PHYSICS Lab Manual 2022-23 II SEM

INFORMATION TOSTUDENTS
Students are expected to attend all the practical classes regularly. If

he / she are absent for a practical class, and then the candidate will not get
a chance to do the missed experiment.
There is continuous assessment of work done in the lab and the

practical record. A candidate is expected to score minimum 8 out of 20 in
CIE including internal practical examination.
It is to inform that for the Physics lab there is only one

Internal Lab Exam will be conducted.
SRINIVAS INSTITUTION OF TECHNOLOGY

Physics Practical Manual Page 1
VISION
To be a premier institute of professional education and research,
responsive to the needs of industry and society
MISSION
To achieve academic excellence through innovative teaching- learning
practice, by providing conducive research environment, industry-
institute interaction and skill development leading to professionals
with ethical values and social responsibilities

LABORATORY DISCIPLINE
 Laboratory work requires great care, keen observation, intelligence and

systematic working. Moreover, as students may have to work in groups, a
code of conduct is also very essential for safe working in the laboratory.
While working in a laboratory, the students must follow all the rules laid
down by the teacher along with the followings:
 While coming to the laboratory for practical, students must have a practical
record book, observation note book, apron and other equipments as directed
by the teacher.
 Always come prepare for the experiment.
 Listen to the teacher’s instructions carefully and take notes of the important points.
 Plan the experiment work so that it should finish within stipulated time.
 Keep your working table clean and tide.
 Set the apparatus systematically.
 Do your experiment honestly with caring for the final result. Record the
observations in an observation note book instead of writing on a piece of
paper.
 Never lose patience. If the experiment is not successful, try to find out the
cause of failure and repeat it again to get the proper result.

Course Objectives:
1. Understand the measurement techniques and usage of instruments in physics.
2. Demonstrate competency and understanding of the basic concepts found in
experimental Physics.
3. Construct and analyze the electronic circuits.
4. Estimate the error in measurements and the ability to prepare a valid laboratory
record.
Course Outcomes: (Course Skill Set):

At the end of the course the student will be able to:
1. Understand the measuring techniques
2. Operate different instruments and be capable to analyze the experimental results.
3. Construct the circuits and their analysis.
Note:
1) All listed experiments are to be conducted.
2) One experiment is to be performed by the students in the examination.

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
Sl. Name of the experiment Page no.

No.
1. Diffraction grating using LASER 6
2. Optical Fiber 9
3. Dielectric constant 13
4. I-V Characteristics of photo diode 17
5. LCR Resonance circuit 21
6. Fermi Energy 25
7. Magnetic Field 29
Open Ended Experiment List 32

DIFFRACTION GRATING
Expt. No: Date:
AIM:
To find the wave length of the given laser light using diffraction grating of known grating
constant.
APPARATUS AND COMPONENTS NEEDED:

Laser source, grating, spirit level, scale etc.
FORMULA USED:
𝑿𝒎
1. 𝜽𝒎 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 ( )
𝒇
𝒅 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽𝒎
2. 𝝀 = (nm)
𝒎
where, 𝜽𝒎is the diffraction angle
Xm is the distance of mth order diffraction pattern from the centre of the diffraction
pattern in meter
f is the distance between the screen and the grating in meter
λ is the wave length of the laser in nm
d is the grating constant in meter
THEORY:
A plane diffraction grating is an optical glass plate containing a large number of parallel
equidistant slits of the same width. If the width of each transparent portion be ‘a’ and each
opaque portion be ‘b’, then d = a+b is called grating constant. It is the reciprocal of the number
of lines per unit length (N) of grating.
When a beam of monochromatic light falls normally, on the grating surface, its
wavelength λ is calculated using the formula, dsinθ = mλ …………… (1) Where d=1/N is the
grating constant, θ is the angle of diffraction and m is the order of spectrum.
In this equation all the terms are constant except θ. The angle θ can be measured by
measuring the distance between source and image and distance between the consecutive
maximums. Different order of diffraction is the result of different incident angle θ. Hence to
specify order θ has been rewritten as θ m, which indicate the diffraction angle for mth order. Fig.1.
indicates process of diffraction, using laser light and grating. The mth order diffraction angle is
given by θm= tan-1 (Xm/f) ………….(2)
Where Xm is the distance of mth order diffraction pattern from the centre of the diffraction
pattern and f is the distance between the screen and the grating. Substituting θ m in eq(1), the
dSin m
wave length λ can be calculated using the formula   ………………… (3)
m
PROCEDURE:
The laser source is placed on a table and switched on. At about 2 meters away on the path
of the laser a white screen is placed. The leveling screws of the laser unit are adjusted such that

the laser beam exactly falls on the centre of the screen. The exact distance between the grating
stand and image screen are noted.
The grating is now placed on the grating stand close to the laser source and the diffraction
pattern observed. Equally spaced diffracted laser light spots are observed. The total numbers of
spots are counted. The centre of the spots of the diffraction pattern are marked on the screen
using a pencil and after marking all the diffraction pattern, the image screen is removed and the
distance between consecutive order of diffraction is measured using a scale and tabulated. Using
equation (2) diffraction angles are calculated for each order of diffraction. The wave length is
calculated in each case using equation (3). The average value of wavelength is calculated.
The experiment is repeated for one more value of ‘f ’.
FIGURES:
2x2
2x1
Image screen
Order m 2 1 1 2 m
xm
Diffraction pattern
Left Right
Xm= distance between

central maxim and m th
order maxima f
f = distance between
grating and image
screen
𝑥𝑚
𝜃𝑚 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1
𝑓
Grating
Laser Source
OBSERVATIONS:
Number of lines per inch in the grating = …………… LPI
No of lines per inch
Number of lines per meter in the grating = N  = ………. LPM
2.54  10  2
1
d=  ………m
N

Trial 1: The distance between the screen and the grating, f =………..m
Diffraction
Diffraction Distance Distance Distance Wavelength
angle
order = m 2Xm(in cm) 2Xm (in m) Xm (in m) λ in nm
θm=tan-1 (Xm/f)
1
2
3
4
5
Mean value of λ = …………. nm
RESULT: The wavelength of the laser, λ = ………………..nm.
***&***

DETERMINATION OF NUMERICAL APERTURE OF AN
OPTICAL CABLE
Expt. No: Date:
AIM:
To determine the Numerical Aperture (NA) and acceptance angle of the given optical
fiber cable.
APPARATUS AND COMPONENTS USED:

OFC 1.5m (IEEE 1394 fire wire cable), diode laser- red 625nm, X-Y bed carrying a
screen and a movable chuck.
FORMULA USED:
𝑫
1. 𝐓𝐚𝐧 𝛉 =
𝟐𝒇
2. θ = Tan -1(D/2f)
3. NA = Sin θ
where, θ is the acceptance angle
D is the diameter of the spot in meter
f is the distance between screen and source in meter
NA is the numerical aperture
THEORY:
In modern communication systems, fiber optics plays a major role in linking

communication systems. In particular, landline telephone systems are connected via optical fiber
cable (OFC). Linking the cable to a communication system is an important aspect of
communication. Light coming out of the fiber before falling on to a detector or light entering the
fiber optic cable from the source encounters a change in the medium which results in refraction
of light. Figure-1 shows that a light beam emerging from a fiber optics cable diverges due to
change in the refractive index of the medium. As air has lower refractive index than a cable, it
results in the divergence of the beam. If the size of the detector used is smaller than the area of
cross section of the diverging beam, part of the information will be lost in the process of
detection. Hence the divergence of beam has to be small in order to have proper communication.
To account for this, a parameter, called numerical aperture, is defined.
Numerical Aperture (NA)
Numerical aperture is an important parameter of a cable. In optics, aperture refers to the

opening through which light passes and falls on the optics. Hence aperture has dimensions of
area (L2). Light from the optical fiber cable (OFC) comes out of the cable and falls on the
detector. As the name implies, numerical aperture is a number which varies between 0 and 1. In
other words, the numerical aperture also indicates the amount of light linking the cable and the
detector or the source. Smaller the numerical aperture better will be the cable. Numerical
aperture of a cable is defined as sine of the half angle of the cone generated due to the divergence
of rays, as shown in Figure-1.
NA = sinθ …..(1)
In Figure-1, light coming out of an OFC falls on a screen, kept at a distance ‘L’ from it,
on which an image of the laser spot is seen. This spot and the emerging light form a cone. If ‘D’
is the diameter of the circular spot and ‘f’ is distance between the screen and the OFC then
𝐷/2 𝐷
tan θ = = ………(2)
𝑓 2𝑓
By measuring D and f, the value of tan θ can be determined; hence the numerical aperture
can be calculated from the equation
θ= tan-1(D/2f) …(3)
Figure-1 shows the NA and the angle θ. NA=sinθ
The X-Y bed consisting of a scale is fitted along the X-axis with zero coinciding with the
screen. On this X axis a needle fixed above the scale which moves along with the chuck indicates
the distance ‘f’ between the fixed screen and chuck holding the OFC. The Y motion is used to
adjust the spot at the centre of the graduated screen.
PROCEDURE:
1. The optical cable is coupled to the laser and it is ensured that the laser light comes out of
the other end of the cable.
2. The other end of the cable is tied to the chuck fixed on the X-Y bed.
3. The chuck carrying the OFC is brought close to the graduated screen and the laser spot is
seen on the graduated screen.
4. By adjusting the fine motion screw of the microscopic bench, the spot size is reduced .
5. The distance between the fixed screen and chuck carrying the OFC is noted on the
graduated scale fixed along the X-axis.
The value of ‘tan θ’ is calculated and presented in Table-1. NA is calculated using Equation-3.
6. The experiment is repeated by increasing the size of the spot and the corresponding value
of ‘f’ is noted. This is done until the spot becomes sufficiently bright and clear. The
readings obtained are tabulated in Table-1.
7. A graph showing the variation of D with f is given in Figure-6 which is seen to be a

straight line.

DIAGRAM:
2mm
Source OFC
θ
Figure-1: Laser light emerging from the cable and forming a divergent cone of rays
Diameter of spot (mm)
Table 1: Variation of D and f
Cable D(mm) f(mm) Tan θ θº Sin θ
10
12
14
Cable-1 16
18
20
22
Average

CALCULATIONS:
𝐷
Tan θ =
2𝑓
θ = Tan-1(D/2f)
NA = Sin θ
RESULTS:
i) Numerical aperture of the fiber optic cable-1, NA= …………..
ii) Acceptance angle cable-1, θº = ………..
iii) Variation of ‘D’ and ‘f’ is experimentally studied and graphically verified.
***&***

DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
Expt. No.: Date:
AIM:
To determine the dielectric constant of the dielectric material of the given capacitor using
RC charging and discharging circuit.
APPARATUS AND COMPONENTS USED:

5V DC power supply, digital voltmeter, Stop clock, resistor, capacitor etc.
FORMULA USED:
𝑻𝟏/𝟐
1. 𝑪 = (𝝁𝑭)
𝟎.𝟔𝟗𝟑𝑹
2. 𝝉 = 𝑹𝑪 (sec)
𝑫𝑪×𝟏𝟎−𝟔
3. 𝑲 =
𝜺𝟎 𝑨
where, C is the capacitance of a capacitor in 𝝁𝑭

𝝉 is the time constant of the circuit in seconds
𝑹 is the resistance of the resistor in ohm
D is the distance between plates in meter
𝜺𝟎 is the permittivity of free space in farad/m
A is the area of plates in meter
K is the Dielectric Constant
THEORY:
When a resistor and a capacitor are connected in series to a source of voltage Vo as
shown in figure (a) We have Vc  Vr  Vo
Vc And Vr is the P.D across C and R

q dq
Now Vc  and Vr  RI  R
c dt
dt dt

RC Vo C  q
t
Integrating, In Vo C  q   A 
RC
When, t  0, q  0,  InVo C   A  0, A   InVo C
InVoC  q   t
On substitution and simplification 
VoC RC

t  t 
  −𝑡
q  Vo Ce RC  Vo C , q  Vo C 1  e RC  But 𝑉0 𝐶 = 𝑞0 , 𝑞 = 𝑞0 (1 − 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 )
 
 
−𝑡 −𝑡
𝑞 𝑞0
P.D. Across capacitor = (1 − 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 ) OR 𝑉 = 𝑉0 (1 − 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 ) ……(1)
𝐶 𝐶
Thus the P D . across the capacitor rises exponentially as in figure (2)
 t 
 
Again from equation (1) we have Vo  V  Vo  e RC  ie, Vo  V falls exponentially. ie in equal
 
 
times Vo  V falls by equal factors. Considering the factor as 1/2
eT1
1
Vo  V  or 2
2
2Vo RC
T 1  RCLog e 2 =0.69RC
2
Thus marking points on the P.D. axis corresponding to Vo-V =½Vo, ¼Vo, 1/8Vo etc the
corresponding times T ½ can be determined. The value can be verified by using the relationT ½ =
0.69RC
Similarly it can be shown that the p.d. across the capacitor during discharge is given by
 t 
 
V  Vo  e RC  the voltage V vs time t graph will be as shown in diagram (c) which can be
 
 
analyses as in the previous case.
PROCEDURE:
The circuit is rigged up as shown in the fig (1). A suitable resistor and capacitor is
included in the circuit.
Charging the capacitor:- To start with, the switch S1 is set to charge mode. Now the capacitor
begins to charge to higher voltage and simultaneously the timer is switched ON. The voltage
reading V across the capacitor is noted at every 10 seconds interval, until voltage across the
capacitor (i.e. V) becomes practically constant.
Discharging of the capacitor: - Now the switch S1 is changed to discharge mode and the timer is
reset to read again from 0 seconds. As soon as the switch S 1 is set to discharge position the
capacitor begins to discharge. The readings V across the capacitor using a voltmeter is noted at
every 10 seconds interval till V becomes practically constant

A graph of V along Y axis and the time t along X axis drawn. The charge mode curve and
discharge mode curve intersect at the point P. The corresponding value of time is noted as T 1/2 .
The value of capacitance is calculated using the formula
T1
C  2 farad
0.693R
Where, T 1/2 is the time (in seconds) required for the capacitor either to charge or discharge to 50%
of its maximum value, R is the resistance used in the circuit in 
Time constant of the circuit is calculated using the relation,  =RC seconds
The dielectric constant (K) of the material of the dielectric used in the capacitor is determined
6
using the relation K  DC  10
o A
Where, D is the distance between the plates, A is the area of the plates
0 = 8.854 X 10-12 farad/m is the permittivity of free space
C is the capacitance of the capacitor
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
S2 Halt-Start
R
Charge
+
+
5V S1 C V
-
Discharge -
Figure (1): Circuit diagram
Charging curve
V
Vm
0.5Vm
Discharging curve
T1/2
Time in sec
Figure (2): Charging/discharging curve

OBSERVATIONS:
Voltage across the capacitor (V)

Time (s)
Charging Discharging
CALCULATIONS:
Resistance of the resistor R = ………. 
From the graph T 1/2 =…………seconds
T1 / 2
C = ………….F
0.693R
Time constant of the circuit  = RC =……….seconds
Distance between the plates, D =…….m
Length of the plate, L = ………..m,
Breadth, B =……….m
Area of the plates A = L × B = ………= ……………. m2
DC  10 6
K =…………….
o A
RESULT:
(1) Capacitance of the given capacitor C =………..F
(2) Time constant of the circuit  =………seconds
(3) The dielectric constant K =……….
***&***

I-V CHARCTERITICS OF PHOTO DIODE
Expt. No: Date:
AIM:
To determine the Responsivity and to study the I-V characteristic of photo diode.
APPARATUS AND COMPONENT:

Power supply, ammeter, voltmeter, Photo diode and white LED.
FORMULA USED:
𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆
1. 𝑹𝝀 = (A/W)
𝟎.𝟔𝟔
𝑨𝑩∗𝒀 𝑺𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆
2. 𝑺𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 = … … … . 𝑨/𝑾 , Slope from the graph
𝑩𝑪∗𝑿 𝑺𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆
Where, 𝑹𝝀 is the responsivity in A/W
THEORY:
Photo diode is a two terminal junction diode which operates in reverse bias. It has a metal
body with a small transparent window through which light enter inside the photo diode and strike
the PN junction, the junction has very small reverse current(of the order µA) when it is reverse
biased. The same reverse current exists for photo diode but it differs from the junction diode
because reverse current changes with illumination of light and it behaves like a current source.
When there is no illumination reverse current is almost negligible (called dark current).Reverse
current increases when light intensity decreases.
When it is operated without bias, the current is distributed between the shunt resistance
and external load resistor .Now a voltage is developed which creates forward bias, thus reducing
its ability to remain as a constant current sources. When operated with bias, the photo diode
becomes ideal current source.
It can be used as device controlled by light intensity, high speed switching circuit, photo
detection and demodulation, as a switch in optical communication system.
Optical Characteristics:
Responsivity (R)
The responsivity of a silicon photodiode is the measure of its sensitivity to light, and it is
defined as the ratio of the photo diode current I PD to the incident LED power P LED at a given
wavelength.
𝑰
𝑹𝝀 = 𝑷𝑫 ……… (1)
𝑷𝑳𝑬𝑫
Where I PD is photo diode current and P LED is the light input power
In other words, it is a measure of the effectiveness of the conversion of light as well as

applied reverse electrical current. It varies with the wavelength of the incident light as well as
applied reverse bias and temperature. By drawing graph of I PD versus PLED and finding the slope
of the straight line gives responsivity.

Responsivity increases slightly with applied reverse bias due to improved charges
collection efficiency in photo diode. Also there are responsivity variations due to change in
temperature. This is due to decrease or increase of the band gap, because of increases or
decreases in temperature respectively.
I-V Characteristics
The current-voltage characteristic of a photo diode with no incident light is similar to a
rectifying diode. When the photodiode is forward biased, there is an exponential increase in the
current. When a reverse bias is applied, a small saturation current appears. It is related to dark
current as
𝒆𝑽
𝑰𝑫 = 𝑰𝒔𝒂𝒕 (𝒆𝑲𝑻 − 𝟏) ……… (2)
This is purely diode current. Illuminations junction by a light source produce a current given by
equation (1).Hence the total current or current we measure in series with photo diode
𝒆𝑽
𝑰𝑫 = 𝑰𝒔𝒂𝒕 (𝒆𝑲𝑻 − 𝟏)- IP ………(3)
As the applied reverse bias increases, there is a sharp increase in the photo current and device
will be spoiled permanently. This voltage is called breakdown voltage. Breakdown voltage varies
from type to type. Hence one should not apply too much reverse bias.
PROCEDURE:
Part A: Responsivity
1. The LED (White light) and photo diode (PD) are placed face to face as shown in figure:1 and
the light arrangement is switched on. LED power is set to 10mW by positioning the knob to its
minimum position. After confirming that the LED is glowing and PD current in the meter, the
cover is placed so that external light will not affect the readings. Positive of the PD is connected
negative of the power supply and negative of the PD is connected positive of the power supply.
These reverse biases the photo diode.
2. The voltage across PD is set to -1 V by varying power supply. The PD current I PD is noted.
3. Trail is repeated for LED input power 11, 12, 13mW etc up to 30mW. In each case VPD is set
to -1 V and I PD is noted.
4. Draw the graph showing the variation of LED power P LED on X-axis and PD current IPD on Y-
axis as shown in Figure: 2. A straight line is obtained, slope of which gives Responsivity.
The external conversion efficiency of white LED is 0.66 hence by dividing responsivity by 0.66
gives the exact Responsivity of PD.
Part B: I-V Characteristics of PD

1. The LED power is set to 10mW on the dial and VPD is set to -0.10 V and the IPD is noted.
2. Trail is repeated by increasing VPD in suitable steps up to maximum of -2V. The
corresponding IPD are noted.
3. Experiment is repeated by increasing the LED power to 15mW. In each case variation in VPD
and corresponding IPD are noted.
4. Draw a graph taking VPD along X-axis and IPD along Y-axis as shown in figure 5.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
0-2mA
2.2KΩ
+5V
Light
LED IP
PD 0-3V
D VPD
100K
220
LED Current
Calibrated in
adjustment
mw 500
Figure: 1 Circuit Connections
VPD(V)
Ipd(µA) IPD(µ A)
A PLED = 10mW
C
B
PLED = 15mW
PLED(mW)
Figure: 2 PD current variation with LED power Figure: 3 PD I-V Characteristic curves
OBSERVATION:
PART-A: To determine the responsivity by keeping VPD to -1 V for each trail
P LED(mW) Ipd(µA)

PART-B: I-V Characteristic of PD
Ipd (µA)
VPD (V)
PLED=10mW PLED=15mW
0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
CALUCULATIONS:
𝐴𝐵 ∗ 𝑌 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = … … … . 𝐴/𝑊
𝐵𝐶 ∗ 𝑋 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
The external conversion efficiency of white LED is 0.66 hence dividing responsivity by 0.66
gives exact Responsivity of PD
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑅𝜆 = = ⋯ … … … A/w
0.66
RESULT:
1. The standard value of Responsivity is <0.1A/W
2. The experimental value of Responsivity is R λ=……….A/w
3. The characteristics of photo diode is studied.
***&***

SERIES AND PARALLEL LCR CIRCUIT
Expt. No: Date:
AIM:
a) To study the frequency response of the series and parallel resonance circuits.
b) To determine the inductance value of the given inductor.
c) To determine the band width and quality factor of the circuit in series resonance.
APPARATUS AND COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Audio frequency oscillator, AC millimeter, inductance of unknown value, resistor and
capacitor of known values.
FORMULA USED:
𝟏
1. 𝑳 = (Henry)
𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝒇𝟐𝒓 𝑪
2. f   f b  f a 
(from Graph)
𝟏 𝑳𝒔 𝒇𝒓
3. 𝑸 = √ , 𝑸=
𝑹 𝑪 ∆𝒇
where, L are the inductance value of the given inductor in Henry

fr is the resonance frequency in kHz
C is the capacitance of the capacitor in 𝛍𝐅
∆𝒇is the bandwidth in kHz
fa and fb are lower and higher cut of frequencies respectively in kHz
Q is the quality factor
THEORY:
In series LCR circuit the current in the circuit is given by
V
I 
R 2   X L  X C 2
Where XL is the inductive reactance, XC is the capacitive reactance. When XL =XC. The resonance
occurs and the current reaches its maximum value.
1 1
i.e.,  L  or 2 f L 
C 2 f C
Thus resonance frequency f r  1
2 LC
Therefore L  1 ------------------- (1)
2 2
4 f r C
During parallel resonance the current in the circuit is minimum and is given by
V
I min 
L
CR

The quality factor Q is defined as the ratio of the energy stored in the coil to the energy
dissipated in it. It gives the figure of merit and is used to compare different coils. The quality
factor Q  1 L
R C
In the frequency response curve the frequency points where the power dissipation is half the
I
maximum are marked f a and f b . These points are at max on either side of the I max .Then
2
f   f b  f a  is called the bandwidth. The Q from the graph is
f
Q graph  r ------------- (2)
f
PROCEDURE:
The circuit is constructed as shown in the fig: 1. Set the output voltage of the oscillator to
some suitable value and keep it constant throughout the experiment. The frequency f is increased
in suitable step and the corresponding current flow is noted. The resonance frequency for a
maximum current must be determined with maximum accuracy. A graph of I verses f is plotted
as shown in fig: 2.The resonance frequency is noted from the graph. The inductance value of the
coil is determined using equation (1). The quality factor Q of the circuit is evaluated using
equation (2)
For parallel resonance, the circuit is done as in fig: 3. The experiment is repeated as in series
resonance. The readings are plotted as shown in fig: 4. From the graph the resonance frequency
for minimum current is noted. The unknown inductance value is determined using equation (1).
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
I(mA)
mA
I max
L
I max
2
~
C
Frequency
Generator
R
fa fr fb
f in kHz
Fig:1 Series resonance circuit Fig:2 Series resonance curve

I
mA
(mA)
L
~ C
Frequency
Generator
R
fr
f(kHz)
Fig:3 parallel resonance circuit Fig:4 parallel resonance curve
OBSERVATIONS:
Series resonance Parallel resonance

Frequency in kHz Current in mA Current in mA
R=…..Ω C=…..F R=…..Ω C=…..F
CALCULATIONS:
1) Inductance value:
In series resonance
From graph resonance frequency f r (series) = ………..kHz
1
Ls  = ……………H
4 f r2 C
2
In parallel resonance
From graph resonance frequency f r (parallel) = ………..kHz
1
Lp  =…………..H
4 f r2 C
2
𝑓𝑟 (𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠)+𝑓𝑟(𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙)
Mean value of Resonance frequency, f r = = ………….kHz
2
Ls  Lp
Mean value of inductance L  =……………henry
2

2) Band width from series resonance graph:
f a = ………..kHz , fb = ………..kHz , f   f b  f a  = ………..kHz
1 Ls
3) Theoretical Q =
R C
f
Graphical value of Q  r =
f
RESULTS:
a) Resonance frequency f r = ………….kHz
b) The inductance value of the given inductor =………..henry.
c) Band width from series resonance graph = ………….. Hz.
d) The theoretical value of Quality factor Q = …………
e) The Observed value (by graph) of Quality factor Q =…………..
***&***

FERMI ENERGY
Expt. No: Date:
AIM:
To determine the Fermi energy of the given material.
APPARATUS AND COMPONENTS NEEDED:

DC regulated power supply, digital millimeter, Digital voltmeter, Heating arrangements,
Thermometer, copper wires etc.
FORMULA USED:
𝑳
1. 𝝈 = (/ohm m)
𝑹𝒂
𝝈𝒎
2. 𝝉 = (sec.)
𝒏𝒆𝟐
3. 𝝀𝑭 = 𝑽𝑭 𝝉 (m)
4. 𝑩 = 𝝀𝑭𝑻
𝒂𝑩 𝟐 ∆𝑹 𝟐
5. 𝑬𝑭 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐 × [ ] × ( ) (joule)
𝑳 ∆𝑻
𝑬𝑭 (𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆)
6. 𝑻𝑭 = (K)
𝒌
where,𝝈 is the electrical conductivity in per ohm meter

L is the length of the wire in meter, 𝑹 is the resistance in ohm
𝒂 is the cross sectional area in meter
𝝉is the relaxation time in seconds, m is the mass of electron in kg
n is the electron density in /m3, e is the charge of electron in C
𝝀𝑭is the mean free path in meter, 𝑽𝑭 is the Fermi velocity in m/sec.
𝑩 is the constant, 𝑻 is the lab temperature in K
𝑬𝑭is the Fermi energy of the copper in joules
∆𝑹
is the slope of the straight line, 𝑻𝑭is Fermi temperature inK
∆𝑻
THEORY:
Fermi level is the term used to describe the top of the collection of electronic energy levels at
absolute zero temperature. At this level no electrons will have enough energy to rise above the
surface.
N
The number of free electrons in metal per unit volume is given by, n 
M
Where N=6.023x10 26 per m3 is Avogadro number
ρ=density of the metal and M=mass number of the metal.

L
The electrical conductivity of the metal,   Where L is the length of the metal wire, R is the
Ra
resistance at a reference temperature and ‘a’ is the cross section area of the wire.
m
The relaxation time is given by,  
ne 2
Where e=1.602x10-19 C is electron charge.
If VF is Fermi velocity, then mean free path of electrons, λF = VFτ
2
 ne 2 aB   ΔR  2 12  aB 
2
 ΔR 
2
Now Fermi energy, E F      = 2.56  10      
 L 2m    ΔT   L   ΔT 
Where the constant B=λFT, T is the reference temperature of the wire in Kelvin, a is the cross
sectional area of the wire, ΔR/ΔT is the slope of the straight line obtained by plotting resistance
of the metal against absolute temperature of the metal.
Once the Fermi energy is found, Fermi temperature can be calculated using equation
EF
TF 
k
PROCEDURE:
The given copper wire in the form of coil is immersed in water in a beaker. The coil is
connected to a power supply through a millimeter as shown in the fig (1). A milli voltmeter is
connected across the coil. A thermometer is immersed in the beaker containing a liquid and coil.
The power supply is switched on and voltage and currents are noted.
The water is heated to boil and allow it to cool. Once it attains 85⁰ C note down the
voltage and currents. The trail is repeated taking reading in the interval of 5 degree until the
temperature reach 45⁰ C.
A graph is drawn taking temperature in Kelvin along X-axis and resistance on Y-axis as
shown in figure (2). The slope of straight line is calculated.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Thermometer
+ -
mA
Constant
current +
Source mV
-
coil Heat
Figure (1): Circuit diagram

Resistance
R in Ω
ΔR
ΔT
Temperature in K
Figure (2): Graph
OBSERVATIONS:
Temperature Resistance R=V/I

Voltage in mV Current in mA
o (ohm)
C K
RT=
CALCULATIONS:
Radius of the wire r = 0.26mm = …………m
Cross sectional area ‘a’ = Πr 2 =............m2
At Lab temperature T=………..K
Resistance R =……………..Ω
Length of the wire L = 3.6 m , Fermi velocity VF =1.57x106 m/sec
Mass of electron m = 9.1x10 -31kg , Charge of electron e = 1.602x10 -19 C
Electron density n = 8.46x10 28 /m3 , Boltzmann constant k =1.38x10 -23 J/K
L
Electrical conductivity   =…………/ohm m.
Ra
m
The relaxation time   =………….sec.
ne 2
Mean free path λF = VFτ =................m.
Constant B=λFT =
From graph: Slope of the straight line ΔR/ΔT = ……… ohm/K

2 2
12  aB   ΔR 
E F  2.56  10     
 L   ΔT 
= joule
= eV.
E F  joule
Fermi temperature, TF  = …………K.
k
RESULT:
Fermi energy of copper = ……………….eV
Fermi temperature of copper = …………K
***&***

VARIATION OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD AT AXIS OF THE
CIRCULAR COIL
Expt. No.: Date:
AIM:
To study the variation of the magnetic field with distance along the axis of the current
carrying circular coil.
APPARATUS:
Digital Stewart-Gee apparatus, AC power supply, Search coil, Coil Set up.
THEORY:
Magnetic Field along the axis of a current carrying coil:
A stationary electric charge produces an electric field where as moving electric charge
produces magnetic field around it. This is the basic principle of electro-magnetic induction. The
μo I
magnetic field at the centre of a coil carrying current I is given by B= ..1
2𝑅
Where I – the current flowing through the coil
R- is the radius of the coil
μ0 – permeability of free space ( 4π x 10 -7)
If the number of turns in the coil is ‘N’, the magnetic field B at the centre of the coil is given by
μo I
B= N ..2
2𝑅
As one moves away from the centre of the coil, the magnetic field decreases. Hence the magnetic
field varies along the axis of the coil.
The magnetic field at the point A at distance Z from the centre of the coil is given by
𝑁𝐼𝜇0
B= ..3
2[𝑅 +𝑍 2]3/2
2
Where I the current flowing through the coil

R is the radius of the coil
𝜇0 is the permeability of the space
N is the number of turns in the coil
Z is the radial distance from the centre of the coil to the point of observation.
Following figure shows the geometry of the field. Using equation 3 one can determine the field
along the axis of the coil which decreases inversely with the square of the distance.

The alternating current flowing in the field coil induces an electromotive force (emf) in the
search coil. The voltage generated in the search coil due to electromagnetic induction is
governed by the Faraday’s law of induction.
PROCEDURE:
 Connections are made as shown in the figure 1.

 Initially keep the search coil in the middle position and take the magnetic field using
Gauss meter.
 Move the search coil towards the left side of the current carrying circular coil in steps and
note the magnetic field intensity using the gauss meter.
 Repeat the same procedure to measure the right side readings of the current carrying
circular coil.
 A graph is drawn with distance along X-axis and magnetic flux along Y-axis as shown in
the figure2.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Figure-1

Magnetic Flux BPP (Gauss)
Distance from the centre of the field coil (cm)
Figure-2
OBSERVATION:
Left hand side of the coil Right hand side of the coil
Distance from the Distance from the
Magnetic field Magnetic field
centre of field coil centre of field coil
BPP(Gauss) BPP(Gauss)
Z(cm) Z(cm)
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
11 11
12 12
13 13
14 14
15 15
16 16
17 17
18 18
19 19
20 20
INFERENCE:
The intensity of magnetic field is maximum at the centre and goes on decreasing as we move
away from the centre of the coil towards right or left. Thus the variation of the magnetic field
intensity of the circular coil carrying current along its axis is studied.
***&***

OPEN ENDED EXPERIMENTS:
1. Determination of resistivity of a semiconductor by Four probe method
2. Determination of Planck’s constant.
3. Identification of circuit elements in a Black Box and determination of
values of the components.
4. Study the I-V Characteristics of the given Transistor.
5. To find the Number of lines in the given grating using laser light of a
known wavelength.

MODEL QUESTION PAPER
Duration of Examination: 3hours
Max. marks: 50
No. of experiments to be conducted: 01
1. Construct the Series and Parallel LCR circuit and determine the Resonance frequency of
the circuit by drawing the frequency response curve. Hence determine the inductance of
the inductor used, bandwidth and quality factor.
2. Determine the Responsivity and to study the I-V characteristics of a photodiode.
3. Determine Numerical Aperture (NA) and Acceptance angle of the given optical fiber cable.
4. Find the wavelength of the LASER using diffraction grating.
(Number of lines per inch of the grating = 500 LPI) (For one value of ‘f ’)
5. Find the Fermi energy of copper by measuring the resistance of copper at different temperatures.
(Given: Radius of the wire r = 0.26mm, Length of the wire L = 3.6 m,
Fermi velocity VF = 1.57x106 m/s, mass of the electron m= 9.1x10 -31 kg, charge of the electron,
e= 1.602x10-19 C, Boltzmann constant k=1.38x10 -23J/K, Electron density n = 8.464x1028 /m3)
6. Find the capacitance of the given capacitor using RC charging & discharging circuit and hence
calculate the dielectric constant of the dielectric material used in the capacitor.
(Given: εo=8.854x10-12 F/m)
``***********************``


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INFORMATION TOSTUDENTS

Students are expected to attend all the practical classes regularly. If

There is continuous assessment of work done in the lab and the

It is to inform that for the Physics lab there is only one

SRINIVAS INSTITUTION OF TECHNOLOGY

SRINIVAS INSTITUTION OF TECHNOLOGY

 Laboratory work requires great care, keen observation, intelligence and

 Always come prepare for the experiment.

 Keep your working table clean and tide.

 Set the apparatus systematically.

SRINIVAS INSTITUTION OF TECHNOLOGY

Course Outcomes: (Course Skill Set):

1) All listed experiments are to be conducted.

2) One experiment is to be performed by the students in the examination.

SRINIVAS INSTITUTION OF TECHNOLOGY

Sl. Name of the experiment Page no.

1. Diffraction grating using LASER 6

4. I-V Characteristics of photo diode 17

5. LCR Resonance circuit 21

Open Ended Experiment List 32

SRINIVAS INSTITUTION OF TECHNOLOGY

Expt. No: Date:

APPARATUS AND COMPONENTS NEEDED:

SRINIVAS INSTITUTION OF TECHNOLOGY

Xm= distance between

SRINIVAS INSTITUTION OF TECHNOLOGY

Mean value of λ = …………. nm

RESULT: The wavelength of the laser, λ = ………………..nm.

SRINIVAS INSTITUTION OF TECHNOLOGY

APPARATUS AND COMPONENTS USED:

where, θ is the acceptance angle

D is the diameter of the spot in meter

f is the distance between screen and source in meter

NA is the numerical aperture

In modern communication systems, fiber optics plays a major role in linking

Numerical Aperture (NA)

Numerical aperture is an important parameter of a cable. In optics, aperture refers to the

Figure-1 shows the NA and the angle θ. NA=sinθ

7. A graph showing the variation of D with f is given in Figure-6 which is seen to be a

SRINIVAS INSTITUTION OF TECHNOLOGY

Diameter of spot (mm)

Table 1: Variation of D and f

Cable D(mm) f(mm) Tan θ θº Sin θ

SRINIVAS INSTITUTION OF TECHNOLOGY

i) Numerical aperture of the fiber optic cable-1, NA= …………..

ii) Acceptance angle cable-1, θº = ………..

SRINIVAS INSTITUTION OF TECHNOLOGY

APPARATUS AND COMPONENTS USED:

where, C is the capacitance of a capacitor in 𝝁𝑭

Vc And Vr is the P.D across C and R

SRINIVAS INSTITUTION OF TECHNOLOGY

SRINIVAS INSTITUTION OF TECHNOLOGY

Figure (1): Circuit diagram

Figure (2): Charging/discharging curve

SRINIVAS INSTITUTION OF TECHNOLOGY

Voltage across the capacitor (V)

SRINIVAS INSTITUTION OF TECHNOLOGY

Expt. No: Date:

APPARATUS AND COMPONENT: