Chapter Twocffcxxxxdfdfd

Chapter 2
Principles of Major Manufacturing

Processes
Fundamentals of Metal Forming
1. Material Behavior in Metal Forming
2. Overview of Metal Forming
3. Temperature in Metal Forming
4. Strain Rate Sensitivity
5. Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming
Metal Forming
Large group of manufacturing processes in which plastic
deformation is used to change the shape of metal
workpieces.
• The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses that
exceed the yield strength of the metal.
• The metal takes a shape determined by the geometry of
the die.
Stresses in Metal Forming
• Stresses to plastically deform the metal are
usually compressive
• Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
• However, some forming processes
• Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
• Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)
• Still others apply shear stresses (shear spinning)
Material Properties in Metal Forming
• Desirable material properties:
• Low yield strength
• High ductility
• These properties are affected by temperature:
• Ductility increases and yield strength decreases
when work temperature is raised
• Other factors:
• Strain rate and friction
Basic Types of Deformation Processes
1. Bulk deformation (stock has high V/A)

• Rolling
• Forging
• Extrusion
• Wire and bar drawing
2. Sheet metalworking (stock has low V/A)
• Bending
• Deep drawing
• Cutting
Bulk Deformation Processes
• Characterized by significant deformations and
massive shape changes
• "Bulk" refers to workparts with relatively low
surface area-to-volume ratios
• Starting work shapes include cylindrical billets and
rectangular bars
Rolling
Basic bulk deformation processes: rolling

Forging
Basic bulk deformation processes: forging

Extrusion
Basic bulk deformation processes: (c) extrusion

Wire and Bar Drawing
Basic bulk deformation processes: (d) drawing

Sheet Metalworking
• Forming and related operations performed on metal
sheets, strips, and coils
• High surface area-to-volume ratio of starting metal,
which distinguishes these from bulk deformation
• Often called press working because presses perform
these operations
• Parts are called stampings
• Usual tooling: punch and die
Sheet Metal Bending
Basic sheet metalworking operations: bending

Deep Drawing
Basic sheet metalworking operations: drawing

Shearing of Sheet Metal
Basic sheet metalworking operations: shearing

Material Behavior in Metal Forming
• Plastic region of stress-strain curve is primary interest because
material is plastically deformed
• In plastic region, metal's behavior is expressed by the flow curve:
Y f  K n
where K = strength coefficient;

and n = strain hardening exponent
 Flow curve based on true stress
and true strain
Flow Stress
• For most metals at room temperature, strength increases when
deformed due to strain hardening
• Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress required to
continue deforming the material
Y f  K n
where Yf = flow stress, i.e., the yield strength as

a function of strain
Average Flow Stress
• Determined by integrating the flow curve equation between zero
and the final strain value defining the range of interest
_ K n
Yf 
1 n
= average flow stress; and  = maximum strain during
_
where Yf
deformation process. n = strain hardening exponent

Temperature in Metal Forming
• For any metal, K and n in the flow curve depend on
temperature
• Both strength (K) and strain hardening (n) are reduced at higher
temperatures
• In addition, ductility is increased at higher temperatures
Temperature in Metal Forming
• Any deformation operation can be accomplished with lower

forces and power at elevated temperature
• Three temperature ranges in metal forming:
• Cold working
• Warm working
• Hot working
1. Cold Working
• Performed at room temperature or slightly
above
• Many cold forming processes are important
mass production operations
• Minimum or no machining usually required
Advantages of Cold Forming
• Better accuracy, closer tolerances
• Better surface finish
• Strain hardening increases strength and
hardness
• No heating of work required
Disadvantages of Cold Forming
• Higher forces and power required in the deformation
operation
• Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of
forming that can be done
• In some cases, metal must be annealed to allow further
deformation
• In other cases, metal is simply not ductile enough to be cold
worked
Impact of Cold Work
As cold work is increased
• Yield strength (sy) increases.
• Tensile strength (TS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.
low carbon steel

Mechanical Property Alterations Due to Cold Working
• What are the values of yield strength, tensile strength &

ductility after cold working Cu?
pD 2 pD 2
o d
-
Copper %CW = 4 4 x 100
Cold pDo2
Work
4
Do2 - Dd2
= x 100
Do = 15.2 mm Dd = 12.2 mm Do2
(15.2 mm) 2 - (12.2 mm) 2

%CW = x 100 = 35.6%
(15.2 mm) 2
Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
1. Recovery
• During recovery, some of the stored internal

strain energy is relieved. In addition, physical
properties such as electrical and thermal
conductivities are recovered to their precold-
worked states.
2. Recrystallization
• New grains are formed that:
-- have low dislocation densities
-- are small in size
-- consume and replace parent cold-worked grains.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
33% cold New crystals

worked nucleate after
brass 3 sec. at 580C.
3. Grain Growth
• At longer times, average grain size increases.
-- Small grains shrink (and ultimately disappear)
-- Large grains continue to grow
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
After 8 s, After 15 min,

580ºC 580ºC
coefficient dependent
• Empirical Relation:
on material and T.
exponent typ. ~ 2
grain diam. elapsed time
at time t. d n
- don = Kt
2. Warm Working
• Performed at temperatures above room temperature but
below recrystallization temperature
• Dividing line between cold working and warm working
often expressed in terms of melting point
Advantages of Warm Working
• Lower forces and power than in cold working
• More intricate work geometries possible
• Need for annealing may be reduced or
eliminated
• Low spring back
Disadvantage:
1. Scaling of part surface
3. Hot Working
• Deformation at temperatures above the
recrystallization temperature
• Recrystallization temperature = about
one-half of melting point on absolute scale
• In practice, hot working usually performed
somewhat above 0.6Tm
• Metal continues to soften as temperature
increases above 0.6Tm, enhancing advantage of
hot working above this level
Why Hot Working?
Capability for substantial plastic deformation
of the metal - far more than possible with
cold working or warm working
• Why?
• Strength coefficient (K) is substantially less than
at room temperature
• Strain hardening exponent (n) is zero
(theoretically)
• Ductility is significantly increased
Advantages of Hot Working
• Workpart shape can be significantly altered
• Lower forces and power required
• Metals that usually fracture in cold working
can be hot formed
• Strength properties of product are generally
isotropic
• No work hardening occurs during forming
Disadvantages of Hot Working
• Lower dimensional accuracy in case of bulk
forming
• Higher total energy required (due to the
thermal energy to heat the workpiece)
• Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer
surface finish
• Shorter tool life
Thanks all

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Chapter 2

Principles of Major Manufacturing

1. Bulk deformation (stock has high V/A)

Basic bulk deformation processes: rolling

Basic bulk deformation processes: forging

Basic bulk deformation processes: (c) extrusion

Basic bulk deformation processes: (d) drawing

Basic sheet metalworking operations: bending

Basic sheet metalworking operations: drawing

Basic sheet metalworking operations: shearing

where K = strength coefficient;

where Yf = flow stress, i.e., the yield strength as

deformation process. n = strain hardening exponent

• Any deformation operation can be accomplished with lower

low carbon steel

• What are the values of yield strength, tensile strength &

(15.2 mm) 2 - (12.2 mm) 2

• During recovery, some of the stored internal

33% cold New crystals

After 8 s, After 15 min,

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