EXPERIMENTS IN

ENGINEERING
PHYSICS
SEM II
(A LABORATORY MANUAL AND WORKBOOK WITH VIVA VOCE)

TERNA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, NERUL

 LAB DETAILS

Physics Lab & Dark Room (Room No. 407) Area = 110

Lab In-charge:-Mr. A N Barure

Lab Assistant- Mr. Sanjay Kadam

Lab Attendent- Mr. Suresh Ladke

Number of Experiments:-6

Number of students per Batch = 20

Equipment cost:-

1. Non Consumable
2. Consumable

Lab Time Table:- on the lab notice board

 A laboratory manual and workbook with viva voce
Sem I

Objective of Lab Manual/Journal:-

It should serve as a manual for experiments. The study material relevant to the
prescribed experiments is ready with the students so that they need not search for reference
books which are sometimes not available to them. The manual also saves their valuable time
which can be utilized for strengthening the fundamentals of the theory component of their
syllabus.
 Terna Public Charitable Trust’s

Terna Engineering College, Navi Mumbai.

INDEX
Sr. Page
Experiment Name DoP DoS Marks Sign Remark
No. No.
DIFFRACTION GRATING &
1
SPECTOMETER

2 LASER DIFFRACTION

DIVERGENCE OF LASER
3
BEAM

NUMERICAL APERTURE OF
4
OPTICAL FIBRE

CHARACTERISTICS OF
5
PHOTO DIODE

6 ULTRASONIC RANGER

APPENDIX 1: BASIC
ADJUSTMENT OF
SPECTROMETER
REVIEW OF PROJECT
STATUS (2nd to 6th February)
FINAL SUBMISSION OF
PROJECT (2nd to 6th March)
EXPERIMENT NO.1
 EXPERIMENT – 01
DIFFRACTION GRATING & SPECTOMETER

AIM: To measure the wavelength of sodium D-lines using a diffraction grating using
spectrometer.

APPARATUS: Spectrometer, prism, diffraction grating, sodium lamp with power supply.

THEORY:
The sodium spectrum is dominated by the bright
doublet known as the sodium D-lines at 589.0 and
589.6 nanometers as shown in Fig. 1.
A schematic for diffraction of sodium light (Na-D
lines) with a plane transmission grating is shown in
Fig. 2.

Diffraction Grating:
An arrangement consisting of a large number of
parallel slits of the same width and separated by
equal opaque spaces is known as diffraction grating.
It is usually made by ruling equidistant, extremely
close tine grooves with a diamond point on an
optically plane glass plate. A photographic replica of a plate made in this way is often used as
a commercial transmission grating.
For N parallel slits, each with a width a, separated by an opaque space of width b. the
diffraction pattern consists of diffraction modulated interference fringes. The quantity (a+b)
is called the grating element and N (= 1/ (a+b)) is the number of slits per unit length, which
could typically be 300 to 12000 lines per inch.
For a large number of slits, the diffraction pattern consists of extremely sharp (practically
narrow lines) principal maxima, together with weak secondary maxima in between the
principal maxima. The various principal maxima are called orders. For polychromatic
incident light falling normally on a plane transmission grating the principal maxima for each
spectral colour are given by
(a + b) sin =  n …….(1)
where m is the order of principal maximum and θ is the angle of diffraction.

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
Figure 2: Schematic for diffraction of sodium Na-D lines

PROCEDURE:
1. Follow information in the appendix for basic adjustment of spectrometer. Determine the
vernier constant of the spectrometer.
2. Now remove the prism from the turntable. The next step is to adjust the grating on the
turntable so that its lines are vertical, i.e. parallel to the axis of rotation or the turntable.
Moreover, the light from the collimator should fall normally on the grating. To achieve
this telescope is brought directly in line with the collimator so that the center of the direct
image of the slit falls on the intersection of the cross-wires. In this setting of the
telescope, its vernier reading is taken; let it be .
3. The telescope is now turned through 90° from this position in either direction so that the
reading of the vernier becomes (+900) or (-900). Now the axis of telescope is at right
angles to the direction of rays of light emerging from the collimator. The telescope is
clamped in this position.
4. The grating of known grating element is then mounted on the grating holder, which is fixed
on the turntable in such a way that the ruled surface of the grating is perpendicular to the
line joining two of the leveling screws (say Q and R).
5. The table is now rotated in the proper direction till the reflected image of the slit from the
grating surface coincides with the intersection of the cross-wires of the telescope.
6. By the help of two leveling screws (Q and R), perpendicular to which grating is fixed on
the table, the image is adjusted to be symmetrical on the horizontal cross- wires. The
plane of the grating, in this setting, makes an angle of 45° with the incident rays as well
as with the telescope axis.
7. The reading of vernier is now taken and with its help, the turntable is rotated through 45 0
from this position so that the ruled surface becomes exactly normal to the incident rays.
The turntable is now firmly clamped.
8. The final adjustment is to set the lines of the grating exactly parallel to the axis of rotation
of the telescope. The telescope is rotated and adjusted to view the first order diffraction
pattern. The third leveling screw (P) of the prism table is now worked to get the fringes
(spectral lines) symmetrically positioned with respect to the horizontal cross-wire.
9. If this adjustment is perfect, the centers of all the spectral lines on either side of the direct
one will be found to lie on the intersection of the cross-wires as the telescope is turned to
view them one after another. The rulings on the grating are now parallel to the axis
rotation of the telescope. The grating spectrometer is now fully to make the
measurements. Do not disturb any of the setting of the spectrometer henceforth
throughout the experiment.
10. Look through the telescope to notice the first or second order (whichever you see is
completely resolved) D lines of sodium. That means you will see two yellow lines on
both sides of the direct image (which is a single line) of the slit at the center.
11. Place cross wire at the center of sodium doublet for 2 nd order on left side using the two
verniers on the spectrometer. Use a torch, if needed, to read the verniers.
12. Repeat the above step by turning the telescope towards the other side. Take readings for
1st order on left side, 1st order on right side and 2nd order on right side.
13. Determine the diffraction angle,  for each order.
11. Calculate the corresponding wavelength using Eq. 1.

OBSERVATION:
Number of lines on grating, N = ……………….
Grating element, a+b = 1/N = ………………..
Least count of spectrometer = ……………….

2 =
Left side Right side Avg 
Order =|x-y| |x-y|/2
, n VS VS TR, VS TR,
MSR MSR VSD
D R x R y

W1
2
W2

W1
1
W2

CALCULATION:
(a + b) sin = n

 = [(a + b) sin]/n

For the first order spectrum, n = 1

= [(a+b) sin]/1 = …………………………= ………………….. cm
 =  ……………… A0.
For the second order spectrum, n = 2
= [(a+b) sin]/1 = …………………………= ………………….. cm
 =  ……………… A0.

Average  =  ……………… A0.

RESULT:
The wavelength of yellow line of sodium light is …………… A0.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Once the collimator and the telescope are adjusted for parallel rays, their focusing should
not be disturbed throughout the experiment.
2. Grating surface is never touched while handling it.
3. Once the grating is properly adjusted on the turntable it should be locked.
4. While taking measurements at different positions of the telescope. It must always be in
locked condition.
5. While rotating the telescope arm if the vernier crosses over 0º (360º) on the circular main
scale take the angular difference appropriately.

VIVA VOCE

1. What is diffraction grating?

2. How many types of diffraction gratings are?

3. How they are formed?

4. What is grating element?

5. Calculate grating element for following gratings 300 lpc, 600 lpc, 900 lpc?
EXPERIMENT NO.2

EXPERIMENT – 02
 LASER DIFFRACTION

AIM: To determine the wavelength of the He-Ne LASER using diffraction grating.

APPARATUS: A 0.5 mW He-Ne laser, a diffraction grating, an optical bench & a screen.

FORMULA: ( a + b ) Sin θ = nλ. where n = the order of grating.

THEORY:
A diffraction grating is an optical device which produces spectra due to diffraction. It has a
large number of lines grooved on it. The spectra consisting of different orders is governed by
the relation
d sin θ = n λ ………………….. (1)
Where d (= a + b) is the grating period. It is given by
d =l/N ……………………(2)
Where N is the number of lines per cm.

therefore N = l / d = sin θ / n λ …………………....(3)

When laser is used, higher order spectra (upto fifth order) are readily observed.

PROCEDURE:
1. He-Ne laser is mounted on its saddle. (Refer to fig.3.1)
2. A plane transmission grating is mounted on an upright next to laser. A Screen is mounted
next to the grating.
3. The laser is switched on. The relative orientation of laser with respect to grating is
adjusted such that spectral spot observed on the screen.
 Fig 3.1 Experimental arrangement

4. The screen is moved towards & away from the grating till about nine spots are clearly
seen on the screen.
5. The central maximum & other maxima are identified.
6. The positions x of the spots belonging to first order, second order, etc on either side of
central maximum are marked.
7. The separation between central maximum & first order maxima is measured is measured
on either side. The readings are noted in TABLE-I.
8. The above procedure is repeated for other higher orders.
9. The distance l between the grating & screen is noted.
10. ( a + b ) = __ ___ 1____ = 2.54 = cm
No. of lines per 2.54 cm 15000

OBSERVATIONS:
Distance between screen and grating, l = ……… cm

Sr. x (cm) Mean x Tan θ = θ = tan-1 λ = (a+b) sinθ

Order sin θ
No. LHS RHS (cm) x/l (Tan θ) cm

1 n=1
         

2 n=2
         
3 n=3
         
 4 n=4
         

5 n=5
         

CALCULATIONS:
Average λ = ………………………………. cm

= ……………………………………………………. A0

RESULT:
It is found that the wavelength of He-Ne laser is …………A0.

VIVA VOICE QUESTION

1. What are the various experiments performed using a Laser?  

2. What are the apparatus required to conduct this experiment?  

3. How does a Laser differ from a sodium vapour lamp?  

4. What is the power output of a sodium vapour lamp & that of the Laser used by you?  
 5. Why are the optical phenomena easily visible when a laser is used as the source?  

6. Why is Laser light coherent?

 
7. Why is the Laser beam highly intense?

 
8. What is the Laser used in the experiment? What is the wavelength & colour of the light emitted by it?

 
9. What are the no. of lines per cm on grating used in this experiment?  

   
EXPERIMENT NO.3

EXPERIMENT – 03
DIVERGENCE OF LASER BEAM
AIM: To determine the Divergence of a Laser beam.

APPARATUS: (i) a 0.5 mW He-Ne laser, (ii) an optical bench & (iii) a screen.

FORMULA: Angular divergence,

 = (d2 - d1)
D

Where, d2 is the spot diameter at position 2

d1 is the spot diameter at position 1
& D is the distance between position 1 & 2.

THEORY:
Conventional light source emits light in all directions around them. Therefore, the light
emitted by such sources is non-directional & its intensity rapidly decreases with increasing
distance from the source. It is assumed that the source sends out spherical waves which have
a very high divergence. Unlike the conventional sources, a laser emits light in a single
direction because of which the intensity of light is very large. It can be assumed that the laser
sends out plane waves which have zero divergence. In practice, laser beam diverges slightly
due to diffraction effects. Therefore, a laser beam is characterized by an extremely low
divergence.
When a laser beam is allowed to fall on a screen, a circular bright spot is seen on the screen.
When the screen is moved near & far from the source, the size of the spot decreases &
increases respectively, as illustrated in Fig. 1.
 Fig 1 Experimental arrangement

If d1 is the spot diameter of the laser beam at position 1 & d2 is the spot diameter at position
2, then the divergence  is given by the relation –

 = (d2 - d1)
D
Where D is the distance between the two positions.

PROCEDURE:
1. The Laser is mounted on an upright kept at one end of the optical bench.
2. A Screen is mounted on another upright & it is held at about 50cm from the laser.
3. The laser is switched ON. It forms a red spot on the screen.
4. The diameter of the spot d1 on the screen is measured.
5. The Screen is moved farther say, to 100cm. The size of the spot d2 on the screen in the
second position is measured.
6. The distance D between the two positions of the screen is measured.
7. The measurements are repeated thrice in different positions of the screen. They are
recorded in TABLE – I.
8. The angular divergence  is calculated from the formula.
 = (d2 - d1)
D

OBSERVATIONS:

Sr. d1 d2 D   
No. (cm) (cm) (cm) (rad.) (degrees) min.

1)

2)
 3)

4)

5)

Average

1 radian = 57.300 & 10 = 60 min

RESULT:
The angular divergence of the He-Ne laser beam is found to be ………….. degrees.

VIVA VOICE QUESTIONS

1. Explain characteristics of laser beam.

2. Mention any two applications of lasers in scientific research, engineering and medicine.

3. What is population inversion? How it is achieved?

4. Mention relation between probabilities of spontaneous emission, stimulated emission and
absorption in terms of Einstein’s coefficient.

5. Mention three conditions required to make laser.

6. Mention component of lasers.

7. What is the need of cavity resonator in laser?

8. Explain types of lasers based on laser medium

 EXPERIMENT NO.4

EXPERIMENT – 04
NUMERICAL APERTURE OF OPTICAL FIBRE
AIM: To determine numerical aperture (NA) of a given optical fiber.

APPARATUS: Optical fiber of sufficient length, a jig to hold optical fiber & the graph piece
for readings, source of instance light, A.C. mains etc.

FORMULA: Sin θ = N.A. = Numerical Aperture.

CALCULATION:

Experimental arrangement

From fig
tan θ = r / h

θ = tan -1 (r / h)

N.A. = sin θ = sin (tan-1 (r/h))

THEORY:
Acceptance angle & acceptance cone –
When we launch the light beam into a fiber at its one end using a focusing lens, the entire
light may not pass through the core & propagate. Only rays those make certain angle of
incident, undergo TIR and propagate through the core. Other rays are refracted to the
cladding & are lost. Hence it is very essential to know up to what angle we have to launch
the beam at its end to enable the entire light to pass through the core. This maximum angle of
launch is called acceptance angle.

Above figure shows a longitudinal cross section of the launch end of a fiber with a ray
entering it. The light is launched from a medium of refractive index n0 (n0 = 1 for air) into
core of refractive index n1. The ray enters with an angle of incidence θi to the fiber end face
(i.e., the incident ray makes an angle θ with the fiber axis which is nothing but the normal to
the end face at its centre).These particular rays enter the core at its axis point A & proceeds
after refraction at an angle θr from the axis. It then undergoes total internal reflection at B on
core wall at an internal incidence angle. Let us now find up to what value of θi at A, total
internal reflection at B is possible.
Light collecting capacity of the fiber is expressed in terms of acceptance angle using the
terminology ‘Numerical aperture’. Sine of the maximum acceptance angle is called the
numerical aperture (NA) of the fiber.

NA = sin θi (max) = square root ( n12 - n22) …..(1)

n0

It is often convenient to introduce the quantity, Δ = n1 - n2 = fractional r.i. change

 n1
Hence
n12 - n22 = (n1 + n2) ( n1 - n2) = (n1 + n2) (n1 - n2) 2 n1
2 n1

Using (n1 + n2) = n1 and Δ we get

2

n12 - n22 = = n1 Δ 2n1 = 2n12 Δ

Hence, equation (1), becomes

NA ≈ n1 square root (2 Δ)
n0

When we launch the light into the fiber from air n0 = 1, Then

NA = n1 square root (2 Δ)

It should be noted that the numerical aperture of a fiber i.e., its light collecting capacity is
effectively dependent only on the refractive indices of the core & cladding materials & is not
a function of the fiber dimensions.

PROCEDURE:
1. Insert one end of optical in the socket where LED is a source of light.
2. Fix the other end of the fiber in the hole of the jig as shown in experimental setup
diagram. Place the jig in sufficient dark place.
3. Adjust the distance between the end of the fiber & the graph paper equal to one
centimeter for best result in this case.
4. Switch on the LED power supply. Observe the circular red spot of light on the graph
paper. The spot becomes blurred at the edges. Discard that portion & measure the
diameter of only the circular bright portion by using graph paper pasted on the bottom of
the jig (some jigs may be with graduated base). This is the distance 2r. The distance
between the end of optical fiber & the jig base is already adjusted at 1 cm.
5. By changing the distance between end of the fiber & the graph paper i.e. height, h; note
down diameter and hence radius.
6. Calculate acceptance angle and NA for each observation.
7. Calculate average NA and mean acceptance angle.

OBSERVATION:
Diameter Radius θ=
height Mean diameter NA= sin θ
Reading tan -1 (r/h)
Obs.
Horizontal, Vertical,
No. h D = (a+b)/2 r = D/2
a b
cm cm cm
cm cm

1)

2)

3)

4)

CALCULATION:
Average NA = …………………

Mean Acceptance angle, θ = sin -1 (NA) = ……………………

RESULT:
Numerical Aperture = ………… Acceptance angle =------------

VIVA VOICE QUESTION

1. What is the critical angle?
2. What is optical fiber?

3. What do you mean by acceptance angle and cone for an optical fiber?

4. Numerical Aperture (NA) is dimensionless, what information you get from it?

5. On the basis of the refractive index, how many types of optical fiber are?

6. How many modes are possible in step-index optical fiber?

7. How many modes are possible in Graded-Index Optical Fiber?

8. Is refractive index maximum or minimum at the central axis of the graded-index optical
fiber core?

9. If there are two optical fibers one has NA=0.23 and second has NA=0.52 which have
more capacity to carry a large number of optical signals?
9. In a step-index optical fiber, two extreme modes are available one is with the extreme ray
that makes the maximum angle (equal to the acceptance angle) and the second correspond
to the central axis. Do both the light rays reach the receiving end at the same time or not?

10. Solid silica tube with refractive index 1.5 is immersed in water of refractive index 1.33.
Can this arrangement act as a optical fibre? What would be maximum angle of launch if
optical light enters through air into silica tube? Find critical angle of propagation, critical
angle of incidence, numerical aperture, fractional refractive index change.

11. Can you explain the dispersion in the prism and how it is different in optical fibers?

11. What are the main applications of optical fibers?

EXPERIMENT NO.5

EXPERIMENT – 05
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTO DIODE
AIM: To study the V-I characteristics of a photo-diode

APPARATUS: Sl. No. Description Range Quantity 1 Regulated Power Supply 1 2 Photo-
Diode 1 3 Voltmeter 1 4 Ammeter 1 5 Resistor 1 7 Bread board ----- 1 8 Incandescent Lamp
1

THEORY:
A silicon photodiode is a solid state light detector that consists of a shallow diffused P-N
junction with connections provided to the outside world. When the top surface is illuminated,
photons of light penetrate into the silicon to a depth determined by the photon energy and are
absorbed by the silicon generating electron-hole pairs. The electron-hole pairs are free to
diffuse (or wander) throughout the bulk of the photodiode until they recombine. The average
time before recombination is the “minority carrier lifetime”. At the P-N junction is a region
of strong electric field called the depletion region. It is formed by the voltage potential that
exists at the P-N junction. Those light generated carriers that wander into contact with this
field are swept across the junction. If an external connection is made to both sides of the
junction a photo induced current will flow as long as light falls upon the photodiode. In
addition to the photocurrent, a voltage is produced across the diode. In effect, the photodiode
functions exactly like a solar cell by generating a current and voltage when exposed to light.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Precaution: 1. Maintain a known distance of 5 cm between the photodiode and DC bulb

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect as per the circuit diagram.
2. Place the photodiode in dark area.
3. Vary the power supply voltage in steps of 1V and note down the corresponding voltage
and current.
4. Allow light to fall on the device and repeat the above step 3 for various distance between
the bulb and photodiode say 5 cm, 10 cm and 15 cm.
5. Plot the graph: IR against VR by taking inverse voltage along X-axis and diode current
along Y-axis. Observation:

OBSERVATIONS:
No light With light
Distance= ………
Distance= ……cm Distance= ……cm Distance= ……cm
Sr. cm
Reverse Reverse Reverse Reverse Reverse Reverse Reverse Reverse
No.
voltage, current, voltage, current, voltage, current, voltage, current,
Vr, volts Ir, mA Vr, volts Ir, mA Vr, volts Ir, mA Vr, volts Ir, mA

GRAPH:
RESULT & CONCLUSION:

VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS

1. Explain the principle of photoconduction.

2. What are the applications of photo diode?

3. In what sense does the photo diode differs from a rectifier diode?

4. Why photo diode works in reverse bias condition only?

5. Differentiate between Photo diode and LED.

6. Between what parameters is the diode characteristics curve plotted?

7. What does the arrow direction in the diode symbol indicate?

EXPERIMENT NO.6

EXPERIMENT – 06

ULTRASONIC RANGER
AIM : To calibrate Ultrasonic Ranger & to determine actually unknown distance of an
object.

APPARATUS: Ultrasonic ranger detector an object etc., connecting wires.

THEORY:
The human ear is sensitive to sound waves of frequencies ranging from 16Hz to 20KHz.
Waves of frequencies beyond the upper audible limit (f >20 KHz) are called ultrasonic
waves. Human ear cannot sense ultrasonic sounds but dogs & other animals are endowed
with an ability to hear the high frequency sounds. The wavelengths of ultrasonic waves are
very small & are responsible for many of their interesting applications. Ultrasonic waves are
widely used in marine applications, medical diagnostics, nondestructive testing of finished
products & so on. Bats & dolphins generate ultrasonic waves & use the reflections of the
waves to find their way.
Ultrasonic must be differentiated from supersonics which is the study of effect produced by
objects that travel through of medium at a faster speed than the waves they generate.
Supersonics is essentially confined to plane & missiles which fly through air at a speed
greater than the speed of sound in air & hence give rise to short wave ultrasonic are usually
produced by the application of (i) Magnetostriction effect & (ii) Piezoelectric effect.
Depth sounding & submarine detection: Such application use the echo sounding technique for
depth sounding a beam of ultrasonic waves is directed towards the bottom of the sea from
where it is reflected back to a recorded accurately. If the velocity of ultrasonic wave in water
is known the sea depth can be calculated easily.
The same method is used for finding the distance & direction of a submarine & a school
of fish in the sea. The system is known as sonar which stands for sound navigation &
ranging.

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
PROCEDURE:
1. Place the UDM (Ultra Distance Meter) in a certain position.
2. Mark the lines at distance measured from the UDM.
3. Place the object (a wooden plate 2’’ in width) on the any one line of the measured distance.
4. Switch on the UDM & note down the reading indicated by the UDM in meter.
5. Repeat this procedure & note the reading for various lines at measured distance.
6. Plot the graph of reading by the UDM on Y-axis vs actual distance measured on X-axis.
7. Now place the wooden plate at an unknown distance & note the reading from UDM.
8. Find out the actual distance of the object from graph.

OBSERVATION:

Distance from
Sr. Reading shown by Error
Line No. the U.S. % error
No U.S. Ranger (cm)
transducer (cm)
(cm)
1 Line A 50      
2 Line B 60      
3 Line C 70      
4 Line D 80      
5 Line E 90      
6 Line F 100      
7 Line G 110      
8 Unknown 1        
9 Unknown 2
10 Unknown 3
11 Unknown 4
12 Unknown 5
Average % error
CALCULATIONS:
% error = observed distance - Actual distance X 100
Actual distance
Average error = ………………………………………
Unknown distance by graph = …………………………..

GRAPH:

RESULTS:
1) Distance between the object at unknown distance & the U.S. transducer =……………m
2) Actual distance measured =…………………………………m
3) Average error = ………………………………..%

VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS

1. What is the difference between sensor and transducer?

 2. What are the features of ultra-sonic waves?

3. What is ultra-sonic transducer?

4. What is the function of ultra-sonic sensors?

5. How ultra-sonic transducer works?

6. What are the advantages of ultrasonic signals?

APPENDIX 1: BASIC ADJUSTMENT OF SPECTROMETER

In some of the optics experiments, we will use a spectrometer. The spectrometer is an

instrument for studying the optical spectra. Light coming from a source is usually dispersed
into its various constituent wavelengths by a dispersive element (prism or grating) and then
the resulting spectrum is studied.
A schematic diagram of a prism spectrometer is shown in Fig. 1.

It consists of a collimator, a telescope, a circular prism table and a graduated circular scale
along with two verniers. The collimator holds an aperture at one end that limits the light
coming from the source to a narrow rectangular slit. A lens at the other end focuses the image
of the slit onto the face of the prism. The telescope magnifies the light dispersed by the prism
(the dispersive element for your experiments) and focuses it onto the eyepiece. The angle
between the collimator and telescope are read off by the circular scale. The detail description
of each part of the spectrometer is given below.
(i) Collimator (C): It consists of a horizontal tube with a converging achromatic lens at one
end of the tube and a vertical slit of adjustable width at the other end. The slit can be
moved in or out of the tube by a rack and pinion arrangement using the focus knob and its
width can be adjusted by turning the screw attached to it. The collimator is rigidly fixed
to the main part of the instrument and can be made exactly horizontal by adjusting the
leveling screw provided below it. When properly focused, the slit lies in the focal plane of
the lens. Thus the collimator provides a parallel beam of light.
(ii) Prism table (P): It is a small circular table and capable of rotation about a vertical axis. It
is provided with three leveling screws. On the surface of the prism table, a set of parallel,
equidistant lines parallel to the line joining two of the leveling screws, is ruled. Also, a
series of concentric circles with the centre of the table as their common centre is ruled on
the surface. A screw attached to the axis of the prism table fixes it with the two verniers
and also keep it at a desired height. These two verniers rotate with the table over a
circular scale graduated in fraction of a degree. The angle of rotation of the prism table
can be recorded by these two verniers. A clamp and a fine adjustment screw are provided
for the rotation of the prism table. It should be noted that a fine adjustment screw
functions only after the corresponding fixing screw is tightened.
(iii) Telescope (T): It is a small astronomical telescope with an achromatic doublet as the
objective and the Ramsden type eye-piece. The eye-piece is fitted with cross-wires and
slides in a tube which carries the cross-wires. The tube carrying the cross wires in turn,
slides in another tube which carries the objective. The distance between the objective and
the cross-wires can be adjusted by a rack and pinion arrangement using the focus knob.
The Telescope can be made exactly horizontal by the leveling screws. It can be rotated
about the vertical axis of the instrument and may be fixed at a given position by means of
the clamp screw and slow motion can be imparted to the telescope by the fine adjustment
screw.
(iv) Circular Scale (C.S.): It is graduated in degrees and coaxial with the axis of rotation of
the prism table and the telescope. The circular scale is rigidly attached to the telescope
and turned with it. A separated circular plate mounted coaxially with the circular scale
carries two verniers, V1 and V2, 180° apart. When the prism table is clamped to the
spindle of this circular plate, the prism table and the verniers turn together. The whole
instrument is supported on a base provided with three leveling screws. One of these is
situated below the collimator.

Adjustment of Spectrometer:
The following essential adjustments are to be made step by step in a spectrometer
experiment: Leveling the apparatus means making (a) the axis of rotation of the telescope
vertical, (b) the axis of the telescope and that of the collimator horizontal, and (c) the top of
the prism table horizontal. The following operations are performed for the purpose.
(i) Leveling of telescope: Place a spirit level on the telescope tube making its axis parallel to
that of the telescope. Bring the air bubble of the spirit level halfway towards the centre by
 first turning the two base leveling screws (i.e. leaving the base leveling screw below
collimator) and then turning the telescope leveling screw. Now rotate the telescope
through 180° and adjust the base and telescope leveling screws. Repeat the operations
several times so that the bubble remains at the centre for both positions of the telescope.
Next place the telescope in the line with the collimator and bring the air bubble of the
spirit level at the centre by turning the base leveling 3 screw below the collimator. Again
check the first adjustment for the previous orientations of telescope. The axis of the
rotation of the telescope has thus become vertical and the axis of the telescope has
become horizontal.
(ii) Leveling of collimator: Remove the spirit level from the telescope. Place it on the
collimator along its length. Bring the air bubble of the spirit level at the centre by
adjusting the collimator leveling screw provided below the collimator. This makes the
axis of the collimator horizontal.
(iii) Leveling of the prism table: Place a spirit level at the centre of the prism table and
parallel to the line joining two of the leveling screws of the prism table. Bring the air
bubble of the spirit level at the centre by turning these two screws in the opposite
directions. Now place the spirit level perpendicular to the line joining the two screws and
bring the bubble at the centre by adjusting the third screw. This makes the top of the
prism table horizontal.
(iv) Adjusting cross wires and focusing image Rotate the telescope towards any illuminated
background. On looking through the eye-piece, you will probably find the cross-wires
appear blurred. Move the eye-piece inwards or outwards until the cross-wire appears
distinct. Place the telescope in line with the collimator. Look into the eye-piece without
any accommodation in the eyes. The image of the slit may appear blurred. Make the
image very sharp by turning the focusing knob of the telescope and of the collimator, if
necessary. If the image does not appear vertical, make it vertical by turning the slit in its
own plane. Adjust the width of the slit to get an image of desired intensity.
(v) Optical leveling of a prism: The leveling of a prism makes the refracting faces of the
prism vertical only when the bottom face of the prism, which is placed on the prism table,
is perpendicular to its three edges. But if the bottom face is not exactly perpendicular to
the edges, which is actually the case, the prism should be leveled by the optical method,
as described below:
(a) Illuminate the slit by sodium light and place the telescope with its axis making an
angle of about 90° with that of the collimator.
 (b) Place the prism on the prism table with its vertex coinciding with that of the table and
with one of its faces (faces AB in Fig. 2) perpendicular to the line joining two of the
leveling screws of the prism table.
(c) Rotate the prism table till the light reflected from this face AB of the prism enters the
telescope. Look through the telescope and bring the image at the centre of the field of
the telescope by turning the two screws equally in the opposite directions.
(d) Next rotate the prism table till the light reflected from the other face AC of the prism
enters the telescope, and bring the image at the centre of the field by turning the third
screw of the prism table.
(vi) Focusing for Parallel rays by Schuster’s method: This is the best method of focusing the
telescope and the collimator for parallel rays within the space available in the dark room.
In order to focus the telescope parallel light rays are required and this in turn requires a
properly adjusted collimator. For this reason the adjustment of the telescope and the
collimator are usually done together.
Schuster's method is based on the fact that the effect of the prism on the divergence of the
beam is different on opposite sides of this minimum deviation position (see Fig. 2). The
emergent beam will be less divergent (or more divergent) than the incident beam as the
angle of incidence is increased (or decreased) from the minimum deviation value (i.e. as
the apex A in Fig.2 is rotated towards, or away from, the telescope). This property of the
prism can be used to obtain an accurately collimated beam. The method is explained
below:
(a) Place the prism on the spectrometer table as shown in Fig.2.
(b) For your prism the angle of minimum deviation is around 50° so set the telescope at
an angle a few degrees greater than this (~55°).
(c) Illuminate the slit of the spectrometer with light from a sodium lamp. Rotate the prism
table and observe the images of the slit through the telescope as it passes through the
minimum deviation position.
(d) Lock the telescope at an angle a few degrees greater than this position.
(e) Turn the prism table away from its minimum deviation position so that apex A moves
towards the telescope and a spectral line is brought into the centre of the field of view
of the telescope. Adjust the focus of the telescope until this line image is as sharp as
possible.
(f) Turn the prism table to the other side of the minimum deviation position until the same
spectral line is again at the centre of the telescopes field of view. Now adjust the focus
of the collimator until a sharp image is once more obtained.
(g) Repeat this process until no further adjustment is required. If the same line image is
sharply focused when viewed on either side of the minimum deviation position then
the light beam through the prism is properly collimated. Fig. 2: Minimum deviation of
light ray