eratosthenes Mathematics Archimedes
@

Sociology Auguste Comte Internet Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn

Political Science Aristotle Robotics Al-Jazari
Green Revolution Norman Borlaug Computers Charles Babbage
Modern Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt
Psychology Artificial John Mc Carthy
English Poetry Intelligence
Geoffrey Chaucer
Electricity Benjamin Franklin
Greek Tragedy Aeschylus
Immunology Edward Jenner Mobile Phone Martin Cooper

Genetics Gregor Johann Mendel Indian Nuclear Homi Jahangir Bhabha

Biology Science
Aristotle
Microbiology Nanolechnology Richard Feynman
Antonie Van Leeuwenhock
488 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

Intelligence/Detective Agencies of the World

Detective Agency Country Detective Agenoy Country
Central Intelligence Agency USA Research and Analysis India
(CIA),Federal Bureau of Wing (RAW), Intelligence
Investigation (FBI) Bureau (IB)
KGB/GAU Aussia National Intelligence Agency South Africa
Central External Liaison China Australian Security and Intelligence Australia
Department Organisation
Naicho Capitalize Japan Sazamane Etelaat Va Amniyate Iran
Kechvar (SAVAK)

e
Director General de la Securite France General Security Directorate Irag
Exterieure (DGSE)
Military Intelligence (MI-5) UK AL-Mukhabarat AL-Armmah Egypt

nc
and 6, Special Branch, Joint
Intelligence Organisation
MOSSAD Israel Inter Services Intelligence ((SI) Pakistan

The Seven Wonders of the World

ra
Ancient World Medieval World Modern World
Colossus of Rhodes ColossUS of Rome Great Pyramid of Giza
LighthoUse of Alexandria Catacombs of Alexandria Hagia Sophia (/stanbuh)
nt

Hanging Gardens of Babylon The Great Wall of China Leaning Tower of Pisa (laly)
Temple of Artemis at Ephesus The Pagoda of Nanking Taj Mahal (Agra, India)
Great Pyramid of Giza Leaning Tower of Pisa Washington Monument
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus Sancta Sophia of Constantinople Eiffel Tower (Paris, France)
ie

Statue of Zeus at Olympia Stonehenge Empire State Building

The 'New' Wonders of Modern World

jm

Chichen Itza, Mexico Petra, Jordan

Christ Redeerner, Brazil The Rorman Colosseum, Italy
The Great Wall of China The Taj Mahal, India
@

Machu Picchu, Peru Great Pyramid of Giza, Egypt

First in India (Male)

First Governor-General of India William entinck (1833-35)
Governor-General of Independent India Lord Lewis Mountbatten
First and Last Indian Governor-General of Free India C Rajagopalachari (1948-1956)
The first Muslim President of India Dr Zakir Hussain
The first Prirme Minister of India who resigned before the full Morarji Desai
term
First perSon to say in Rashtrapati
Bhawan Lord Irvin
First President of National Congress Womesh Chandra Bannerjee
The first Horme Minister of India Sardar Vallabhbhai Pael
The first Indian Judge of International Court of Justice Dr Nagendra Singh
Indian Managing Director of World Bank Gautam Kazi
Governor of Reserve Bank of India Sir Osborne Srmith
The first Indian to join the ICS Satyendra Nath Tagore
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 489)

The first Field Marshal of India SHFJ Manekshaw

The first Indian Commander-in-Chief of India General KM Karippa
The first Indian Naval Chief Vice Adiral RD Katari
The first Indian to win the Nobel Prize Rabindranath Tagore (1913)
The first Indian to get Nobel Prize in Physics CV Rarman
The first Indian to receive Nobel Prize in Economics Armartya Sen

The first person of Indian origin to get Nobel Prize in Medicine Hargobind Khurana
The first lndian to receive Bharat Ratna Award Dr Radhakrishnan
First Sportsperson to receive Bharat Ratna Sachin Tendulkar

e
The first person to receive Magsaysay Award Acharya Vinoba Bhave
First oricketer to get Padma Bhushan CK Nayudu

nc
First Indian to get the Grammy Award Pandit Ravishankar
First Indian to win Prizetaker Award (Architecture) Balkrishna Doshi
The first person to receive Jnanpith Award Sri Shankar Kurup
The tirst Indian pilot JRD Tala (1929)
ra
First Indian to win Richard Dawkins Award Javed Akhtar
First Indian to score triple century in Test Cricket Virender Sehwag
First Ex-CJl appointed as Governor P Sathasivam, as Governor of
Kerala
nt

First Viceroy of India Lord Canning (1858-62)

First Indian to win World Food Prize MS Swaminathan
First speaker of Lok Sabha GV Mavalankar
ie

First Indian member of British House of Commons Dadabhai Naoroji

First Indian Cricketer to score a Test Century Lala Amarnath (1933)
First Chief Election Commissioner of India Sukurmar Sen
jm

First Chairperson of Lokpal of India Pinaki Chandra Ghose

First Chief of Defence Staff India General Bipin Rawat
First in India (Female)
The first woman Prime Minister
@

Indira Gandhi
The first woman Minister in Government Rajkumari Anrit Kaur
The first woman Judge in Suprerne Court Fathima Beevi
The first worman Chief Justice of High Court Leela Seth
First Woman Lawyer to appear before a High Court in India Violet Alva
and first to preside over the Rajya Sabha
The first worman President of United Nations General Assembly Vijaya Laxmi Pandit
The first worman Chief Minister of an Indian state Sucheta Kripalani
The first woman Governor of a State in free India Sarojini Naidu
The first woman Chairman of Union Public Service Rose Millian Bethew
Commission
The first woman Director General of Police Kanchan C Bhattacharya
The first woman IPS Officer Kiran Bedi
The first woman President of Indian National Congress Annie Besant
The first woman Judge Anna Chandy
The first worman Barrister Cornelia Sorabjee
The first worman Honours Graduate KaminiRoy
490 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

The first worman Chairperson of Indian Airlines Sushma Chawla

The first worman to receive Nobel Prize Mother Teresa
The first worman Airline Pilot Durga Banerjee
The first worman to receive Bharat Ratna Indira Gandhi
The first worman to receive Jnanpith Award Ashapurna Devi
The first worman to receive Ashoka Chakra Nirja Bhanot
The first woman Asian Games Gold Medal Winner Kamaljit Sandhu
The first woman Olympic Medal Winner Karnam Malleswari
The first woman to climb Mount Everest Bachhendri Pal

e
The first woman to climb Mount Everest twice Santosh Yadav
The first woman to cross English ohannel Aarti Saha

nc
First Worman Doctor Kadambini Ganguly
First Test Tube Batby Durga (Kanupriya Agarwal, 1978)
First woman to participate in Olympics N. Polley (1924, Tennis)
First woman Chief Election Commissioner of India V.S. Ramadevi (1990)
ra
First woman Speaker of Lok Sabha Meira Kumar (2009)
First woman to win Wimbledon from India Sania Mirza
First woman to go into Space Kalpana Chawla
First woman to win Silver in Olympics PV Sindhu
nt

First woman wrestler to win Olyrmpic Medal Sakshi Malik

First woman President Pratibha Patil
First Indian worman fighter pilot to ily a fighter jet Avani Chaturvedi
ie

First Indian naval woman pilot Shubhangi Swaroop

First Indian to win Gold Medal on Internalional Track Hima Das

First Indian women Flight Engineer Hina Jaiswal

jm

First female military diplormat posted at Indian Missions Abroad Wing Commander Anjali Singh

First in India (Miscellaneous)

The tirst Bank Bank of Hindustan (1770)
@

First general post office of India Madras (GPO 1786)

India's first plane to be hijacked Fokker Friendship Plane (1971)
First telephone line introduced in India 1851
First talkie film of India Alam Ara (1931)
First battle tank of India Arjun
First satellite of India Aryabhata
The first Indian state to implerment the Panchayati Raj System Rajasthan
District to become India's first tolally electrified district Palakkad (Kerala)
City to have an e-court Ahmedabad
First Indian to win individual Olyrmpic gold Abhinav Bindra
First lunar probe Chandrayaan-l (October 2008)
First dedicaled military Satellite Rukrnini(01G-SAT-7)
First Mars Orbiter Mission 5th November, 2013
First Organic State Sikkim
First slate to attain 100% Primary Literacy Level Kerala
First Slate/Union Territory to operate fully on solar energy Darman and Dlu
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 491

Superlatives India
(Biggest, Highest, Largest, Longest, Smallest, Tallest, etc)
The longest river The Ganga (2525 km)
The longest canal Indira Gandhi Canal or Rajasthan Canal (Rajasthan)
The longest dam Hirakud dam (Odisha)
The longest sea beach Marina beach (Chenna)
The highest lake Devtal lake (Uttarakhand)
The highest dam Tehri Darm (Uttarakhand)
The largest lake Wular lake (Janmu and Kashnin)
The largest saline water lake Chilka lake (Odisha)

e
The largest fresh waler lake Wular lake (J & K)
The largest artificial lake Govind Sagar (Aihand dam)

nc
The largest river island Majuli, Brahmaputra river (Assam)
The highest waterfall Kunchikal falls, Shimoga (Karnalaka)
The deepest river valley Bhagiratthi and Alaknanda
The longest river bridge Bhupen Hazarika Bridge, Lohit River (9.15 Km)
ra
The longest sea bridge Bandra-WNorli Sea link
The largest cantilever bridge Rabindra Setu or Howrah Bridge (Kolkata)
The state with longest coastline Gujarat
Longest rail-cum-road bridge Bogibeel Bridge
nt

The longest river without della Narmada

The longest railway platform Hubli
The longest road Grand Trunk Road (Kolkala to Delh)
The highest road Road at Umling La (Ladakh)
ie

The longest corridor Corridor of RamnathswamiTemple at Rameshwaram

(Tarmil Nadu)
The highest airport Leh Airport (Ladakh)
jm

The largest desert Thar (Aajasthan)

The largest delta Sunderbans (West Bengal)
The largest zoo Zoological Garden (Kolkata)
The biggest sladium Yuva Bharti (Salt lake) Stadium (Kolkala)
@

The tallest TV tower Rarmeswararn TV tower (Tarmil Nadu)

The largest gurudwara Golden temple, (Amrilsar)
The largest cave temple Kailash temple (Ellora, Maharashtra)
The highest peak Godwin Austin, K-2 (8611 m)
The longest tunnel Syama Prasad Mukherjee (Chenani-Nashiri)
Tunnel (Jarnnu and Kashmi)
The largest animal fair Sonepur (Bihar)
The largest cave Amarnath (Jarmmu and Kashmir)
The highest gate way Buland Darwaza, (Fatehpur Sikri, UP)
The tallest statue Statue of Unity (Gujarat)
The most populous city Murmbai (Maharashtra)
The oldest church St Thomas Church at Palayur, Trichur (Kerala)
The biggest church Saint Cathedral at old Goa (Goa)
The longest national highway NH-44 (Srinagar to Karnyakurnari)
The highest award Bharat Ratna
The highest gallantry award Paran Vir Chakra
492) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

Famous Sobriquets of Important Persons

Person Nickname Person Nickname
Abdul Gaffar Khan Badshah Khan; MK Gandhi Bapu; Mahatma,
Frontier Gandhi Father of the Nation
Bal Gangadhar Tilak Lokmanya MS Golvwalkar Shri Guruji
CF Andrews Deenabandhu Madan Mohan Mahamana
CN Annadurai Malaviya
Anna
CR Das Deshabandhu Rabindranath Tagore Gurudev
C
Rajagopalachari Rajaji Rajinder Singh Sparrow
Nightingale of India

e
Dadabhai Naoroji Grand Old Man of Sarojini Naidu
India Sheikh Mohammad Lion of Kashmir
Jawaharlal Nehru Chacha, Panditji Abdullah (Sher-i-Kashrmin)

nc
Jayaprakash Loknayak Sheikh Mujibur Bangabandhu
Narayan Rahman
Lal Bahadur Shastri Man of Peace Subhash Chandra Bose Nelaji
Lala Lajpat Rai Punjab Kesari; T Prakasam Andhra Kesari
Lion of Punjab
ra Vallabhbhai Patel Iron Man of India.
(Sher-i-Punjab) Bismarck of India

Crematorium of Famous Person (lndia)

nt

Crematorium Persons Crermatorium Persons

Sarmata Sthal Jagjeevan Ram Sadaiv Atal Atal Bihari Vajpayee
Karma Bhumi Dr Shankar Dayal Sharma
ie

Veer Bhumi Rajiv Gandhi

Mahaprayan Ghat Dr Rajendra Prasad
Ekta Sthal Giani Zail Singh, Chandra
Raj Ghat Mahatma Gandhi Shekhar, PV Narasimha
Vijay Ghat Lal Bahadur Shastri
jm

Uday Bhoomi KR Narayanan

Kisan Ghat Chaudhary Charan Singh Shanti Van Jawaharlal Nehru
Smriti Sthal IK Gujral
Shakti Sthal Indira Gandhi
@

Some Great Works Associated with FamOus Persons (India)

Father of Sanskrit Grarmmar Panini
Founder of Anand Van Baba Amte
Founder of 'Auroville Ashrarm' (Puducherry) Aurobindo Ghosh
Founder of Shantiniketan Rabindranath Tagore
Founder of Vishvwabharati Rabindranath Tagore
Founder of Paunar Ashram Vinoba Bhave
Founder of Bhudan Moverment Vinoba Bhave
Founder of Golden Termple Guru Arjan Dev
Founder of Khalsa Panth Guru Gobind Singh
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 493)

Major Newspapers in India

Newspaper Published From Language
Economic Times Mumbai, Delhi English
Hindustan Times Delhi, Patna English
Deccan Bengaluru English
Mid Day Mumbai English
National Herald Lucknow, Delhi, Kolkata English
Pioneer Lucknow, Delhi, Kanpur English
Search Light Patna English

e
The Hindu Bengaluru, Chennai, Coimbatore English
The Indian Express Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Lucknow, English

nc
Madurai, Ahmedabad
The Statesman Kolkata, New Delhi English
The Times of India (Largest English New Delhi/Murmbai/ Ahmedabad English
circulating newspaper in the world)
The Tribune Ambala, Chandigarh English
ra
Aaj Kanpur, Varanasi Hindi
Amar Ujala Allahabad/AgraJhansi/ Meerut Hindi
Hindustan Delhi/Patna Hindi
Nav Bharat Times New Delhi/Murmbai Hindi
nt

Amrit Bazar Patrika Kolkata Bengali

Anand Bazar Patrika Kolkata Bengali
Yugantar Kolkata Bengali
ie

Matrabhoomi Cuttack Odiya

Akali Patrika Jallandhar Punjabi
Tej Delhi Urdu
jm

Dinarmani Madurai Tamil

Renamed Indian Cities

Old Name Changed Narne Old Narme Changed Narme
@

Vizagapatam Vishakhapatnam Avantika Ujain

Bezawada Vijayawada Bhelsa Vidisha
Masulipatam Machilipatnam Bombay Mumbai
Gauhati Guwahati Yanaon Yanam
Baroda Vadodaa Koyarmutthoor Coimbatore
Broach Bharuch Madras Chennai
Simla Shirmla Cape Comorin Kanyakurnari
Trivandrum Thirvananthapuam Conjeevaram Kanchipuram
Cochin Kochi Cawnpore Kanpur
Calicut Kozhikode Benares Varanasi
Palghat Palakkad Calcutta Kollkata
Allahabad Prayagraj Gurgaon Gurugram
Mangalore Mangaluru Bangalore Bengaluru
494 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India

Year of Sites Yearof Sites
Inclusion Inclusion
1983 Ajanta Caves (Maharashtra) 2004 Brihadeshwara Temple
1983 Ellora Caves (Maharashtra) (Gangaikondacholapuram, Tamil Nadu)
1988 Taj Mahal (Uttar Pradesh) 2004 Victoria Terminus (CST), Mumbai
1983 Agra Fort (Uttar Pradesh) 2004 Airavalesvara Temple, Darasuram
1984 Sun Termple, Konark (Odisha) (Tamil Nadu)
1985 Mahabalipuran Teples (Tarnil Nadu) 2004 Champaner-Pavagadh
1985 Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, Archaeological Park (Gujarat)
Bharalpur (Rajasthan) 2005 Valley of Flowers (Utarakhand)

e
1985 Kaziranga Nalional Park (Assam) 2005 Nilgiri Mountain Railway (Tarmil Nadu)
1985 Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur 2007 Red Fort (Delhi)
(Rajasthan)

nc
2008 Kalka-Shimla Railway (Himachal
1986 Churches in Goa (Goa) Pradesh)
1986 Khajuraho Temples
(Madhya Pradesh) 2010 Jantar Mantar, Jaipur (Rajasthan)
1986 Fatehpur Sikri (Uttar Pradesh) 2012 Weslern Ghat
Hampi Temples (Karnalaka) Hill forts of Rajasthan
1986
ra 2013
1987 Sundarbans Nalional Park 2014 Rani ki Vav (Gujarat)
(West Bengal)
2014 Great Himalayan National Park
1987 Elephants Caves (Maharashtra) (Himachal Pradesh)
1987 Pattadakal Temples (Karnataka) 2016 Nalanda Mahavihara (Bihar)
nt

1988 Nanda Devi National Park 2016 Khangchendzonga National Park

(Uttarakhand) (Sikkim)

1989 SanchiStupa (Madhya Pradesh) 2016 The Architectural work of Le

corbusier (Chandigarh)
ie

1993 Humayun's Tomb (Delhi)

2017 Hisloric ity of Ahmadabad (Gujarat)
1993 Qutub Minar (Delhi)
2018 The victorian and Art Deco
1999 Darjeeling Himalayan Railway Ensemble of Mumbai
jm

(West Bengal)
2019 Pink City, Jaipur
2002 Mahabodhi Temple (Bodh Gaya) (Bihar) 2021 Kakatiya Rudreshwwara (Ramappa
2003 Rock Shelters of Bhimbelaka Termple), Telangana
(Madhya Pradesh) 2021 Dholavira, Gujarat
@

Foundation Day of Some States

1st January Nagaland Day
21st January Manipur, Meghalaya and Tripura Day
6th February Jammu and Kashmir Day
20th February Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh Day
11ih Marh Andaman and Nicobar Islands Day
22nd March Bihar Day (Bihar Diwas)
30th March Rajasthan Day
1st April Utkal (Odisha) Day
14th April Tarmil Nadu Day

15th April Himachal Pradesh Day

1st May Gujarat and Maharashtra Day
16th May Sikkim Day
1st November Chattisgarh
09th Novermber Utaranchal (Now Uttarakhand) Day
15th November Jharkhand Day (Jharkhand Diwas)
2nd June (2014) Telangana Day
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 495)

Famous Tourist Spots of India

Site Location FOunder
Ararn Bagh Agra (Uttar Pradesh) Babur
Anand Bhawan Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh) Moti Lal Nehru
Adhai Din Ka Johpda Ajmer (Rajasthan) Qutub-ud-din Aibak
Ajanta Caves Aurangabad Gupta Rulers
Akbar's Tomb Sikandera (Uttar Pradesh) Jahangir
BibiKa Maqbara Aurangabad (Maharashtra) Aurangzeb
Bharatpur Fort Bharalpur (Rajasthan) Raja Surajmal Singh

e
Bundi Fort Bundi (Rajasthan) Rao Deva
Bada ITambada Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh) Nawab Asaf-ud-daulah

nc
Belur Math Kolkata Swami Vivekanand
Botanical Garden Shibpur (West Bengal)
Chhatra Mahal Bundi Fort Rani Chhatrasal
Chenna Keshab Temple Belur (Karnataka) Vishnu Vardhan
ra
Char Temple Konark (Odisha) Narasing Dev
Chasma-Shahi Jammu and Kashmir Mardan Khan
Ali

Charar-e-Sarif Srinagar (Kashmir) Jainul Abedin

nt

Choota lmambada Lucknow (Utar Pradesh) Moharnmad AliShah

Cochin Fort Kerala Portuguese
Dewan-e-Khas Agra Fort (Uttar Pradesh) Shah Jahan
Dilwara Jain Termple Mount Abu (Rajasthan) Vastu Pal Tejpal
ie

Deeg Palace Deeg (Rajasthan) Raja Badan Singh

Dhar Fort Dhar (Madhya Pradesh) Moharmmad Bin Tughlaq
Agra (Utar Pradesh) Noor Jahan
jm

Etamad-ud-daulah's Tomb
Ellora Caves Aurangabad Rashtrakuta Dynasty
Elephanta Caves Murmbai Rashtrakutas
Fatehpur Sikri Agra (Uttar Pradesh) Akbar
@

Firoz Shah Kotla Delhi Firoz Shah Tughlag

Fort William Kolkata Lord Clive
Fateh Sagar Udaipur (Rajasthan) Maharana Fateh Singh
Gateway of India Mumbai British Government
Golconda Fort Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh) Qutubshahi Dynasty
Gol Ghar Patna (Bihar) British Government
Humayun's Tomb Delhi Hameeda Bano Beghum
Hauz Khas Delhi Ala-ud-din Khilji
Hajratbal Masjid Srinagar (Kashmir)
Harmandir Sahib Patna (Bihar) Maharaja Ranjit Singh
Junagarh Bikaner (Rajasthan) Raja Jai Singh
Jama Masjid Delhi Shah Jahan
Jantar-Mantar Delhi and Jaipur Sawai Jai Singh
Jodhpur Fort Jodhpur (Rajasthan) Rao Jodha Ji
Jaku Termple Kolkala Rani Ras Moni
Jagannath Temple Puri (Odisha) Chola Gang Dev
496 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Site Location Founder

Jama Masjid Agra (Uttar Pradesh) Shah Jahan
Khas Mahal Agra (Uttar Pradesh) Shah Jahan
Kankaria Lake Ahmedabad Sultan Qulub-ud-din
Khirki Masjid Delhi Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq
Kandaria Mahadev Khajuraho (Madhya Pradesh) Chandela Kings
Kanheri Caves Mumbai Buddhists
Laxman Termple Chhatarpur (Madhya Pradesh) Chandela Rulers
Laxmi Narayan Temple Delhi Birla Farmily

e
Laxman Jhula Aishikesh (Uttarakhand)
Moti Masjid Agra Fort (Uttar Pradesh) Shah Jahan

nc
Moti Masjid Delhi Fort Aurangzeb
Mrignayani Palace Gwalior (Madhya Pradesh) Raja Man Singh Tomar
Madan Palace Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh) Raja Madan Shah
Mecca Masjid Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh) Kuli KutubShah
ra
Nahargarh Fort Jaipur (Rajasthan) Raja JaiSingh
Nishaat Bagh Jammu and Kashmir Asaf Ali

Nakhuda Masjid Kolkala

Old Fort (Purana Quila) Delhi Sher Shah Suri
nt

President House Delhi British Government

Pichhola Lake Udaipur (Rajasthan)
Pathar Ki Masjid (Naev Patna (Bihar) Parvez Shah
ie

Masheed)
Padari Ki Haveli Patna (Bihar) Father Capuchin
Patthar Ki Masjid Jammu and Kashmir Noor Jahan
jm

Prince of Wales Museum Mumbai George V

Rani Ki Badi Bundi (Rajasthan) Rani Nathvati
Red Fort Delhi Shah Jahan
Sheesh Mahal Agra (Uttar Pradesh) Shah Jahan
@

Safdarjung ka Maqbara Delhi Shuja-ud-daulah

Sabarmati Ashram Ahmedabad Mahatma Gandhi
St Geogre Fort Chennai (Tamil Nadu) East India Company
Vimal Shah
Shalimar Bagh (Garden) Srinagar (Kashmir) Jahangir
Sunset Point Mount Abu (Rajasthan)
Sher Shani Masjid Patna (Bihar) Parvez Shah
Sher Shah's Tomb Sasaram (Bihar) Islam Shah Suri, Son of Sher
Shah
Taj Mahal Agra (Uttar Pradesh) Shah Jahan
Tughlakabad Delhi Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq
Umaid Palace Jodhpur (Rajasthan) Maharaj Ummed Singh
Vijay Stambh Chittorgarh (Rajasthan) Rana Kumbha
Victoria Mermorial Kolkala
Vishnupad Temple Gaya (Bihar) Rani Ahilya Bai
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 497)

Agriculture and Animal Husbandry Institutions

Indian Agriculture Research Institute New Delhi
Central Aice Research Institute Cuttack
Central Sugarcane Research Instilute Coimbatore
Central Tobacco Research Institute Rajahmundry
Central Potato Research Institute Kufri, Shimla
National Centre of Organic Farming Ghaziabad
National Plant Prolection Training Institute Hyderabad
Central Frozen Semen Produclion and Training lnstitute Hissar Ghatta (Karnataka)
Central Sheep Breeding Farm

e
Hissar
Indian Velerinary Research Institute Izzatnagar, Bareilly (Uttar Pradesh)
Animal Health Institute Jalandhar

nc
Central Institute of Fisheries, Nautical and Engineering Kochi
Training
Integrated Fisheries Project Kochi
Central Island Agriculture Research Institute (|CAR) Port Blair
ra
Central Institute of Cotton Research Nagpur
Cenlral Institute of Agrioullural Engineering Bhopal
Central Inslitute of Fisheries Education Murmbai
Central Instilute of Fistheries Technology Cochin
nt

Central Inslitute of Fresh Water Agriculture Bhubaneswar

Cenlral Soil Salinity Research Institute Karnal
Central Inland Fisheries Research Instilute Barrackpore
Locust Warning Organisation Jodhpur
ie

National Inslitute of Agricultural Markeling Jaipur

Random Sample Poulry Performance Testing Centre Gurgaon
National Institute of Animal Health Baghpat (Utar Pradesh)
jm

Disease Investigation Laboratory Pune

Institute of Animal Health & Veterinary Biologicals Bengaluru (Karnataka)
Indian Councilof Agricultaural Resarch (|CAR) New Delhi
National Sugar Research Institute Kanpur
@

Animal VWelíare Board of India Ballabhgarh (Haryana)

Trade Related Institutions

Rubber Board Kottayam Spices Board Kochi
Coffee Board Bengaluru Indian Institute of Foreign Trade New Delhi
Tea Board Kolkata Indian Institute of
Packaging Mumbai
Tobacco Board Guntur (Andhra Pradesh) Indian Diarnond Institute Surat

Institute of Communication
Bharat Ratna Bhim Rao Ambedkar Institute of Telecom Training Jabalpur
Tele Communication Engineering Centre New Delhi
National Academy of Telecom Finance and Management Secunderabad, Hyderabad
Advanced Level Telecom Centre Ghaziabad
Indian Institute of Telecom Management (||TM) Pune
Indian Railways Institute of Signal Engineering and Secunderabad
Telecommunications
Telecom Centres of Excellence (TCOE) India New Delhi
498) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

Education
Central Institute of Indian Languages Mysore
Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages Hyderabad
Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan New Delhi
Rashtriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha Tirupati
Indian National Acaderny of Engineering New Delhi
High Altitude Training Centre Shillaru (Himachal Pradesh)
Fire Training Centre New Delhi
Maharishi Sandipani Rashtriya Veda Vidya Prathisthan Uijain
Indian School of Business Hyderabad

e
Indian Statistical Institute Kolkata
National Law School Bangalore

nc
Indian Inslitute of Space Science and Technology Thirvananthapuram (Kerala)
Indian Institute of Public Adrministration New Delhi
Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research Mumbai
ra
Energy
National Power Training Institute Faridabad
Centre for Wind Energy Technology Chennai
National Solar Energy Federation of India (NSEFI) New Delhi
nt

Environment
Centre for Environmental Education (CEÐ Ahmedabad
ie

Centre for Mining Environment (CME) Dhanbad

GB Pant Instilute of Himalayan Environment and Development Almora (Uttarakhand)
Centre for Ecological Sciences (CES) Bengaluru
jm

National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) Chenna

CPR Environmental Education Centre (CEEC) Chennai
Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI) Chennai
Forest Survey of India (FSI) Dehradun
Indian Council of Forest Research and Education (ICFAE)
@

Dehradun
Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy ((GNFA) Dehradun
Wildlife lnstitute of India (WIT) Dehradun
Indian Institute of Chernical Technology (llCT) Hyderabad
Central Soil and Material Research Station (CSMRS) New Delhi
National Mangrove Genetic Resource Centre (NMGAC) Odisha
National Coral Reef Research Centre (NCRROC) Port Blair
National Inslitute of Hydrology (NIH) Roorkee
National Environmental Engineering Research Inslitute Nagpur
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) New Delhi

Forest
Centre for Social Forestry and Eco-rehabilitation (CSFE) Allahabad
Indian Plywood Industries Research and Training Institute (1PIRT) Bengaluru
Indian Institute of Forest Management (lFM) Bhopal
Inslitute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding (|FGTB) Coimbatore
Forest Research Institute (FRI) Dehradun
Tropical Forestry Research Institute (TFR) Jabalpur
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 499

Arid Forest Research Institute (AFRI) Jodhpur

Rain Forest Research Institute (AFRI) Jorhat, Assam
Inslilule for Forest Productivity (FP) Ranchi
Himalayan Forest Research Institute (HFR) Shimla
Advanced Research Centre for Barmbo0 and Rattans (ARCBR) Aizawal
Centre for Forestry Research and Human Resource Development (CFAHRD) Chhindwara

Food and Civil Supplies

Bureau of Indian Standards Delhi
Indian Grain Storage Management and Research Institute Hapur

e
National Inslitute of Training for Standardisation New Delhi
National Agrioultural Cooperative Marketing Federalion of India Ltd (NAFED) New Delhi
New Delhi

nc
Food Corporation of India (FOI)

Government Industrial Undertakings

Bharat Electronics Ltd Jalahalli (Bengaluru)
Heavy Engineering Corporalion Ltd Ranchi
ra
Heavy Machine Building Plant Ranchi
Heavy Vehicles Factory Avadi (Chennai)
Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd Bengaluru
Hindustan Aircraft Factory Bengaluru
nt

Hindustan Prefab Limited New Delhi

Hindustan Teleprinters Ltd Chennai
Integral Coach Factory Perambar (Tamil Nadu)
Security Paper Mill Hoshangabad (Madhya Pradesh)
ie

Neyveli Lignite Corporalion Lid Neyveli (Tamil Nadu)

Hindustan Organic Chemicals Ltd Murmbai (Maharashtra)
Hundustan Photo Films Manufacturing Company Ltd Ooty (Tarnil Nadu)
jm

Hindustan Zinc Ltd Udaipur (Rajasthan)

Health and Family Welfare

National Academy of Medical Science New Delhi
@

National lnstitute of Ayurveda Jaipur

National lnslitute of Unani Medicines Bengaluru
National Institute of Homeopathy Kolkata
National Institute of Naluropathy Pune
National lnstitute of Siddha Chennai
Morarji Desai National Institute of Yoga New Delhi

Health and Medicinal Research Centres in India

School of Tropical Medicine Kolkata
Central Leprosy Training and Research Institute Chengalpattu (Tamil Nadu)
PGIMedical Educalion and Research Chandigarh
National Institute of Nutrition Hyderabad
National Institute of Occupational Health Ahmedabad
King Inslitute of Preventive Medicine Guindy (Chennai)
All India Inslitute of Hygiene and Public Health Kolkata
AllIndia Malaria Research Institute New Delhi
All India Institute of Medical Sciences New Delhi
500 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

National Tuberculosis Institute Bengaluru

Indian Cancer Research Centre Mumbai
Inslitute of Ayuvedic Studies and Research Jamnagar (Gujarat)
Vallabhbhai Patel Chest Institute Delhi
Haftkine Institute Mumbai
National Institute of Communicable Diseases Delhi
Indian Council of Medical Research New Delhi

Industry
Sardar Vallabhbhai Institute of Textile Management Coimbatore

e
Institute of Pesticide Formulation Technology Gurgaon
Cenlral Institute of Plastic Engineering and Technology Chennai

nc
Justice and Law
National Judicial Academy Bhopal
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel National Police Academy Hyderabad
ra
National Institute of Criminology and Forensic Science New Delhi
National Law School of India University Bengaluru

Labour
nt

VV Giri National Labour Inslitute Noida (Uttar Pradesh)

National Instructional Media Institute Chennai
Central Staff Training and Research Instilute Kolkata
ie

Laboratories
Central Scientific Instrument Organisation Chandigarh
Central Leather Aesearch Institute Chennai
jm

Indian Insitute of Petroleum Dehradun

Central Mining Research Station Dhanbad
Central Fuel Research Instilute Dhanbad (Jharkhand)
National Geophysical Research Inslitute Hyderabad
@

National Metallurgical Laboratory Jamshedpur

Central Glass and Ceramic Research lnstitute Kolkata
National Botanical Research Institute Lucknow
Central Drug Research Institute Lucknow
Central lInslitute of Medical and Aromatic Plants Lucknow
Central Food Technological Research Inslilute Mysore
National Environment Engineering Inslitute Nagpur
National Physical Laboratory New Delhi
Pulses Research Laboratory Pachmarhi (Madhya Pradesh)
National Biolagical Laboralory Palarnpur (Himachal Pradesh)
National Institute of Oceanography Panaji (Goa)
Central Electronic Engineering Research Institute Pilani (Rajasthan)

Mass Communication
Film and Television Institute of India Pune
Satyajit Ray Film and Television Institute Kolkata
Indian Institute of Mass Communication New Delhi
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 501

Nuclear and Space Research Centres in India

Research Centre Place
Indian Rare Earths Limited (|AEL) Alwaye (Kerala)
Uranium Corporalion of India Limited Jadugora (Jharkhand)
Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) Murmbai
Electronics Corporation of India Limited Hyderabad
Bhabha Atormic Research Centre (BARC) Trombay (Mumbai)
Radio Astronomy Centre Oolacamund (Tanil Nadu, Ooty)
Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Mumbai

e
Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics Kolkata
Centre of Earth Science's Studies Thiruvananthapuram (Kerala)

nc
Physical Research Laboratory Ahmedabad
Space Commission Bengaluru
Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre Thiruvananthapuram
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) Bengaluru
ra
Space Application Centre Ahmedabad
Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station Thumba (Kerala)
College of Satellite Communication Technology Ahmedabad
nt

Social Welfare Institutes

Inslitute for Empowerment of Persons with Multiple Disabilities Chennai
National Institute of Rehabilitation Training and Research Cuttack
ie

National Institute for the Visually Handicapped Dehradun

National Institute for Orthopaedically Handicapped Kolkata
Ali Yavar Jung National Institute for the Hearing Handicapped Mumbai
jm

Instilute of Physically Handicapped New Delhi

National Inslitute of Public Cooperalion and Child Development New Delhi
National Institute for Mentally Handicapped Secunderabad
(Telangana)
@

Science and Technology Research Institutes

Physical Research Laboratory Ahmedabad
Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research Bengaluru
Indian Institute of Astrophysics Bengaluru
The National Centre for Biological Science Bengaluru
Raman Research Institute Bengaluru
Institute of Life Sciences Bhubaneswar
National lInstitute of Ocean Technology Chennai
Central Marine Research Station Chennai
Wadia Institule of Himalayan Geology Dehradun
National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research Goa
High Altitude Research Laboratory Gulrmarg (Kashmir)
The Survey Training Institute Hyderabad
Centre for DNA Finger Printing and Diagnostics Hyderabad
Indian National Centre for Ocean and lnformation Services Hyderabad
502) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Institute of Microbial Technology Hyderabad

Inslitute of Bio-resources and Sustainable Development Imphal
The Centre for Marine Living Resource and Ecology Kochi
SN Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences Kolkata
National Brain Research Centre Manesar (Haryana)
Indian Institute of Geomagnetism Mumbai
Indian Cancer Research Centre Mumbai
Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology Nagpur
National Environmental Engineering Researoh Inslitute Nagpur (Maharashtra)
Indian National Acaderny of Engineering

e
New Delhi
National Institute of Immunology New Delhi

nc
Indian National Science Academy New Delhi
National Seismological Database Centre New Delhi
National Centre for Plant Genome Research New Delhi
National Centre for Cell Science Pune
Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology
ra Pune
Indian Lac Research Inslitute Ranchi
ShriChitra Tirunal Inslitute for Medical Science and Technology Thiruvananthapuram

Transport
nt

Rail Wheel Factory Bengaluru

Chittaranjan Locomotive Works Chittaranjan (West Bengal)
The National Institute of Aviation Management and Research Delhi
ie

Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Akademi Fursatganj (Uttar Pradesh)

National Institute of Waler Sports Goa
The Indian Institute of Tourism and Travel Management Gwalior
jm

Rail Coach Factory Kapurthala

Diesel Locomotives Work Varanasi
LBS College of Advance Marilime Studies and Research Mumbai
Marine Engineering and Research Institute Mumbai
@

National Rail and Transportation Institute Vadodara

Integral Coach Factory Perunbur (Chennai)
Maritime Training Institute Powai (Mumbai)

Water Resouroes
The Central Soil and Material Research Station New Delhi
The Central Water and Power Research Station Pune
The National Institute of Hydrology Roorkee

Youth Affairs and Sports

Netaji Subhash National Institute of Sports Patiala
The Rajiv Gandhi National Institute of Youth Development Sriperumnbudur (Tamil Nadu)
National Sports University Imphal, Manipur
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 503

Important Dates and Days of the Year

January
1
Army Medical Corps Establishment 18 Ordnance Manufacturing Day
Day 21 World Forestry Day, International
4 Louis Braille Day Day for the Elimination of Racial
8 African National Congress Foundation Discrimination
Day 22 World Water Day
9 NRIDay (Pravasi Bhartiya Diwas) 23 World Meteorological Day
10 World Hindi Day 24 World TB Day

e
11 World Laughter Day 26 Bangladesh Liberation Day
12 National Youth Day (Birthday of Swarmi 27 World Theatre Day

nc
Vivekanand) April
15 Arny Day
2 World Autism Awareness Day
21 Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura Diwas
5 National Maritime Day, International
23 Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose's birth Day for Mine Awareness
anniversary
ra 7 World Health Day
24 Rashtriya Balika Divas, Giri Child Day 10 World Homeopathy Day
25 National Tourisn Day, Voter's Day. 13 Jallianwala Bagh Massacre Day
International Customs and Excise (1919)
nt

Day, Voters Day

14 BR Ambedkar Remembrance Day:;
26 Indian Republic Day, International Fire Extinguishing Day
Customs Day
17 World Haernophilia Day
30 Martyr's Day (Mahatma Gandhi's
18 World Heritage Day, Azad Hind
ie

Martyrdom), World Leprosy Fauz Day

Eradication Day
21 Civil Services Day
February 22 World Earth Day
jm

1 Indian Coast Guard Day 23 World Book and Copyright Day

2 World Weilands Day 24 Panchayat Divas
4 National Day of Sri Lanka 25 World Malaria Day
5 Kashmir Day 26 World Intellectual Property Day
@

(Organised by Pakistan)
13 World Radio Day
May
20 World Social Justice Day
1 International Labour Day (May
Day), Maharashtra Day, Gujarat
21 International Mother Tongue Day Day
24 Central Excise Day 2 World Asthma Day
28 National Scienoe Day 3 World Press Freedom Day,
International Energy Day
March
8 World Red Cross Day
3 National Defence Day, World Wildlfie
11 National Technology Day
Day
12 International Nurses Day
4 National Security Day
15 International Farnily Day
8 International Women's Day
17 World Telecommunications Day
11 Andaman Nicobar Day
13 World Kidney Day 21 Anti-Terrorism Day, Rajiv Gandhi
Death Anniversary
15 World Consumer Rights Day, World
22 World Biodiversity Day
Disabled Day
24 Cormmonwealth Day
16 National Vaccination Day
31 World Anti-Tobacco Day
504 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

June October
1Global Day of Parents 1 International Day for the Elderly (UN)
5 World Environment Day 2 International Non-violence Day, Lal
7 World Food Safety Day Bahadur Shastri and Mahatma
20 World Refugee Day Gandhi's Birthday
21 International Yoga Day 3 World Habitat Day
4 World Animal Welíare Day
29 National Statistics Day
5 World Teacher's Day
July 8 Indian Air Foroce Day
1
Doctor's Day, State Bank of India 9 World Postal Day

e
Foundation Day 10 World Mental Health Day; National
4 American Independence Day Post Day

nc
7 International Day of Co-operatives 11 International Girl Child Day
11 World Population Day 13 World Calamity Control Day (UN)
18 International Nelson Mandela Day 14 World Standards Day
26 Kargil Victory Day 15 National Women Farmer's Day
ra 16 World Food Day
28 World Nature Conservation Day,
World Hepatitis Day 17 International Poverty Eradication Day
20 National Solidarity Day
August (China attacked India on that day)
1
World Breast Feeding Day
nt

21 World lodine Shortage Day

6 Hiroshima Day (World Peace Day) 22 World Energy Day
9 Kranti Divas, Nagasaki Day, Quit
24 United Nations Day, World Polio Day
India Day, International Day of 31 World Thrift Day, National Integration
ie

Word's Ingenious People Day

12 International Youth Day 31 National Unity Day
15 India's Independence Day
November
jm

19 World Photography Day

20 Sadbhavna Diwas 7 Infant Protection Day; National Cancer
29 National Sports Day Awareness Day
(Dhyanchand's birthday) 10 Transport Day, Malala Day (by UN)
11 National Education Day
@

30 Small Industry Day

14 Children's Day,
September World Diabetics Day
5 Teachers' Day, 16 National Press Day
Dr Radhakrishnan's Birthday
17 National Epilepsy Day
8 International Literacy Day 18 National Naturopathy Day
(UNESCO)
19 World Citizen Day, National
14 World First Aid Day Integration Day, World Toilet Day
15 Engineers Day, 20 Universal Children's Day (UN), Africa
International Day of Dernocracy Industrialisation Day
16 World Ozone Day
21 World Fisheries Day
18 Biosphere Day, 25 World Non-veg Prevention Day
World Alzheimer's Day
26 Law Day, National Milk Day,
20 Railway Police Foroe Foundation Samvidhan Diwas
Day
21 International Day of Peace December
24 World Deaf Day, World Heart Day 1
World AIDS Day
27 World Tourism Day 2 International Day for the Abolition of
Slavery, World Cormputer literacy Day
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 505
3 World Disabled Day 2013-2022 International Decade for the
4 Navy Day Reapproachment of Cultures
(UNESCO)
5 International Volunteers Day
7 Armed Forces Flag Day 2011-2020 Third Internalional Decade for the
Eradication of Colonialism, UN
10 Human Rights Day Decade on Biodiversity, Decade
of Action íor Road Safetly
11 UNICEF Day
2010-2020 UN Decade for Deserts and
14 National Energy Conservation Day Fight against Desertification
16 Vijay Divas
19 Goa's Liberation Day UN International Year
23 Kisarn Divas (Farmer's Day) 2024 International Year of Camelids

e
25 National Good Governance Day, International Year of Millets
X-Mas Day 2023
International Year of Artisanal

nc
2022
26 Veer Baal Divwas Fisheries and Aquaculture
29 International Biodiversity Day 2021 International Year of Peace and
Trust, International Year of Creative
Important UNO Decades Economy for Suslainable
Development, International Year of
2021-2030 International Decade of Ocean
ra Fruits and Vegetables
Science for Sustainable
Development 2020 International Year of Plant Health,
2019-2028 International Year of the Nurse and
United Nations Decade of Midwife
Family Farming
2019 International Year of Indigenous
nt

2018-2028 International Decade for Action

"Water for Sustainable International Year of
Development' International Year of the
2016-2025 Third Industrial Development Periodic Table of Chemical Elerments
Decade for Africa 2017 International Year of Sustainable
ie

2016-2025 United Nations Decade of Tourism for Development

Action on Nutrition
2016 International Year of Pulses
2015-2024 International Decade for People
of African Descent International Year of Light and
jm

2015
2014-2024 United Nations Decade of Light-based Technologies,
Sustainable Energy for AlI International year of Soils

Abbreviations
@

A ASCI Advanoed Strategic Computing

Initiative
ABM Anti Ballistic Missile
ASCII American Standard Code for
AD Anno Domini (After the birth of Information Interchange
Jesus)
ADF Asian Development Fund ATN Automated Teller Machine
AERE Atomic Energy Research APEC Asia Pacific Economic
Establishment Cooperation
AFSPA Armed Forces Special Power Act ASSOCHAM Associated Chamber of
AGOC Asian Games Organising Commerce and Industry of India
Committee ASLV Augmented Satellite Launch
AIDS Acquired Immuno Deficiency Vehicle
Syndrome
ASI Archaeological Suvey of India
ALH Advanced Light Helicopter
APPLE Ariane Passenger Payload AVES Acute Viral Encephalitic
Experiment Syndrome
ASAT Anti-Satellite Weapon AWACS Airborne Warning And Control
ASEAN Association of South-East Asian System
Nations
S06) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

B COLA Cellular Operator Association of

India
BC SBI Banking Codes and Standard CPCB Central Pollution Control Board
Board of India CPRI Central Power Research Institute
BARC Bhabha Atomic Research CSIR Council of Scientific and Industrial
Centre Research
BBC British Broadcasting Corporation CVC Central Vigilance Commission
BC Before Christ (Before the birth of
Jesus Christ) D

BCG Bacillus Calmette Guerin

(Anti-Tuberculosis Vaccine) DAVP Directorate of Advertising and
Visual Publicity

e
BCTT Banking Cash Transaction Tax
DDT Dichlorodiphenyl Trichloroethane
BCCI Board for Control of Cricket in
India DFDR Digital Flight Data Recorder (Black

nc
Box)
BHEL Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited
DIG Deputy Inspector General
BHIM Bharat Interface for Money
BIMSTEC Bay of Bengal Initiative for DPSA Deep Penetration Strike Airoraft
Multi-Sectoral Technical and DPT Diphtheria Pertussis TetanuS
DRDO Defence Research and
Economic Cooperation
ra
BIS Bureau of Indian Standards Development Organisation
BIT Binary Digit (Basic unit of E
information in computing and
telecommunication) ECG Electro Cardiogram
nt

BMDS Ballistic Missile Defence System

ECT Electro Concvulsive Therapy
BRO Border Roads Organisation (electric shock treatment)
BRT Bus Rapid Transit EEG Electro-Encephalography
EET Exempt Exempt Taxation
ie

C ELISA Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent

CAA Civil Aviation Authority Assay (used for testing AIDS)
EXIM Bank Export -Import Bank of India
CABE Central Advisory Board of
jm

Education ECGC Export Credit Guarantee

CAG Comptroller and Auditor General Corporation
CAD Computer Aided Design
ESCAP Economic and Social Commission
for Asia and the Pacific
CAIR Centre for Artificial Intelligence
EVM Electronic Voting Machine
@

and Robotics
CAPES Computer-Aided Paperless EPZ Export Processing Zone
Exarmination System
CAZRI Central Arid Zone Research F
Institute
PDI Foreign Direct Investment
CAT Central Administrative Tribunal
PII Foreign lnstitutional Investor
CBI Central Bureau of Investigation
CECA
FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation
Comprehensive Economic
Cooperalion Agreement FERA Foreign Exchange Regulation Act
CERT Computer Emergenoy Response FEMA Foreign Exchange Management
Act
team
CHOGM PICCI Federation of Indian Chambers of
Commonwealth Heads of
Government Meeting Commerce and Industry
CISF Central Industrial Security Force FRIBA Fellow of the Royal Institute of
British Architects
CITES Convention on International
FLAG Fibre Optic Link Around the Globe
Trade in Endangered Species
CLASS Computer Literacy and Studies
in School

CNG Compressed Natural Gas

GAIN Global Alliance for Improved
Nutrition
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 507

GATS General Agreement on Trade in IRBM Intermediate Range Ballistic

Services Missile
GATT General Agreement on Tariffs IRSS Indian Remote Sensing Satelite
and Trade ISCS Integrated Smart Card System
GEF Global Environment Fund
GMPS Global Mobile Personal ISRO Indian Space Research
Organisation
Communications Systen
GMT Greenwich Mean Time
GNSS Global Navigation Satelite J,K,L
System
JNNURM Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban
GPS Global Positioning System Renewal Mission
Geosynchronous Satellite

e
GSLV
KYC Know Your Customer
Launch Vehiole KG Kinder Garten

nc
LCA Light Combat Aircraft
H LOC Line of Control
HAC LOAC Line of Actual Control
Hindustan Aluminium
LTA Light Transport Airoraft
Corporation
LIGO Laser Interferamenter
HAL Hindustan Aeronautics Limited
ra Gravitational-wave Observatory
HIV Human Immunodeficienoy Virus
HRIDAY National Heritage City M
Development and AUgmentation
Yojana. MAT Minimum Alternative Tax
nt

HYVS High Yield Variety Seeds METSAT Meteorological Satellite

MMS Multimedia Message Service
MRTS Mass Rapid Transit System
MTCR Missile Technology Control
ie

IAAI International Airport Authority of Regime

India
IAEA International Atomic Energy
jm

Agency NACO National AIDS Control

IBRD International Bank for Organisation
Reconstruction and NADA National Anti-Doping Agency
Development NAFTA North American Free Trade
@

ICAO International Civil Aviation Agreement

Organisation NASA National Aeronautics and Space
ICAR Indian COuncil of Agrioultural Administration
Research NATA Natural Aptitude Test for
ICMR Indian Council of Medical Architecture
Research NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
NCEP National Commitee on
ICRC International Committee of the Environmental Planning
Red Cross NeGP Nationale-Govermanoe Plan
IDPL Indian Drugs and NEP National Education Policy
Pharmaceuticals Limited NEPA National Environment Protection
IMO International Maritime Act
Organisation NTPC National Thermal Power Corporation
INSAS Indian Small Arms System
0
INSAT Indian National Satellite
IPC Indian Penal Code OCI Overseas Citizen of India
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on 0AS Organisation of American States
Climate Change 0AU Organisation of African Unity
ODS Ozone Depletion Substances
S08 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

0IC Organisation of Islamic Countries SWIFT Society for Worldwide Interbank

0SCE Organisation for Security and Financial Telecommunications
Cooperation in Europe
OROP One Rank One Pension T
P TADA Terrorist and Discruptive Activities
(Prevention) Act
PURA Provision of Urban Amenities in TAPS Tarapur Atomic Power Station
Rural Areas TIN Tax ldentification Number
PATA Pacific Asia Travel Association TNT Tri Nitro Toluene (high explosive)
PIB Press Information Bureau TRAI Telecom Regulatory Authority of
PN Participatory Note India

e
POTA Prevention of Terrorisn Act TRIPS Trade Related Intellectual Property
PPE Personal Protection Equipment Rights

nc
PSLV Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle
PWD Public Works Department

0,R UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

UNCTAD United Nations Conference on
ra
QIB Qualified Institutional Buyer Trade and Development
UNDP United Nations Development
QIP Qualiied Institutional Placement
Programme
RAF Rapid Action Force
UNEP United Nations Environment
RBI Reserve Bank of India Programme
nt

RCC Reinforced Cement Concrete UNPPA United Nations Fund for

Population Activities
RDSS Radio Determination Satellite
Service
V
ie

RLV Reusable Launch Vehicle

RTGS Real Time Gross Settlerment VAT Value Added Tax
System VLSI Very Large Scale lntegration
jm

VOIP Voioe Over Internet Protocol

S VSAT Very Srmall Aperture Terrninals

SAFTA South Asian Free Trade Area

SAIL Steel Authority of India Limited
W
@

SAPTA SAARC Preferential Trading WADA World Anti-Doping Agenoy

Agreement WAVE Wireless Access for Virtual
SATNAV Satellite Navigation Enterprise
SAVE SAARC Audio Visual Exchange
WPP World Food Programme
SCO Shanghai Cooperation WPTU World Federation of Trade Unions
Organisation
SCOPE Standing Cormmitiee of Public WLL Wireless in Local L0op
Enterprses WWF World Wide Fund for Nature
SEBI Securities and Exchange Board
of India X,Y
SIDBI Small Industries Developrment
Bank of India YMCA Young Men's Christian
SART Simple Moral Accountable Association
Responsive and Transparent YWCA Young Women's Christian
SPIN Software Process Improvernent Association
Networks
STARS Satellite Tracking and Ranging
Station
STARTS Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty ZSI Zoological Survey of India
Station ZIP Zone Improvement Plan
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 509

Books and their Authors

Famous Books of Foreign Writers
Authors Books Authors Books
William King Lear Salman The Other Side of the
Shakespeare All's Well That Ends Well Khurshid Mountain.
Twelfth Night Adam Smith Wealth of Nations
Comedy of Errors AG Noorani "India--China Boundary
Romeo and Juliet Problerms, 1846 to 1947"
-

e
Antony and Cleopatra Andy Marino Narendra Modi :A Political
The Tempest Biography
Macbeth Arthur Conan Adventures of Sherlock

nc
Julius Caesar Doyle Holmes
Othello I
Arthur Miller Empire the Stars
of

Charles A Tale of Two Cities Arthur Stanley Expanding Universe

Dickens Oliver Tvwist Eddington
.David Copperfield Anna Jeon The Dry Glass of August
ra
Great Expectations Mayhew
George Back to Methuselah Alan Shapiro Night of the Republic
Bernard Shaw Man of Destiny Benazir Bhutto Reconciliation : Islam
Arms and the Man Dernocracy and the West
-The News Where you are
nt

Man and Superman Catherin O'

Leo Tolstoy Resurrection Flynn
War and Peace Charles Descernt of Man, Origin of
Anna Karenina Darwin Species
Barack DreaTs from My Father:A Cherie Blair Speaking for Myself
ie

Obama Story of Race and Inheritance Chester Bowles A

View from Delhi
The Audacity of Hope: -
Dan Brown The Lost Symbol
Thoughts on Reclaiming the Pakistan Crisis
David Loshak
American Dream
jm

A
Prormised Land
Desmond Tutu No Future Without
(Autobiography) Forgiveness
DH Lawrence Sons and Lovers
TS Eliot Murder in the Cathedral .
Lady Chatterley's Lover
The Wasteland, and other
Domingue "A Rainbow in the
@

poem
HG Welis The War of the Worlds Lapierre Night-Nelson Mandela and
The Time Machine the Tumultuous Bith of
Invisible Man South Africa"
Dormingo Thy Boy Kings of Taxas
George Eliot .Mill on the Floss
Middle March Martinez
Dould Barack Obama:The Making
John Milton Paradise Regained
Paradise Lost Maraniss of the Man
Doniel Silva Moscow Aules
Jane Auslen .Pride and Prejudice
Sense and Sensibility EM Forsler -A Passage to India
. Through the Looking Glass Edited by "The VWorld Bank in
Lewis Carroll
Michele Kelley, India-Undermining
The Hunting of Snark
Deepika Sovereignty, Distorting
Rober LOuis Kidnapped
Stevenson Treasure lsland
D'Souza Development"
"My Life With the Taliban" Edward Decline and Fall of the
Abdul Salam Roman Empires
Gibbon
Zaeef
Adam True Colour : My life Eric Segal Love Story
Gilchrist
(Autobiography) Ernest The Old Man and the Sea
Javier Moro A Dramatised Biography of, Hemingway
Sonia Gandhi Fyodor The ldiot
.The Red Sari Dosloevsky
510 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

Authors Books Authors Books

GB Shaw Apple Cart Mark Twain Adventures of Tom
Gabrielle Blood, Bones and Butter Sawyer
Hamillon - Decision Point Martin Amis The Pregnant Widow
George Co Mathew Arnold Sohrab and Austum
Bush (Autobiography)
Maxim Gorky Mother
George Orwell Ninteen Eighty Four We are Displaced
. Malala
Goethe Faust Yousafzai
-
HB Stowe Uncle Torn's Cabin Moon Walk (Autobiography)
Michael
Herschele To the Point Jackson
Gibbs (Autobiography) Michael No Limits:The Will to
.
Herta Muller The Appointment Phelps Sucoeed

e
Homer .Odyssey Nelson The Conversations with
Isaac Newton Principia Mathematica Mandela Myseli

nc
- .
Jasper F Shades of Grey Oliver She Stoops to Conquer
Forde Goldsmith
Jean Paul Iron in the Soul Oscar WVilde Importance of Being Earnest
Sartre Parvez "In the Line of Fire"
Jeffrey Archer -
First Armong Equals Musharraf
JK Rowling The Tales of Beedle the
ra Pearl S Buck The Rainbow
Barol Philip Pullmen The Good Man JesUs and
John Nine Days Wonder The Scoundrel Christ
Masefield Plato The Republic
John Ruskin Unto this Last
Robert TS Blood Kin, A Savannah Story
nt

Jonathan Swift Gulliver's Travels Mickles Sr

Joy Adamson Born Free Rudyard Kipling Jungle Book
Jules Verne Around the World in 80 Ruskin Bond Notes from a Small Room
days RM Lala -
For the Love of India : The
ie

Karl Max Das Kapital Life and Times of Jamsetji

Katherine Mother India Tata
Mayo .
Shoaib Akhtar Controversially Yours
Kim Edwards Lake of
Drearms (Autobiography)
jm

L Fischer A Week with

Gandhi Syyed Amir Ali The Spirit of lslarm
Lapierre and Freedom at Midnight TC Boyle Wild Child
Collins
Mountbalten and Thormas Moor Utopia
Larry Collins -
Sdomininique Independent India Thomos Gandhi at First Sight
@

lapierre Weber
Lord Byron Juan
Don Tony Blair A
Journey
U
Thant -
Lord CuIZon Problerms of The East View from the UN
M Veerappa "Shree Ramayana Winston Gathering Storm
Moily Mahanveshanam" Churchill
Machiaveli The Prince ZA Bhutto Iflam Assassinated,
Margaret Gone with the Wind The Myth of
Mitchell Independence

Famous Books by Indian Writers

Authors Books Authors Books
Dr APJ Abdul lgnited Minds : Unleashing Armitabh Ghosh The Great Derangement:
Kalam the Power within India, Climate Change and the
You Are Born to Blossom, Unthinkable
My Journey, Mulk Raj Anand The Vilage,
India 2020-A vision for the Seven Summers,
New Millennium, Two Leaves and a Bud,
Wings of Fire
Coolie
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 511

Authors Books Authors Books

-
Amrita Pritam Kora Kagaz, Armit Chaudhuri The Immortals
Death of a City, Annie Besant Wake up India
Kagaz Te Kanwas, The
Anuradha Roy The Folded Earth
Revenue Stamp
Aravind Adiga The White Tiger
Ramachandra Makers of Modern India
Arundhati Roy The God of Small Things
Guha India after Gandhi : The
History of the World's The ministry of Utmost
Largest Dermocracy, Happiness
. Subarnalata
Environmentalism : Asha Puna Devi
A Global History, Life Divine
Aurobindo Ghosh
The States of Indian Cricket

e
Balwant Gargi Naked Triangle
Jawaharlal Nehru Bunch of Old Letters,
Glimpses of World History, BG Tilak Gita Rahasya

nc
-
Letters from a Father to BR Ambedkar What Congress and Gandhi
his Daughter, have done to Untouchables
The Discovery of India Brig Himalayan Blunder
John Dalvi
Khushwant Singh The Surnset Club, Dadabhai Naoroji Poverty and Unbritish Rule
-
Sahibs Who Loved India, in India
I
Why Supported the
ra
Emergency, Truth, Love Daisy Hason The To-Let House
and A Little Malice, Din Bandhu Mitra Neel Darpan
We
Indians, Dr Radha Krishnan Hindu View of Life
- A
Bride for the Sahib, Dr
Rajendra Prasad India Divided
nt

Maharaja in Denims
RK Narayan Guide, Dark Room, VD Savarkar Indian War of
The Vendor of Sweels Independence
Chetan Bhagat One Night @ the Call Edited by Pranab The Congress and The
Centre, Mukherjee Making of Indian Nation
ie

-
Revolution 2020, What Gen Ayub Khan Friends not Master
India Wants Of a Certain Age : Tiventy
indiaAwesome, Gopal Krishna
Gandhi Life Sketches
jm

Half Girlfriend,
Gopinath Mohanty Moti Mahal
One Indian Girl
Bankim Chandra Devi Chaudharani Hamid Ansari Travelling Through Conflict
Chattopadhyay Anand Math IK Gujral Matters of Discretion
(Autobiography)
Saket
@

Maithili Sharan
Gupt - Imran Hashmi The Kiss of Life
Yashodhara
JP Narayan Prison Diary Indira Gandhi My Truth
. To all Janardan Thakur the Prime Minister's Men
All
Fighters of
Freedom, Why Socialism? Nandan Nilekani Imaging India ldeas for a
:

Sarat Chandra Devdas New Century

Chattopadhyay -
Parineela Jaswant Singh Jinnah-India, Partilion,
Sarojini Naidu - Independence
The Golden Threshold
Jyotiba Phule Ghulam Giriand other
The Bird of Time
Stories
Munshi Prem Rang Bhoomi
-
K Nalwar Singh One life is not enough
Chand Godan 'My China Diary
Rammohan Roy Precept of Jesus Kapil Dev Straight from the Heart
A Gift to Monotheists Kapil Sibal | Witness-Partial
Mahatma Gandhi My Experiments with Truth Observation
-
Hind Swaraj Khan Abdul Pakhtoon
Amartya Sen Development as Freedom Ghaffar Khan
The ldea of Justice Kingshuk Nag The Namo Story :A Political
Life
Abul Kalam Azad India Wins Freedom
Wonder That was India
KM Munshi | Follow the Mahalama
AL Basham
512 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Authors Books Authors Books

Kuldip Nayar The Judgement Saurav Ganguly A Century is not enough
Kailash Sathyarthi Azad Bachpan Ki Or Sachin Tendulkar Playing it my way
KP Mathur - Impertect
The Unseen Indira Sanjay Manjrekar
Gandhi My India
S Nihal Singh
Kishalay -Blood or My Hands; The Indian Struggle
Bhattacharya Confession of staled SC Bose
Encounters
Shashi Tharoor The Darkest Hour, Pax
Kartar Lahani The Making of India Indica, The Paradoxical
Lal Krishna My Country My Life Prime Minister
Advani Shashi Tharoor Shadows Across the Playing
Lala Lajpat Rai Unhappy India and Shaharyar Field: 60 years of India-Pak

e
Khan Cricket
MahadeviVerma Yama
Maj HPS - Shobha De Superstar India : From
Face of Everest Incredible to Unstoppable

nc
Ahluwalia
A Bend in the Ganges Shyam Bhalia Good Bye Shahzadi (A
Manohar Biography of Benazir Bhutto)
Malgaonkar
Meghnad Desai The Rediscovery of India Sir Syyed Ahmed Causes of the Indian Mutiny
Khan
MJ Akbar -Nehru: The Making of India
A
ra
SK Nandi Aamacharit
Morarji Desai Minister and his
Responsibilities Sri Aurobindo Savitri
Ghosh
Narayan Shehgal A Voice of Freedom
iNarendra . Sunil Gavaskar Sunny Days
"Convenient Action :
Mo Gujarat's Response to Surjt Singh Barnala My Other Two Daughters
nt

Clinale Change'
Swami Dayanand Satyarth Prakash
Exa warriors
Nilanjan Narendra Modi: The Man, TS The Miracle of Democracy:
Krishnanmurthy India's Amazing Journey
Mukhopadhyay The Times
ie

Nirad CChoudhary An Unknown Indian Upinder Singh A History of Ancient and

Early Medieval India from
NR Narayan
A
Better India A Better Stoñe Age to the 12th
Murthy World Century
The Kalam Effect: My
jm

PM Nayar VV Giri Voice of Conscience

Years with the President
VVSLaxman R 281 and Beyond
Parameswaran The Swachh Bharat
lyer Revolution Veerappa Moily Unleashing India
Rabindranath Chitra Vinita Kamte To the Last Bullet
@

Tagore Vinod Mehta Lucknow Boy (Aulobiography)

Raghunath -"Timeless Inspiralor Vijay Lakpally Driven
Mashelkar Reliving Gandhi"
YV Aeddy Global Crisis Recession and
Rajmohan Gandhi The Good Boat Man: A Uneven Recovery
Portrait of Gandhi
Ramdhari Singh Jairam Ramesh Indira Gandhi : A Life in
Rashmirathi Nature, A Chequered
Dinkar Brilliance: The many lives of
VK Krishna Menon
Rashika Chaube An Inspiralional Journey:
and Chhaya Pratibha Devi Singh Patil: DG Tendulkar Gandhi in Charmparan
Mahajan The First Women President
of India Navin Chawla Every Vole Counts
Rarmesh Chandra Economic History of India Raghuram Rajan The Third Pillar
Dutta IDo What Do I

Ram Chandra Gandhi Abhijit Banerjee Good Economics for

Guha &Esther Duflo Hard Times, Poor
Ravi Shankar My Music, My Life Economics
Ronald Segal Crisis of India Ramchandra Gandhi-The Year that
Ace Against Odse
Guha Changed the World
Saniya Mirza YuNraj Singh The Test of My Liie
Ruskin Bond A little book of Happiness Autobiography
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 513
Award Winning Authors of Indian Origin and their Writings
Author Writings Award
Salman Rushdie Midnight Children Booker Prize 1981
Shame (Midnight Children)
The Moor's Last Sigh
Fury
The Satanic Verses
Two years,at Month and Twenty-at
Night
Vikram Seth The Golden Gate Padma Shri in Literature and Education
. Suitable Boy
A 2007
An Equal Music
Summer Requiem

e
Two Lives
Arundhati Roy The God of Small ihings Booker Prize 1997

nc
The Algebra at Infinite Justice (The God of Srmall Things)
Rohinton Mistry Such a Long Journey Booker Prize 1991
Family Matters (Such a Long Journey)
A Fine Balance
VS Naipaul A House for Mr Biswaas Nobel Prize in Literature 2001
a
ra
India: Wounded Civilization (for having united perceptive narrative
An Area of Darkness and incorruptible scrutiny in works that
India :a Million Mutinies now compel)
The Masque of Africa
A Bend in The River
nt

Amitav Ghosh The Circle of Reason Padma Shri by Government of India

River of Srmoke 2007
The Glass Palace (for his best work in English Language)
Shadow Line
The Calcutta Chrormosome Crossword Book Prize in 2008 for Sea
ie

Flood of Fire of Poppier

The Hungry Tide
Sea of Poppies
In an Antique Land
jm

Jhumpa Lahiri The Namesake

The Interpreter of Maladies
(Pulitzer Prize for Fiction)
The Unaccustomed Earth
@

Shashi Tharoor The Great Indian Novel Common Wealth Writer's Prize
Show Business (The Great Indian Novel) ,Sahitya
Àcademy Award 2019 (for An Era of
India: From Midnight to Millenium Dartness:British Empire in India)
Why am Hindu
I

India Shastra: Reflections on the

Nation in our time
Upa Sahitya Akademi Award 2004
Chatyu The MaImaries of the Welfare
State (The Mammaries of the Welíare Stale)
English
August
Way to 90
Kiran Desai The Inheritance of Loss Man Booker Prize 2006

Books Awarded with Prizes

Books Authors Year
Pulitzer Prize
The Road Cormac MoCarthy 2007
The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and The Road to 9/11 Lawrence Wright 2007
-
The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao Junot Diaz 2008
The Years of Extermination : Nazi Germany and The Saul Friedlander 2008
Jews, 1939-1945
514 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge
Books Authors Year
Kitteridge
Olive Elizabeth Strout 2009
Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Douglas A Blackon 2009
Black Armericans from The Civil War to World VWar ll
The Dead Hand: The Untold Story of The Cold War David E Hoffman 2010
Arms Race and its Dangerous Legacy
Tinkers Paul Harding 2010
A Visit from the Goon Squad Jennifer Egan 2011
The Emperor of All Maladies:A Biography of Cancer Siddhartha Mukherjee 2011
The Orphan Master's Son (Fiction) Adam Johnson 2013
Disgraced (Drama) Ayad Akhtar 2013
3 Sections (Poetry) Vijay Seshadri 2014
The Goldtinch (Fiction) Donna Tart 2014

e
Digest (Poetry) Gregory Pardlo 2015
Syrnpathizer (Fiction) Viet Thanh Nguyen 2016

nc
Underground Railroad (Fiction) Colson Whitehead 2017
Less (Fiction) Andrew Sean Greer 2018
The Over Story Richard Power 2019
The Nickel Boys (Fiction) Colson Whitehead 2020
The Night Watchman (Fiction) Louis Erdich 2021
ra
The Hotwing (Drana) Katori Hall 2021
Joshna Cohen (Fiction) The Netanyahus 2022
James ljames (Drama) Fat Ham 2022
Man Booker Prize
nt

The Gathering Anne Enright 2007

White Tiger
The Aravind Adiga 2008
Wolf Hall Hilary Mantel 2009
The Finkler Question Howard Jacobson 2010
Troubles JG Farrell 2010
ie

The Sense of an Ending Julian Barnes 2011

-
Bring up the Bodies Hilary Mantel 2012
The Lurminaries Eleanor Catton 2013
The Narrow Road to the Deep North
jm

Richard Flanagan 2014

A Brief History of Seven Killings Marlon James 2015
The Sellout
. Lincoln Paul Beatty 2016
in the Bardo George Saunders 2017
Flight Olgo Tokarczuk 2018
The Teslaments Margaret Atwood
@

2019
Girl. Women, Other Bernardine Evaristo 2019
Shuggie Bain Douglas Stuart 2020
The Promise Damon Galgut 2021
Shehan Karunatilaka The Seven Moons of Maali 2022
Almeida'
Sahitya Akademi Award
Hajar Churashir Maa Mahasweta Devi 1996
-
Mahabharata An Inguiry in the Human Condition Chaturvedi Badrinath 2009
Hawa me Hastakshar Kailash Vajpeyi 2009
Book of Rachel Esther David 2010
Mohan Das Uday Prakash 2010
-
India After Gandhi Ramachandra Guha 2011
Rehan Per Ragghu (Novel) Kashinath Singh 2011
Pathar Fenk Rara Hoon (Poetry) Chandrakant Devtale 2012
-
Miljul Man (Novel) Mridula Garg 2013
Trying to Say Goodbye (Poelry) Adil Jussawala 2014
Vinayak
(Novel) Rarmesh OChandra Shah 2014
Aag ki Hansee Ramdash Mishra 2015
Parijat Nasrina Sharma 2016
The Black Hill (Novel) Mamang Dai 2017
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 515)

Books Authors Year

Post Box No. 203 Chitra Mudgal 2018
Chheelate Hue Apne ko (Poetry, Hindi) Nand Kishor Acharya 2019
An Era of Darkness (Non-Fiction, English) Shashi Tharoor 2019
Things to Leave Behind Namita Gokhale 2021
Saraswati Samman
Mandra SL Bhyrappa 2010
Irama Kathaiyum Iramayakalum AA Manavalan 2011
Manalezhuthu Sugalhakumari 2012
Dhool Paudho Par Govind Mishra 2013
Ramayana and Mahanveshanam Veerappa Moily 2014

e
. Padma Sachdev
Chit-Chete 2015
Hawthan Mahabaleshwar Sail 2016

nc
Vakhar Sitanshu Yashaschandra 2017
- K Siva Reddy
Pakkaki Ottigilite 2018
Chequebook (short story) Vasdev Mohi (Sindhi) 2019
Sanatan Sharan Kumar Limbate 2021
Mai to Yahan Hoon Ramdarash Mishra 2022
ra
Orange Prize for Fiction (Wormen's Prize for Fiction)
Home Marilynne Robinson 2009
The Lacuna Barbara Kingsolver 2010
Serious Men Manu Joseph 2010
nt

The Sly Company of People Who Care Rahul Bhattacharya 2011

Home Boy HM Naqi 2011
The Tiger's Wife Tea Obreht 2011
The Song of Achilles Maleline 2012
May We
Be Forgiven AM Homes
ie

2013
How to Be Both AliSmith 2015
The Glorious Heresies Lisa Moinerney 2016
The Power Naomi Aldernan 2017
jm

Home Fire Kamila Shamsie 2018

An American Marriage Tayari Jones 2019
Hamnet Maggie O'Farrell 2020
The Vanishing Half Brit Bennett 2021
@

United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is an 5. The International Court of Justice
international organisation, whose stated 6. The Secretariat
aims are facilitating cooperation in
international law; international security, General Assembly
economic development, social progress, It is also called as the town meeting of the
human rights and achievement of world
peace. The United Nations Day is world.
celebrated on 24th October each year. The General Assembly meets at least once
in a year and the session commences on
Presently, there are 193 member states of
the United Nations. the first Tuesday of September.
It appoints the Secretary General of UN
Principle Organs Secretariat on the recommendation of
There are six principle organs of the the Security Council.
are .
United Nations, they The presidency of the Assembly rotates
1. General Assembly each year among the five geographical
2. The Security Council groups of the countries viz Asia, African,
3. The Economic and Social Council Latin America, East European and West
4. The Trusteeship Council European and other states.
 516) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

• Consist of all member states of the Trusteeship Council was formed in 1945.
UN. • The headquarters of Trusteeship Council is
• Each member nation can send five at New York (US).
delegates, but each nation has only The trusteeship council suspended
one vote. operation on lst November, 1994 with the
• The headquarters of General independence of Polau, the last remaining
Assembly is at New York (US). United Nations trust territory, on 1lst
October:, 1994.
Security Council
•
The main aim of Security Council is The International Court of
the maintenance of the international Justice (ICJ)
peace and security. • The
International Court of Justice (IC) is

e
• The Security Council originally
consisted of eleven members, but the primary judicial organ of the United
Nations.
increases to fifteen in 1965.

nc
•
Security Council comprises of five Its main functions are to settle legal
permanent members namely China, disputes submitted to it by states and to
UK, Russia, France and USA and 10 provide advisory opinions on legal
non-permanent members, elected for to
questions submitted it by only authorised
a term of 2 years by a two-third international organs, agencies and the UN
ra
majority of the General Assembly, five General Assembly. The headquartersof ICJ
non- permanent members retire every is at Hague (Netherland).
year. Retiring members cannot be ICJ was established in 1945.
. The
re-elected immediately. It consists of 15 judges. The judges of the
• Permanent member have Veto Power, court are elected by the General Assembly
nt

which can be cast against any along with the Security Council for a
decision supported by the majority 9-years term.
members.
• The headquarters of Security Council The Secretariat
ie

is at New York (US). • The United Nations

Secretariat is one of
the principle organs of the United Nations,
Economic and Social an inter governmental organisation
Council (ECOSOC) charged with the promotion of aiding states
jm

• Its main aim is to promote social to collectively maintain international peace

progress and better standards of life. and security. It serves as a forum for
• ECOSOC comprises 54 members, 18 member-states to discuss and resolve
(one third) of whom are elected every pressing issues in the international field
year by the General Assembly of UN, through primarily diplomatic resources.
@

to serve a 3-years term. The retiring • The Secretariat is composed of a Secretary

members as well as the President are General, assisted by a staff of international
eligible for immediate re-elections. civil servants worldwide. The Secretary
The headquarters of ECOSOC is at General is appointed by the General
New York (US). Assembly upon the recommendation of the
The Trusteeship Council
• The United
Security Council.
• The Secretary General of the UN is elected
Nations Trusteeship
Council was established to help for 5-years and eligible for re-election,
ensure that tTUSt territories were although, none so far has held office for
administered in the best interests of more than two terms.
their inhabitants and of international
peace and security.
Secretary Generals Till Date
Narme Resignation/Retirement
Trygve Lie (1946-1952) On November, 1952, resigned
Dag Hammarskjold (1953-1961) Died in plane crash in Northern Rhodesia
(now Zambia)
Thant (1961-1971) Declined to consider a third term
U
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 517

Name Resignation/Retirement
Kurt Waldheim (1972-1981) China voted against his third term
Javier Perez (1982-1991) Refused to be considered for a third term
Boutros- Boutros Ghali (1992-1996) The United States voted against his second tern
Kofi Annan (1997-2006) Retired after two full term
Ban ki- Moon (1st January, 2007-2016) Retired after tvwo full term
Antonio Guterres (1st January Till date
2017-Present)

Important United Nation Agencies

e
Name of Agency Estd in Headquaters Objective
Universal Postal Union (UPU) 1874 Bern, The UPU is a specialised agency
Switzerland

nc
of the United Nations that
cOordinates postal policies among
na in addition to the
aelal system.
duide
International Labour 1919 Geneva To improve conditions and living
Organisation (LO) standard of workers
ra
International Monetary Fund 1945 Washington Promotes international monetary
(IM) DC COoperalion.
Food and Agricultural 1945 Rome To improve living conditions of
Organisation (FAO) rural population.
International Bank for 1944 Washington To provide funds from different
nt

Reconstruction and DC sOurces, offers loans to middle

Development (/BRD) income developing countries.
United Nations International 1946 New York To promote children's welfare all
Children's Emergency Fund over the world.
(UNICE)
ie

United Nations Educational, 1945 Paris To promote collaboration among

Scientific and Cultural nations through education,
Organisation (ÜNESCO) science and oulture.
jm

International 1865 Geneva Sets international regulations for

Telecommunication radio telegraph, telephone and
Union (|TU) space radio coMMunications.
International Civil Aviation 1944 Montreal, It codifies the principles and
Organisation (/CAO) Canada techniques of international air
navigation and fsters the
@

planning and development of

international air transport to
ensure safe and orderly growth.
World Health Organisation 1948 Geneva Attainment of highest possible
(WHO) level of health by all people.
International Atomic Energy 1957 Vienna To promote peaceful uses of
Agency (AEA) atomic energy.
International Development 1960 Washinglon An affiliate of the World Bank,
Association (/DA) DC aims to help under-developed
cOuntries raise living standards.
United Nations Development 1965 New York Helps developing countries
Programme (UNDP) increase the wealth producing
capabilities of their natural and
human resources.
United Nations 1972 Nairobi Promotes international
Environmental cooperation in human
PrograIme (UNEP) environment.
World Trade Organisation 1995 Geneva Setting rules for world trade to
(WTO) reduce tariffs.
518) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

International Organisations and Groups

Organisation and HQ Member Objective
Red CrOss 192 International Humanitarian Moverment for relief
Estd in 1863 of suffering in time of war/disaster.
(Geneva, Switzerland)
International Olympic Committee 95 To promote the Olympic ideals and administer
(I0C) olympic games.
Estd in 1894 (Switzerland)
International Criminal Police 194 To promote international cooperation among
Organisation (|NTEAPOL) oriminal police authorities.
Estd in 1923 (Lyon, France)

e
The Commonwealth 53 Itwas known as The British
(London) formally estd by London onualth of Nations'.
Cormmon It is an association

nc
Declaration 28th April, 1949 of sovereign and independent slates which
formally made up the British empire.
Arab League (AL) 22 To promote economic, social, political and
Estd in 1945 (Cairo (Egypt)] Syria military cooperation.
Suspended following the 2011
uprising
ra
International Organisation for 163 To promote the development of international
Slandardisation (|SO) slandards.
Estd in 1947 (Switzerland)
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation Mutual defence and cooperation
nt

28
(NATO)
Èstd in 1949 (Brussels)
Colombo Plan 25 To economic developrment in South
Estd in 1950 (Sri Lanka) and East Asia.
ie

South-East Asia Treaty 8 To provide for collective and econOmIc

Organisation (SEATO) cooperation in South-East Asia.
Estd in 1954 (Bangkok)
jm

Organisation of Petroleum 13 Attermpts to set world prices by controlling oil

Exporting Countries (OPEC) production and also pursues member interest
Estd in 1959 in trade and development.
Vienna (Austria)]
World Wildlife Fund For Nature To save the wildlife from extinction.
(WWF), NGO
@

Estd in 1961 (Switzerland)

Amnesty International (NGO) To keep a watch over human rights violation
Estd in 1961 (London) Worldwide. Got Nobel Prize in 1977 for Peace.
Non-Aligned Movernent (NAM) 120 Political cooperation and establishment of
e
Estd. in 1961 separate identity from both USA and USSR (in
the Cold-War era).
Organisation for Economic 36 To slimulale economic progress and world
Co-operation and Development trade.
(OECD) Estd in 1961 (Paris,
France)
Group of Seventy Seven (G-77) 134 To promote economic cooperation among
Estd in 1964 developing nations.
European Union 28 To createa United Europe in which member
Formally estd by Treaty of cOuntries would have such strong economic
Maastricht in 1993 (Brússels and political bonds that war would cease to be
(Belgium) a recurring fact.

Asian Development Bank (ADB) 68 To promote socio-econormic development in

Estd in 1966 (Manila) Asia.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 519

Organisation and HQ Member Objective

Association of South-East Asian 10 Regional economic Social and cultural
Nations (ASEAN) COoperatino among the non-comITUnist
Estd in 1967 (Jakarta) countries of South-East Asia.
Group of 8 (G-8) on 24 March. To promote Cooperation among major
2014, Russia was Suspended, due non-communist economic power.
to association with crimean crises,
2014 suMmit took place in
Brussels.
Organisation of lslamic 57 To promote Islamic solidarity among member
Cooperation (OlC) states and to consolidate oooperation among
Estd in 1969 (Saudi Arabia) members.

e
World Economic Forum (WE) To improve the stale of the world by engaging
Estd in 1971 (Geneva) Annual leaders in partnerships to shape global, regional

nc
meeting 2015- Davos, Switzerland and industry agendas.
Gulf Cooperation Council 6 It is a political and economic union of the Arab
(GCC)Estd in 1981 slates.
Nordic Council Estd in 1952 8 Geo-political, inter-parliamentary forum for
cOoperation among Nordic countries.
ra
South Asian Association for 8 To promote economic, social and oultural
Regional Cooperation (SAARC) cooperation in South Asia.
Estd in 1985 (Kathmaridu)
Group of 15 (G-15) 17 To promote economic cooperation among
nt

Estd in 1989 developing nations.

Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation 21 To proTote trade and investment in the Pacific
(APEC) basin.
Estd ini 1989 (Singapore)
ie

Commonwealth of Independent 9 To coordinate inter-common wealth relations

States (CIS) and to provide a mechanism for the orderly
Estd in 1991 dissolution of the USSR.
[Minsk (Belarus)]
jm

Sanghai Cooperation Organisation 8 To develop mutual cooperation.

(SCÓ)
Estd ín 1996 (Beijing, China )
Group of Twenty (G-20) 20 For cooperation and consultation or matters
Estd in 1999 pertaining to the International Financial System.
@

2014 summit-Brisbane
African Union 55 To accelerate the political and socio-economic
OAU charter-1963 integration of the continent.
AU founded-2002
BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China 5 To improve the economical condition of the
and South Africa) cOuntry.
First formal summit-Yekaterinburg,
2009
Arctic Council Estd. in 1996 8 Try to keep Arctic area clean and safe.
BASIC Estd in 2009 4 To coordinate the policies of developing
COuntries regarding olimate change.
International Solar Alliance (ISA) 121 Promotion of Solar Energy among members
(Estd in Paris (2015) Countries
Bay of Bengal Initiative for 7 Multi-sectoral Technical and Economic
Multi-sectoral Technical and Cooperation among members
Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC)
(Estd in 1997, at Bangkok)
520 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

Sports
OLYMPICS Olympic Flag
.
. The Olympic Flag was created in 1913 at
The Olympic Games were held for the the suggestion of Baron Pierre de
first time by the Greeks in 776 BC on Coubertin. It was adopted in Paris in
Mount Olympus, in honour of the Greek June, 1914, but it was raised over an
God, Zeus. They were stopped by a royal Olympic stadium for the first time at the
order of the Roman Emperor Theodosius Antwerp games (Belgium) in 1920.
in AD 394.

e
. There is also a second Olympic Flag.
These games were revived in 1894 by the which is used for the Winter games.
efforts of a French Baron Pierre de These flags are made of white silk and

nc
Coubertin and the first modern Olympic contain five interwined rings of the
Games were started in Athens the capital Olynpic Emblem.
of Greece on 6th April, 1896. Separate • From left to right the rings are Blue
winter Olympic Games began in 1924. (Europe), Yellow (Asia), Black (Africa),
Women have been participating in the
ra Red (America) and Green (Australia).
Olympics since 1912. Atleast one of these colours is found on
• The Olympic Games are organised after the flag of every country.
every 4-years. • The flag is 3 m long and 2 m wide. The
emblen placed in the center is 2.06 m
nt

Founder and Governing Body by 60 cm.

• In 1894, Baron Pierre de Coubertin
founded the International Olympic Olympic Motto
Committee (10C) to govern the Olympic Olympie Motto Citius, Altius, Fortius' is
ie

Movement (comprising International the Latin motto meaning 'Faster, Higher

Sports Federations (SF's), National and Stronger' composed by Father Didon
Olympic Committees (NOCs) and in 1897.
jm

Organising Committees for each specihc motto was introduced in 1924 at the
games).
he
Olympic Games in Paris.
•
I0C chooses the host city and the games
to be contested organisation and funding Olympic Flame
is made by the host city.
@

. The Olympic flame symbolises the

International Sports Federation (SF) continuity between ancient and moden
determines the qualification rules for games. It was at the Amsterdam Games in
each Olympic. 1928 that for the first time an Olympic
• The Head office of
International Olympic flame was ceremonially lighted and burned
Committee (10C) is at Lausanne in a giant torch at the entrance of the
(Switzerland). stadium. The modern version of the flame
was adopted in 1936 at the Berlin Games.
Olympic Symbol
• It contains five rings or circles linked Olympic Medals
together to represent the sporting Olympic champions are rewarded with
friendship of all people. Each ring is of a medals and certificate. The winning
different colour i.e., blue, yellow, black, athlete or sports persons receive a Gold
green and red. The rings are meant to Medal which, is 60 mm in diameter and
represent five continents viz Africa 3 mm thick and is made of 92.5% silver
(Black), America (Red), Asia (Yellow), plated with 6 gm of gold.
Australia (Green) and Europe (Blue).
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 521

Olympic Mascot Summer and Winter Games on separate 4

year cycles in alternating even-numbered
• The Olympic Mascot(s) is/are a years, the next Winter Olympics after 1992
character, usually an animal native to was in 1994. In 2014 Olympic games were
the area or occasionally human igures, held at Sochi. Russia.
who represents the cultural heritage of
the place, where the Olympic and The 2018 winter olynpic games were held
Paraolympic Games are taking place. in Pyeongchang County, South Korea.
•
Since the 1968 Winter Olvmpics in Norway topped the medal tally by winning
Grenoble, France, the Oympic Games 14 Gold, 14 Silver and 11 Bronze.
have had a mascot. The first major The 2022 Winter Olympics were held in
mascot in the Olympic Games was Misha Beijing, China.

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in the 1980 Summer Olympics in
Moscow. Summer Olympic Games

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Olympic Gold Order Year Venue
• It is presented by the International 1896 Athenes, Greece
Olympic Committee for distinguished 1900 Paris, France
services in the development of the 1904 St Louis, France
Olympic Movement.
ra 1906 Athenes, Greece (Games were not
recognised by I0C)
Olympics: Quick Digest 1908 London, Great Britain
'Norman Pritchard' was the first Indian 1912 Stockholm, Sweden
player to participate in Olympic
(2nd Games not held due to World War
I
nt

1916
Olympic Games in 1900) and won two 1920 Antwerp, Belgium
Silver Medals in athletics. 1924 Paris, France
Marrie Lila Rao is 1st Indian woman
1928 Amsterdam, Netherlands
participant in the Olympics after
ie

Independenoe. 1932 Los Angeles, USA

1936 Berlin, Germany
India officially participated in the
Olympics for the first time in the Sixth 1940 Games not held due to World War I|
Olympic Games (1920) at Antwerp
jm

1944 Games not held due to World War Il

Belgium. 1948 London, Great Britain
The Indian Olympic Association was Helsinki, Finland
1952
established in 1927. Sir Dorabji Tata was
its first President. 1956 Melbourne, Australia
@

Sonia Denoncourt (Canada) was the 1960 Rome, Italy

1st woman referee in football in Atlanta 1964 Tokyo, Japan
Olympics. 1968 Mexico City, Mexico
1972 Munich, West Germany
The Winter Olympic Games are a major 1976 Montreal, Canada
international sporting event that occours
once every 4 years. Unlike the Summer 1980 Moscow, Russia
Olympics, the Winter Olympics feature 1984 Los Angeles, USA
sports practiced on snow and ice. The first 1988 Seoul, South Korea
Winter Olympics, the 1924 Winter 1992 Barcelona, Spain
Olympics, was held in Chamonix, France. Atlanta, USA
The games were held every 4 years from 1996
1924 until 1936, after which they were 2000 Sydney, Australia
interrupted by World War II. 2004 Athenes, Greece
The Olympics resumed in 1948 and was 2008 Beijing, China
again held every 4 years. Until 1992, the 2012 London, Great Britain
Winter and Summer Olympic Games were 2016
held in the same years, but in accordance lio de Janeiro, Brazil
with a 1986 decision by the International 2021 Tokyo, Japan
Olympic Committee (i0C) to place the 2024 Paris, France (Scheduled)
 22 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

India's Performance in Olympics

Disoipline Year Performance
Wrestling 1952 KD Jadhav won Bronze Medal men's 52-57 kg Freestyle
in

2008 Sushil Kumar won Bronze Medal in men's 66 kg Freestyle

2012 Sushil Kumar won Silver Medal in men's 66 kg Freestyle
2012 Yogeshwar Dutt won Bronze Medal in men's 60 Kg Freestyle
2016 Sakshi Mlalik won Bronze Medal in women's 58 Kg Freestyle
Hockey 1928 Won Gold Medal
1932 Won Gold Medal
1936 Won Gold Medal
1948 Won Gold Medal

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1952 Won Gold Medal
1956 Won Gold Medal
1960 Won Silver Medal

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1964 Won Gold Medal
1968 Won Bronze Medal
1972 Won Bronze Medal
1980 Won Gold Medal
2020 Won Bronze Medal
ra
(Tokyo
Olympics)
Shooting 2004 Rajyavardhan Singh Rathore won Silver Medal in double trap
2008 Abhinav Bindra won Gold Medal in Men's 10 m air ritle
2012 Vijay Kumar won Silver Medal in 25 Rapid Fire Pistol
nt

2012 Gagan Narang won Bronze Medal in 10m Air Rile

Athletics 1900 Norman Prilchard won two Silver Medals in (200 m) and (200 m
hurdle) events
1960 Milkha Singh-fourth in 400 m final Zora Singh- eighth in 50 krm
ie

walk
1964 Gurbachan Singh Randhawa -tiith in 100 m hurdles (final)
1976 Sriram Singh-seventh in 800 m final Shivnath Singh-eleventh in
the marathon
jm

1980 Sriram Singh-Semitinalist in 800 m

1984 PT Usha-fourth in 400 m hurdles
2020 Neeraj Chopra won Gold Medal in men's javelin throw
(Tokyo (87.58 m)
Olympics)
@

Football (Soccer) 1956 Sermi-finals

Tennis 1996 Leander Paes won Bronze Medal in men's singles event
Weightlifting 2000 Karnam Malleshwari won Bronze Medal in women's 69 kg
category
2020 Saikhom Mirabai Chanu won Silver Medal in the women's
(Tokyo 49 kg category
Olympics)
Boxing 2008 Vijender Singh won a Bronze Medal (75 kg )
2012 Mary Kom won a Bronze Medal in Women's ilyweight
2020 Lovlina Borgohain won Bronze Medal
(Tokyo
Olyrmpics)
Badminton 2012 Saina Nehwal won a Bronze Medal in Women's singles
2016 PV Sindhu won a Silver in wormen's singles
2020 PV Sindhu won Bronze Medal in women's singles
(Tokyo
Olympics)
Gymnastics 2016 Dipa Karmakar 4th place in the vault Final.
Wrestling 2016 Sakshi Malik won bronze medal in 58 kg category
2020 Ravi Kumar Dahiya won Silver Medal in 57 kg freestyle and
(Tokyo Bajrang Punia won Bronze Mledal in 65 kg freestyle wrestling.
Olympics)
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge S23

Commonwealth Games South Asian Federation (SAF)

• The Commonwealth Games are a Games
festival of sports of the Commonwealth
countries. The first Commonwealth The governing body of these games is
Games wvere held in 1930 in Hamilton, South Asian sports Council formed in
Canada. The 2010 Commonwealth 1983.
Games were held in New Delhi, India. The first South Asian Federation Games
• Since 1930. the games have been were held at Kathmandu (Nepal) in 1984.
conducted every 4-years except for SAF Games, 2016 were held in India.
1942 and 1946. The eight participating countries are India,
• The Commonwealth Games Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal,

e
Federation (CGF) is the organisation, Bhutan, Afghanistan and Maldives. The
which is responsible for the direction games form a part of the SAARC
and control of the Commonwealth programme. The motto of the SAF Games

nc
Games. is peace, prosperity and progress.
• 20th Commonwealth .
Games of 2014 No SAF Game were staged in 1986 as it
were held in Glasgow (Scotland, UK). was the year of commonwealth and Asian
• The 2018 commonwealth Games were
Games. The SAF Games have been
held on the Gold coast, Queensland,
ra rechristened South Asian Games on 2nd
Australia. Australia won the most gold April, 2004. Afghanistan joined the games
medals, where as India ranked 3rd in 2006.
with 26 golds. SAF Games, 2019 was held in Nepal while
• The 2022 Commonwealth Games were
SAF Games, 2024 is scheduled to be held
nt

held in Birmingham, England. in Lahore, Pakistan.

• 23rd Commonwealth Games (2026)
will be held in Victoria, Australia. Afro-Asian Games
Asian Games The first-ever Afro-Asian Games were held
ie

• The Asian Games, also called the Asiad,

in 2003 at Hyderabad (India). 2007 in
are a multisport event held every 4-years Algiers (Cancelled).
among athletes from all over Asia. The official mascot of the 2003 games was
jm

• The games are regulated by the

'Sheroo' (a cartoon representation of the
Olympic Council of Asia (0CA), under Royal Bengal Tiger) and the message was
the supervision of the International 'two continents-one spirit'.
Olympic Committee (I0C).
• The first Asian Games were held in
Cricket
@

1951 in New Delhi (India). The first Cricket World Cup was organised
• The AGF (Asian Games Federation)
in England in 1975. A separate women's
adopted 'Ever Onward', given by Cricket World Cup has been held every
Pt Jawalharlal Nehru, as the motto of 4-years since 1973.
the Asian Games, which continues till • The Cricket World Cup Tournament is
today.
• The emblem is a bright
fullrising Sun organised by the International Cricket
Council (ICC). The ICC was founded
with interlocking rings. The King of in 1909 and its headquarters is located in
Patiala presented the Torch and the
Flag for the first Asian Games and Dubai, United Arab Emirates.
since then they have been carried from In 1877, the first Cricket Test Match was
cOuntry to country. played in Melbourne between England and
• The Asian Games or Asiad 2018 were Australia.
held in Jakarta-Palembang, Indonesia. The first One Day International Cricket
India finished at 8th position with l5 Match was played in the year 1971
Golds. between England and Australia in
. Melbourne.
The 2022 (19th) Asian Games will be
scheduled in Hangzhou, China. The Board of Control for Cricket in India
• The 2026, Asian Games is Scheduled (BCCI) was formed in 1927.
to be held in Aichi-Nagoya, Japan.
624 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

List of Cricket World Cup

1975 Lord's, England West Indies beat Australia
1979 Lord's, England West Indies beat England
1983 Lord's, England India beat West Indies
1987 Kolkala, India Australia beat England
1992 Melbourme, (Auslralia) Pakistan beat England
1996 Lahore, Pakistan Sri Lanka beat Australia
1999 Lord's, England Australia beat Pakislan
2003 Johannesburg, South Africa Australia beat India
2007 Bridgetown, West Indies Australia beat Sri Lanka

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2011 Mumbai, India India beat Sri Lanka
2015 Australia/New Zealand Australia beat New Zealand

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2019 England and Wales England beat New Zealand
2023 India Scheduled

Women's Cricket World Cup

ra
The ICC Women's Cricket World Cup is the premier international championship of
women's One Day International Cricket. The event is organised by the sport's governing
body, the International Cricket Council (1CC). It was originally administered by the
International Women's Cricket Council until the two associations merged in 2005. The
first tournament was heldin England in 1973, 2-years before the first men's tournament.
nt

Women's Cricket World Cup Venus Important Facts

ie

Year Place Won Administrator International Cricket

1982 New Zealand Australia COuncil
1988 Australia Australia
1993 England England Format Women's ODI
jm

1997 India Australia First tournament 1973, England

2000 New Zealand New Zealand
Last tournament 2017, England
2005 South Africa Australia
2009 Australia England Current champion England
2013 India Australia Most successful Australia (6 itles)
@

2017 England England

2022 New Zealand Australia

Twenty-20World Cup
• It is organised by the International Cricket Council (1CC). It is held every 2-years.

ICC Twenty-20 Cricket World Cup

Year Host Nations Final Venue Winner Runner-up
2007 South Africa Johannestburg India Pakistan
2009 England Lord's, London Pakistan Sri Lanka
2010 West Indies Barbados England Australia
2012 Sri Lanka R Premdasa Stadium, Colombo West Indies Sri Lanka
2014 Bangladesh Sher-e Bangla Cricket Stadium, Dhaka Sri Lanka India
2016 India Eden Garden Kolkata, India Westlndies England
2021 India Dubai Australia New Zealand
2022 Australia Melbourne England Pakistan
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 525
•
2026 FIFA World Cup is scheduled to
Women's
.
Twenty-20 Cricket be held at Canada, Mexico.
In June. 2009, the ICC held the first . 21st FIFA World Cup,
2018 was held in
Women's World Tventy-20 in England, Russia where France became
the hosts became the first World champion defeating Coatia by the score
Twenty-20 champion.
4-2.
• Australia won their third consecutive tittle
in Women's World Tventy-20 after Hockey World Cup
defeating England. • The Hockey World Cup is organised by
• In 2016, West Indies won the T-20
the International Hockey Federation
Women's World Cup after defeating (FIH) Once in 4-years. The
Australia.

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headquarters of FIH is located in
•
The 2018 ICC women's world Twenty 20, Lausanne, Switzerland. The first
was hosted in the west Indies from 9 to 24 Hockey World Cup was organised in

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November 2018. Women team of Australia Barcelona (Spain) in 1971 and winner
captured the world T20 2018 title. is Pakistan. Women's Hockey World
• The 2020 ICC Women's T-20 World Cup Cup has been held since 1974.
was played in Australia. Australia defeated The 14th Women's Hockey World Cup,
ra
India by 85 runs to win their fifth title. 2018 was held in London where
Netherland emerged champion
Football World Cup defeating Ireland.
• The Football World
Cup is organised by . The 14th Men's Hockey World Cup was
FIFA (Federation of International Football Stadium,
nt

held at Kalinga
Association). Bhubaneshwar India in 2018. Belgium
• The headquarters of FIFA is located in became champion defeating
Zurich, Switzerland. Netherland.
.
ie

The World Cup is called Jules Rimet Cup'

named after the name of FIFA President Lawn .
Tennis
Jules Rimet. It was invented in 1870 by Major Wing
. Field in Wales. Wimbledon champi
jm

The first Football World Cup was

organised in Uruguay in 1930. onship started in 1877 for men only.
• In 1942 and 1946, the Football World Cup For women it was introduced in 1884.
was not played because of the World The four Grand Slam tournaments are
War II. considered to be the most prestigious
@

• Brazil is the only tennis tournaments in the world. They

nation to have are held annually and include, in
participated in every World Cup so far. chronological
• order, the Australian
20th FIFA World Cup 2014 held in Open, the French Open, Wimbledon
Brazil. Germany defeated Argentina in and the US Open. Apart from these
the final. tournaments Olympic Games, Davis
• The 2022 Football World Cup was held at
Cup, Fed Cup and Hopman Cup are
Qatar. Argentina has won by defeating also regulated by the International
France. Tennis Federation (1TF).

Grand Slam Tournaments

Tournament Date Location Surface First Held
Australian Open January Melbourne Hard (Plexicushion) 1905
Frenoh Open May-June Paris Clay 1925
Wimbledon June-July London Grass 1877
US Open August-September New York City Hard (Decoo Turf) 1881
526) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Other Sports
Table Tennis Badminton
Table Tennis was introduced in the The modern name in 1873 of Badminton came
Olympic Games in 1988 at Seoul from the Badminton House, the International
(South Korea). Badminton Fedration was establisment in 1934,
the new name is Badminton World Federation.
Billiard
Cue sports also known as biliard Cycling
sports, are a wide variety of games of The Tour de France tournament is an annual

e
skill generally played with cue stick, bicycle race held in France and nearby
which is used to strike blliard balls, countries. First staged in 1903, the race

nc
moving them around a cloth-covered covers more than 3600 km and last three
billiards table bounded rubber weeks. This is organised every year in month
Cushions. of July.
.
The 2002 Summer Olympics will be the first,
Polo
ra at which men and women complete in the
Polo (Chowgan) is a team sport played some number of events in all cycling
on horseback, in which the objectives discipines.
is to score goals against an opposing
team. Sometimes called, "The sport of SWiMming
nt

kings' it was highly popularised by the Swimming is a water based sport governed by
British. It is not an Olympic sport. the Federation Internationals de Natation
(FINA) and is formed in 1908. FINA is the
Wrestling
ie

International Federation (F) recognised by

Wrestling is a formn of combat sport the International Olympic Committee (1OC)
involving grappling types techniques for administering international competition
such as clinch fighting, throws and the aquatic sports.
jm

take downs, joint locks, pins and other• Its headquarters is at Lausanne, Switzerland.
grappling holds.
Shooting
Formula One (F1) Race • Shooting sports have been contested at every
@

• Formula one, also known Summer Olympic Games since the birth of
Formula l or Fl and referred to the modern Olympic Movement at the 1896
officially as the FIA Formula One Summer Olympics except at the 1904 and
World Championship, is the highest 1928 editions.
class of single seater auto racing
sanctioned by the Federation Marathon
International Automobile (FLA). The marathon is a long-distance runing event
• It was started in 1950. with on official distance of 42.195 km (26 miles
• The first Formula One World and 385 yards), that is usually run as a road
Championship was won by Italian race.
Giuseppe Farina in Alfa Romeo in The event was instituted in commemoration of
1950. The first Fl race in India was the fabled TUn of the Greek Soldier
held at the Buddha International Phedippiddes, a messenger from the Battle of
Circuit in Greater Noida, UP (2011). Marathon to Athens.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 527

Specitic Names of Playing Areas

Sport Name of Playing Area Sport Name of Playing Area
Badminton Court Golf Link, Greent*
Baseball Diarmond Lawn Tennis Court
Boxing Ring lce Skating Aink
Cricket Pitoh* Wrestling Aing, Arena
* Pilch in fact is the space between the wickets and not the entire cricket field.
** It isthe area arOund the hole only

Important Sport Terms

e
Sport Terms

nc
Basketball Dunk, front court. lay up, held ball, pivot. rebound, steal
Cricket Bye, draw, googly, topspin, over throw, duck, hit wicket
Football Bend dribble, dissent, dummy, feint, free kick, header, red card, throins
Hockey Bully, striking, circle, post back
Chess Castle, diagonaes, files, pawns, peices, promole, gambit. pawn
ra
Boxing Jab, laying on knock, second out habbit punch, upper cut
Badrminton Loab, let, drive, drop, love
Polo Chuker, bunker
Baseball Dianond, home run, put out, strike, ant-rubber.
nt

Aile Shooling Target, muzzle fulb, bulls eye

Wrestling Halí, nelson, hold sager, rebuts
Golf Fore some, stymie, T. put hole, caddy, nib liok, iron, the green, bunkeer
Billiards Jigger. pot, break pot, in off, cans, bolting, long, hazard, cue
ie

Swirnming Breast stroke, twist, butterfly, orawl. spring board

Volley Ball Antennae, attack hit, liberO, service, set-up, blocking, dribbling
Lawn Tennis Advantage, ace, dence, volley, foot foult, smash, grand-slam, slice, love
Table Tennis End line, ilat hit, fol, service, phnholder grip, reverse, top-spin, couter-hitting,
jm

let

Important Cups and Trophies

Sport Cup and Trophy
@

Cricket Irani Trophy, Dilip Trophy, Ranji Trophy, Vijay Hazare Trophy, Asia Cup, Deodhar
Trophy, CK Naidu Trophy, Cooch-Behar Trophy, Gandhi-Méndela Series, the
Ashes Series, elc
Football Durand Cup, Nizam Gold Cup, Rovers Cup, Sanjay Gold Cup, Santosh Trophy,
Subroto Mukherjee Cup, Vittal Trophy, Nehru Gold Cup
Hockey Agha Khan Cup, Azlan Shah Cup, Nehru Trophy, Dhyanchand Trophy, Beighton
Cup, Scindia Gold Cup, Modi Gold Cup, Indira GandhiGold Cup, Rangaswarmi
Cup, Khan Abdul Gaffar Cup
Golf Canada Cup, Muthian Gold Cup, Ryder Cup, Walker Cup
Table Tennis Corbillion Cup (women), Jayalaxmi Cup (women), Swaythling Cup (men)
Lawn Tennis Davis Cup, Hamlet Cup, Australian Open, French Open, Wimbledon, US Open,
Hopman Cup
Badrminton Thomas Cup (men), Uber Cup (women), Narang Cup, All England Open
Boxing Aspy Adjania Trophy
Rowing Wollington Trophy
Bridge Ruia Trophy
Polo Ezra Cup, Winchestor Cup, Radha Mohan Cup
S28 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Sports Organisations
FIDE Federation International Des Echecs Chess
(World Chess Federation)
FIFA Federation International de Football Association Football
IHF Indian Hockey Federation Hockey
ICC International Cricket Council Cricket
ITTF International Table Tennis Federation Table Tennis
BWF Badminton World Federation Badminton

Measurements of Sports Fields and Instruments

e
Cricket Ball 155.9 gm to 163 gm in weight
Bat 96.5 cm in length and 10.8 om width (Maximum)

nc
Pitch 20.12 m
Length of the Stumps 71.1 cm (28 inch)
Length of the Crease 1.22-1.83 (4 ft)
Football Field 100 x 64 m to 110 x 75 m
Hockey Field 100 yards x 60 yards
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Weight of the Ball 155-163 gm
Colour of the Ball White
Weight of Hockey Stick 280 gm
Lawn Tennis Court 23.77 m x 8.23 m (Singles)
nt

Ball 6.35 cm to 6.67 om (in diameter)

56.7 gm to 2.53 gm(Weight)
Volley Ball Field 18 m ×9 m
1 m
Net deep and 9.50 m long 2.43 m (for men)
and 2.24 m for women (Height)
ie

Ball Circurmference 66 cIm + 1 cm

Weight 270 gm + 10 gm
Badminton Court 13.40 m x 5.18 m or 44x20 ft.
Net Top 1.524 m in height from the iloor
jm

Shutile 4.73 to 5.50 gm in weight and shall have 14 to 16

feathers fixed in Court
Kabaddi Field 13 m x 10 m
(According to Kabaddi Federation of India)
Kho-Kho Field 34 X 16 m
@

Length
Course
Derby 1.5 miles
Marathon Race Length 26 miles, 385 yards
Polo Field Length 300 yards
Field Width 150 yards
Distance between the Goals 250 yards
Distance between the Goal post 8 yards
Chess 64 Squares on chessboard
Colour Black and White
Nos. of same colour chess 16
Baseball Distance of each case 90 ft
Base distance along with hypotenuse 127 ft
Boxing Length and Width of the Ring 4.9x 4.9 mf to 6.1 x6.1 m
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge S29

Famous Sports Stadiums

Stadium Sports Place
Brookland Football England (UK)
Twickenham Rugby Football England (UK)
Putney Mart Lake Boat Race England (UK)
Yankee Sladium Boxing New York (USA)
Brooklyn Baseball New York (USA)
Forest Hill Tennis USA
Sendy Lodge Golf Scotland
Flermington Horse Racing Melbourne (Australia)
Headingley Manchester Cricket England (UK)

e
Lords, Oval, Leeds Cricket England (UK)
Black Heath Rugby Football London (UK)

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Wimbledon Lawn Tennis London (UK)
Wembley Stadium Football London (UK)
Shivaji Stadiun Hockey Delhi
National Stadium Hockey Delhi
National Stadium Hockey and others Murnbai
Wankhede Sladium
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Cricket Mumbai
Brabourne Stadium Cricket Mumbai
Eden Garden Cricket Kolkata
Green Park Stadium Cricket Kanpur
Keenan Stadium Cricket Jamshedpur
nt

Trent Bridge Cricket England (UK)

White City Dog race England (UK)
Hurlington Polo England (UK)
England
ie

Henlay Regatta Regala

Brisbance, Melbourne, Perth, Sydney Cricket Australia
Indraprastha Sladium Indoor Games Delhi
Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium Athletics Delhi
jm

Sardar Palel Stadium(Motera) Cricket Ahmedabad

Ambedkar Stadium Football Delhi
Nehru, Chepauk Stadium Cricket Chennai
Barabati Stadium Cricket Cuttack
Aintree, Doncasler Epsom Horse Racing England (UK)
@

Players and their Associated Games

Players Game Country Players Game Country
Pankaj Advani Snooker India Sania Mirza Tennis India
Saina Nehwal Badminton India Deepa Malik Shot Put India
Shikha Tandon Swimming India (Para
Athletics)
lgnace Tirkey Hockey India Novak Djokovic Tennis Serbia
Hima Das Athletics India
Pooja Dhanda Wrestling India
Tiger Wods Golf USA Gaurav Singh Gill Motorsports India
Andi Muray Tennis Scotland Wrestling
Bajrang Punia India
Caroline Wozniaciki Tennis Den Simone Biles Gymnastic USA
Mark
Brooks Koekpa Golf USA
Victoria Anzarenka Tennis Belarush
Poonam Yadav Cricket India
530 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

Nickname of Players Player Book

Yuvraj Singh The Test of My Life
Player Nickname
VVSLaxrman 281 and Beyond
Major Dhyanchand Hockey ka
Jadoogar Saurav Ganguly A Century is not Enough
. Milkha
Singh Flying Sikh
PT Usha Payyoli Express,
Golden Girl
National Games of India
It was in 1924, in erstwhile Punjab, that the
Shoaitb Aktar Rawalpindi Indian chapter of the Olympic movement was
Express born. The same year, the country's first
Rahul Dravid The Wal| Olympic Games, now christened as National

e
•
Harbhajan Singh Bhaji, The Games, were organised in Lahore, the then
Turbanator capital of undivided Punjab. National Games

nc
Javagal Srinath Mysore Express
are generally held once in 2 years, but these are
frequent delays.
Paes and Bhupali Indian Express
Hima Das Dhing Express List of National Garmes from 1985
ra
Year Host Duration Top Placed
National Sports Team
Country National Sport 1985 New Delhi 19-26 Maharashtra
Australia Cricket November
nt

Canada Lacrose (lce 1987 Cannanore, Calicut, 20-28 Kerala

Hockey) Trichur, Quiton & December
Allepey
China Table Tennis
1994 Mumbai & Pune 16-25 Maharashtra
ie

England Cricket January

India Hockey
1997 Bengaluru and 31 May Karnataka
Japan Sumo Mysura 11 June
jm

• Malaysia Badminton 1999 Imphal 14-25 Feb Manipur

Scotland Ring by Football 2001 Ludhiana, Patiala, 19 Nove Punjab
Spain Bull Fighting Jalandhar, 1
Dec
Chandigarh,
@

USA Baseball Anandpur Sabih,

Mohali

Players and their Books 2002 Hyderabad, 13-22 Dec Andhra

Secunderabad, Pradesh
Player Book Visakhapatnam
Balvir Singh Golden Hatrick 2007 Guwahati 9-18 Feb Services
Viswanathan My Best Garme of 2011 Ranchi. 12-26 Feb Services
Anand Chess Jamshedpur &

David Beckham My Side Dhanbad

Major Dhyanchand Goal 2015 Thiruvananthapuram 31 Jarn Services
Kollam, Alapuzha, 14 Feb
Sunil Gavaskar Sunny Days, Idols Ennabulam.
Tiger Woods How Paly Golf
I Kozhikode, Thrissur,
Kannur
Kapil Dev Cricket My Style
2020 Goa (Postponed
Sachin Tendulkar Playing It My Way due to COVID-19
pandemic)
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 531

Principal Languages of India

India has 22 languages which have been given the official language status
Assamese It is an Indo-Aryan language and is the official language of Assam.
Bengali It is one of the leading Indo-Aryan language and is the official language
of West Bengal.
Gujarati It is an Indo-Aryan language and is the official language of Gujarat.
Hindi The largest spoken Indo-Aryan language.
It is the official language of the Government of India.
Various dialects of Hindi are Khariboli, Brajbhasha, Bundeli, Awadhi,

e
Marwari, Maithili and Bhojpuri.
In 6 states and UTs, Hindi is the official language.

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Kannada It belongs to the Dravidian family and is the official language of
Karnataka.
Kashmiri It is an Indo-Aryan language.
It is often mistaken as the official language of Jammu and Kashmir.
Konkani
ra
It is the official language of Goa and is spoken by thousands of Konkanis
in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala. It was added in 1992 by 71st
Amendment. It is an Indo-Aryan language.
Malayalam Belong to the Dravidian family and is the official language of Kerala.
Manipuri It is the official language of Manipur. It was added in 1992 by 71st
nt

Amendment. It is a sino-Tibetan language.

Marathi Itis an Indo-Aryan language and is the official language of Maharashtra.
Nepali It is spoken in parts of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, etc. It
was added in 1992 by 71st Amendment. It is an Indo-Aryan language.
ie

Oriya It is an Indo-Aryan language and is the official language of Odisha.

Punjabi It is an Indo-Aryan language and is the official language of Punjab.
It is one of the earliest languages of the world. Early Sanskit is known as
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Sanskrit
Vedie Sanskrit and covers the period between 2000 and 500 BC.
Sindhi It is an Indo-Aryan language. It was added in 1967 by 2 1st Amendment.
Tamil It is the oldest of the Dravidian languages and is the official language of
Tamil Nadu.
@

Telugu It is numerically the biggest of theDravidian languages and is the official

language of Andhra Pradesh.
Urdu It is the official language of Jammu and Kashmir. It is an Indo-Aryan
language.
Modern Urdu developed due to the efforts of Sir Sayyed Ahmed Khan
(1817-1898).
Dogri It is generally spoken in Himachal Pradesh and Jammu. It is a
combination of ancient Sanskrit and Pahari Dogri languages.
It has been added by the 92nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 2003.
Maithili It is chiefly spoken in the Maithilianchal region of Bihar. It is the second
state language of Bihar.
It has been added by the 92nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 2003.
Santhali It is chiefly spoken in the area of Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand
and Bihar. It has been added by the 92nd Constitutional Amendment
Act, 2003.
Bodo It is chiefly spoken in Assam and its adjoining North-East States.
It has been added by the 92nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 2003. It
belongs to the Sino-Tibetan famnily of languages.
632 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

National Insignia of India

Emblem The National Emblem of India is huge tree towers over its neighbours and
an adaptation of the Buddhist Lion has the widest trunk.
Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath, near Sport Field Hockey, in which India has an
Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh. impressive record with eight Olympic
Animal The Tiger is the National Animal of medals, is considered as the National
India. It is the symbol of India's wealth of Sport. However, Home Ministry has said
wildlife. The magnificent tiger, Panthera that officially, no sport has been
tigris, is a striped animal. accorded, the status of National Sport.

e
Bird The Peacock (Pavo cristatus), is the Anthem Jana-Gana-Mana..The song was
National Bird of India. is symbol of composed originally in Bengali by

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qualities like beauty and grace. Rabindranath Tagore, adopted in its
Hindi version is our National Anthem.
Flag The National Flag is a horizontal
tricolour of deep saffron (kesari) at the Song The song Vande Mataram, composed
top, white in the middle, dark green at in Sanskrit by Bankimchandra Chatterji,
ra
a
the bottom and blue wheel (chakra) is our National Song.
with 24 sticks at the centre. Calendar The National Calendar based on
Fruit The Mango (Mangiferra indica) is the Saka Era with Chaitra as its first
the National Fruit. It has been cultivated month and a normal year of 365 days
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in India since time immemorial. was adopted from 22nd March, 1957.
Tree The National Tree of India is The Flower Lotus scientifically known as
Banyan (Ficus bengalensis) Tree. This Nelumb0 nucifera is the National Flower
of India
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Other National Symbols

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National Sentence Satyamev Jayate

National Language Hindi in Devnagiri Script
Father of the Nation Mahatma Gandhi
National Foreign Policy Non-Alignment
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National Information Letter White Letter

National Currency Rupee ()
National Festivals - Republic Day (26th January)
- Independence Day (15th August)
- Gandhi Jayanti (2nd October)
National River Ganga
National Aquatic Animal Ganga Dolphin (Platanisla gangelica)
National Heritage Animal Elephant
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge S33

Indian Defence
Indian Army Commands Indian Air Force Commands
Cormmand HQ Location Command (Operational) HQ Location
Central Command Lucknow Central Air Command Allahabad
Eastern Air Command Shillong
Eastern Command Kolkata
Southern Air Command Thiruvanan
Northern Command Udhampur thapuram
Southern Cormmand Pune South Western Air Command Gandhi Nagar
Western Air Command New Delhi

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SW Command Jaipur
Western Command Chandigarh Command (Functional) HO Loaction
Training Command Bengaluru

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Training Command (ARTRAC) Shimla
Maintenance Command Nagpur

Indian Navy Commands

Cormmand HQ Location
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Western Naval Command Mumbai
Eastern Naval CorImand Visakhapalnam
Southern Naval Command Cochin
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Indian Defence Training Institutions

Training Institution Place Estd in
Rashtriya Indian Military College (AlMC) Dehradun 1922
Indian Military Acaderny (IMA) Dehradun 1932
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High Allitude Wariare School (HAWS) Gulmarg 1948

National Delence Academy (NDA) Khadakwasla 1949
National Defence College (NDC) New Delhi 1960
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Oficers Training Academy (0TA) Chennai 1963

Counter-Insurgency and Jungle Wartare School Vairengte (Mizoram) 1970
College of Delence Management Secunderabad 1970
of
College Combat/Army War College Mhow (MP) 1971
@

Army Cadet College (ACC) Dehradun 1977

Army Air Defence Cllege (AADC) Gopalpur(Odisha) 1989
Army School of Physical Training (ASPT) Pune

Ranks of Commissioned Officers

Arrny Air Force Navy
General Air Chief Marshal Admiral
Lt General Air Marshal Vioe Admiral
Major General Air Vice Marshal Rear Adrmiral
Brigadier Air Commodore Commodore
Colonel Group Captain Captain
Lt Colonel Wing Cornmander Commander
Major Squadron Leader Lt Cormmander
Caplain Flight Lieutenant Lieutenant
Lieutenant Flying Oficer Sub-Lieutenant

Note In December 2019, Cabinet Committee on security has established the post of
Chief of Defence Staff to bring coordination between the three services i.e. Army, Navy
and Air Force.
S34 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Internal Security of India

Organisation Established
Assam Rifles (AR) i was established in 1835 called Cachar Levy. It is the oldest paramilitary
force in the country.
. Its main objective is to keep vigilance of international borders in North-East
and countering insurgency operations in Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur,
Mizoram and Nagaland.
Intelligence lE was set-up in 1920.
Bureau (IB) . Its
objective is to collect secret information relating to country's security.
IE was
originally set-up as Central Special Branch (CSB) in 1887 and
renamed IB in 1920.

e
It was set-up in 1939.
Central Reserve
Police Force . Its

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main objective is to assist the Slate/Union Territory Police in
(CAPF) maintenance of law and order.
National Cadet It was established in 1948.
Corps (NCC) Its main objective is to stimulate interest armong the youth in the defence of
the country in order to build up a reserve manpower to expand armed
forces.
ra
Territorial Army IE was
established in 1948.
-
(TA) IE
is a voluntary, part-time force (between 18 and 42 years), not of
prolessional soldiers, but civilians, who wish to assist in defence of the
COuntry.
nt

- was established in 1962, after the Chinese attack.

It
Indo-Tibetan
Border Police Ii is basically employed in the Northern borders for monitoring the borders
((TBP)
and also to stop smuggling and illegal immigration.
Home Guard i was established in 1962, to assist the police in maintaining urity, to
ie

help defence forces and to help local authorities in case of any eventuality.
Border Security Ii wasestablished in 1965.
Force (BSF) . It
keeps a vigil over the international borders against the intrusion in the
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cOuntry.
Central Industrial It was set-up in 1969 after the recommendations of Justice B Mukherji.

Security Force . Its

objective is to monitor the industrial complexes of Central Government.
(CISF)
@

was set-up in 1978.

Indian Coast . Itsi
Guard objective is to protect the maritime and other national interests in the
maritime zones of India.
National Security It was established in 1984 to counter the surge of militancy in the country.
Guards (NSG) IE
is a highly trained force which deals with the militants effectively.
Rapid Action It was established in 1991.
Force (RAF) .
Under the operational command of CRPF, 10 battalions of the CRPF have
been reoriented for tackling communal riots in the country.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge S35

Defence Research in India

Defence Research and Integrated Guided Missile
Development Organisation Development Programme
(DRDO) (IGMDP)
It is an agency of the Republic of India, The IGMDP was launched in l983, for the
responsible for the development of development of a comprehensive range of
technology for use by the military, missiles including the intermediate range,
headquartered in New Delhi, India. Agni Missile (surface-to-surface) and short
It was formed in 1958, by the merger of range missiles such as the Prithvi Ballistic

e
Technical Development Establishment and Missile (surface-to-surface), Akash Missile
the Directorate of Technical Development (surface-to-air), Astra Missile (air-to-air),

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and Production with the Defence Science Trishul Missile (surface-to-air) and Nag
Organisation. Missile (anti-tank).

Indian Missiles
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Narme Range
Agni-l IE
is a mediu-range ballistic missile with a range of 700-800 km.
Agni-ll It is an intermnediate-range ballistic missile with a range of 2000-3000 km.
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Agni-ll IE
is an intermediate-range ballistic missile with a range of 3000-5000 km.
Agni-IV is an intermediate-range
IE
ballistic missile with a range of at a distance upto
4000 krT.
ie

Agni-V It is an intercontinental ballistic missile with a range of 5000-8000 km.

Prithvi Prithvi isa tactical surface-to-surface Short-Range Ballistic Missile (SABM).
It has three versions.
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Prithvi-l (SS-150) Army Version (150 km range with a payload of 1000 kg).
Prithvi-ll(SS-250) Air Force Version (250 km range with a payload of 500 kg).
Prithvi-lI (SS-350) Naval Version (350 km range with a payload of 1000 kg).
@

Astra Astra is Beyond Visual Range (BVR) air-to-air missile. Astra is designed to be
capable of engaging targels at varying range and altitudes allowing for both
short-range targets (upto 20 km) and long-range targels (upto 80 krm) using
alternative propulsion modes.
Akash Akash is a medium range surface-to-air missile defence system developed
by DRDO and BELas part of the IGMDP. The missile can target aircraft up to
30 km away, at altitudes of 18000 m. Akash can be fired from both tracked
and wheeled platforms.
Akash is said to be capable of both conventional and nuclear warheads, with
a reported payload of 60 kg.

Trishul Trishul is a short range surface-to-air missile. The range of the missile is
12 km and is fitted with a 15 kg warhead. The weight of the missile is 130 kg.
Nag Nag is India's third generation 'Fire-and-Forget' anti-tank missile. It is an all
weather, top attack missile with a range of 3 to 7 kn.
Sagarika K-15 Sagarika is a nuclear-capable subrmarine launched ballistic missile with
a range of 750 k. Ii belongs to the K Missile family. The latest test of the
K-15 Missile was done on 11th March, 2012.
AgniVI IE
s an intercontinental ballistic mssile with a range of 8000-12000 km.
536) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Narme Range
Brahmos Brahmos is a stealth supersonic cruise missile that can be launched from
submarines, ships, aircraft or land. It is a joint venture between Republic of
India's DRADO and Russian Federation's NPO Mashinostroyeniya, who have
together formed Brahmos Aerospace Private Limited.
It is the world's fastest cruise missile in operation. The missile travels at a
speed of mach 2.8 to 3.0. It has a range of 290 km. It can carry 300 kg of
or nuclear warhead.
. conventional
It is a hypersonic cruise missile with a range of 290 km. It is under
development.
Shaurya The Shaurya Missile is a short-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile

e
developed by DRDO for use by the Indian Army capable of hypersonic
speeds, it has a range of 600 km and is capable of carrying a payload of
one-tonne conventional or nuclear warhead.

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-
Shauya Missile is a land version of the under-water launched K-15 Missile,
Sagarika.

Nirbhay Nirbhay is a long range, subsonic cruise mSsile being developed in India.
The missile will have a range of 1000 krn. The missile will have a speed of
0.8 mach. The Nirbhay will be able to launched from multiple platforms on
ra
land, sea and air.
Rudram is airto surface anti-radiation missile with an operational range of 100-250
Ii
km. The missile will help in detecting, neutralising the adversary's radars and
communication assels.
nt

Agni P DRDO SuCcessfully tested the new generation nucleur capable ballistic
missile 'Agni P' from Dr APJ Abdul Kalam Island. The missile is capable of
striking 5000 krns way.
ie

Indian Military Aircrafts

Airoraft Origin Type Versions
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I|-76 Phalcon Russia Airborne Early Warning l-76

Sukhoi Su-30 MKI Russia, India Multirole Air Superiority Fighter Su-30 MKI

Antonov An-32 Cline Soviet Union Cargo Aircraft An-32

@

HAL Tejas India Fighter Mark

SEPECAT Jaguar France, United Ground-Attack SI
Kingdom
Mikoyan-Gurevich Mig-27 Soviet Union Ground-Atiack MIG-27 ML

Mil Mi-35 Hind-E Soviet Union Atack Helicopter Mi-35

Mi-17 Soviet Union Transport Helicopter Mi-17

HAL Dhruv India Utility Helicopter Dhruy

Nishant India (DRDO) Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV)

HTT40 India (HAL) Replacement of HPT-32

Chinook USA (Boeing) & Multi-mission Helicopler
Helicopters

Rafale France Fighter Plane

(Dassault
Aviation)
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 537

List of Combat Vehicles

Narme Type Origin
Arjun MBT mk-1 Main Batle Tank India
T-90 S 'Bhishma/T-90 M Main Battle Tank Russia, India
.
T-72 M1 'Ajeya' Main Battle Tank Soviet Union
T-55 Main Battle Tank Soviet Union
Muntra Armoured Vehicle India

Sub-marines of the Indian Navy

e
INS Chakra The INS Chakra Il (K-152 Nerpa) is a 8140 tonne project 518 (NATO Akula I)
type nuclear-powered attack submarine.
.
Constituted in 1993, but Suspended due to lack of funding.

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.
K-152 Nerpa was launched in October 2008 and entered service with the
Russian Navy in late 2009.
The submarine was leased to the Indian Navy in 2011 and was formally
commissioned into service as the INS Chakra |l at a ceremony in
Vishakhapatnam on 4ih April, 2012.
- It is a
ra
INS Arihant class of nuclear powered ballistic missile submarines.
It is India's first indigenously designed and built nuclear submarine.
t is
currently under sea-trial.
INS Kalvari It is the first of lIndian Navy's six Kalvari class sub-marine being build in India. I

is a diesal-electric attack sub-marine, which is designed by French naval

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defence and energy company DCNS and being manufactured at Mazagon

Dock Limited in Mumbai.
It is the second Arihant
INS Arighat class subrmarine and the second nuclear-powered
ballistic missile submarine being built by India. It was launched on 19th
Novernber, 2017.
ie

It
INS Khanderi is the second of the Indian Navy's six Kalvari-class subrmarines being built in
India. It is adiesel-electric attack submarine. lt was launched on 12th January,
2017.
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INS Karanj Third submarine of the first batch of six kalvari class submarine.
- It is a diesel-electric attack submarine, that was launched on 31th January,
2018.
INS Vela It is the fifth submarine of the first batch of six Kalvari-class submarines for the
Indian Navy.
@

- It is a diesel-electric attack submarine

based on the Scorpene class, designed
by French naval defence and manufactured by Mazagon Dock Limited.
. The submarine inherits its name frorm INS Vagir (S41) which served in the Navy
from 1973-2001, and was named after a species of sandfish.

Warships/Base of the Indian Navy

.
INS Vikrant The first Aircraft carrier of Indian Navy was lNS Vikrarnt.
.
India purchased the INS Vikrant from the United Kingdom in 1957
(Now decommissioned).
INS Viraat INS Viraat is a centaur class aircraft carrier currently in service with the Indian
Navy.
-
The Viraat was completed and commissioned in 1959, as the Royal Navy's
HMS Hermes and transíerred to India in 1987 (Now Decommissioned).
INS It is world's fastest missile ship oommissioned in 1997. It is a veer-class
Prahar
Corvette (Now Decommissioned).
538 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

INS Delhi It is India's largest and most sophisticated indigenously built warship.
(Destroyer) It was launched in 1991 at Mazgaon Docks and Commissioned in 1997.
It is the leadship of her class of guided Missile destroyers.

INS Mysore It is a Delhiclass guided missile destroyer Currently in active service with the
(Destroyer) Indian Navy. INS Mysore was built at Mazgaon Dock Limited in Mumbai and it
was commissioned in 1999.
- It is a veer class corvette, currently in active service with the Indian Nay.
INS Prabal
(Corvette) - It was built at Mazgaon Dock Limited and Cormmissioned in 2002.

INS Talwar It is the leadship of the Talwar class frigates of the Indian Navy.
(Frigate) lts narme means 'Sword' in English.
t was
built in Russia and commissioned into the Indian Navy in 2003.

e
It is a Brahmaputra class frigate of
INS Beas the Indian Navy.
(Frigate) . It was built at the Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers (GRSE) Kolkata,
and it was commissioned in 2005.

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.
INS Kadamba It is India's largest naval
base located near Karwar in Karnataka.
(Naval Base) It was commissioned in 2005, under the project Seabird.

INS It is India's biggest ship, aircraft carrier.

Vikramaditya . It was acquired frorn Russia.

(Surface Fleet) It
ra
entered into Service with the Indian Navy in 2013.
- It is the lead ship of the Kolkata class guided missile destroyers of Indian Navy.
INS Kolkata
(Destroyer) t was
handed over to the Navy on 10th July, 2014.
. It is the lead ship of the Visakhapatnam-class
INS stealth guided-missile
Visakhapatnam destroyers of the lndian Navy.
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(Destroyer) It is being constructed at Mazagon Dock Limited (MDL) and has been launched
on 20th April, 2015. The ship is expected to get commissioned by 2018.
INS Kavaratti It is an anti-submarine warfare corvette of the Indian Navy.
(Anti-submarine It is the last of four komnodo class covettes under various stages of induction
ie

Warfare with the Indian Navy.

Corvette) .
The ship was buit by Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers, Kolkala and
launched on 19th May, 2015.
It is the second ship of the Kolkata-class destroyers built for the Indian Navy.
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INS Kochi
(Destroyer) It is built at Mazagon Dock Limited, Mumbai. She was commissioned to lndian
Navy on 30th September, 2015.
It has been built under the code name of project 15 Alpha.

INS It is first totally indigenously-designed and built torpedo launch and recovery
vessel, commissioned on 6th October, 2015.
@

Astradharani
.
(Torpedo The unique design of the ship wasa collaborative effort of Naval Science and
Recovery Technological Laboratory, IIT Kharagpur and shoft shipyard.
Vessel) . It is the advanced replacement of the INS Astravahini which was
decommissioned on 17th July, 2015.
It was
INS Vibhuti India's first indigenously buili missile boat launched at Mazgaon Docks
(Corvette) in Mumbai.
It is a veer class corvette.
INS Savitri lt was India's first warship fabricated at Hindustan shipyard Limited in 1990.
(Offshore petrol It is a Sukanya class patrol vessel of the Indian Navy.
Vessel)
. It was lndia's first indigenously built submarine.
INS Shakti
.
(Auxillary Flect) The ship is one of the largest in the Indian Navy as it is 175 m in length and 32 m
in width. Ii is a Deepak-class fleet tanker.
It is India's first nucleur missile.
INS Dhruv
The ship with its anti ballistic missile capabilities will act as an early warning
system for enemy missile headed toward Indian cities and military
eslablishments.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 639

India's Atomic Research

India's atomic energy research started with the establishment of the Atomic Energy
Commission on 1Oth August, 1948. Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was established
in 1954, for implementation of atomic energy programmes.
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) It was set up in 1954, as the Atomic
Energy establishment at Trombay, near Mumbai and in 1967, vas renamed as BARC in
the memory of its founder Dr Homi Bhabha. is the premier national centre for
Research and Development (R & D) work in nuclear energy and related disciplines. At
present, BARC houses three research reactors

e
1. Apsara, a one MW Swimming pool type reactor.
2. Cirus, a 40 MW reactor.

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3. Dhruva, a 100 MW high power uclear research reactor.
Earlier, there were two nore research reactors at BARC
1. Zerliarna (zero energy, natural uranium)
2. Purnima I-III(fuel: plutonium/ uranium-233)
The centre has built two Synchrotron Radiation Sources (SRSs) called Indus I and Indus II
ra
and developed versatile lasers for various applications.
Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (1GCAR) It was set-up in 1971, at
Kalpakkam in Chennai for research and development of fast breeder technology. IGCAR
designed Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR), which uses indigenous mixed fuel with a
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plutonium and natural uranium base. IGCAR also developed the country's first neutron
reactor, Kamini, which is a 30 MW reactor and uses uranium fuel.
Atomic Mineral Directorate (AMD) It is located in Hyderabad and carries out surveys,
exploration and evaluation of the resources required for the atomic energy programmes
ie

of the country.
Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre (VECC) It was set-up in 1977, at Kolkata as a
national centre for advanced work in nuclear chemistry, nuclear physics, production of
jm

isotopes for various applications and radiation damage studies on reactor materials.
Centre for Advance Technology (CAT) It was established in 1984, at Indore to
coordinate research in high technology fields like lasers, fusion and accelerators.
Nuclear Power Stations At a Glance
@

Location State Nurmber of Reactors

L.
Functional
1. Tarapur Maharashtra 4
2. Kaiga Karnataka 4
3. Kalpakkam Tamil Nadu 2

4. Kakrapar Gujarat
5. Rawatbhata Rajasthan 5

6. Narora Uttar Pradesh 2

7. Kudankulan Tamil Nadu
II. Under Construction
1. Kudankulam Tarmil Nadu 2
2. Kalpakkam Tamil Nadu 1

3. Rawatbhata Rajasthan 2

4. Kakrapar Unit 344 Gujarat 1

540 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

There are now 22 operating nuclear power reactors (two boiling water reactors and
twenty PHWRs (Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors) with a total installed capacity of
6780 MVW (1.8% of total installed base).
Heavy Water Production
1. Nangal (Punjab) First heavy water plant in the country
2. Baroda (Gujarat)
3. Talchar (Odisha)
4. Tuticorin (Tanil Nadu)
5. Thal (Maharashtra)
6. Hazira (Gujarat)

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7. Manuguru (Andhra Pradesh)
8. Rawatbhata (Rajasthan)

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India's Nuclear Test
• On 18th May, 1974, India conducted her first underground nuclear explosion at
Pokhran (Rajasthan) in the Thar desert at a depth of 100 m. The code name used to
convey the success of the test to the then Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi, was 'Buddha
ra
is Smiling.
• For the second time, India conducted on 1lth May, 1998 three underground nuclear
explosions at the same place i.e, Pokhran in the Thar desert of Rajasthan at a depth of
100 m. The test were code named 'Operation Shakti.
nt

Space Programme of India

.
The Indian Space Programme was launched in 1962, when the Indian National
ie

Committee for Space Research was formed. To this were added the Indian Space
Research Organisation in 1969 and the Space Commission and Department of Space
in 1972. The Indian Space Research Organisation (1SRO) is responsible for the
jm

planning, execution and management of space research activities and space

application programmes.
•
The ISRO has headquarters at Bengaluru.
•
India's first satellite communication Earth station was set-up at Arvi near Pune. The
@

first Indian Satellite Aryabhatta was launched on 19th April, 1975 from Baikonur
(erstwhile USSR). The first Indian Remote Sensing Satellite was launched on
17th March, 1988.
• The first Indian Communication Satellite, APPLE was launched on 19th June, 1981
from Kourou in French Guyana (South America). It wvas the first Indian satellite that
was placed in geostationary orbit.

ISROEstablishments
SHAR Centre, Sriharikota
• It is located on the East coast of Andhra Pradesh, SHAR is the main launch centre of
ISRO. This centre also undertakes large scale production of solid rocket propellant and
ground testing of solid fulled rocket stages of the Indian launch vehicles. In September
2002, the Sriharikota Space Centre was renamed as Professor Satish Dhawan Space
Centre.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 541

ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC)

• It has headquarters and Spacecraft Control Centre at Bengaluru and a network of
ground stations at Sriharikota, Thiruvananthapuram, Bengaluru, Lucknow, Car
Nicobar and Mauritius. The ISTRAC provides Telementry, Tracking and Command
(TTC) Support for the launch vehicles and satellite missions of ISRO and for other
space agencies.
Master Control Facility
• It is located at Hassan in Karnataka and Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh, is responsible for
all post launch operations of INSAT satellites including orbital manoeuvres, station
keeping and in-orbit operations on the spacecraft.

e
ISRO Inertial Systems Unit (IISU)

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• It is located in Thiruvananthapuram, carries out development of inertial systems for
both satellites and launch vehicles.
Space Applications Centre (SAC)
• It is located in Ahmedabad, is ISRO's research and development centre for conceiving,
ra
organising and building systems for practical applications of space technology. The
major fields of activity cover satellite communication, remote sensing, meteorology and
geodesy.

Physical Research Laboratory (PRL)

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• It is located in Ahmedabad under Department of Space and is the premier national

centre for research in space and allied sciences.
National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA)
ie

• It is located in Hyderabad under the Department of Space, has facilities for surveying,
identifying, classifying and monitoring Earth resources using serial and satellite data.
jm

Development and Educational Communication Unit (DECU)

•
It's headquarters is located in Ahmedabad it, is involved in the conception, definition,
planning and socio-economic evaluation of space application programmes.
Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC)
@

• It is located in Thiruvananthapuram, is the leading centre for launch vehicle

development and it pioneers in rocket research and planning and execution of launch
vehicle development projects.

ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC)

• It is located in Bengaluru, is responsible for the design, fabrication, testimg and
management of satellite systems for scientific, technological and application missions.
National Atmospheric Research Laboratory
• At Gadanki near Tirupathi, is used by scientists for carrying out atmospheric research.
Laboratory for Electro-Optics Systems (LEOS)
• It is located in Bengaluru and is engaged in design, development and production of
Electro-Optic sensors and camera optics for satellites and launch vehicles. The sensors
include star trackers, Earth sensors, Sun sensors and processing electronics.
542 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE~ General Knowledge

Liquid Propulsion Systems North-East statesS to adopt space

Centre (LPSC) technology inputs for their development.
• It is located at Thiruvananthapuram and Regional Remote Sensing
Bengaluru. The LPSC undertakes Service Centres (RRSSCs)
research, development andtesting of • Five RRSSCs have been established by
liquid propulsion systems for ISRO's
launch vehicle and satellite programmes. the DoS at Bengaluru, Jodhpur, Kolkata
and Nagpur. RRSSCs support the
The Indian Institute of Remote various remote sensing tasks specific to
their regions as well as at the national
Sensing (IIRS) level.
• It is located in Dehradun, is a premier

e
training and education institute dealing Navik
with Remote Sensing, Geoinformation

nc
Navigation with Indian Constitution is India's
Science and GPS Technology and their
Applications. indigenous global navigation satellite
system.
North Eastern-Space Applications The Constiuation consists of 3 geostationary
Centre (NE-SAC) and 4 geosynchronous satellites.
•
ra It is designed as a replacement of U.S. based
It is located at Umiam (near Shillong),
Meghalaya. The centre has the mandate GPS and to provide position information in
to develop high technology the Indian region and 1500 km around the
infrastTucture support to enable Indian mainland.
nt

Indian Space Programme Ata Glance

Satellite Date Launch Vehicle Place Type
ie

Aryabhatta 19th April, 1975 Cosmos Baikonur Experimental

Bhaskara I 7th June, 1979 Cosmos Baikonur Earth Observation

jm

Rohini 10th Augus, 1979 SLV-3 Sriharikota Experimental

Rohini D1 31st May, 1981 SLV-3 Sriharikota Earth Observation

@

Apple 19th June, 1981 Ariane Kourou Communication

Bhaskara Il
20th November, 1981 Cosmos Baikonur Earth Observation
INSAT-IA 10th April, 1982 Delta America Communication
IRS-IB 29th August, 1991 Vostok Baikonur Earth Observation
INSAT 2A 10th July, 1992 Ariane-4 Kourou Communication
INSAT 2B 23rd July, 1993 Ariane-4 KouroU Communication
INSAT-3B 22nd March, 2000 Ariane-5 Kourou Communication

GSAT-1 18th April, 2001 GSLV-D1 Sriharikola Communication

INSAT-3A 10th April, 2003 Ariane-5 Kourou Communication
GSAT-2 8th May, 2003 GSLV-D2 Sriharikota Communication

EDUSAT 20th Septermber, 2004 GSLV-F01 Sriharikola Communication

CARTOSAT 1
5th May, 2005 PSLV-C6 Sriharikola Earth Observation
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 543

Satellite Date Launch Vehicle Place Type

HAMSAT 5th May, 2005 PSLV-C6 Sriharikota Communication

AGILE 23rd April, 2007 PSLV-C8 Sriharikola Astronomy

Tech SAR 21st January, 2008 PSLV-C10 Sriharikota Surveillance

IMS-1 28th April, 2008 PSLV-C9 Sriharikota Earth Observation

CHANDRA 22nd October. 2008 PSLV-C11 Sriharikota Moon Mission
YAAN-1

e
OCEANSAT-2 23rd Septermber, 2009 PSLV-C14 Sriharikota Earth Observation

Sriharikota Earth Observation

nc
CARTOSAT-2B 12th July, 2010 PSLV-C15

GSAT-5P 25th December, 2010 GSLV-FO06 Sriharikota Communication

AISAT-1 26th April, 2012 PSLV-C19 Sriharikota Radar Imaging

YOUTHSAT 20th April, 2011
ra
PSLV-C16 Sriharikota Experimental/Small
Satellite
RESOURCESAT-2 20th April, 2011 PSLV-C16 Sriharikota Earth Observation
Satellite
nt

GSAT-8 21st May, 2011 Ariane-5 VA-202 Kourou Communication

GSAT-12 15th July, 2011 PSLV-C17 Sriharikota Communication
Jugnu 12th October, 2011 PSLV-C18 Sriharikota Student Satellite
ie

RISAT-1 26th April, 2012 PSLV-C19 Sriharikota Earth Observation

Satellite
jm

GSAT-10 29th Seplermber, 2012 Ariane-5 VA-209 Kourou Communication

SARAL 25th February, 2013 PSLV-C20 Sriharikota Earth Observation
Satellite
IRNSS-1A 1st July, 2013 PSLV-C22 Sriharikota Navigation Satellite
@

INSAT-3D 26th July, 2013 Ariane-5 VA-214 Kourou Communication

Disaster
Management, Eath
Obsevation
Satellite
GSAT-7 30th August, 2013 Ariane-5 Kourou Cormmunication
VA-215
MOM 5th November, 2013 PSLV-C25 Sriharikota Geo-Stationary
Satellite
GSAT-14 5th January, 2014 GSLV-D5 Sriharikota Communication
IRNSS-18 4th April, 2014 PSLV-24 Sriharikota Navigation

IRNSS-IC 16th October, 2014 PSLV-C26 Sriharikola Navigation

GSAT-16 7th Decermber, 2014 Ariane-5 VA-221 Kourou Communication

GSAT-15 11ih November. 2015 Ariane-5 VA 227 Kourou Cormmunication
GSAT-18 5th October. 2016 Ariane-5 ECA Kourou Communication
644 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Satellite Date Launch Vehicle Place Type

Resourcesat-2A 7th Deoember, 2016 PSLV-C16 Sriharikola Rermote Sensing

Cartosat-2 15th February, 2017 PSLV-C37 Sriharikola Remote Sensing

Satellite
GSAT-9 (also 5th May, 2017 GSLV Mark-2 Sriharikola Cormmunication
called South Asia Satellite
Satellite)
Cartosat-2 23rd June, 2017 PSLV-C38 Sriharikola Remote Sensing
Salellite

e
GSAT-17 29th June, 2017 Ariane-5 Kourou Communication
Satellite

nc
Cartosat-2 12th January, 2018 PSLV-C40 Sriharikota Rermote Sensing
Satellite
GSAT-7A 19th December, 2018 GSLV-F11 Sriharikola Cormmunication
Satellite
ra
Kalamsat V2 25th January, 2019 PSLV-C44 Sriharikola Communication
Satellite (lightest
satellite to be ever
launched)
nt

Chandrayaan-2 22nd July, 2019 GSLV MK-|l|-M1 Sriharikola Lunar Mission

Rocket
GSAT-30 17th January, 2020 Ariane-5VA-251 KOurou Communication
ie

Satellite
EOS-01/RISAT 7ih November, 2020 PSLV-DL C49 Sriharikota Earth Observation
-2BR2
jm

CMS-01/GSAT 17th December, 2020 PSLV-XL C50 Sriharikola Communication

-12R

Amazonia 28th February, 2021 PSLV-C51 Sriharikola Remote Sensing

Satelite
@

UNITY Sat and 28th February, 2021 PSLV-C51 Sriharikola Earth Observation
Satish Dhawan
SAT

EOS-06 26th Novernber, 2022 PSLV-C54 Satish Dhawan Ocean Studying

Anand 27th Novernber, 2022 PSLV-C54 Sriharikota Earth Observation

Gaganyaan Mission
It is the first indigenous human space mission designed by ISRO.
Under this mission, three Indian asronauets (Gaganyatris) will be taken to space on board
Gaganyaan spacecraft. The launch has been delayed and is expected to take its first flight by 2023.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 545)

Awards and Honours

INTERNATIONAL awards the prize in Medicine
(Physiology).
AWARDS 3. The Bank of Sweden awards the prize
Nobel Prize in Bconomics.
4. The Committee of the Norwegian
• The Nobel Prizes are given under the
will of Alfred BernhardNobel, who died Parliament, awards the prize for
Peace.
in 1896. He was a noted Swedish a
Each recipient or laureate, receives gold

e
chemist and engineer. who discovered
Nitroglycerine and its Use in the medal, a diploma and a sum of money,
which depends on the Nobel Foundations

nc
manufacture of dynamite.
• Nobel Prizes are given each year in income that year: The Noble Prize
the amount for 2014 is set at SEK (Swedish
six felds. The Nobel Prizes for Peace, Krona) 8.0 million.
Physics, Chemistry, Medicine and
Literature were started in 1901l. The The awards are presented in Stockholm
ra in an annual ceremony on 10th
Nobel Prize for Economics was started in
1968. The prize awarding bodies are December, the anniversary of Nobel's
1. The Swedish Academy of Literature
death.
awards the prize in Literature.
•
The awards can be given to maximumn
three persons in the same field at the
nt

2. The Royal Swedish Academy of same time. The Nobel Prize was not
Sciences awards the prize in Physics
awarded between 1940 and 1942 due to
and Chemistry. The Nobel AsSsembly of the outbreak of WVorld War II.
Karolinska Chirugical (Swedan)
ie

Indian Nobel Laureates

Narme Field Year
Rabindranath Tagore Literature (Gitanjal) 1913
jm

CV Aaman Physics (Rarnan Effec) 1930

Har Gobind Khorana (of Indiarn Descent) Medicine (Genetic Code) 1968
Mother Teresa Peace 1979
Subrananiyan Chandrasekhar (of Indian Descent) Physics (Chandrasekhar's Lirmit) 1983
@

Amartya Sen Economics 1998

(Welfare Econornics)
Sir VS Naipaul (of Indian Descent) Literature 2001
Venkatraman Ramakrishnan (of Indian Descent) Chemistry (Aibosomes) 2009
. Kailash Satyarthi Peace (Struggle against Child 2014
Labour)
Abhijit Banerjee (of Indian Descernt) Economics (Welfare Economics) 2019

Important Facts related with Nobel Prize

Unique Winners Posthumous Winners
Pierre Curie Father Erik Axel Karlíeldt (Literature) 1931
Marie Curie, Mother
Dag Hammarskjold (Peace) 1961
Irene loliot Curie Daughter
Ralph Steinman (Medicine) 2011
Person Refusing Nobel Prize (Died three days before
announcement)
Jean-Paul Sartre (Literature) 1964
Le Duc Tho (Peace) 1973
546 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Award to American Presidents

Theodore Roosevelt (Peace) 1906
Woodrow Wilson (Peace) 1919
Jirnmy Carter (Peace) 2002
Barack Obarna (Peace) 2009

Winners of Nobel Prize More than Once

John Bareteen 1956 (Transislor), 1972
(Superconductivity) Both in Physics
Marie Curie 1903 (Physics), 1911 (Chernistry)

e
. Linus Pauling 1954 (Chernislry), 1962 (Peace)
Frederick Sanger 1958, 1980 (Chermistry)

nc
International Cornmittee of Red Cross 1917, 1944, 1963 (Peace)
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees 1954, 1981 (Peace)

Women Nobel Peace Prize Winners

ra Menchu
Bertha Von Suttner 1905 .Rigoberta 1992
Jane Addans 1931 Joddy Williams 1997
Emily Greene Balch 1946 Shirin Ebadi 2003
Betty Williams .
1976 Wangari Maathai 2004
nt

. Mairead Coarrigan
1976 Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, Leymah 2011
Gbower Tawakkol Kormor
Mother Teresa 1979 Malala Yousafzai 2014
. Nadia Murad
Alya Myrdal 1982 2018
ie

Aung San Suu Kyi 1991

Nobel Peace Prize Winning Organisation

jm

. Institute of International Law

1904
Permanent Internalional Peace Bureau 1910
International Cormmitee of the Red Cross (ICRC) 1917, 1944, 1963
Nansen International office for Refugees 1938
@

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees 1954, 1981

United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) 1965
International Labour Organisation (LO) 1969
.
Armnesty International 1977
International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War 1985
. United Nations
Peace-keeping Foroes 1988
Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Aifairs 1995
International Campaign to Ban Landmines ((CBL) 1997
Medicins Sans Frontiers 1999
United Nations 2001
International Atomic Energy Agency (|AEA) 2005
Grameen Bank (Bangladesh) 2006
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2007
European Union 2012
Organisation for the Prohibition of Chermical Weapons (OPCw) 2013
Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet 2015
International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapon (ICAN) 2017
World Food Programme 2020
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 547

Oscar Awards or Academy Pulitzer Prize

Awards Awarded for Excellence in newspaper
Awarded for Excellence in cinematic journalism, literary achievemenis
achieverments and musical composition
Presented by Academy of Molion Presented by Columbia University
Picture Arts and Sciences Country United States
Country United States First awarded 1917
First awarded 16th May, 1929
Indians Winning Pulitzer Prize
The Oscar statuette is officially named Gobind Behari Lal (for 'Reporting') 1937
The Academy Award of Merit'. Jhumpa Lahiri (for her book 2000

e
The Indian films nominated for Oscars "Interpreters of Maladies"
are Geela Anand (for 'Journalism') 2003
1.
Mother India (1957)

nc
Dr Siddhartha Mukherjee (for his 2011
2. Salam Bombay (1988) book on The Ermperor of all
3. Lagaan (2001) maladise; 'A Biography of Cancer')
. Vijay Seshadri (for 3 seclions) 2014
The Oscar award is given every year in (Poet Category)
the month of February at Hollywood
Kodek Theatre.
ra Dar Yasin, Mukhtar Khan and 2020
. Channi Anand (Photography)
Bhanu Athaiya was the first Indian to
win an Oscar Award in 1982 for Man Booker Prize
costume desig in film Gandhi.
Awarded for Best ful-length English Novel
nt

Grammy Awards Presented by Man GrOup

Awarded for Outstanding achievermenis Country Commonwealth of Nations,
in Ireland and Zimbabwe
the music industry
National Acadeny of First awarded 1968
Presented by
ie

Recording Arts and

Sciences Indians Winning Man Booker Prize
Country United States Arundhati Roy 1997
(Novel-The God of Small Things)
jm

First awarded 1959

Kiran Desai 2006
(Novel-The Inheritance of Loss)
Grammy Awards Winner Aravind Adiga 2008
Indians (Novel-The White Tiger)
@

Pandit RaviShankar 1967, 1972, Man Booker International Prize

(3 imes) 2001 Awarded for Best English (or available for
Zakir Hussain 1992 and 2009 translalion into English) ficlion
Vikku Vinayak 1991 Presented by Man Group
Vishwa Mohan Bhatt 1993 Country United Kingdom
AR Aehman 2009 First awarded 2005
Aicky Kej, Neela Vaswani 2015 • The award is worth £50000 and an author
can win only once. It is awarded for best
Golden Globe Awards English (or available translation into
Awarded for Excellence in film and English) iction.
television • Albanian novelist Ismail Kadare wvas named
Presented by Hollywood Foreign Press the inaugural International Booker Prize
Association winner in 2005.
Country United States • In 2021, it is given to David Diop and Anna
First awarded 1944 Moschovakis.
• In 2022, Tomb of Sand written by Geetanjali
• AR Rehman is the first Indian to win
Golden Globe Award.
Shree and translated by Daisy Rockwell, has
won the International Booker Prize for
Translated fiction.
548 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Women's Prize for Fiction Shantha Sinha 2003

(Orange Prize for Fiction) Dr Prakash Amte and
Dr Mandakini Amte 2008
Awarded for Best full-Hength novel DeepJoshi 2009
written in English by a Kujandel-Francis 2012
woman of any nationality
For Peace and Intermalional Understanding (PIU)
Presented by Orange, A Telecom Mother Teresa 1962
Company Jockin Arputham 2000
Country United Kingdom Laxninarayan Ramdas 2004
First avarded 1996 For Emergent Leadership
• Sandeep Pandey 2002
The winner of the prize receives Arvind Kejriwal 2006
$ 30000, along with a bronze culture

e
Nileerma Mishra and 2011
called the Bessie' created by artist Harish Hande
Grizel Niven, the sister of actor and Bezwada Wilson

nc
2016
Writer David Niven. For Journalism, Literalure and the Creative
Ramon Magsaysay Award Cormmunication Arts (JLCCA)
Armitabh Chaudhary 1961
Awarded for Outstanding contributions Satyajit Ray 1967
in six categories of BoobliGeorge Verghest
government. Service, public
ra 1975
service and other fields Sombhu Mitra 1976
(Given to Asian Individuals) Gour Kishore Ghosh 1981
Ramon Magsaysay Award Arun Shourie 1982
Presented by
RK Laxman 1984
Foundation
nt

KV Sutbbanna 1991
Country Philippines Ravi Shankar 1992
First avwarded 1957 Mahasweta Devi 1997
P
Sainath 2007
Indians Winning Ramon Sanjiv Chaturvedi and Anshu Gupla is awarded
ie

Magsaysay Award Magsaysay Award for 2015.

• For Government Service (GS) TM Krishna 2016
CD Deshmukh Bharat Vatwani
1959 2018
Kiran Bedi Sonam wangchuk
jm

1994 2018
TNSeshan 1996 Ravish Kumar 2019
James Michael Lyngdoh 2003
• For Public Service (PS) World was
Food Prize
Jayaprakash Narayan 1965 The prize created in 1986 by Nobel Peace
@

MS Subbulakshmi 1974 Prize Laureate Norman Borlaug. The prize

Manibhai Desai
recognises contributions in all fields involved
1982
Baba Amte 1985 in the world food supply. First award was
given to Professor MS Swaminathan (India)
Lakshmi Chand Jain 1989
in 1987. In 2014 Dr Sanjaya Rajaram (Indian
Banoo Jehangir Coyaji 1993 Origin American) Won this award.
Mahesh Chandra Mehta 1997 Indian-American soil scientist Rattan Lal
V
Shanta 2005 won the 2020 World Food Prize.
• For Community Leadership (CL)
Vinoba Bhave 1958
The Right Livelihood Award
Awarded for "Practical and exemplary
Veghese Kurien, Dara Khurodi
and Tribhuvandas Palel solutions to the most urgent
1963 challenges facing the world today"
Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay 1966
MS Svwaminathan
Presented by Right Livelihood Award
1971 Foundation
Ela Bhatt 1977 Country Sweden
Pramod Karan Sethi 1981 First awarded 1980
Chandi Prasad Bhatt 1982 Prize Money 2 Lakh Euro
Pandurang Shastri Aihavale 1996
Aruna Roy The Right Livelihood Award is also referred
2000 as the Alternative Nobel Prize'. It was
Rajendra Singh 2001 established by Jakob von Uexkull in 1980.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge S49
.
Indian Laureates R Bonney Gabriel of USA, has won Miss
Universe 2022 title.
Laureates Years
Self-Ermployed Women's 1984
Miss World
Association/Ela Bhat The Miss World pageant is the oldest
Lokayan/Rajni Kothari 1985 surviving international beauty pageant. It
Ladakh Ecological Development Group 1986
was created in the United Kingdomn by Eric
Chipko Movement
Morley In 1951. Since his death in 2000,
1987
Morley's wife, Julia Morley, co-chairs the
Narmada Bachao Andolan 1991 pageant. Its headquarter is at London (UK).
Vandana Shiva 1993 Reita Faria Powell became the first Indian
Vevekananda Girijana Kalyana Kendra 1994 to win the Miss World title in l966. Miss
People's science Movement of Kerala 1996 Stephanie Del Valle of Puerto Rico is

e
(Kerala Safthra Sahithya Parishad) crowned the Miss World title for 2016.
Swami Agnivesh/Asghar Ali Engineer 2004India's Manushi Chhillar won the Miss
World 2017 contest. Vanessa ponce of mexico

nc
Ruth Manorama 2006
Krishanammal Jagannathan and 2008has been crowned as miss world 2018.
Sankaralingam Jagannathan LAFI Toni-Ann Singh from Jamaica won the Miss
Colin Gonsalves 2017 World title, 2019. The 2020 event has been
postponed due to COVID-19 pandemic.
UNESCO Peace Prize
ra
Karolina Bielawska of Poland was crowned
It is pesented by United Nations as Miss World 2022.
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Miss Earth
Organisation (UNESCO) for extra- ordinary
contributions for international peace.
• Miss Earth is an annual international
nt

beauty pageant promoting environmental

UNESCO Human Rights Award awareness. Miss Earth is also one of the
It is also presented by UNESCO for most publicised beauty contest in the
contributions in the field of Human Rights world. It was formed in 2001 and its
ie

Awareness. It is given every alternate year headquarters is at Manila, Philippines.

Created in 1978. Catharina Svensson of Denmark is the
first winner of Miss Earth contest (2001).
UN Human Rights Award
jm

It is presented by United Nations (UN) TO Miss India

Miss India or Femina Miss India is a national
personal contribution for the cause of
beauty pageant in India. It is organised by
human rights. It is presented every 6th years. Femina, a women's magazine published by
Bennett, Coleman and Co Ltd.
BEAUTY CONTESTS
@

is at Mumbai and it was

Its headquarters
Miss Universe formed in 1963. Miss India beauty contest
started on 1947.
• It is an annual international beauty woman to win the Miss
contest that is run by the Miss LUniversePramila was the first
India contest in 1947.
Organisation. The contest was founded
in 1952, by California Clothing
Company Pacific Mills. Its headquarters INDIA'S INTER
. is
at Newv York City (US). NATIONAL AWARDS
Sushmita Sen is the first Indian woman
to win the Miss Universe contest in 1994. Mahatma Gandhi Peace Prize
was instituted in 1995 and awarded by
•
Catriona Gray of Philippines has been It
crowned as miss universe 2018. Government of India to encourage and
promote Gandhian values worldvide.The
• Zozibini
Tunzi of South Africa has won award carries Crore in cash, convertible
l
Miss Universe 2019 title. The 2020 in any currency in the world, a plaque and a
event has been postponned due to citation.
COVID-19 Pandemic. • First recipient (1995)
Julius Nyerere
• Harnaaz
Sandhu of India has won Miss Last recipient (2018) Yohei Sasakawa
Universe 2021 title.
550) GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Indira Gandhi Peace Prize Jawaharlal Nehru Award

It was instituted It was instituted in 1965 and awarded by
in 1986 and awarded by
Indira Gandhi Memorial Trust. It is Government of India for international
awarded for peace, disarmament and understanding, goodwill and friendship.
developmnent. The prize carries a cash The money constituent of this award is 25
award of 25 lakh Indian rupees and a Lakh Indian rupees.
citation. • First recipient (1965) U
• First recipient (1986)
Thant
(3rd UN Secretary-General)
Parliamentarians for Global Action • Last recipient (2015) Former President of
• Last recipient (2022) was Indian Egypt-Hosni Mubarak
Medical Association and the Trained

e
Nurses Organisation of India.

nc
National Awards
BHARAT RATNA The reverse side of the decoration
Satyamev Jayate has been written in
•
ra
Bharat Ratna is India's highest Civilian Hindi vith an inscription of state
Award. Itwas first awarded in 1954. The emblem. The emblem, the Sun and the
actual award is designed in the shape of rim are of platinum. The inscriptions are
a Peepal leaf with Bharat Ratna
in burnished bronze.
inscribed in Devanagri script in the Sun
nt

Note The Padma Awards were suspended

Figure. between 1977 and 1980 as well as
between 1992 and 1998.
Winners of Bharat Ratna
ie

2019 Pranab Mukherjee, Bhupen Hazarika*, 1990 Dr Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela

Nanaji Deshmukht
- 1990 Dr Bhimrao Rarmji Ambedkar *
. Madan
2015 Mohan Malaviya* *
Atal Bihari Vajpayee 1988 .Marudur Gopalan Rarmachandran
jm

1987 Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan

2014 Sachin Tendulkar, CNR Rao
1983 Acharya Vinoba Bhave *
2008 Pandit Bhimsen Joshi
- 1980 Mother Teresa
2001 Ustad Bismillah Khan .
. Lata Dinanath 1976 Kurmaraswamy Kamraj
2001 Mangeshkar .
@

1999 Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi * 1975 Varahagiri Venkata Giri

Professor Amartya Sen 1971 Indira Gandhi
1999
1966 Lal Bahadur Shastri *
1999 Loknayak Jayprakash Narayan *
Dr
Pandit Ravi Shankar 1963 Zakir Hussain
1999
1998 Madurai Shanmukhavadivu 1963 Dr
Pandurang Vaman Kane
Dr
Subbulakshm 1962 Rajendra Prasad
.
1998 Chidambararm Subramaniam 1961 Dr Bidhan Chandra Roy
. Dr APJ Abdul Kalam
1997 1961 Shri Purushotam Das Tandon
Asaf Ali *
1997 Aruna 1958 Dr
Dhonde Keshav Karve
-
1997 Gulzari Lal Nanda 1957 Pt Govind Ballabh Pant
1992 Maulana Abul Kalam Azad * .
1955 Pandit Jawaharlal Nehu
.
1992 Satyajit Ray 1955
Dr
Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya
1992 Jehangir Ratanji Dadabhai Tata 1955 Dr Bhagwan Das

1991 Rajiv Gandhi 1954 Dr Chandrashekhar Venkata Rarman

.
1991 Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel * 1954
Dr Sanvapalli
Radhakrishnan
. .
1991 Morarji Ranchhodji Desai 1954 Chakravarti Rajagopalachari
Note * Posthumous Recipient
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 551

PADMA AWARDS
There are three Padma Awards given on Republic Day (26th January) every year:.
1. Padma Vibhushan
.
This is the second highest National Award.
•
Instituted on 2nd January, 1954 by the Government of India.
• It is awarded to recognise exceptional and distinguished service to the nation in any
field.

2. Padma Bhushan

e
• This is the third largest National Avwards.
•
Instituted on 2nd January, 1954 by the Government of India.

nc
• It is awarded to recognise distinguished service of a high order to the nation, in any
field.

3. Padma Shri
ra
• This is the fourth highest National Award instituted on 2nd January, 1954 by
Government of India.
•
In 1960, Dr MG Ramachandran refused to accept the award as the wordings of the
award is in Hindi.
nt

• It recognises the contribution of Indian citizens (generally) in various spheres of

activity including Arts, Education, Industry, Literature, Science, Sports, Social Service
and Public life.

MILITARY AWARDS
ie

To be given on Republic Day (26th January)

jm

Wartime Valour Awards

(Awarded to officers or enlisted personnel from all branches of the Indian Military).
Award Year of Institution Awarded by Awarded for
Paramvir Established on 26th January, Government of Most conspicuous bravery or
@

Chakra 1950 wef 15th August, 1947 India some daring or pre-eminest
valour or self-sacifice.
Mahavir Established on 26th January, Government of Acis of galantry in the
Chakra 1950 wef 15th Auqust, 1947 India Presence of the enemy on land,
at sea or in the air.
Vir Chakra Established on 26th January, Government of Acts of bravery in the battle
1950 wef 15th August, 1947 India field

Note All the three awards are also given posthumously.

• Subedar Major Bana Singh of the 8th Jammu and Kashmir light infantry was the only
serving personnel of the Indian defence establishment with a Param Vir Chakra till the
Kargil operations.
652 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Recipient of Param Vir Chakra

Narne Regiment Date Place
Major Som Nath Sharma 4th Battalion, Kumaon 3rd Novermber, Badgan, Jammu
Regiment 1947 and Kashmir
Lance Naik Karam Singh 1st Battalion, Sikh 13th October, Tithwal, Jammu and
Regiment 1948 Kashmir
Second Lieutenant Bombay Sappers Corps 8th April, 1948 Naushera, Jammu
Rama Raghoba Rane of Engineers and Kashmir
. Naik Jadu Nath Singh 1st Batalion, Rajput February 1948 Naushera, Jammu

e
Regiment and Kashmir
Company Havaldar 6th Battalion, Rajputana 17th July, 1948, Tithwal, Jammu and

nc
Major Piu Singh Rifles 18th July, 1948 Kashmir
Shekhavwat
Captain Gurbachan 3rd Battalion, 1st Gorkha 5th December, Elizabethville,
Singh Salaria Rifles (The Malaun 1961 Katanga, Conga
Regiment)
ra
Major Dhan Singh 1st Battalion, 8th Gorkha 20th October, Ladakh, India
Thapa Rifles 1962
Subedar Joginder Singh 1st Battalion, Sikh 23rd October, Tongpen La,
Regiment 1962 North-East Frontier
nt

Agency, India
.
Major Shaitan Singh 13th Battalion, Kumaon 18th Novermber, Rezang La
Regiment 1962
10th Seplember,
ie

Cormpany Quarter 4th Battalion, Grenadiers Chima, Kherm Karan

Master Havaldar Abdul 1965 Sector Pakistan
Harmid

Lieutenant-Colonel 17th Poona Horse 15th October, Phillora, Sialkot

jm

Ardeshir Burzorji 1965 Sector, Pakistan

Tarapore
Lance Naik Albert Ekka 14th Battalion, Brigade of 3rd Decermber, Gangasagar,
the Guards 1971 Agartala Sector
@

Flying Oficer Nirmal Jit No. 18 Squadron, Indian 14th December, Srinagar, Kashmir
Singh Sekhon Air Force 1971
2/Lieutenant Arun 17th Poona House 16th December, Barapind Jarpal,
Khetarpal 1971 Shakargarh Sector
. Major Hoshiar Singh
3rd Battalion, The 17th December, Basantar River,
Grenadiers 1971 Shakargarh Sector
Naib Subedar Bana 8th Battalion, Jarnmu and 23rd May, 1987 Siachen Glacier,
Singh Kashmir Light Infantry Jammu and Kashmir
Major Ramaswamy 8th Battalion, Mahar 25th Novernber, Sri Lanka
Parameshwaran Regiment 1987
Captain Manoj Kurmar 1st Battalion, 11ih 3th July, 1999 Khaluber/Juber Top,
Pandey Gorkha Ritiles Batalik Sector, Kargil
area, Jammu and
Kashmir
Grenadier Yogendra 18th Battalion, The 4th July, 1999 Tiger Hill, Kargil Area
Singh Yadav Grenadiers
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE - General Knowledge S53

Narme Regiment Date Place

.
Aileman Sanjay Kumar 13th Battalion, Jarmmu 5th July, 1999 Area Flat Top, Kargil
and Kashmir Rifles Area
Captain Vikram Batra 13th Battalion, Jammu 6th July, 1999 Point 5140, Point
and Kashmir 4875, Kargil Area

Peace Time Gallantry Awards

Awarded Either to Military or Civilian Personnel
Award Year of Institution Awarded by Awarded for

e
Ashoka 4th January, 1952 with eftect-from Government Most conspicuous bravery
Chakra 15th August, 1947 of India or some act of daring or
preeminent act of valour or

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self-sacrifice otherwise than
in the face of the enemy.
KirtiChakra 4ih January, 1952 with effect-from Government ConspicuOus gallantry
15th August, 1947 of India otherwise than in iace of the
enemy.
ra National bravery generally
Shaurya 4th January, 1952 with effect-from Government
Chakra 15th Auqust, 1947 of India for counter insurgency
operations and actions
against the enemy during
peace time
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Note All the three awards are also given posthumously.

Other Military Awards

Category Award
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Wartime/ Peacetime Service and Sena Medal (Arny), Nao Sena Medal (Navy),
Gallantry Vayusea Medal (Air Force)
Wartime Distinguished Service Sarvottam Yudh Seva Medal, Uttam Yudh Seva
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Medal, Yudh Seva Medal

Peacetime Distinguished Service Param Vishisht Seva Medal, Ati Vishisht Seva Medal,
Vishisht Seva Medal
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Sports Awards
Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Award
• The Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Award (renamed as Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna
Award) is India's highest honour given for achievement in sports. The words 'Khel
Ratna' li terally means 'Sports Gem' in Hindi. The award is named after late Rajiv
Gandhi, former Prime Minister of India.
• The award was
instituted in the year 1991-1992 and was awarded by the ministry of
youth affairs and sports.
.
prize money in this award has been increased from7.5 lakh to 25 lakh.
. The
First Awardees-1991-92 Viswanathan Anand (Chess).
• In 2020, Rohit Sharma (Cricket), Vinesh Phogat (Wrestling), Rani Rampal (Hockey),
Monika Batra (Table Tennis) and Mariyappan Thangavelu (Para athlete) were awarded
Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Award.
S54 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Arjuna Award
•
The Arjuna Awards were instituted in 1961 by the Ministry of youth affairs and
sports, Government of India to recognise outstanding achievement in National
Sports. The award carries a cash prize of? 15 lakh, a bronze statuette of Arjuna and a
scroll.
• From the year 2001, the award is given only in disciplines falling under the following
categories
Olympic Games
Asian Games
Commonwealth Games

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World Cup

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-World Championship Disciplines and Cricket
Indigenous Games
Sports for the physically challenged

Dronacharya Award
ra
Dronacharya Award is an award presented by the ministry of youth affairs and sports,
Government of India for excellence in sports coaching. The award comprises a bronze
statuette of Dronacharya a scroll of honour and a cash prize of R 10 lakh. The award was
instituted in 1985.
nt

Dhyanchand Award
Dhyanachand Award is India's highest award for lifetime achievement in sports and
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games, given by the Government of India. The award is named after the legendary Indian
hockey player Dhyanchand. The awards was instituted in 2002. The award carries a cash
prize of 10 lakh. Kuldip Singh Bhullar (Athletics), Jincy Philips (Athletics), Pradeep
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Shrikrishna Gandhe (Badminton), Trupti Murgunde (Badminton), N Usha (Boxing),

Lakha Singh (Boxing), Sukhvinder Singh Sandhu (Football), Ajit Pal Singh (Hockey),
Manpreet Singh (Kabaddi), JRanjith Kumar (Para Athletics), Satyaprakash Tiwari (Para
Badminton), Manjeet Singh (Rowing), Sachin Nag (Swimming), Nandan P Bal (Ternnis)
and Netarpal Hooda (Wrestling) were avwarded Dhyanchand Award for 2020.
@

Some Famous Awards by State Governments

Award Awarded/lnstituted by Field of Honour
Mahatma Gandhi Madhya Pradesh Government To an institution working according to
Award Gandhiphilosophy and ideology
Tansen Award Madhya Pradesh Government Indian classical music
Kalidas Award Madhya Pradesh Government Classical dance and music, theatre,
painting, sculpture and plastic ats
Tulsidas Award Madhya Pradesh Government Folk and traditional tribal art
(only for male artist)
Lala Marngeskar Madhya Pradesh Government For music direction and playback
Award singing in field of light music
Santhala Natya Karnataka Government Santhal dance (a tribal dance form)
Award
Konark Samman Odisha State Council of Culture Literature, art sculpture, Music, dance
and socio-cultural work
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE - General Knowledge

Film Awards
National Film Awards
• The National Film Awards are the most Recipiernts Years
prominent film award ceremony in Satyajit Ray 1984
India, established in 1954 and it is V
Shantaram 1985
administered, along with the B Nagi Reddy 1986
international flm festival of India and Raj Kapoor 1987
the Indian Panorama, by the Indian Ashok Kumar 1988
Government's Directorate of Film Lata Mangeshkar 1989
Festivals since 1973. A Nageshwar Rao 1990
.

e
Due to the national character of the Bhalji Pendharkar 1991
National Film Awards, it is considered to Bhupen Hazarika 1992
be the equivalent of the American

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Majrooh Sultanpuri 1993
Academy Awards. Dilip Kumar 1994
• The National Award for Best Actor was Dr Raj Kumar 1995
jointly won by Suriya for Soorarai Pottru Shivaji Ganeshan 1996
and Ajay Devgan for Tanhaji. Aparna Kavi Pradeep 1997
ra
Balamurali won the Best Actress Award BR Chopra 1998
for her role in Soorarai Pottru. Tamil Hrishikesh Mukherjee 1999
feature Soorarai Pottru was named the Asha Bhosle 2000
best film of the year at 68th National Yash Chopra 2001
Film Awards. Dev Anand
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2002
Mrinal Sen 2003
Dada Saheb Phallke Award Adoor Gopalakrishnan 2004
• The Dada Saheb Phalke Award is India's Shyarn Benegal 2005
highest award in cinema given annually Tapan Sinha
ie

2006
by the Government of India for lifetime Manna Dey 2007
Contribution to Indian Cinema. VK Murthy 2008
• It was instituted in 1969, the birth D Ramanaidu 2009
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centenary year of Dada Saheb Phalke, K Balachander 2010

considered as the Father of Indian Sourmitra Chatterjee 2011
Cinema. Pran Krishan Sikand 2012
• Phalke Award carries a 'Swarna Kamal', Sampooran Singh Kalra 2013
a shawl and a cash prize of 1000000. (Gulzar)
@

Shashi Kapoor 2014

Recipients of Dada Saheb Phalke Manoj Kumar 2015
Award Kasinathuni Viswanath 2016
Reoijpients Years Vinod Khanna 2017
Mrs Devika Rani Roerich 1969 (First) Amitabh Bachchan 2018
BN Sirkar Rajinikanth 2019
1970
Prithvi Raj Kapoor 1971 Asha Parekh 2020
Pankaj Mallick 1972
Mrs Ruby Myers 1973 Filmfare Awards
BN Reddy 1974
•
The Filmfare Awards are presented
Dhiren Ganguly 1975 annually by the Times group to honour
Mrs Kanan Devi 1976 both artistic and technical excellence of
Nitin Bose 1977 professionals in the Hindi language film
RC Boral 1978 industry of India. The awards were first
Sohrab Modi 1979 introduced in 1954, the samne year as the
P Jai Raj 1980 National Film Awards.
Naushad Ali 1981 • They were initially referred to as the
LV Prasad 1982 Clare Awards after the editor of the
Mrs Durga Khole 1983 Times of India, Clare Mendonca.
556 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Literary and Cultural Awards

Sahitya Akademi Award
It is a literary honour in India instituted
in 1954, by which Sahitya Akademi, India's
National Academy of Letters, annually confers on writers of outstanding works in
twenty-four major Indian languages.

Jnanpith Award
• The Jnanpith Award is a literary award in India. The award was instituted in 1961. It is
presented by the Bharatiya Jnanpith, a trust founded by the Sahu Jain family, the

e
publishers of the Times of India newspaper.
• It carries a check of 7 lakh, a citation plaque and a bronze replica of Saraswati, the

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Indian Goddess of knowledge, music and arts. First awarded in 1965 to Sankar Kurup
(Malayalam).
Recipients of the Jnanpith Award
Recijpients Years
ra
G Shankar Kurup (Malayalam) 1965
TS Bandopadhyaya (Bengali) 1966
Uma Shankar Joshi(Gujarati) 1967
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RS Firaq Gorakhpuri (Urdu) 1969

Surmitra Nandan Pant (Hindi) 1968
Vishwanath Satyanarayan (Telugu) 1970
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Vishnu Dey (Bengli) 1971

Ram Dhari Singh Dinkar (Hindi ) 1972
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Dr D R Bendre (Kannada) and Gopinath Mohanty (Oriya) 1973

VS Khandekar (Marathi) 1974
PV Akilandarm (Tarmil) 1975
Mrs Asha Purna Devi (Bengali) 1976
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K Shiv Ram Karanth (Kannada) 1977

HS Valsayan 'Ageya' (Hindi) 1978
VK Bhattacharya (Assamese) 1979
SK Pottekat (Malayalam) 1980
Mrs Amrita Prilam (Punjabi) 1981
Mrs Mahadevi Verma (Hindi) 1982
MV lyengar (Kannada) 1983
TS Pillai (Malayalam) 1984
Panna Lal Patel (Gujarati) 1985
Sachida Nand Routory (Oriya) 1986
VV Shivadkar (Marathi) 1987
CNarayana Reddy (Telugu) 1988
Qurtul-ain-Haider (Urdu) 1989
Vinayak Krishna Gokak (Kannada) 1990
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge S57

Recipients Years
Subhash Mukhopadhyay (Bengali) 1991
Naresh Mehta (Hindi) 1992
Dr Sitakant Mahapatra (Oriya) 1993
URAnantha Murthy (Kannada) 1994
MT Vasudevan Nair (Malayalam) 1995
Smt Mahaswela Devi (Bengali) 1996
AliSardar Jafri (Urdu) 1997

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Girish Kanad (Kannada) 1998
Nirrmal Verma (Hindi)
and Gurdayal Singh (Punjabi) 1999

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Dr Indira Goswami (Assamese) 2000
Rajendra Keshavlal Shah (Gujarati) 2001
D Jaya Kanthan (Tamil) 2002
Vinda Karandikar (Maralhi)
ra 2003
Rehman Rahi (Kashmiri) 2004
Kunwar Narayan (Hindi) 2005
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Ravindra Kelekar (Konkani) and Satyavrat Shastri (Sanskrit) 2006

ONV Kurup (Malayalam) 2007
Akhlaq Khan Shaharyar (Urdu) 2008
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Amar Karnt (Hindi) 2009

Shrilal Shukla (Hindi) 2009
Chandrashekhara, Kambara (Kannada) 2010
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Pratibha Ray (Odiya) 2011

Ravuri Bharadhwaja (Telugu) 2012
Kedarnath Singh (Hindi) 2013
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Bhalchandra Nemade (Marathi) 2014

Raghuveer Chadhari (Gujarati) 2015
Shankha Ghosh (Bengali) 2016
Krishana Sobli (Hindi) 2017
Armitav Ghosh (English) 2018
Akkitham Achuthan Namboothiri (Malyalam) 2019
NilmaniPhookan (Assamese) 2021
Damodar Mauzo (Konkani) 2022

Bhasha Samman
Instituted in 1996, Sahitya Akademi gives these special awards to writers for signifcant
contribution to ndian languages other than the above 24 major ones and also for
contribution to classical and medieval literature.
Translation Awards
Established in 1989, Sahitya Akademi annually gives these awards for outstanding
translations of major works in other languages into one of the 24 major Indian languages.
S58 GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge

Anand Coomarswamy Fellowships

Named after the Indian writer Ananda Coomarswamy, the fellowship was started in 1996.
It is given to scholars from Asian countries to spend 3 to 12 months in India to pursue a
literary project.
Premchand Fellowships
Named after Hindi writer Premchand, the fellowvship was started in 2005. It is given to
persons of eminence in the field of culture from SAARC countTies.

Sangeet Natak Akademi Puraskar (Akademi Award)

Awarded by the Sangeet Natak Akademi, India's National Academy of Music, Dance and

e
Drama. This award was constituted in 1952. It is the highest Indian recognition given to
practising artists in the categories of music, dance, theatre, other traditional/ folk/

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tribal/dance/music/ theatre and puppetry and contribution/scholarship in performing
arts.

Lalit Kala Academy Ratna

Instituted in 1955 by the Government of India, is an honour for the fine arts given to
ra
eminent artists for their lifetime achievements in the fheld of visual arts. It is awarded by
the Lalit Kala Academy, India's National Academy of Art. It is the highest honour in the
fine arts conferred by the Government of India.

Saraswati Samman
nt

The Saraswati Samman is an annual award for outstanding prose or poetry literacy works
in any Indian language listed in Schedule VII of the Constitution of India. The Saraswati
Samman was instituted in 1991 by the KK Birla foundation. The award consist of 10
lakh, a citation and a plaque.
ie

Tansen Award
These awards are given by Government of Madhya Pradesh for the outstanding
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contribution in the field ofmusic. This award was constituted in 1980 and compreses 2
lakh.

Vyas Samman
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The Vyas Samman is a literary award in India, first awarded in 1991. It is awvarded
annually by the KK Birla Foundation and includes a cash payout of 2.5 lakh.

Iqbal Samman
These awards are given by the Literary Council of Madhya Pradesh for the outstanding
contribution in the feld of urdu literature. This award was constituted in 1987 and
comprises 1 lakh and certificate.

Murtidevi Award
This award was constituted in 1984 and is given for extra ordinary performance in
literature. It is given by Indian Jnanpith Trust.

Science Awards
Shanti Swarp Bhatnagar Award
• This prize for science and technology in awarded annually by the Council of Scientific
& Industrial Research (CSIR) for notable and outstanding research, applied or
fundamental, in biology, chemistry, environmental science, engineering, mathematics,
medicine and physics under the age of 65 years.
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ~ General Knowledge 659

• It is the highest award for science in

It was first awarded in 1958.
Jamnalal Bajaj Award
. India. It is a prestigious Indian award, for
The Prize comprises a citation, a plaque promoting Gandhian values, social work
and a cash award of 75 lakh. and social development. It is established in
DHANWANTARI AWARD 1978 by the Jamnalal Bajaj Foundation of
•
Bajaj Group. This award contains 5 lakh,
It is given for Medical field. This award a certificate and a trophy.
comprises a certificate, Gold Medal and
. 71
lakh Dhanvantari award. Homi Bhabha Award
Instituted in 1971 and given for. Instituted in 1990, and given for
Excellence in Medical Services'. excellence in field of Atomic energy.

e
• Thus, award is given by
Dhanvantari • This award comprises 50000 and a
Foundation'. certificate.

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Dr BCRoy Award Vikram Sarabhai Award
• Medical Council of India instituted Dr Instituted in 1990 and given for excellence
BC Roy Award in 1976, in memory of in fheld of Space Research.
Bharat Ratna Dr Bidhan Chanda .
ra This award is given by 'Birla Foundation'.
Roy. The award is given annually in each
of the following categories: statesmanship This award comprises medals, certificate
of the highest order in India, Medical and 50000.
man-cum- statesman, eminent medical
person, eminent person in philosophy GD Birla Award
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and arts. GD Birla award for scientific research is

• It is presented by the President of India conferred by KK Birla Foundation.
KK Birla Foundation was established in
in New Delhi on Ist July the National
1991, by Krishna Kumar Birla.
ie

Doctor's Day.
•
This award comprises a Silver Medal. This award comprises 1.45 lakh and
certificate and l lakh cash. certificate.
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